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11 C7 Rhinoplasty PDF
11 C7 Rhinoplasty PDF
RHINOPLASTY
Cosmetic
www.SRPS.org
RHINOPLASTY
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
of the nose (Fig. 1). The skeletal framework of the nose The nasal bone is widest at the nasofrontal suture
is highly variable and frequently asymmetrical. Natvig et (14 mm), is narrowest at the nasofrontal angle (10
mm), and then widens again to a maximum of 12 mm
al.9 illustrated several cartilaginous configurations (Fig.
approximately 9 to 12 mm inferior to the nasofrontal
2). Bernstein10 and Broadbent and Woolf11 reviewed the
angle.12 The nasal bone is thickest superiorly at the
anatomy of the upper, middle, and lower third of the nose nasofrontal angle (mean thickness, 6 mm) and thins
and its clinical application in rhinoplasty. progressively toward the tip.
Figure 1. General anatomy of the nose. (Modified from Dingman and Natvig.8)
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Copcu et al.22 described the interdomal fat pad as the nose is still apparent after classic modification of
a separate anatomic component not structurally attached the osseocartilaginous structures. Division and partial
to the subcutaneous tissue. The fat pad consists purely of resection of the dermocartilaginous ligament releases the
adipocytes and varies in size from 1.2 × 2.4 mm to 3.6 × lower third of the nose, and the nasal tip moves upward.
5.2 mm. Ultrasonography shows larger pads occupying the Hwang et al.28 reported a close relationship between the
interdomal space. Coskun et al.23 corroborated the finding dermocartilaginous ligament and the depressor septi nasi
of this distinct interdomal fat pad in a cadaveric and muscle and confirmed that it acts as a nasal tip depressor.
clinical radiological study.
In a follow-up article, Pitanguy29 validated the presence
Rohrich et al.24 studied the blood supply of the of this subseptal tip-anchoring structure and detached it
nasal tip before and after transcolumellar incision in a subcutaneously through an open browlift approach for the
fresh cadaver model. The lateral nasal artery was present aged, drooping nose. Saban et al.30 described the deep and
in all specimens and was located in the subdermal plexus the superficial medial expansion of the nasal superficial
2 to 3 mm superior to the alar groove. The columellar musculoaponeurotic system. The dermocartilaginous
branch of the superior labial artery was variable. Even after ligament, previously described by Pitanguy, corresponds to
transcolumellar incision, crossover flow was consistent the deep medial expansion. Both the deep and superficial
from the lateral nasal artery arcade to the distal aspect of
components contribute in lowering the ligaments of
the transected columellar branches. The authors concluded
the nasal tip, and transection of these structures allows
that external rhinoplasty does not compromise nasal tip
cephalic rotation of the nasal tip.
blood supply unless extensive tip defatting or extended alar
base resection above the alar groove is performed. Figallo31 described a dynamic structure in the nasal
Toriumi et al.25 assessed the effect of external tip, neither osseous nor cartilaginous, which he thought
rhinoplasty on the vascular anatomy of the nose. The to be a digastric muscle linking the nose to the upper
study involved pre- and postoperative clinical evaluation, lip. This complex anatomic structure is joined through a
cadaver dissection, lymphoscintigraphy, and histological pulley to the anterior nasal spine and is thought to account
evaluation. The major arterial, venous, and lymphatic for the plunging tip. A distinction between this “new”
vessels course in or above the musculoaponeurotic layer structure and the nasal depressor muscles is unclear. Figallo
of the nose. The authors suggested that with the external and Acosta32 provided a detailed update on the muscles of
rhinoplasty approach, dissection in the areolar tissue plane the nose.
below the musculoaponeurotic layer will minimize tip
Ozturan et al.33 used electromyography to study the
edema and protect against skin necrosis by preserving the
major vascular supply to the nasal tip. Loss of normal flow intrinsic nasal musculature as it relates to airway collapse
of tracer occurred with the external approach, which used before and after rhinoplasty. The authors cautioned
dissection that disrupted the musculoaponeurotic layer against inadvertent disruption of the procerus, transverse
with supratip debulking. nasalis, and dilator nasalis muscles during rhinoplasty,
which would affect nasal movements postoperatively. They
To minimize injury to the external nasal
emphasized remaining in the appropriate tissue plane
branch of the anterior ethmoidal nerve, Han et al.26
beneath the musculature and over the perichondrium to
performed anatomic dissections in 10 fresh cadavers and
achieve the best functional result.
concluded that dissection deep to the nasal superficial
musculoaponeurotic system is safe. They recommended In a cadaveric study, Ali-Salaam et al.34 found the
keeping the dissection to within 6.5 mm of the midline alar lobule to be an area where dermis interdigitates with
and limiting onlay graft widths at the rhinion to 13 mm. muscle throughout and down to the alar rim. The alar
Pitanguy et al.27 described a dermocartilaginous groove is defined by a differential in fibrofatty bulging
ligament that might influence dorsum-tip relationships, anterior and posterior to it. The authors also studied the
especially in patients with a bulbous tip and in black soft triangle and described the anatomy of the insertion of
patients in whom a convexity of the lower third of the dilator naris muscle down to the nostril rim.35
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Figure 6. Algorithm for managing nasal obstruction. (Reprinted with permission from Canady.37)
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T
ACJ
AESTHETICS AND FACIAL ANALYSIS
Implicit in a surgeon’s ability to correct nasal deformities
is an understanding of aesthetic proportions of the face,
not just the nose. Farkas and colleagues50−55 and Ricketts56
reviewed modern standards in facial aesthetics. Bernstein57
delineated relationships between facial shape and nasal
width, discussed nose-chin proportions, and listed
differences between male and female noses. According to NLCP
these authors, the aesthetically pleasing face is not divided
into equal thirds or fourths, but rather the lower face is
longer than the midface, which in turn is longer than the
upper face. Springer et al.58 reported that gender-related
differences in nasal shape appear to be subtle, with nasion
position being one of the main factors. According to their
judging panel, a nasal hump and a supratip break are Figure 7. Lateral view illustration shows ideal relations and
not desirable. proportions of the facial structures. RP, nasal root plane;
CP, corneal plane; R, nasal root; 1/2 RT, halfway between
Greer et al.59 reviewed the importance of the
the nasal root and the nasal tip; T, nasal tip; ACJ, alar crease
submental region in improving the perceived appearance
junction; NLCP, nose-lip-chin plane. (Modified from Byrd.61)
of the nose. They advocated neck-rejuvenating procedures
for improving results. Byrd and Hobar60 reported a
consistent relationship between vertical dimensions and determined by a line drawn through a point halfway
anteriorly projecting characteristics of the nose, lips, down the ideal nasal length and touching the upper lip
and chin. They proposed a dynamic system of analysis vermilion. In men, the chin projects to this line, but in
that describes key measurements of the nose relative women, it is 3 mm posterior to it. Other details of the
to other facial features and that maintains an overall facial analysis method are as follows:
proportion among the nose, the chin, and the rest of the 1. The MFH is measured from glabella to alar
face. According to their system, for any individual, the base plane. The lower face height (LFH) is
ideal nasal length (RTi) is determined by non-nasal facial measured from alar base plane to mentum.
measurements (Fig. 7).61 Specifically, RTi is equal to 67% MFH should be equal to or slightly less
of the midfacial height (MFH) and equal to the chin than 3 mm LFH. If it is not, reaffirm
vertical measurement (SMes). occlusion and look specifically for the
RTi = 67% MFH and RTi = SMes presence of long- or short-face syndrome
or microgenia.
Nasal tip projection equals 67% of the calculated
ideal length. The nose-lip-chin plane (NLCP) is MFH < LFH (≤3 mm)
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2. Select the mid- or lower facial subunit as 6. Note any difference in nasal length when
the standard for determining ideal nasal measured from supratarsal fold R and visual
length. When the mandible is normal and radix breakpoint. If nasal length is normal
MFH and LFH are nearly equal, nasal as measured from R but the nose appears
length should be planned on the basis of short because of a low breakpoint, it can
chin vertical as measured from stomion be corrected with a radix graft to raise the
to mentum. visual break.
RTi = SMes 7. Mark a point on the dorsum of the nose
In cases of microgenia or maldevelopment equivalent to one-half the ideal nasal length
of the mandible, the ideal nasal length is as measured from R. Drop a line from
determined from the MFH. this point tangential to the vermilion of
the upper lip. The projecting point of the
RTi = 67% MFH chin should touch the line in men and lie
Similarly, when the midface is approximately 3 mm back of this plane
overdeveloped and is not to be corrected in women.
orthognathically, the nose should be
Chin projection = NLCP (men)
proportional to the midface rather than to
the smaller mandibular segment. Chin projection = ≤3 mm
NLCP (women)
3. With the ideal nasal length established,
adjustments to the existing nasal length The aesthetically pleasing female face has an
and possibly the chin vertical should MFH that is equal to or slightly less than
approximate the ideal nasal length. The lower facial height (mean MFH, 61 mm).
treatment plan is ultimately determined by Nasal length equals chin vertical distance
safe and reliable surgical guidelines. and averages 41 mm (Fig. 8).61
4. Multiply the ideal nasal length by 0.67 to 8. On lateral view, the mean distance between
determine the ideal tip projection. nasal root plane and corneal plane is 11
mm or approximately 28% RTi. The nose
Ideal tip projection = 67% RTi
projects from the face at an angle of 30°
If actual tip projection is equal to or greater to 36°, whereas the nasolabial angle varies
than calculated value, tip projection is from an average of 90° in men to 95° to
adequate despite its appearance in relation 110° in women. A 2- to 3-mm segment of
to the dorsum. If actual tip projection is less columella should be seen below the rim of
than the calculated ideal, surgical steps to the ala.
increase tip support should be considered.
McKinney and Sweis62 sought to define the elements
5. Measure the distance between corneal plane of the ideally balanced white nose. Ideal dorsal length
and radix plane. The ideal radix projection was 2× rhinion height and tip projection. Ideal radix
should be 28% of the ideal nasal length. height was 0.75× tip projection + rhinion height. In his
Ideal radix projection = 28% RTi discussion of the McKinney and Sweis article, Daniel63
(9–14 mm) referenced the ideal nasion relative to its surrounding
anatomic landmarks: 15 to 20 mm from medial canthus; 9
If less than the calculated value and if a
to 14 mm anterior to corneal plane on profile; 4 to 6 mm
dorsal hump is present, consider a radix
behind glabellar line; and at lower border of upper lid,
graft. If greater than 28% RTi and if the
among others.
radix breakpoint is poorly defined, consider
radix reduction.
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Anatomic Drawings
Gunter68 suggested a pictorial system to graphically record
intraoperative maneuvers during rhinoplasty. With this
system, a worksheet consisting of four views of the nose
and a checklist of possible surgical details and steps are
Gs
included in every patient’s chart. The type of rhinoplasty;
R STF
surgical approach; operations on the tip, lateral crura,
medial crura, dorsum, and nasal bones; use of grafts or
implants; and miscellaneous adjunctive procedures are all
recorded. The actual events during rhinoplasty are drawn
T in on the anatomic illustrations and are marked on the
ABP
checklist. The value of this standardized graphic record lies
in the objective correlation it affords between what was
S done surgically and the operative outcome.
Computer Imaging
SMEs Computer imaging is another graphic tool that can
be used for preoperative evaluation and postoperative
Figure 8. Frontal view illustration shows ideal relations and assessment. Sophisticated hardware and software are
proportions of the facial structures. (Modified from Byrd.61) available in both PC and Macintosh platforms. The more
valuable systems can import undistorted, life-size images
and alter them by incremental differences in nasal length,
tip projection, angles, width, and shadowing.
VISUAL DOCUMENTATION
For computer representations to be realistic, users
Photography must project their true surgical skills. Computer imaging is
Krugman64 reviewed photoanalysis and emphasized the controversial because it is so powerful: Used as a marketing
neoclassical facial proportions and holistic treatment tool, it can mislead patients into expecting a surgical result
that is impossible to achieve. Used properly, computer
planning. Guyuron65 indicated the advantage of full-
imaging can offer a precise record of the deformity and its
scale, life-sized photography as an adjunct to soft-tissue
proposed correction, a scaled surgical plan, and an exact
cephalometric analysis for rhinoplasty and described his
surgical record.
facial analysis system, which includes proportions, angles,
measurements, and recommended profile template. Mattison69 presented a review of facial video image
Preoperatively, the system is used to confirm the treatment processing, with emphasis on image capture, software
modification, development of a surgical plan, and
plan and to serve as a baseline; postoperatively it can
comparison of pre- and postsurgical results. Schoenrock70
help identify shortcomings in the rhinoplasty technique.
reported his 5-year experience with computer imaging.
Schwartz and Tardy66 proposed a standardized system of
Bronz71 recounted the predictability of surgical planning
photodocumentation for rhinoplasty and made specific
with a computer imaging system in 100 primary
recommendations regarding views, lighting, rhinoplasty cases.
and equipment.
Vuyk et al.72 used a patient questionnaire to assess
Galdino et al. listed additional considerations
67
the role of computer imaging in facial plastic surgery. Most
for maintaining detail and consistency in digital patients (>80%) found computer imaging to be helpful
photodocumentation of the nose. The authors discussed in communicating with the surgeon, both for expressing
various printing methods. their wishes and expectations and for facilitating the
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decision for or against a particular surgical change. The The triad of low radix, narrow midvault, and inadequate
majority of the patients who participated in the study also tip projection was the most common combination (40%)
thought that computer imaging should be a routine part of in patients seeking secondary rhinoplasty. More recently,
preoperative evaluation for plastic surgery. The predictive Constantian79 reviewed 100 consecutive cases of primary
value of computer tracings was approximately 80%. rhinoplasty and reported inadequate tip projection in
Adelson et al.,73 in a retrospective study, objectively 67%, cephalic malrotation of the lateral crura in 46%, and
evaluated the accuracy by which computer-simulated too prominent s tip in 23%.
rhinoplasty images reflect the surgical outcomes. No Hellings et al.80 reported that long-term satisfaction
significant difference was observed when comparing after revision rhinoplasty was obtained mainly in young
computer-simulated images and 6-month postoperative adult and middle-aged patients, without major differences
photographs when analyzing nasolabial angle, nasofrontal between male and female patients. Not surprisingly, an
angle, columellar:infratip lobule ratio, and tip projection. inverse correlation was found between satisfaction and
The only measurement found to be significantly different number of previous rhinoplasties.
was the columella tip angle. The authors concluded that
computer-simulated images help educate and engage the
patient in a discussion in which desires and expectations Male Rhinoplasty
are assessed and controlled.
Daniel81 acknowledged the validity of the SIMON
profile presented by Gorney82: Single, Immature Male,
PATIENT SELECTION Overly expectant, and Narcissistic. These patients
are psychologically unstable and poor candidates for
Selection of the appropriate patient for rhinoplasty rhinoplastic surgery but reportedly constitute only
depends on communication. The surgeon must listen and approximately 15% of men seeking rhinoplasty. Men’s
understand the patient’s wishes and balance them against noses tend to be more variable in aesthetic measurements,
his or her estimate of what can reasonably be with wide ranges in level of nasion, height of nasion, and
achieved surgically. relation between endocanthus and nasal base. Daniel’s goal
Thomson74 listed criteria to be used in the selection in male rhinoplasty is a “strong” profile and no
and counseling of patients for rhinoplasty and cautioned supratip break.
against certain recognizable types of individuals: those Rohrich et al.83 described male rhinoplasty patients
who are super-secretive, are unable to identify their desires, as typically nonspecific regarding their complaints, more
request urgent operation, are overly concerned with minor demanding, and less attentive during consultations. It
deformities, have secondary motivations, are excessively
is important to avoid excessive dorsal reduction or tip
demanding, carry a number of photographs describing
refinement in this patient cohort.
their preferred nose, or are extremely indecisive and male
patients. Tardy et al.75 emphasized the importance of
preoperative interviews. Timing
Goin discussed the psychology of rhinoplasty
76
Septal cartilage and nasal bones have important roles in
patients. Honigman et al.77 reviewed the literature on the outgrowth of the midface. Therefore, rhinoplasty
psychological outcomes after cosmetic surgery and should be postponed until growth affecting this region is
identified consistent predictors of a poor completed. van der Heijden et al.84 performed a systematic
psychosocial outcome. review to determine the end of the nasofacial growth
In a retrospective study of 150 secondary spurt, which was defined as the age at which nasofacial
rhinoplasty patients, Constantian78 noted four anatomic growth velocity curves have their steepest descending
variants that are strongly predisposed to unfavorable slope. The authors concluded that rhinoseptoplasty can be
results: low radix and/or low dorsum, narrow midvault, safely performed in girls after the age or 16 years and in
inadequate tip projection, and alar cartilage malposition. boys after the age of 17 years. Based on their retrospective
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clinical study, Shandilya et al.85 outlined the indications in the group receiving epinephrine. The authors concluded
for nasal correction in the pediatric population: acute that the use of epinephrine with cocaine paste does not
nasal trauma, septal abscess, malignancies, severe septal improve hemostasis or surgical field visualization.
deviations causing nasal airway obstruction, benign In a prospective, randomized study of 12
tumors, and nasal deformities associated with cleft lip. consecutive patients, Liao et al.91 tried to identify factors
that influenced the safe use of topical cocaine during
rhinoplasty. Group 1 received cotton pledgets soaked in
ANESTHESIA 4 mL of 4% cocaine solution for 10 minutes; group 2
General anesthesia is recommended when operating on received 4 mL of 4% solution for 20 minutes; and group
an apprehensive patient, for procedures involving deep 3 received 4 mL of 10% solution for 20 minutes. Serum
septovomerine manipulation, and in some posttraumatic cocaine concentrations were measured at intervals of 5,
deformities accompanied by intranasal scarring. A 10, 15, and 20 minutes. Of the total cocaine applied,
prospective study conducted by Demiraran et al.86 35% was absorbed systemically within 15 minutes of
evaluating postoperative analgesia and vasoconstriction application. This absorption rate was four times higher
concluded that local infiltration of levobupivacaine 0.25% than expected and led the authors to conclude that topical
use of 10% cocaine was to be avoided. Metzinger et al.92
plain was significantly more potent and longer lasting than
recommended adding 1 part sodium bicarbonate to 5
that achieved by lidocaine 2% with epinephrine in patients
parts local anesthetic to lessen the pain and irritation of
undergoing nasal surgery. No significant difference was
injections during rhinoplasty.
noted between the study groups regarding the preoperative
and postoperative hemoglobin values.
Moscona et al.87 compared sedation techniques for SURGICAL TECHNIQUES
outpatient rhinoplasty in 859 cases. Patients were assigned The classic concept of “reduction rhinoplasty” presented
to one of two groups: those who received midazolam and by Joseph5 and updated by Aufricht93 has evolved
those who received midazolam plus ketamine. Sedation substantially during the past 35 years. According to Rees,94
scores showed that both groups were adequately sedated.
“...the highly styled retroussé nose of the
Patients in the midazolam plus ketamine group were
past has given way to emphasis on a more
less likely to remember the injections and were more
natural look with higher dorsal profile, less
satisfied with their surgical experience. Van Noord and
tip elevation, and less sculpturing of the
Cupp88 examined different types of systemic sedation-
alar cartilages. The ‘operated look’ is to be
analgesia in nasal surgery. The authors concluded that avoided at all costs.”
intravenously administered conscious sedation is associated
with a lower risk of airway or ventilation problems when In 1977, Rees94 listed the trends in rhinoplasty
compared with deep sedation and a lower risk of deep vein as follows:
thrombosis when compared with general endotracheal •• less removal of tissue
anesthesia. A high level of patient satisfaction was noted
•• more preservation of structures
with intravenously administered conscious sedation.
•• a decided tendency toward “under-
Miller et al.89 recommended topical administration
operation” rather than “over-operation”
of 4% to 5% cocaine solution to enhance anesthesia
and induce vasoconstriction while avoiding high To this list, we can now add the following:
plasma concentrations of cocaine. Mixing cocaine with •• incisions designed to preserve lining and
epinephrine offers no advantage, and the toxic effects of soft tissue
“cocaine mud” are well documented. Thevasagayam et
al.,90 in a prospective study, noted no significant difference •• resection of only the bare redundancy of the
in blood loss or surgical field visualization between a group ULC
infiltrated with lidocaine 2% with epinephrine 1:80,000 •• correction of the nasal tip first, or at least
and another group infiltrated with lidocaine 2% plain. A early in the procedure, before modifying
significant increase in systolic blood pressure was observed the dorsum
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External (Open) Approach Padovan113 further expanded the open rhinoplasty concept
and incorporated his treatment of the nasal septum. Bravo
The open approach to rhinoplasty consists of bilateral
and Schwarze.114 described a closed-open rhinoplasty
marginal or rim incisions along the inferior border of
technique with extended lip dissection, which comprises
the alar cartilages that are connected in the midline by a
an alar base resection incision with complete undermining
transcolumellar skin incision 5 to 7 mm long (Fig. 10);
of the area between the nasal base and the upper lip. The
it does not include the large skin incision presented by
approach allows full access to the entire osteocartilaginous
Joseph.5 Aksu et al.109 compared two different columellar
framework while avoiding a transcolumellar incision.
incision designs in a retrospective study. The authors
Goodman101 described his technique of external
concluded that the inverted-V incision results in a better
rhinoplasty and reported his experience with 74
scar formation and less notching than does a transverse
patients.115 Wright and Kridel116 endorsed the method
columellar incision. The main difference between the
presented by Goodman and listed the following advantages
external and internal approaches is that the external
to the external rhinoplasty procedure:
approach allows exposure of the tip-lobule complex
•• better binocular visualization for teaching
and studying deformed anatomy
•• control of bleeding by electrocautery
•• more accurate diagnosis
•• more precise correction of deformities
The external approach offers all the advantages
of the cartilage-delivery technique plus simultaneous
bilateral visualization of the lower lateral cartilages in their
resting state without retraction. This additional exposure
can be of benefit when dealing with an asymmetric
tip or when correcting tip projection, for which it is
desirable to maintain the soft-tissue attachments117 while
simultaneously evaluating the unloaded support to the
Figure 10. Incisions used in external approach
tip complex.
to rhinoplasty.
On the other hand, the external approach implies
unnecessary degloving of the tip-lobule complex when tip
projection is normal. In this case, the increased exposure
gained by the open approach must be balanced against
without disturbing intercrural and alar-septal attachments. the risk of altering tip support or tip definition while
Adams et al.110 reviewed nasal tip support in open dissecting the dome. Goodman118 noted the following
and closed rhinoplasty. The mean loss of tip projection limitations and potential complications of the
with the open approach was 3.43 mm, versus 1.98 mm open approach:
for the closed approach. The difference was attributed to •• separation and secondary healing of the
greater ligamentous disruption and skin undermining with transverse columellar incision
the open approach. Septal manipulation was associated
with decreased tip support regardless of approach. •• additional edema of the nasal tip persisting
for several months
Rethi111 used a partial, high-transverse columellar
incision that failed to uncover the entire nasal skeleton.
•• increased operative time for incision closure
Sercer112 extended the incision used by Rethi to expose The indications for the external approach remain
the entire osseocartilaginous framework of the nose. arguable, even among current masters of rhinoplasty.
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Anderson119 expressed some concern regarding the and degree of tip rotation desired (Fig. 11).123
resulting scar and suggested that the external rhinoplasty
The cartilage-splitting approach is best suited to
technique might be most applicable in long-standing,
symmetrical tips that require cephalad resection of the alar
severe, posttraumatic nasal deformities. Friedman and
cartilages, with or without cephalad rotation of the lobule
Gruber120 adopted the open rhinoplasty technique because
complex, and to tips that require only minimal refinement.
of the increased exposure it affords but concluded that it If substantial asymmetry is present or the dome needs to
probably is not necessary if the cartilaginous vault or tip be modified, it might be better to use a different approach
does not need much modification. to gain direct access to the area. Peck102,124 noted a
Constantian121 reviewed 100 consecutive patients preference for the cartilage-splitting incision for
who underwent secondary rhinoplasty and reported that routine rhinoplasties.
36% had undergone open rhinoplasty at the previous The advantages of the cartilage-splitting technique
surgery. The patients’ symptoms were related to an over- are as follows: 1) one incision with minimal trauma to
resected dorsum or tip and internal nasal valve collapse. the cartilage and soft tissue, 2) no disruption or dissection
Excessive columellar length, hard columellar struts, alar of the residual caudal alar segment, and 3) absence of an
and/or nostril distortion, narrow nose, and external incision through the “nasal valve” area at the junction of
valvular obstruction were more common in this group the upper and lower laterals. Disadvantages include the
than in patients undergoing primary closed rhinoplasty. following: 1) limited visibility of the dome and medial
crura; 2) possible asymmetry if the incisions are not
precisely equal bilaterally; 3) decreased tip projection if
Surgical Approaches to the Tip
the incision at the dome is too far caudal, which alters
Most surgical approaches to the nasal tip are variations the pivot point of the lobule (Fig. 12);96 and 4) possible
of the retrograde technique, cartilage-splitting technique, collapse of the lateral crura and alar notching if the caudal
cartilage-delivery technique, or external approach. rim is weakened by over-resection.
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X
Skoog131 performed composite resection of the bony
and cartilaginous dorsum, tailoring the removed unit and
replacing it as a dorsal osseocartilaginous composite graft.
Lateral crus
The original indications for the operation included severely
deviated noses in which extensive dorsal reduction was
anticipated; any residual septal deformities could thus be
camouflaged by the dorsal autograft.
Figure 12. Cartilage-splitting incisions have changed the
pivot point of tip rotation. Before (A) and after (B) splitting Regnault and Alfaro132 further refined the
the alar cartilages. (Modified from Anderson.96) procedure, and Lejour et al.133 used the Skoog technique
routinely when dorsal reduction was indicated. Although
hump reinsertion might seem overly aggressive by current
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standards of practice, the technique should be considered a rasp, electric saw, or osteotome.
in patients with very short nasal bones for whom lateral
Mommaerts et al.136 described a reduction
osteotomies would be risky and in select cases of septal
osteotomy in which the osteotome enters the vertical
deviation in which septal modification could lead to total
frontonasal suture behind the nasal bones and in front of
collapse of nasal support. The disadvantage of the Skoog
the nasal spine of the frontal bone. In our view, reduction
technique for routine rhinoplasty is the potential for
of the nasofrontal junction presents two problems. One,
displacement and resorption of the dorsal graft. the soft-tissue response to bony removal is approximately
Often, the dorsal hump deformity consists more 50%. Two, as the nasofrontal junction deepens, the
of cartilage than of bone.13,94 The cartilaginous dorsum, intercanthal bridge lines visibly widen. Successful bone
including the septum and ULC, can be reduced by removal in this area, therefore, can be tempered by a
composite resection100 or by separating the ULC from compromise in nasal aesthetics.
their junction with the septum dorsally and resecting Sheen and Sheen100 recommended spreader grafts
each separately.99 for reconstruction of the middle roof in patients who have
With small dorsal humps (most frequent), a narrow nose with visible depression of the lateral walls
composite resection maintains mucosal integrity without and abnormal valving on inspiration. Noses predisposed to
formal extra-mucosal tunnel dissection and avoids the midvault collapse (e.g., noses with short bones, thin skin,
risk of narrowing mucosal surfaces at the septum-ULC weak cartilages, or combinations of these) are too narrow
junction as a result of scar contracture. With large hump after resection of the roof and might benefit from
deformities, it is necessary to divide the ULC from the spreader grafts.
septum extra-mucosally and to resect the attached and Byrd et al.137 described the use of an autospreader
potentially redundant mucosa to keep it from heaping flap when performing dorsal reduction. Autospreader
over the dorsal profile. When ULC have to be separated flaps consist of the transverse portion of the ULC, which
from the dorsal septum to correct a markedly deviated are rotated medially to function as a local spreader flap
nose or for better septal exposure, submucosal tunnels or while reducing the profile of the dorsum and preserving
extramucosal dissection from the underside of the septum- the aesthetic lines (Fig. 13).137 Gruber et al.138 reported a
ULC junction preserves mucosal integrity. similar technique that uses spreader flaps to reconstruct
Rohrich et al.134 advocated a gradual approach to the middle third of the nose in primary rhinoplasty.
dorsal reduction to avoid complications such as dorsal
irregularities, over-resection, inverted-V deformities, and
excessive narrowing of the midvault. The authors listed five Skeletal Manipulation and the Soft Tissues
critical steps: 1) separation of the ULC from the septum, Guyuron139 studied the reaction of the soft tissues to
2) incremental reduction of the cartilaginous septum, skeletal reduction over several zones of the nose (Table 1).
3) dorsal bony reduction with rasps, 4) verification The author combined data on soft-tissue response with
by palpation, and 5) final modification. Bilateral preoperative records of the soft-tissue outline to formulate
submucoperichondrial tunnels are created before releasing a plan for precise nasal reduction.
the ULC from the septum to preserve the cartilages and
Two factors influence the response rate: 1) the
mucosa of the internal nasal valves.
thickness of the skin and soft tissues overlying the
Sheen and Sheen100 recommended oblique rasping skeleton; and 2) patient age, which modulates the
across the bones to minimize pull on the ULC from below. degree of movement of the soft tissues in several zones.
This prevents accidental avulsion of the cephalic portions Unfortunately, in the clinical situation, the soft-tissue
of the ULC from their junction with the nasal bones response to skeletal reduction is not linear over the length
during rasp reduction of the bony dorsum. Guyuron135 of the nose (i.e., a direct, regularly progressive soft-tissue
recommended the use of a guarded power burr for response does not hold throughout). As the degree of
deepening the nasofrontal angle. In substantial reductions skeletal reduction increases, the soft-tissue response
of the nasofrontal junction, the burr is more effective than decreases because of redundancy and “memory” of the
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
Figure 13. Internally rotating the upper lateral cartilage maintains the nasal valve (green arrows). (Reprinted with permission
from Byrd et at.137)
soft-tissue envelope. Some studies140,141 indicated that •• Resection of the caudal septum, caudal
standard maneuvers in tip modification usually decrease borders of the medial crura, or cephalic
tip projection. portions of the lower lateral cartilage (LLC)
Statistical analysis of these changes led produces cephalad rotation of the tip, in
Guyuron142,143 to the following conclusions: decreasing order of effectiveness.
•• Reduction of the nasion renders the •• Resection of the alar base not only narrows
appearance of increased intercanthal the nostrils but also moves the alar rims
distance and a longer nose. caudally and reduces tip projection when
•• Reduction of the nasal bridge results in a severe enough.
wider nose on frontal view and a tip rotated •• Resection of the nasal spine increases upper
upward on profile. lip length on profile and decreases tip
•• Augmentation of the bridge makes the nose projection by weakening support for the
look narrower. medial crura.
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TABLE 1
Supratip 43
Pessa et al.144 used three-dimensional computed Gunter and Rohrich147 described U- and A-shaped
tomographic scans of patients in two age groups to assess modifications of septal cartilage grafts for nasal dorsal
skeletal remodeling of the nasal profile after rhinoplasty. augmentation to raise the nasofrontal angle. The authors
The authors reported continued, differential growth of included descriptions of the indications and surgical
the craniofacial skeleton, with the piriform aperture area technique for these tailored septal grafts.
changing the most. This ongoing posterior movement of
Dorsal surface irregularities can occur after
the maxilla manifested as a retruded nasal profile with age.
alteration of the osseocartilaginous vault. McKinney et
al.148 advocated use of a thin septal graft to reconstruct the
Dorsal Augmentation and the Nasofrontal Angle nasal dorsum after osteotomy. The authors noted, “nasal
hump resection converts a smooth, fused nasal ‘cap’ into
The higher the nasal dorsum is, the smaller the nasal base
five separate components. This may unmask a twist in the
looks. Constantian145 recommended raising the nasal
septum, expose sharp irregular edges, evidence an open
bridge to offset the appearance of an augmented base.
roof deformity, and/or develop a pinched middle third as a
This strategy limits the amount of nasal skeletal reduction
result of removal of the spreader effect of the hump.” The
necessary, decreases the potential for postoperative change
and soft-tissue distortion, and increases the surgeon’s septal graft proposed by the authors is durable enough to
control over the results. camouflage contour irregularities yet thin enough not to
raise the dorsum. If septum is not available, the authors
Ortiz-Monasterio and Michelena146 presented opt for a double layer of temporalis fascia rather than
a review of techniques for nasal dorsal augmentation synthetic material.
with autogenous cartilage and bone grafts. The authors
preferred nasal septum as a graft material, sometimes Endo et al.149 reviewed 1200 cases of augmentation
stacked two and three layers thick. The longitudinal graft rhinoplasty with ear cartilage grafts, including replacement
pieces are scored lengthwise on their external surface so of silicone prostheses in 40%. Complications developed
that they conform to the nasal bridge contour. When the in 4% of the cases, the most common of which was graft
septum is not available in sufficient quantities, the authors malposition. The infection rate in that series was 0.5%.
recommend use of composite cartilage-bone grafts from Crushed cartilage grafts have also been recommended for
the rib molded to the appropriate shape. use after reduction of the dorsum.
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More recently, Gryskiewicz et al.150 proposed the alone, and Surgicel alone. The lowest cartilage viability
use of Alloderm (LifeCell Corporation, Branchburg, occurred in the cartilage wrapped with Surgicel group,
New Jersey) for the correction of dorsal contour probably because of the inflammatory response elicited
irregularities and minimal dorsal augmentation. The by Surgicel.
authors reported that Alloderm is stable (non-shifting),
Daniel157 reviewed three types of diced cartilage
soft, and natural-looking. A 2+-year follow-up of 20
grafts in rhinoplasty: diced cartilage, diced cartilage
patients disclosed partial graft absorption in 45%; three
wrapped in fascia that is sewn closed, and diced cartilage
patients required reoperation. The authors recommended
covered with fascia after graft placement. Diced cartilage
slight overcorrection in the nasal dorsum, which exhibits
without fascia is mostly reserved for the peripyriform
the highest rate of resorption. A subsequent article151
and radix area and for alongside structural rib grafts.
assessed results in patients who had undergone secondary
Good results were achieved with all three diced cartilage
rhinoplasty and confirmed 20% to 30% graft resorption
techniques, and no revision surgery was needed. The most
over the dorsum and 10% to 15% resorption over the tip.
common technical problems were overcorrection, visibility,
Jackson and Yavuzer152 noted excellent outcomes and junctional step-offs.
with Alloderm for camouflage of dorsal nasal irregularities.
Alloderm blocks adhesions between the osseocartilaginous
vault and overlying skin and helps conceal scars. The Nasal Osteotomies
authors found no substantial absorption or recurrence of Outfracture involves levering the nasal bones laterally
deformity in 15 patients who were followed for 6 to 24 through a medial osteotomy to complete the cephalad
months postoperatively. portion of the fracture of the nasal bones. The current
Erol153 described an adjunctive procedure for dorsal trend in rhinoplasty is away from this maneuver because it
camouflage or augmentation in primary and secondary can produce a “rocker” deformity.
rhinoplasty. The technique, called Turkish delight, involves The indications for nasal bone infracture continue
diced cartilage wrapped in Surgicel (Johnson & Johnson to be debated. Infracture is useful for accomplishing
Ethicon, Somerville, New Jersey) and shaped as a tube. either of two goals: 1) closure of an open roof after hump
The roll is inserted in the nasal dorsum and molded to fit removal to narrow the apex or roof of the nose, and 2)
the desired contour after closure of incisions. The author narrowing the base of the bony cartilaginous pyramid.
reported a 0.7% complication rate in 2365 rhinoplasties, Depending on the thickness of the septum and the dorsal
with over-correction and partial resorption in 0.5%. angle of the septum-ULC- junction, a certain amount
Elahi et al.154 used a modified Erol technique for of the nasal dorsum can be removed without creating a
augmentation rhinoplasty in 67 patients and reported space between the septum and nasal bones or between the
good retention of the graft material for up to 24 months. septum and upper laterals (an open roof ). Removal of a
Subsequent studies by other authors using the technique small dorsal hump deformity does not necessarily produce
presented by Erol153 have yielded variable results. Daniel an open roof, and infracture of the nasal bones only
and Calvert155 examined the use of diced cartilage wrapped narrows the base of the bony cartilaginous pyramid, not its
in Surgicel (group 1), wrapped in fascia (group 2), and apex or roof.
with no wrapping (group 3). Complete resorption of the
Two questions should be asked before undertaking
cartilage occurred in the Surgicel group and good survival
an osteotomy: 1) Is there an open roof rendering a flat
of the cartilage grafts occurred in the other two groups.
appearance to the nasal dorsum? and 2) Is the base of
The authors reported that the Turkish delight technique
the bony pyramid excessively wide on frontal view such
might be useful for minor camouflaging but question its
that the aesthetic lines at the base of the pyramid do
usefulness for marked dorsal augmentation.
not parallel the aesthetic lines from superciliary ridge
Brenner et al.156 studied the survival of four kinds to nasal tip along the dorsum of the pyramid? Routine
of diced cartilage grafts implanted in dorsal skin pockets or unnecessary nasal bone infracture in the absence of
of rats: cartilage and Surgicel, cartilage and fascia, fascia a notable open roof or when the nasal bones are not
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
divergent can produce a pinched appearance to the upper periosteal elevation to minimize postoperative periorbital
and middle third of the nose. ecchymosis despite the higher chance of disrupting blood
vessels and causing bleeding. The intact periosteum acts as
Osteotomies of the nasal bones are classified
a barrier, preventing the blood from extravasating to the
as follows:
adjacent periorbital subcutaneous tissue. Infracture alone
•• low-to-low lateral osteotomy with greenstick will not succeed in narrowing the apex, however, so that a
fracture of the cephalic portion of the nasal medial osteotomy and frequently a medial ostectomy are
bones at their junction with the necessary to displace the osteotomized segment medially.
frontal bones99
Rees99 and Sheen and Sheen100 caution that an
•• low-to-low osteotomy along the frontal excessively high osteotomy performed laterally along
process of the maxilla and extending to the nasal bone can produce a visible ridge or stair-step
connect the cephalic portion of the lateral deformity at the base of the bony pyramid. To avoid this
osteotomy with the nasal dorsum at problem, the authors proposed technical modifications
the radix99 that leave a narrow residual cephalic segment that is
reportedly easier to greenstick fracture without direct or
•• low-to-high osteotomy beginning low at
medial osteotomy.
the frontal process of the maxilla caudally
and curving upward to pass lateral to the Wright160 in 1961 and later Daniel and Lessard13
dorsum at the radix100 evaluated the effects of various types of hump removal,
osteotomy, and nasal dorsal dissection using cadavers. The
•• high lateral osteotomy95 beginning along the
authors concluded the following:
base of the nasal bones at the frontal process
of the maxilla caudally and curving toward •• saw cuts produce less comminution than
the dorsum at the radix158 chisel cuts (but this seems to be more of a
disadvantage than an advantage)
•• medial osteotomies passing vertically
between the septum and the nasal bones •• rasping is safest and simplest for
and extending cephalad to the nasal process hump reduction
of the frontal bone •• closure of an open roof necessitates medial
Sheen and Sheen listed the advantages of the low-
100 movement of the bony vault that is greater
to-high osteotomy as follows: 1) the residual cephalic nasal at its caudal end
bone bridge is narrow and can be fractured with minimal •• the length of the hump, especially its
digital pressure; 2) bony continuity is maintained when cephalic extent, determines how medial
the remaining cephalic segment is greenstick fractured; movement will occur
and 3) outfracture, infracture, and disarticulation of the
nasal bones are unnecessary. •• after excision of a hump that extends above
the inter-canthal line, medial fracture or
In cases in which the bony pyramid has an osteotomy might be required
excessively wide base and bony apex but the dorsal
projection is normal, a lateral osteotomy is indicated. •• in smaller humps that end below the inter-
Care must be taken to circumscribe the abnormally wide canthal line, a transverse fracture is required
portion of the skeleton with the osteotomy. Laterally, •• the most satisfactory infracture method
periosteal elevation and soft-tissue undermining should be is that presented by Becker125 (lateral
kept to a minimum to maintain soft-tissue attachments osteotomy with greenstick fracture at the
to the lateral portion of the nasal bones. The soft-tissue cephalad portion of the bones); the small
attachments keep the bones from collapsing into the spur on the residual superior portion of the
piriform aperture when mobilized.41,102 Arfaj et al.159 nasal bone at the nasofrontal junction can
recommended performing lateral osteotomy without be rasped
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•• the bony triangle above the intercanthal line mucosal tears were seen in 11% of external perforated
is virtually impregnable, and narrowing it osteotomies versus 74% of internal
requires rongeuring the bony web continuous osteotomies.
•• medial osteotomy with outfracture of the Harshbarger and Sullivan164 studied the bony
superior attachment of the nasal bones thickness and fracture patterns of the medial nasal
is not desirable because it produces an osteotomy. The authors drilled 1-mm holes along the left
unintended angling of the open dorsum nasal bones in 17 cadavers and found that bone thickness
and curved fracture lines following a gradually increased from caudal to cephalic and from
curved osteotomy; if the fracture line at lateral to medial, leaving a natural cleavage plane. The
its cephalad end does not reach the nasal right hemi-noses had medial osteotomies at 0° or 15° from
dorsum, a bony bridge can persist and cause the midline and were combined with low-to-low lateral
a rocker effect, levering outward after the osteotomies and then digital greenstick infracture. The 0°
nasal bones are moved inward osteotomies produced contour irregularities and rocker-
like deformities. The 15° medial osteotomy produced
•• with infracture of the nasal bones
reliable, controlled infracture with adequate narrowing.
after lateral osteotomy without medial
osteotomy, the bones do not spring back Gruber et al.165 provided a classification of broad
into their original position as long as the nasal bones that emphasizes the distinction between dorsal
site of greenstick fracture is the thin upper and nasal base width. The authors reported that reduction
portion of the nasal bones and not the of the nasal dorsal width is facilitated by a medial oblique
upper heavier portion; transverse fractures osteotomy alone without lateral osteotomy if it is placed at
pass through the body of the nasal bones the lateral aspect of the apex of the open roof after
and not through the naso-frontal suture line a humpectomy.
•• potential problems of the low-to-low Gryskiewicz and Gryskiewicz166 studied 75 patients
osteotomy with greenstick fracture are who underwent rhinoplasty and required nasal osteotomy.
incomplete fracture or spicule formation The authors compared the perforating method of nasal
in the cephalad portion; if this does not osteotomy with a 2-mm straight osteotome versus the
fracture readily, a 2-mm osteotome can continuous technique with a 4-mm curved, guarded
be inserted through a stab incision in the osteotome. Each patient received one technique on one
glabellar or canthal area to complete the side of the nose and the other technique on the opposite
fracture line side. The osteotomies were performed through an
internal transnasal or an external percutaneous approach.
•• if the low-to-low osteotomy leaves a wide
Evaluation at 3, 7, and 21 days after surgery showed
cephalic portion of nasal bone, direct
that ecchymosis and edema were less on the side with
transverse osteotomy with a small osteotome
perforating lateral osteotomies with the 2-mm straight
through a stab incision is more precise
osteotome than on the side with the continuous osteotomy
than medial osteotomy and outfracture or
with the curved osteotome.
greenstick fracture
Gryskiewicz167 also found that scars resulting from
Rohrich et al.161 found that the external perforated
external percutaneous osteotomies were imperceptible in
osteotomy technique produced consistent results in
94% of patients but that on a few occasions, a small visible
rhinoplasty with minimal postoperative complications.
scar was apparent. The author emphasized the importance
The osteotomies should be designed to cut through
of thorough cleaning of the chisel between cases to avoid
intermediate or transitional zones of bony thickness, such
traumatic tattooing.
as along the lateral nasal wall. A comparative, endoscopic
study in cadavers162,163 confirmed the superiority of Castro et al.168 recommended use of a modified
external osteotomies in minimizing intranasal trauma: Joseph saw on a reciprocating handpiece for basal and
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superior nasal osteotomies. A fixator anchors the saw on lower lateral cartilages
a single axis that allows sawing without resistance and
•• the interdomal ligament formed by a
averts multiple bone cuts. Giampapa and DiBernardo169
congregation of dense connective tissue
reported their preference for a dual-plane, curved
between the domes of the lower laterals
reciprocating saw for low-to-high osteotomies to make
precise lateral transverse osteotomies and avoid a medial A minimum of 5 mm of intact lateral crural cartilage must
osteotomy. Kim and Kim170 described their technique for be left in place at the caudal margin to support the weight
endoscopically assisted osteotomies with a reciprocating of the soft tissues and maintain tip projection.171
saw through bilateral intraoral incisions in the gingival The most important elements of nasal tip projection
sulcus. It is anecdotally known that despite these advances are the medial crura, their attachments to the caudal
in instrumentation, most rhinoplastic surgeons still prefer septum, and the presence of additional cartilage grafts
to use osteotomes in the nose. between the medial crura themselves or beneath the
crural feet. Petroff et al.140 evaluated 51 patients who
underwent primary rhinoplasty. Tip projection was
TIP-LOBULE COMPLEX measured preoperatively, intraoperatively, and 6 months
The size, shape, and position of the alar cartilages relative postoperatively. Nasal tip projection increased an average
to the ULC, septum, and soft-tissue envelope determine 1.5 mm after injection of local anesthetic solution. When
the conformation of the tip-lobule complex. When the either a cartilage-delivery or cartilage-splitting approach
tip-defining points of the dome fall at or below the profile was used, most of the support mechanism of the nasal
line of the nasal dorsum, analysis of the facial and nasal tip was weakened or totally disrupted. Lowering the
measurements is needed to determine the status of the tip. cartilaginous dorsum and shortening the caudal septum
When tip projection is adequate, reduction of the dorsum had a profound effect on the postoperative position of the
satisfies the aesthetic requirements. When tip projection nasal tip. Regardless of the preoperative goal, actual nasal
is inadequate, attempts to increase tip projection are tip projection decreased postoperatively in a majority of
appropriate. patients unless steps were taken to increase the length and
strength of the medial crural segment. Of these, 70% had
The most difficult aspect of rhinoplasty is to
full transfixion with excision of various amounts of caudal
surgically manipulate the tip-lobule complex so as to
septum. Disruption of the caudal septal attachments
achieve predictable results. Primary deformities of the not only correlated with a higher incidence of decreased
tip and supratip area are formidable problems initially, tip projection, but the quantitative loss was 2.8 mm,
and secondary deformities resulting from inappropriate compared with an overall average of 1.8 mm. When the
surgical manipulations are even more difficult to correct.11 preoperative goal was to maintain nasal tip projection,
A carefully planned and executed operation the success rate was 28%. When the preoperative goal
preserves the normal anatomy of the nose as much as was to increase nasal tip projection, the overall success
possible. Techniques for the correction of various tip rate was 57%, but most underwent procedures that
deformities were detailed by Rees,99 Sheen and Sheen,100 increased the strength of the medial crural segment. When
Janeke and Wright,117 Peck,127 Petroff et al.,140 and Rich the preoperative goal was to decrease tip projection, the
et al.141 Janeke and Wright emphasized the importance of success rate was 87%.
preserving tip support during rhinoplasty by safekeeping Rich et al.141 reviewed 100 cases of nonaugmenting
the following: rhinoplasty to measure the effect of lower lateral cartilage
•• the dense connective tissue between the excision on nasal tip projection. Three technical variants
lateral crura and the sesamoid cartilages were used: 1) cephalic resection of the LLC, 2) vertical
dome division, and 3) suture approximation of the medial
•• the junction of the medial crura with the
crura (modified Goldman tip) when the cartilage was
caudal septum
sectioned. Despite overall good to excellent results, the
•• the aponeurosis between the upper and authors noted a measurable loss of tip projection in all
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
except one patient. while preserving the integrity of the lobular cartilaginous
complex. The technique can be combined with either the
Byrd et al.172 presented a report of a subset of
external or endonasal rhinoplasty approach.
patients who were retrospectively identified as being at
high risk of losing tip projection, shape, and rotation Kridel et al.171 showed the value of sutures in
during rhinoplasty. Their noses were characterized by a enhancing nasal tip rotation and projection and illustrated
weak midvault, a plunging tip with pollybeak deformity, the correction of wide, bulbous, amorphous tips in 50
retracted alae, and weak lower lateral cartilages. These patients using a suture technique they called lateral
patients had been treated with a floating columellar strut, crural steal (LCS) through an open rhinoplasty approach.
yet 19 of the 20 patients lost nasal tip projection. Armed The concept behind LCS is to increase the length of
with this information, a second group of 20 patients the medial crura at the expense of the lateral crura. The
who had similar features were treated prospectively with suture technique depends on a stable nasal base, which
septal extension grafts, and nasal tip projection was is created by securing the medial crura to each other,
either maintained or increased in all except one. The proceeding from the base of the columella to the nasal
authors recommended anterior septal extension grafts for tip. If the medial crura are buckled or weak, a strut of
controlling projection, shape, and rotation of the nasal tip septal cartilage is placed in the columella for additional
during open rhinoplasty in these high-risk patients. strength. Plumping grafts are inserted to achieve the
Hubbard173 reported similar techniques using desired nasolabial angle. Once the middle crural complex
direct fixation of the medial crura to the septum or septal is stabilized, the lateral crura are advanced medially and
extension grafts to secure the nasal tip. He noted minimal each is sutured first to its medial crus and then to its
variance postoperatively. Rohrich and Griffin174 presented counterpart on the opposite side with a mattress suture
a classification of asymmetric deformities of the columella across the tip complex (Fig. 14).174 As the lateral crura are
and nasal tip and recommended methods of surgical shortened, the tip is relocated superiorly and anteriorly.
correction (Fig. 14). If tip rotation is not desired, the lateral crus can be freed
from its lateral fibrous attachments and vestibular skin so
These reports prompted the following questions. that it can move independently.
Does the loss of nasal tip projection during rhinoplasty
account for the poor correlation between dorsal resection Foda and Kridel176 evaluated the effect of two
and overlying soft-tissue response? Can we create the cartilage-modifying techniques on their effects on nasal
appearance of tip projection after rhinoplasty by lowering tip projection and rotation. With the LCS technique,
the dorsum and rotating the tip despite a measured the lateral crura are advanced onto the medial crura,
reduction of true projection? Are we really achieving resulting in an increase in length of the medial crura and
the desired nasal tip projection, or are we modifying the shorter lateral crura. With the lateral crural overlay (LCO)
dorsum simply to create the desired tip-dorsal profile line? technique, the lateral crura are shortened by vertically
transecting them and overlapping the cut edges. Computer
imaging was performed on 30 patients seeking primary
Suturing Techniques rhinoplasty mainly for nasal tip repositioning. The external
approach was used in all cases. LCS resulted in an increase
Many of the supporting structures to the tip are
in both nasal tip projection and rotation. LCO resulted
interrupted during standard rhinoplasty, and it frequently
in substantially greater tip rotation but decreased tip
is necessary to increase tip definition at time of surgery.171
projection. The authors concluded that LCS is indicated
Kridel et al.175 reported a tongue-in-groove technique in
when a moderate increase in nasal tip projection and
which the medial crura are advanced upward and back
rotation is desired and that LCO is reserved for patients
and the denuded caudal septum is placed into a surgically
with severe tip under-rotation associated with
created space between them. This method corrects
over-projection.
excessive columellar show and maintains correction
after straightening a caudally deviated septum. It is also Tardy et al.177 reviewed long-term outcomes of
indicated for controlling nasal tip rotation and projection transdomal suture techniques on the nasal tip. The
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
Figure 14. Algorithm for surgery of the asymmetric nasal tip. (Reprinted with permission from Rohrich and Griffin.174)
techniques preserve the integrity of the nasal tip (e.g., an structural integrity of the alar rim strips; shaping and
intact caudal segment or complete strip of alar cartilage) positioning the lateral and medial crura in a reversible,
while reorienting its elements. The transdomal suture is nondestructive manner; minimizing variables by
indicated for broad, trapezoidal nasal tips with which the decreasing the need for a visible graft to shape the tip
alar cartilages typically are firm and strong, with a broader complex; applying sutures judiciously and precisely; and
than normal arch to the dome segment connecting the specific sequences for every maneuver.
intermediate and lateral crura. The triad of anatomic
Regalado-Briz180 studied 52 patients who underwent
findings—firm, broad, divergent alar cartilages; thin skin;
an open rhinoplasty technique that used a modification of
and delicate alar sidewalls—should suggest the option of
the suture technique presented by Tebbets.178 The cephalic
transdomal suture for nasal tip sculpturing.
portion of the lateral crus was preserved, and lateral crural
Tebbetts178,179 placed sutures to shape and stabilize resection was limited to the most medial aspect. Suture
the tip by controlling the multiple “force vectors” that shaping was used to stabilize and control tip morphology.
influence the tip complex. He reported maintaining the Byrd181 emphasized the importance of controlling the
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
Might:
1. Narrow wide or boxed tip
Might: 2. Decrease tip projection
1. Increase cephalad rotation of tip 3. Maintain inter-domal distance
2. Weaken support of nostral arch 4. Create loss of tip definition, tip irregularities, and tip asymmetries
3. Allow lateral advancement of lateral crus
a. When dormal segment morselized or
scored, elimates wide or boxed tip
b. Decreases tip projection Resection intermediate crus
B
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
Sheen195 reviewed his 20-year experience with grafts Constantian198 noted that 77% of patients
to the nasal tip, which he thinks are best suited for primary undergoing primary rhinoplasty and 80% of patients
rhinoplasties. He divided his experience into three parts, undergoing secondary rhinoplasty in his practice
paralleling the evolution of nasal tip grafting to current required grafting mainly to improve lobular contour,
standards. Over the years, sources of graft materials have not tip projection. He described the distant effects of
included the septum, ear, rib, vomer, and ethmoid. Septal dorsal grafts and tip grafts in rhinoplasty and outlined
cartilage grafts have evolved from a single columella-lobule his techniques for achieving the effects. Grafts affect
contour graft to multiple small septal cartilage fill grafts, nasal length, symmetry, ethnicity, and dorsum-tip
sometimes crushed or bruised to avoid angularities and relations. Constantian199 subsequently elaborated an
to improve definition. Ear cartilage is a distant second alternative cartilage-bearing tip graft technique with
choice to septal cartilage because of its tendency to shatter which small amounts of autologous donor material are
when manipulated. Sheen reserved rib cartilage grafts for used to augment only those lobular segments that require
cases involving complex reconstruction of the entire nasal increased contour or support. The technique evolved in
skeleton. Because of progressive resorption of vomer and response to the high number of patients with inadequate
ethmoid bone grafts for the tip, Sheen used them only as donor cartilage for traditional shield-type grafts and
buttresses to hold overlying septal cartilage grafts. in response to the observation that by enlarging the
lobule, tip grafts can create undesirable postoperative
The most persistent complications of tip grafts in
disproportions in some patients. The revision rate in 405
the series presented by Sheen195 were malposition and
rhinoplasties (40% primary, 60% secondary) was 14%.
undesirable angularities. Tip grafts can shift their position
and cause a number of problems. Grafts that are displaced Peck200 reported using rectangular onlay grafts of
laterally cause asymmetry; those that migrate upward septal or auricular cartilage that are placed overlying the
cause tip blanching or over-projection; and if displaced domes. A tight pocket helps keep the graft in position,
downward, they protrude from the columella. Oversized but, if necessary, the graft can be stabilized with a pullout
grafts can also compromise the vascular supply to the skin suture. Much like Sheen tip grafts, Peck onlay grafts can
of the lobule. Sheen emphasized the need for thorough displace, distort, or partially resorb, and it is difficult to
preparation and precise wound closure to keep infections judge intraoperatively the appropriate degree of projection
to a minimum. desired. The result is that the tip often is over- or
undercorrected.
Cárdenas-Camarena and Guerrero196 reported an
8-year experience with cartilage grafts in nasal surgery, Peck et al.201 described an 18-year experience with
encompassing 83% from the nasal septum, 12% from the umbrella graft in rhinoplasty. The graft consists of a
the ear, 3% from the alar cartilages, and 2% from the rib. vertical cartilaginous strut between the medial crura and
Grafts were placed between the medial crura in 64%, as a horizontal onlay graft overlying the alar domes. The
Sheen tip grafts in 28%, in the nasal dorsum in 19%, as umbrella graft was used in 22% of 1252 mostly secondary
spreader grafts in 8%, as Peck grafts in 8%, and in the rhinoplasties. The revision rate for the umbrella graft
rim in 3%. Reoperation to achieve the desired result was was 5%, and the most common complication was visible
required in 8%. cartilage. In his discussion of the article by Peck et al.,
Rohrich202 stated that nasal tip support usually depends
Bateman and Jones197 reviewed outcomes of
equally on the length and strength of the paired lower
augmentation rhinoplasty using autologous cartilage grafts
lateral cartilages, which in turn are supported by the
in 103 patients followed for an average of 3 years. The
suspensory ligaments connecting the domes and the fibers
revision rate during the follow-up period was 15.5%. The
that connect them with the ULC.
same surgeons’ revision rate in 311 rhinoplasties without
grafts during the same period was 4%. The authors Baker and Courtiss203 noted that parchment-thin
concluded that rhinoplasty with cartilage graft is associated skin is a common problem associated with secondary
with a significantly higher revision rate than when no graft rhinoplasty. The authors suggested that an onlay graft
is required. of temporalis fascia is the most satisfactory method of
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
Guyuron et al.215 introduced a subdomal graft for domes and the skin thickness over the LLC before and
management of the pinched nasal tip. The graft is placed after transdomal suture tip plasty. The distance between
into a subdomal pocket extending from one dome to the cartilaginous domes correlated with tip width before
another (8–10 mm long × 1.5 mm wide × 1.5 mm thick). surgery. After surgery, the degree of tip refinement
The technique was successfully applied in 53 primary correlated with preoperative skin thickness but not with
rhinoplasties and eight secondary cases of pinched nasal interdomal distance. These data provide further evidence
deformity or asymmetric domes. that tip definition surgery is limited by thick soft tissues.
Hamra216 opted for dome excision, side-to-side Rohrich and Adams222 proposed an algorithm for
cartilage repair, and crushed cartilage overlay graft to the management of nasal tips: type I, angle of divergence is
improve tip contour. This is a simple method with which >30°; type II, domal arc between tip-defining points is >4
to treat tip deformities and reduce tip projection when the mm; type III, both conditions are present (Fig. 19). The
angle of divergence is normal. technique involves limited domal and cephalic trimming
and then transdomal and/or interdomal suturing. The
Bujia217 studied the viability of chondrocytes
endpoint is reached when the distance between tip-
in crushed, uncrushed, and cut cartilage grafts. More
defining points is 5 to 6 mm. Gruber and Friedman223
cartilage cells (70%–90%) are damaged by crushing than
presented a discussion of the rationale for use of sutures
by cutting, which leaves most cells viable and able
in the correction of broad or bulbous tips: the transdomal
to proliferate.
suture (to narrow the individual domes); the interdomal
Pereira et al.218 assessed the availability of block suture (to bring symmetry, to add tip strength, and
conchal cartilage for total reconstruction of the ala in sometimes to narrow the tip complex); the lateral crural
a cadaveric model. “…from the lamina tragi, isthmus, mattress suture (to reduce lateral crural convexity); and the
and cavum conchae, en bloc resection is possible with columella-septal suture (to prevent tip droop and to adjust
characteristics of form and dimension similar to those of tip projection).
the homolateral alar cartilage.”
Fanous and Webster219,220 recounted their experience
with Mersilene tip implants (Ethicon, Somerville, NJ) or Division Techniques
the correction of tip deformities in 98 patients. Indications Goldman190 narrowed the square tip by completely
were recession, boxiness, asymmetry, thick or thin skin, transecting the lateral crura and vestibular skin. A
upward or downward turn, and a bifid tip. Mersilene mesh modification of this approach divides the lateral crura
is soft, pliable, and easily shaped and can be invaded by outside the dome area, with or without division of
surrounding connective tissue, which affixes the implant vestibular skin.224 The medial crura can then be sutured
firmly in place and prevents displacement.220 near the dome, or the lateral crura can be rotated
Despite this favorable report, readers should be medially and sutured to gain further projection anteriorly.
circumspect in their use of alloplastic materials in the nasal McKinney and Stalnecker225 described their modification
tip. Aside from the potential for tissue ingrowth and scar, of the Goldman technique for bulbous tips in thick-
an alloplast rejection reaction would have catastrophic skinned individuals with both normal and overly
consequences in this critical area of the nose. Autogenous projecting dome points. Unless the skin of the nose is very
sources of tip grafts, such as nasal septum and ear cartilage, thick, transection techniques produce a more triangular
are undeniably superior in nasal reshaping. tip at the expense of a single dome point, the distinct
possibility of pinching or kinking the alar rim, and visible
asymmetries.
Broad or Boxy Tip
A nasal tip that looks boxy or bulbous rather than Scoring Techniques
triangular from the basal view is the product of either
an increased angle of divergence of the medial crura Unlike transection, scoring usually maintains the integrity
or a wide arc in the dome segment of the lateral crura. of the cartilage and hence support of the tip, with less
Tasman and Helbig221 measured the distance between the visibility of the cut cartilage edges. McCollough and
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
Figure 19. Management algorithm for the boxy nasal tip. *, Domal resection and suture reshaping in excessively wide domal
arch (>6 mm); resilient lateral crura included. (Reprinted with permission from Rohrich and Adams.222)
English189 discussed an alternative to the Goldman who have cephalically positioned lateral crura showing the
technique that consists of scoring the cartilage medial and “parentheses” deformity on frontal view. In these cases the
lateral to the dome and bringing the lateral crus medially tip frequently is flat and broad, the alar rim is notched,
with horizontal mattress sutures. This centralizes the dome and the basilar view shows a square perimeter.
segment while avoiding the break or step-off that typifies
the Goldman tip. The technique is recommended for use
in wide, bulbous, or under-projecting tips. Over-projecting Tip
Peck127 reported achieving a triangular tip through Over-projection of the nasal tip—the “Pinocchio
wide mobilization of the lateral crura with resection of nose”—results from excessive length of the medial and
their distalmost segment and scoring of the dome area. lateral crura. Procedures designed to reduce the over-
Sheen and Sheen100 described narrowing the broad or projecting tip involve full-thickness resection of either the
boxy tip by interdigitating partial scoring cuts in the medial227,228 or lateral6,100,127 crura or scoring of the dome-
dome and medial crura. Hamra226 modified the technique medial crura junction, with or without resection of the
for repositioning the lateral crus described by Sheen by lateral crura.100,127 Goldman190 and Tardy et al.229 analyzed
creating a subcutaneous pocket and suturing the medial the over-projecting tip. They found that overdevelopment
crura together. The dissection is simpler, undermining is of the caudal quadrangular cartilage tends to “tent” the tip
easier, and the procedure can be done through an open or away from the face and can tether the upper lip, producing
closed approach. The technique is indicated for patients an indefinite nasolabial angle. This can occasionally create
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
abnormal exposure of the maxillary gingiva, especially The nasolabial angle is directly influenced by the
during smiling. Correction begins by lowering the configuration of the nasal spine and caudal septum.
cartilaginous profile, releasing the tip from the abnormal When a person is smiling, the upper lip pulls back and
influence. Almost every case required weakening tip the caudal border of the septum and nasal spine appear to
support and overall reduction of the overdeveloped protrude downward, sharpening the columella-lip angle.
components. After complete transfixing incision, the tip
Aston and Guy233 reviewed techniques for resection of the
immediately settled back.
caudal border of the septum and the nasal spine. Figure 20
Any procedure that transects the rim of the alar illustrates the effects of these maneuvers on the columella-
cartilage can alter the smooth arch of the nostril and lip angle.233
produce sharp edges, a notch, or step deformity. To
minimize the potential complication, it is essential to
precisely realign and suture the transected cartilage ends
and to keep intact as much of the nasal lining as possible.
Dorsal wedge resection caudal septum
Neu230 reported that he addresses the Pinocchio tip
1. Shortens nose
by rolling the lateral crura medially and creating new, less a. Cephalad rotation of tip
b. Increases nostral show
prominent domes while preserving the natural bowing of 2. Obtuse columella-lip angle
the alar arch. If necessary, any extra length can be excised 3. No effect on upper lip length
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
Over-resection of the caudal septum or nasal spine the acute nasolabial angle and prominent nasolabial
can produce an excessively obtuse septolabial angle (“pig folds and to improve asymmetries in nasal base position.
nose”), an acute septolabial angle with a plunging tip Cadaveric dissections have shown that the levator alae
(“witch’s nose”), a retracted columella, or a flat upper lip muscles originate at the frontal process of the maxilla and
that seems excessively long (“ape lip”). Webster et al.235,236 insert into the lateral alae and orbicularis oris muscles.
discussed the anatomy of the columella and analyzed The angular artery and vein lie medial and superficial to
the aesthetics of the nose regarding surgical techniques the muscle and serve as a reliable guide to its position.
for correcting deformities of the lip-columella junction, The infraorbital nerve is lateral to the levator alae muscle
including tissue subtraction, tissue addition, and and lies beneath the levator labii superioris muscle,
sliding procedures. approximately 7 mm below the orbital rim. The principal
action of the levator alae muscle is to elevate the alar base,
Cachay-Velasquez237 advocated a Rowen-Boyd
producing a sneer or snarl. As the alar base is elevated, the
resection of the depressor septi nasi muscles to correct the
nasolabial angle becomes acute and the medial nasolabial
rhinogingivolabial syndrome: drooping nasal tip, short
fold becomes accentuated. The muscle is approached
upper lip, and increased exposure of the maxillary gums,
through a subciliary incision, a skin-muscle flap is elevated,
particularly when smiling. Resection is continued through
the orbicularis oculi muscle is dissected inferiorly to free
an extension of the transfixion incision and frequently is
it from the orbital rim, and dissection proceeds medially
accompanied by partial resection of the caudal septum and
to the groove between the maxilla and nasal bones, where
nasal spine. The postoperative results reflect the change
the levator alae muscle is located and identified. A 0.5- to
induced in the columella-lip angle and between the tip
1-cm-long segment of muscle is resected. Alternatively,
and upper lip.
muscle resection can be accomplished through a buccal
Rohrich et al.238 studied the role of the depressor sulcus incision.
septi nasi muscle in rhinoplasty and described three
Foda242 reviewed his results after a minimum of 1
anatomic variations. An active depressor septi muscle can
year in 360 consecutive “droopy tip” rhinoplasties using
accentuate a drooping nasal tip by shortening the upper lip
three alar cartilage modification techniques. He found
on animation. The authors recommended muscle release
LCS to be most effective for under-projected tips. LCO
and transposition through a sublabial intraoral incision
worked best in cases of over-projected tips. The tongue-in-
during rhinoplasty to improve the tip-upper
groove technique was best suited for tips with
lip relationship.
adequate projection.
De Benito and Fernandez Sanza239 reported
Guyuron243 studied abnormalities of the footplate
resecting the columella and nasal depressor muscles to
of the medial crura and how their surgical correction
improve the nose-lip relationship and the smile. The
influences the outcome of rhinoplasty. In a prospective
resection eliminates the downward movement of the nasal
series of 20 consecutive primary rhinoplasties, the author
tip with smiling.
found the distance between the medial footplates to be
Lawson and Reino240 described reduction 7.5 to 15 mm (average, 11.4 mm). The length of the
columelloplasty, which involves full-thickness excision footplates was 4 to 7.5 mm (average, 5.8 mm).
of a diamond-shaped piece of tissue from between the
In a retrospective review of 295 consecutive
feet of the medial crura. The incision is continued down
rhinoplasties, footplates were altered in 76 cases. In
through the skin, depressor septi muscle, and adjacent
cases of over-projecting tip and divergent footplates, the
soft tissue. When the defect is closed, the splayed medial
lateral portion of the footplates was partially resected
crura are brought together, increasing the nasolabial
and then approximated. If the tip was under-projecting
angle, modifying the shape of the nares, and increasing
or had normal projection, the divergent footplates were
projection of the nasal tip.
approximated without resection. When the subnasale
Pessa241 suggested selective resection of the levator and the base of the columella protruded, the soft tissue
alae (levator labii superioris alaqui nasi) muscle to correct between the footplates was removed. When the footplates
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
A
Lengthening the Short Nose
The short nose is characterized by lower-than-normal
distance from the nasofrontal angle to the tip-defining
points and an overly wide nasolabial angle with increased
nostril show.244 Gunter and Rohrich244 described a
technique that lowers the tip-defining points by detaching
the lateral crura from their attachments to the ULC,
suspensory ligament, and septum (Figs. 21 and 22). The
release effectively rotates the alar cartilages caudally, lowers
the dome, decreases projection of the tip, and lengthens
the distance between the nasofrontal angle and the tip-
defining points. As tip projection decreases, the illusion
of nasal length increases. The technique is best suited for
patients who have a short nose with an over-projecting tip.
Lee et al.245 described lengthening the postoperative
short nose with a combination gull-wing conchal
composite graft and rib costochondral dorsal onlay graft B
as a replacement for the missing nasal lining and cartilage
and to reinforce the framework, respectively. Wide
degloving of the outer skin envelope is recommended to
cover the entire nasal length without tension.
The problem with this method of reconstruction
is the failure to differentially project the nasal tip above
the plane of the reconstructed dorsum. The outcome of
this technique is a somewhat under-projecting tip with
pollybeak deformity fullness. A more aesthetic result can
be obtained by incorporating columellar support to raise
the nasal tip above the plane of the dorsum.
Naficy and Baker246 illustrated five techniques for
lengthening the short nose:
•• the flying buttress graft, which is made up
of a single spreader graft or paired spreader
grafts secured to the columellar strut
•• caudal septal grafts
•• tip grafts of various shapes Figure 21. A, Aesthetically short nose. NFA, nasofrontal
angle; TDP, tip-defining point. B, Lengthening an
•• radix grafts to elevate the nasion
aesthetically short nose with inferior rotation of the lower
•• interposition grafts between the upper and lateral cartilages. (Reprinted with permission from Gunter
lower lateral cartilages and Rohrich.244)
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
Figure 22. A, Lower lateral cartilages released from their Wolfe252 recommended using a nasofrontal
attachments to the upper lateral cartilages, suspensory osteotomy with mobilization of previous fractures for
ligament, and septum. B, Direction of rotation of lower lengthening posttraumatic foreshortened noses. To
lateral cartilages after release of all attachments. (Reprinted lengthen congenitally short noses, Wolfe preferred a
with permission from Gunter and Rohrich.244) perinasal osteotomy. He presented his experience with
nine cases.
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
TURBINATES
Jackson and Koch255 reviewed controversies in the
management of hypertrophic inferior turbinates, with
emphasis on surgical treatment. Ophir256 analyzed the
results of total inferior turbinectomy after 1 to 7 years Figure 24. A and B, Two views of the boundaries of the
in 38 patients: 84% reported subjective relief of nasal internal and external valves. Internal nasal valve angle is
obstruction, and 92% had wide clean nasal airways shown normally 10° to 15°. (Reprinted with permission from Howard
by rhinoscopy. Objective airflow measurements in 32 and Rohrich.254)
patients showed increased patency in all, including three
patients who still complained of nasal obstruction. No
atrophy of the nasal mucosa or chronic infection occurred. earlier. They found no incidence of dry nose syndrome and
The author recommended total inferior turbinectomy for concluded that bilateral subtotal resection of the inferior
patients with obstructing inferior turbinates. turbinates is the treatment of choice for nasal obstruction
caused by hypertrophied turbinates.
Courtiss and Goldwyn257 looked for undesirable
long-term sequelae in 25 patients who had resection Surgery on the inferior turbinates should be
of obstructing inferior nasal turbinates at least 10 years considered along with septal straightening when
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
attempting to relieve nasal obstruction. Pollock and and cartilage grafting through an open approach. The
Rohrich258 reported their experience with 408 patients valves were reconstructed with spreader grafts, lateral
with obstructed airways who were successfully treated crural spanning grafts, crural onlay and sidewall grafts,
with adjunctive inferior turbinate resection. The authors and columellar struts used singly or in combination (Figs.
preferred performing full-thickness excision of the anterior 25−27).262 Treatment was successful in 24 of 27 patients.
one-third to one-half of the inferior turbinate. Long-term The authors suggested strategies to prevent nasal valve
follow-up revealed no evidence of atrophic rhinitis or
collapse during rhinoplasty.
untoward sequelae.
Rohrich et al.259 reported a preference for
submucous resection (SMR) of hypertrophic inferior
turbinates, which, in their series, was associated with
fewer complications of bleeding, mucosal crusting or
desiccation, or recurrent obstruction. The anterior one-
third to one-half of the bony segment is resected with this
technique. No atrophic rhinitis was reported.
Smith et al.260 reported a technique describing
resection of the pyriform aperture in patients with residual
obstructive symptoms after inferior turbinate resection
with or without septal surgery. The medial aspect of the
prominent nasal process of the maxilla at the pyriform
aperture is removed via an endonasal approach. The
authors reported a subjectively substantial improvement
Figure 25. Site and number of cartilage grafts used in
in nasal airways, including resolution of inspiratory alar
reconstructing the nasal valve area. (N = 27). (Reprinted
collapse, with this technique.
with permission from Teichgraeber and Wainwright.262)
NASAL VALVES
Constantian261 analyzed the functional effects of alar
cartilage malposition. Rhinoplasty with resection of the
cartilaginous dorsal roof or alar cartilages is the most
common cause of acquired incompetence at the internal
and external valves. The external nasal valve is presumed
to be the mobile nasal ala at the introitus of the vestibule
that is normally supported by the lateral crus. External
valvular incompetence ensues from malposition of the alar
cartilage. Graft support to the lateral wall of the nostril is
recommended to minimize this complication.
Teichgraeber and Wainwright262 presented a report
of 27 patients with nasal obstruction who were treated
over a 3-year period. Of these, 14 had involvement of the Figure 26. Bilateral spreader grafts (septal cartilage),
internal valve only, two had involvement of the external columellar strut (septal cartilage), resection of the cephalad
valve alone, and 11 had involvement of both valves. 1 mm of the lower lateral cartilages, lateral crural spanning
The cause of the obstruction was previous surgery in 13 graft (septal cartilage), and bilateral turbinoplasties.
patients, trauma in eight, and a congenitally narrow nose (Reprinted with permission from Teichgraeber and
in four. Surgery consisted of nasal valve repositioning Wainwright.262)
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
Figure 28. Algorithm for the use of spreader graft options. (Reprinted with permission from Byrd et al.137).
healthy patients who had blood cultures drawn before and SMR
during the procedure. Although 50% had colonization
SMR of an obstructive septal deformity was first described
of the nasal mucosa by Staphylococcus aureus, none of by Killian272 in 1905. Currently, the basic principles
the blood cultures showed bacterial growth. The authors of subperichondrial dissection and resection of the
concluded that staphylococcal bacteremia during nasal obstructing cartilage remain largely unchanged. Dingman
septoplasty is a rare occurrence that does not warrant and Natvig273 noted that the Killian SMR is seldom
antimicrobial prophylaxis. indicated. They stated that if performed, it should preserve
Yoder and Weimert271 analyzed the infection rate at least 1 cm of the dorsal margin and 1 cm of the caudal
in 1040 patients who underwent septal surgery without portion of the septal cartilage.
prophylactic antibiotics. Minor nasal infections developed Bernstein274 presented a list of indications for
postoperatively in five patients (0.48%), and all responded SMR, including midseptal obstructive deformities. After
to orally administered antibiotic therapy. The authors conservative excision of the most severely obstructing
concluded that the risk of infection after nasal surgery portions of the septum by SMR, the remaining cartilage
without antibiotic coverage is minimal. usually is realigned by septoplasty techniques.
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
In 1950, Converse276 recommended vertical de la Fuente and Martin del Yerro281 stated that
scoring of the residual dorsal strut of the septum to they prefer bilateral mucoperichondrial-mucoperiosteal
correct persistent deviations of the dorsum. Fry277 later dissection of the septum from its caudal edge to the most
described “interlocking stresses” in nasal septal cartilage posterior deviated part. They reported that it provides easy
that could be relaxed by scoring the cartilage. Numerous septal resection in a good surgical field. A dorsocaudal
modifications of scoring techniques have since evolved, L strut is preserved when possible, but if involved in the
along with procedures combining resection and scoring. deviation, it can be resected and reconstructed with dorsal
and columellar grafts.
Gruber and Lesavoy278 advocated closed septal
osteotomy to realign the bony septum (perpendicular Cannistrá et al.282 advocated an endonasal technique
plate of the ethmoid, vomer, and vomerine ridge). An with full release of the septum from the ULC. Rees283
intranasal fracture is created with a long nasal speculum. noted that when a high bony deviation is associated
All 32 patients in their series had fracture of the vomer and with marked distortion of the cartilaginous septum, the
perpendicular plate of the ethmoid. The vomerine ridge surgeon is challenged to completely alleviate the septal
(premaxilla area) was fractured in 69%. This resulted in deformity and simultaneously correct the external bony
dramatic straightening of the bony septum in 82% vault deflection without totally excising the septum. For
of patients. severely deviated noses, Rees recommends total removal of
the entire bony and cartilaginous septum extramucosally
and replacement as a free graft. This is a somewhat risky
Combined SMR and Septoplasty procedure if the lateral osteotomy and infracture turn out
to be less than perfect.
Noting that a timid surgical attack of the deviated
septum can result in persistent deformity, Johnson and In 1995, Gubisch284 described complete removal
Anderson279 recommended a more aggressive approach of the septum with subsequent replantation after
consisting of resection of an inferior strip of septum next correction of deformity in 1012 patients. All septal
to the nasal spine so that the septum can swing freely replants healed primarily. The complication rate was 2.2%.
toward the midline. The authors advocated total or near- The main problem with the technique was difficulty in
total transection of the dorsal strut to correct a deviation reconstructing the dorsum and stabilizing the replant.
while preserving intact mucoperichondrium on the convex Sheen and Sheen100 noted that a midline septum can
side. The septal strut is stabilized with transseptal mattress be irrelevant to the objectives of septal surgery (i.e., patent
sutures to prevent collapse after division. Medial and airways and a nose that appears straight). Sheen reported
lateral osteotomies to reposition the nasal bones complete that he opts for a conservative approach involving careful
the procedure. Any residual deformities of the dorsum can
resection of portions of the obstructing septum, which are
be camouflaged with morcellized autogenous
subsequently crushed and replaced as camouflage grafts
cartilage grafts.
to mask the deviations. Constantian285 described resecting
Byrd et al.280 proposed an algorithm for correction the dorsum in the area of deviation until the dorsal edge
of the crooked nose through an open approach. Anatomic is close enough to the midline to disguise the remaining
correction consists of total release of the cartilaginous asymmetry.
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
Jugo286 advocated total septal reconstruction or interrupting the anatomic continuity of the L-shaped
through an external approach. He reported gaining access septal strut.
to the septum between the alar cartilages along the nasal
Conservative approaches to septal deviation use
dorsum. After removal of the entire septum, the straight
onlay grafts to mask the deformity, but subsequent
cartilage from the center is used to reconstruct the ventral-
resorption or displacement of the grafts can produce
caudal and ventral-cranial septum. The deformed cartilage
dorsal irregularities. In turn, radical procedures for septal
is straightened by crushing and is replaced back into the
straightening risk losing dorsal support to the nose,
posterior septal space. Five girls and 19 boys, ages 5 to 14
with subsequent collapse of the nasal bridge and saddle
years, were treated this way, and the author reported no
deformity. A thorough knowledge of nasal anatomy and
alterations of growth necessitating reoperation.
physiology is the key to proper correction.
Gunter and Rohrich287 reviewed the management of
the deviated nose and advocated simultaneous correction
of the septum and bony pyramid when both structures are
involved. The authors proposed extensive alteration of the
septum but a conservative approach to the external nasal
framework. Total septal reconstruction entails mobilization
of all deviated structures, including the ULC, and
reconstruction of the deviated L strut along the dorsum, if
necessary. The mucoperichondrial attachments should be
disturbed as little as possible to preserve dorsal support to
the nose. Planned precise osteotomies are performed on
the nasal bones.
Rohrich et al.288 grouped nasal deviations into
three basic types: caudal septal deviations, concave
dorsal deformities, and S-shaped dorsal deformities with
deviation of the bony pyramid. Management includes
open exposure of all deviated structures, release of all
involved attachments, straightening the framework while
maintaining a sturdy L-strut, restoring long-term support
with buttressing septal batten or spreader grafts, turbinate
reduction, if necessary, and precise osteotomies
(Fig. 29).288
Guyuron and Behmand289 discussed the
diagnosis and management of caudal nasal deviation by
independently assessing the components of the caudal
nasal structures: septal deviations, asymmetric growth of
the lower lateral cartilages, anterior nasal spine tilting,
and medial crural footplate asymmetry. The authors
recommended specific techniques to address each of these
Figure 29. Operative plan is component dorsal reduction,
potential sources of deviation.
septal cartilage resection, and septal L-strut straightening
Boccieri and Pascali290 addressed the crooked nose with inferior full-thickness 50% cuts. Suturing the L-strut
with septoplasty, full-thickness incisions, and a unilateral to the upper lateral cartilages restores support. Bilateral
cartilage spreader graft, referred to as a crossbar graft, that low-to-low percutaneous osteotomies can be performed
splints the concave surface of the deviated septum. The to narrow the nasal base. (Reprinted with permission from
surgeon must avoid degloving the contralateral surface Rohrich et al.288).
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TABLE 2
Surgical Indications and Options for Alar Deformities306
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
Alar modifications are indicated when there is flaring, rhinoplasty deformities and the procedures for their
bulbosity, or excessive width of the nasal base or when correction. The reader is also referred to a review of
tip retroposition at surgery produces excessive alar flare. techniques presented by Webster,322 a retrospective
Of importance is the site and angle of insertion of the presented by Peck,323 and a chapter on secondary
alae into the face. A cephalic location of the alar-facial rhinoplasty written by Sheen and Sheen.100 Sheen and
junction can create a high-arched appearance to the alae, Sheen100 asserted that the key to effective secondary
exposing an excessive amount of columella. In extreme rhinoplasty is accurate diagnosis of the deformity. He listed
cases, this variant produces a snarl-like appearance. Caudal five “ground rules” for the management of postsurgical
insertions of the alae into the face create the appearance nasal anomalies, as follows:100,103
of a disproportionately large and bulbous lobule and
•• Defer surgery until there is final resolution
sometimes alar hooding. The authors give indications for
of tissue edema (at least 1 year).
internal nasal floor reduction, alar wedge excision, alar
flap, and sliding alar flap. •• Have a well-defined aesthetic concept.
Millard314 presented a discussion of alar margin •• Make a proper diagnosis.
sculpturing techniques through external incisions. Planas •• Limit the dissection.
and Planas315 reviewed the use of external excisions
for correcting variations in the shape of the nostrils in •• Use only autogenous material.
rhinoplasty. Matarasso316 approached alar rim excision In general, surgical correction of secondary
through an “internal technique” to core out excess alar deformities must be more conservative than the primary
tissue through an alar base incision. Subsequently, the operation. The surgeon should resist the temptation to
author limited the indications for this approach to repeat errors of over-reduction. In the words of Millard,324
deformities of the lower third of the rim.317 “Once the nose goes wrong, too often an irreversible chain
Oktem et al.318 described a lower cartilage Z-plasty reaction is set in motion-as the surgeon frantically excises
for treating alar cartilage malposition. The alar cartilage again and again.”
is divided obliquely into anterior and posterior segments Sheen103 discussed the secondary correction of
at a point located 15 mm lateral to the nasal dome. The supratip fullness, total disharmony of all nasal parts, a
posterior crural segment, which is secured to the pyriform dorsum that is too low after grafting, a snub nasal tip
aperture, is transposed cephalically in a Z-plast manner from over-resection of the dorsum and under-resection of
to attain the desired position of the anterior lateral the caudal septum, and residual high septal deviation. He
crural segment. This technique has the advantage of not presented a technique for grafting the nasal tip104 that is
requiring additional cartilage and does not violate the also helpful in secondary rhinoplasty. For cases in which
posterior alar rim, which allows for preservation of the fine the middle vault has been excessively narrowed and the
movements of the alar muscles. In addition, tip projection caudal borders of the nasal bones are visible through the
can be adjusted by fixing the anterior crural segment skin, Sheen106 recommended spreader grafts to reestablish
in a posterior and overlapping manner if nasal tip over- an open angle between the ULC and the dorsal septum.
projection is present or in an anterior position with no The author correlated reconstruction of the middle nasal
overlapping in under-projection cases. vault with improvement in nasal physiology and enhanced
airway capacity.
Peck323 discusses some common deformities in
SECONDARY RHINOPLASTY
secondary rhinoplasty, as follows:
The incidence of postsurgical nasal deformities requiring
secondary correction varies from 5% (the best that
•• Lack of tip projection from lack of alar
cartilage-dome projection
experienced surgeons achieve, according to Rees et al.319)
to 12% (Smith320 presented a report of 221 patients). •• Lack of tip projection from lack of septal
Rogers321 offered a comprehensive discussion of post- support of the nasal tip-pyramid complex
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
•• Thick, rigid tip Alar notch deformities most often occur secondary
to resection of vestibular lining or transection of the alar
•• Persistent Pinocchio tip cartilages. Deformities of the ULC and bone generally are
Peck323 reported using a conchal cartilage tip graft corrected by onlay grafts of septum or conchal cartilage.322
when there is lack of tip projection from inadequate dome
According to Peck,323 the most common cause of a
projection and a conchal cartilage intercrural graft when crowded lip is a septum that is too long and has literally
the lack of tip projection is due to insufficient dorsal grown onto the upper lip. Resection of the caudal end of
support. Peck’s choice for reconstructing the septum in the septum usually is all that is needed for correction.
saddle nose deformity is first, a layered septal cartilage graft
and second, a bone graft harvested from the ilium, rib, or The recessed nasolabial angle is corrected by
calvarium. Marin et al.325 preferred rib cartilage grafts for insertion of a septal or conchal cartilage graft to build
correction of contour deformities and functional problems up the base and open the angle. A tight frenulum can be
caused by previous operations. The authors argued that corrected by V-Y advancement of the frenulum.323
that it has a lower resorption rate and higher strength The thick, rigid tip generally is associated with
compared with auricular cartilage, irradiated cartilage, and sebaceous skin that will not drape or contour onto
alloplastic materials. A detailed description of their rib the skeletal framework. In these instances, Peck323
cartilage harvesting techniques is described. recommended augmentation of the tip. He corrected the
Based on his experience, Peck323 determined that persistent Pinocchio tip by amputation of the cartilages
the supratip deformity is most commonly caused by a and reconstruction with onlay graft from the concha.
high supratip septal cartilage. For correction, the author Parkes et al.327 analyzed their experience with 1221
recommended lowering the dorsum as a unit to include consecutive rhinoplasties, 170 (14%) of which were
the septum and the left and right ULC. The second revision procedures. Most secondary problems occurred
most common cause of supratip deformity is inadequate in the lower third of the nose: polly beak (33%), bossa
removal of the fibrofatty tissues. The third most common (26%), and excessive dorsal resection (24%).
cause is inadequate sculpting of the alar cartilages. A
On the basis of his experience with 56 cases of
supratip deformity can also result from overzealous
secondary deformity after primary open rhinoplasty,
lowering of the nasal pyramid in the presence of thick,
Daniel328 recommended a closed technique when
rigid skin, in which case a columellar strut or dome-tip
augmentation is the solution and an open approach when
graft might be indicated.323
structural correction is required. The risks of skin necrosis
Guyuron et al.326 noted supratip fullness in 9% and poor scarring are similar with either technique.
of patients undergoing primary rhinoplasty and in The stigmata of open primary rhinoplasty include the
36% undergoing secondary rhinoplasty. With primary following: 1) a depressed and visible scar, 2) destruction
rhinoplasty, the deformity was caused by inadequate of the soft-tissue facets in the nostril apices, 3) columellar
tip projection (pseudo-deformity), an over-projecting deformities with associated nostril asymmetry, and 4)
caudal dorsum, a combination of both, or cephalically excessive tip or supratip defatting. These can and should
oriented LLC. With secondary rhinoplasty, the deformity be avoided, and Daniel offered suggestions for
was caused by under-resection or over-resection of the eliminating them.
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
Neu329 described a “segmental” approach to resorption than other areas of the face.
secondary rhinoplasty for mild to complete loss of alar
Jackson et al.334 reviewed the long-term outcomes
cartilages and a treatment algorithm based on the severity
of 363 cranial bone grafts used in nasal reconstruction.
of the deformity. His technique of cartilage grafting in
Split-thickness grafts were applied in 85% of the cases
these difficult cases is detailed and illustrated in the article.
and full-thickness grafts in the remainder. The authors
Turegun et al.330 used a thin saddle-shaped porous reported satisfactory results in the vast majority of cases.
polyethylene implant to overcome aesthetic and functional Shipchandler et al.335 described a technique creating
deformities in secondary rhinoplasty. The rigid structure of an L-shaped strut graft from a split calvarial bone that
this implant allows functional improvement of the airway provides dorsal support while increasing tip projection.
and correct surface asymmetry by filling the defects. No The results showed maintenance of the tip projection
extrusion was noted in this study. and absence of graft infection, resorption, and migration.
Hodgkinson336 argued that bone grafts should not extend
to the nasal tip but stop at the septal angle; augmentation
SADDLE NOSE DEFORMITY of the nasal tip should be accomplished with cartilage
Stuzin and Kawamoto331 used cranial bone grafts to grafts from other sites. We agree with this view; differential
correct the post-rhinoplasty saddle nose deformity. The support of the tip produces aesthetic projection of the tip
subperiosteal pocket extends well into the piriform above the dorsal plane.
aperture and along the lateral nasal walls and nasal floor. Kridel and Konior337 reviewed the fate of 306
Mucosal advancement is sometimes indicated. In addition, irradiated costal cartilage homografts to the nose, 122
patients with nasal foreshortening often require a strong of which were used on the nasal dorsum, 40 for primary
cantilever bone graft to augment the dorsum, lengthen the rhinoplasty, and 82 for revision rhinoplasty. Complications
nose, increase tip projection, and support the columella. included infection around the graft in 3% to 4%, graft
Erol153 elevated the nasal dorsum with a pliable graft resorption in 3% to 4%, graft mobility in 4%, and
of diced cartilage wrapped in Surgicel. Although the graft cartilage warping in 3%. The overall complication rate
seems more suitable for fill than for structural support, the was approximately 10%. Four patients in the primary
author reported achieving good results in 2365 patients rhinoplasty group eventually needed revisional nasal
over 10 years. surgery for additional augmentation. To date, this is
the largest published series of irradiated costal cartilage
In the event of end-stage deficiency of the nasal
homografts specifically used for nasal reconstruction.
skeleton, Posnick et al.332 recommended full-thickness
cranial bone grafts and rigid internal fixation through Daniel338 described the use of an osseocartilaginous
a coronal incision. The dorsal graft often must extend autologous rib graft for dorsal contour in combination
down to the tip for a well-chiseled contour and good tip with a rigid cartilaginous strut to support the tip and
definition. The authors warned against grafts that are too reinforce the columella. The method of harvest and
wide and that excessively broaden the nasal dorsum and reconstruction are well illustrated. In a discussion of the
urged care in sculpting the nasofrontal junction. article by Daniel, Byrd339 described his technique for
carving portions of the 10th and 11th ribs as nasal grafts
Powell and Riley333 analyzed the 4-year results of
(Fig. 39). In a cadaveric study, Kim et al.340 confirmed that
850 calvarial bone grafts to the nose in 170 patients.
meticulous concentric carving results in less warping than
Most graft sites showed partial resorption ranging from
does eccentric carving.
insignificant to 30%. Areas of maximum resorption and
contour change were at the nasal dorsum and lateral Waldman341 reported his experience with Gore-Tex
posterior mandible. Excellent contour was achieved and for augmentation of the nasal dorsum in 17 patients when
maintained in all except a few cases. Although the authors autogenous sources were not available. The Gore-Tex grafts
endorsed the use of calvarial bone grafts in facial skeletal were inserted during open rhinoplasty, and all patients
reconstruction and in the nasal dorsum, their study received some type of columellar support. During follow-
showed the nose to be a site of potentially greater bone up examinations from 12 to 36 months, Waldman noted
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
no operative or postoperative complications. One implant and reported, “Postoperative follow-up has revealed a
was removed 5 months after insertion because of stable implant material with no complications relating to
excessive augmentation. the graft material.”
Godin et al.342 analyzed the postoperative course Jang et al.345 investigated the histological changes
of 137 patients—69 primary rhinoplasties, 68 revision associated with Gore-Tex removed during aesthetic
rhinoplasties—who received augmentation with Gore-Tex revision rhinoplasty. Gore-Tex samples implanted for long
patches. Follow-up duration was from 6 to 80 months periods of time were associated with decreased thickness,
(average, 25 months). The authors reported that three structural changes, micro-calcifications, foreign body
(2.2%) of 137 grafts became infected and were removed. reactions, and, surprisingly, tissue ingrowth beginning as
One graft was removed 5 months postoperatively early as 1 week after insertion.
because of excessive augmentation. None of the patients
who underwent implant removal required subsequent Straith346 reviewed the long-term (average, 15
augmentation. All 137 patients were pleased with their years) outcome of Silastic implants for the correction of
results. Technical points that were thought to be important saddle-nose deformity in five patients. A careful dissection,
to the success of the procedure are as follows: watertight closure, antibiotic irrigation, and implant
design that avoids pressure on thin vestibular membranes
•• For dorsal grafts, the implant usually was
are credited for the good results.
boat shaped.
Peled et al.347 conducted a meta-analysis of the
•• All implant edges were carefully beveled.
The graft was cut to the width of the nasal use of alloplastic materials in rhinoplasty. The authors
bones at the nasion, gradually widened concluded that alloplastic implants have acceptable
toward the rhinion, and tapered to a sharp complication rates and can be used when autogenous
point at its caudal end. materials are unavailable or insufficient. They also reported
that Medpor or Gore-Tex might offer a slightly better
•• The dissected pocket should easily accept outcome than silicone.
the graft without rolling or bunching.
•• The graft should run the entire length of the
dorsum to avoid steps or notches in profile.
•• The graft is soaked in saline containing a
broad spectrum antibiotic and is secured
with 5-0 polypropylene suture.
•• Overcorrection is not necessary considering
that resorption of Gore-Tex implants has
not been observed.
An update343 of the series presented by Godin et
al.342 included 309 consecutive patients with 52% primary
and 48% secondary rhinoplasty cases. During follow-up
of 5 months to 10 years, the graft infection rate was 3%
overall: 1% primary and 5% revision. The grafts became
infected in three patients with perforated nasal septums
and had to be removed. The authors considered septal
perforation to be a contraindication for nasal Figure 39. Eleventh rib rotated 90° so that inferior border
Gore-Tex implantation. becomes convex dorsum. Bony portion split and out-
fractured to create the bony dorsum. Cartilaginous portion
Owsley and Taylor344 reviewed their use of Gore-Tex of tenth rib serves as columellar strut. (Reprinted with
for nasal augmentation in 106 patients (87 on the dorsum) permission from Byrd.339)
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
Jung et al.348 reported their extensive experience mentoplasty is indicated in approximately 15% of
with silicone nasal augmentation. Silicone implants rhinoplasty cases.
were noted to induce calcification when inserted
Rish353 proposed a simple and effective method for
for a prolonged period of time, causing long-term
determining who would benefit from chin augmentation.
morphological changes.
Using photographs of the patient in profile with the
Daniel349 proposed a new saddle nose classification Frankfort line parallel to the floor, a vertical line is
based on the presenting deformities and method of dropped perpendicular to the Frankfort horizontal plane
treatment. He presented a new subgroup, which he and through the lower lip. If the chin does not reach this
designated the septal saddle deformity secondary to line, the patient is probably a candidate for augmentation
weakening or loss of septal cartilage instead of the classical mentoplasty.
dorsal over-resection.
Davis354 classified chin deformities as macrognathic,
The forgotten element in successful correction of retrognathic, and microgenic. Microgenia and occasionally
posttraumatic saddle nose is nasal lining. For an in-depth retrognathia are the only conditions in which chin
discussion of this topic, the reader is referred to SRPS augmentation is appropriate. He uses primarily Silastic
volume 10, number 12.350 chin implants and stresses proper placement over the
pogonion, as low as possible over the point of the chin,
where the bone is dense and less likely to resorb than if the
ADJUNCTIVE PROCEDURES implant is placed higher on the mandible. If augmentation
Resection of the Alar Base >8 mm is required, a simple chin implant is unlikely to
provide satisfactory results, in which case a mandibular
Sheen and Sheen100 classified alar bases according to osteotomy or sliding genioplasty is indicated.
relative proportions of vestibular and external skin. Weir,351
in 1892, corrected excessively flaring or wide nostrils by Two studies355,356 documented resorption of the
resecting the alar bases. Sheen and Sheen100 later modified mandibular cortical surface after placement of solid chin
the technique presented by Weir by retaining a medial implants. Although essentially a radiographic finding and
flap on the wedge excision. This refinement provided a usually self limiting, this cortical resorption nevertheless
more natural, continuous nostril sill and reduced the alar has prompted the development of softer prostheses.
notching produced by the scar of the Weir procedure. Simons357 reviewed the history of mentoplasty.
The author described an extraoral surgical approach and
discussed other adjuncts to rhinoplasty, including chin
Paranasal Augmentation reduction, orthodontia, makeup, and hair styling.
Guerrerosantos352 reviewed augmentation of the paranasal
and anterior maxillary area with autogenous fascia and
cartilage. Graft designs and positions were detailed. The Endoscopic Sinus Surgery
procedure is recommended as an adjunct to orthognathic Slafani and Schaefer358 examined the effect of concurrent
surgery and for primary and secondary rhinoplasties. endoscopic sinus surgery on the postoperative course of
cosmetic rhinoplasty. The findings suggested that the
presence and treatment of sinonasal disease prolongs the
Mentoplasty
patient’s recovery from cosmetic rhinoplasty and correlates
In 1965, Millard204 discussed adjunctive procedures in closely with the degree of preoperative sinus disease. The
corrective rhinoplasty, including wedge excision of the authors recommended a two-team approach and that
alar bases and resection of the alar margins to narrow the endoscopic sinus surgery be performed first. The
the width of the nose and correct alar flare, insertion cosmetic rhinoplasty should be performed only if excellent
of a columellar strut graft of septal cartilage to elevate hemostasis is present and violation of the anterior skull
the tip, and introduction of a chin implant through an base or medial orbit on the part of the sinus surgeon is not
intraoral approach. According to Millard, augmentation of concern.
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
Late complications consisted of the following: •• careful patient selection and increased
caution in hypertensive patients
•• persistence of edema or ecchymosis
•• routine use of broad-spectrum antibiotics
•• excessive scar and steroids
•• vestibular webbing •• careful placement of nasal packs only in the
•• hypesthesia anterior half of the nasal cavity
A later retrospective study of 200 rhinoplasties, •• no narrow, straight osteotomes
conducted by McKinney and Cook,360 disclosed
Andrews et al.363 performed a prospective
considerably lower incidences of infection, hemorrhage,
randomized study comparing the efficacy of
and secondary revisions in the intervening 17 years. The
prophylactic versus postoperative antibiotics in cases
overall complication rate was approximately 6% (4% if
of septorhinoplasty. The authors found no significant
chin complications were excluded), and 12% of patients
difference in infection rates between the prophylactic
required revisions. Despite the improved surgical outcome,
and postoperative groups, strengthening the evidence for
patient satisfaction declined to 90%. Dissatisfied patients
antibiotic administration before nasal surgery.
were more likely to be female, in their 40s, and not
physician referrals. Piltcher et al.364 conducted a randomized clinical
trial. They concluded that hypopharyngeal packing is
Teichgraeber et al.361 reviewed 259 consecutive
ineffective in preventing nausea and vomiting after
rhinoplasties and noted a 5% incidence of serious
nasal surgery.
complications, defined as hemorrhage (five cases),
perforation (four cases), infection (three cases), and
pneumocephalus (one case). All these patients had
Corticosteroids
undergone concomitant septal or turbinate surgery.
Hoffman et al.365 noted certain advantages to the use of
Padovan and Jugo362 reviewed the complications
steroids during rhinoplasty. In a randomized double-
of external rhinoplasty in their practice over a 14-year
blind study of 29 patients, the authors documented less
period. Intraoperative complications included excessive
postoperative edema of the eyelids and nose and fewer
bleeding (>250 mL) in 1%, and cuts on the caudal
ecchymoses when steroids were administered. Patients who
border of the LLC and tears of the columellar skin, which
received steroids also had less discomfort postoperatively.
occurred rarely but were annoying. The most common
early postoperative complication was transient epiphora In a randomized double blind prospective study of
occurring in 13%. Transient anosmia occurred in 5% 20 male patients, all of whom had undergone osteotomies
and prolonged edema in 3%. The most common late as part of their rhinoplasties, Berinstein et al.366 measured
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
the effect of a single preoperative dose of 10 mg of septorhinoplasty and concluded that patients who received
dexamethasone on postoperative edema. Contrary to packing were less likely to develop recurrent septal
expectations, these patients experienced more edema than deviation and synechiae and more likely to experience
those who did not receive the corticosteroid. an improved nasal airway postoperatively. Significant
Shafir et al.367 reported the case of a 37-year-old improvement in airflow was documented in 96% of the
woman who underwent rhinoplasty, including septal patients who received nasal packing compared with 64%
correction, with injection of small amounts of long-acting of those who did not (P < 0.05).
Depo-Medrol to either side of the nasal bridge. Within Reiter et al.373 disagreed with Guyuron.372 On the
seconds of the last injection, the patient lost vision in the
basis of their analysis of 75 consecutive nasal procedures
ipsilateral eye and had no pupillary reflex. A diagnosis of
completed without packing, Reiter et al. recommended
central retinal embolus and choroidal occlusion was made,
through-and-through suturing of the entire septal
and routine treatment for vascular occlusion of the bulb
was immediately initiated. Despite these measures, the flap, small caliber osteotomy, meticulous closure of all
patient remained blind in that eye. intranasal incisions, and proper application of conforming
dressings as alternatives to packing.
In a review of the literature in 1981, Mabry368 found
10 cases of blindness occurring after steroid injections. Camirand et al.374 reviewed the course of 812
In 1994, the author reported zero visual complications patients who had neither internal packing nor external
in his own series of 13,000+ intranasal steroid injections. immobilization after rhinoplasty. None showed early
The pathomechanism is thought to be microemboli of the bone or septal displacement, and swelling, bruising, pain,
steroid suspension that occlude one or more of the retinal epistaxis, and synechiae was not increased compared with
or choroidal vessels. patients who received packing. It is not clear from their
A prospective study conducted by Ozdel et al.369 report whether any patient in their series had undergone
showed no significant difference in psychological well turbinate surgery, which would have increased the risk of
being between a group receiving 10 mg of dexamethasone synechiae. Submucosal hematoma and septal necrosis were
preoperatively and a control group. In addition, the nonexistent. Nevertheless, it is anecdotally known that
authors reported that periorbital edema was significantly most rhinoplasty surgeons thing that external conforming
reduced for the first 2 postoperative days in the group dressings are of benefit in controlling postoperative edema.
receiving steroid.
A randomized prospective trial by Lubianca-Neto
Gürlek et al.370 conducted a prospective controlled et al. evaluated the time of nasal packing in relation to
375
randomized double blind study of the effects of different hemorrhagic complications after nasal surgery. Of 104
regimens of corticosteroids on 40 patients undergoing patients in the study, half had packing for 24 hours and
open rhinoplasty with osteotomies. A clinically the other half for 48 hours. No statistical difference was
statistically significant difference in ecchymosis and observed between the two groups in terms of hemorrhagic
edema was noted between the placebo and the high-dose complications. Hypertension was the only prognostic
methylprednisolone groups. factor for postoperative bleeding.
Totonchi and Guyuron371 compared arnica, an
Guyuron and Vaughan376 evaluated the efficacy of
herbal medication, and steroids in the management of
septal stents for maintaining patency of the airway after
post-rhinoplasty ecchymosis and edema. Their prospective
septorhinoplasty. Subjective ratings of airway improvement
study suggested that both arnica and steroids can be
effective in reducing edema. However, arnica does not were very similar regardless of whether patients had
provide any benefit when evaluating the extent and received stents. The number of patients who complained
intensity of ecchymosis. about discomfort in this small sample was higher in the
nasal stent group, as were the rates of partial, residual, and
recurring septal deviation.
Nasal Packing, Stents, Splints, and Dressings
Awan and Iqbal377 conducted a prospective
Guyuron372 assessed the role of nasal packing in randomized study comparing the incidence of
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
postoperative complications in patients undergoing week 6, 85% of the patients experienced some degree of
septoplasty with and without nasal packing. The authors hyposmia. The authors concluded that a time interval
found that patients within the nasal packing group of 6 weeks to 6 months is required to revert to baseline
experienced significantly more postoperative pain, olfactory function after open rhinoplasty.
headache, epiphora, dysphagia, and sleep disturbance.
Pade and Hummel382 conducted a prospective
When examined 7 days postoperatively, no significant
study to analyze the outcome of olfactory function after
difference between the two groups was noted in the
nasal surgery in 775 patients. The authors observed an
incidence of bleeding, septal hematoma, adhesion
improvement in the sense of smell in 13% and 23% of
formation, or local infection. The authors concluded that
patients undergoing septal and sinus surgery, respectively.
nasal packing is not only unnecessary but is a source of
A postoperative decrease in olfactory function was
patient discomfort, especially during its removal. identified in 7% and 9% of patients undergoing septal and
sinus surgery, respectively. Decrease in olfactory function
occurred mostly in patients with good sense of smell
Airway Changes
preoperatively; therefore, this group should be counseled
Constantinides et al.378 studied the long-term outcome appropriately regarding the potential risks of nasal surgery.
of open cosmetic septorhinoplasty and its effect on nasal
airflow in 27 patients. Plethysmographic findings showed
improvement in 23 patients and worsening in four. Toxic Shock Syndrome
Subjective impressions of nasal patency did not correlate Reports of toxic shock syndrome (TSS) occurring after
well with objective measurements. The authors concluded nasal surgery383−385 deserve special attention. Between 1980
that patients with normal nasal resistance values might and 1983, the incidence of TSS after nasal surgery was
suffer long-term asymptomatic increases in nasal resistance 16.5 per 100,000 patients, which is proportionately higher
values after cosmetic open septorhinoplasty. than for the general population of menstruating women.
In all cases, the onset of symptoms was rapid and consisted
of fever, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, erythroderma, and
Risk of Nasal Fracture
hypotension; the wound did not appear grossly infected.
Guyuron and Zarandy379 noted an incidence of nasal bone The causative organism was a species of Staphylococcus
fracture after rhinoplasty of 0.624 fractures per year (24 of capable of producing a potent exoprotein, TSS toxin-1
1121 cases over 8 years). In contrast, the National Center (TSST-1). Topical and systemic antibiotics did not
for Health Statistics cites a 0.021% annual rate of nasal seem to offer any protection against the disease.383 No
bone fracture. It is clear that the incidence of nasal bone predisposing factors were identified, and there was only
fracture occurring after rhinoplasty is higher than that of a weak correlation with surgical technique.383−385 Patients
nasal bone fracture in the general population. who develop TSS tend to receive splints more often, and
all have nasal packing, but so do 98% of all nasal surgery
patients. In short, to this day, we do not know why some
Sense of Smell patients contract TSS after rhinoplasty and most do not.
Kimmelman380 evaluated the olfactory capacity of
93 patients before and after nasal surgery, including
THE NON-WHITE NOSE
ethmoidectomy, polypectomy, Caldwell-Luc, reduction of
nasal fracture, and septorhinoplasty. The author reported The basic approach to the non-white nose involves
improvement in 61 patients and decline in 32. No elevation (augmentation) and narrowing of the dorsum,
correlation was shown with age, sex, type of operation, increasing tip projection and definition, and narrowing
or anesthetic. Shemshadi et al.381 reported that 87.5% of of the wide nasal base and alae. Hoefflin386 reported his
the patients undergoing open rhinoplasty had anosmia experience with geometric sculpting of the thick and
at 1 week postoperatively, with the remaining exhibiting poorly defined nasal tip common in Black, Hispanic, and
at least moderate levels of hyposmia. At postoperative Asian patients. Tip definition and refinement to create the
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
illusion of a thinner nose can be accomplished through Parsa391 reported the use of autogenous split calvarial
the following procedures: 1) geometric tip defatting on grafts for nasal augmentation in Asian noses based on his
the central and lateral areas; 2) triangular alar cartilage experience with 62 patients followed for up to 8 years.
reduction; 3) placement of an ultra-supportive, peapod- Most noses could be satisfactorily augmented with a
shaped graft in the nasal tip; and 4) alar base reduction. single-layer split calvarial graft, but some required multiple
layers. The complication rate was 8%, including three
minor seroma-hematomas at the graft donor site, one
The Asian Nose complete bone resorption, and one overcorrection that
Most rhinoplasty surgeons find that their Asian and white necessitated secondary revision.
patients share similar concepts of the ideal nose. Asian Endo et al.149 used ear cartilage grafts for
noses frequently lack adequate tip projection, nasal length, augmentation of the nasal dorsum in 1263 Japanese
and dorsal height and projection. Widened alar bases, patients. Follow-up duration ranged from 6 to 20 months.
caudal tip rotation, short columella, and thickened alae are Complications occurred in 4% of patients, and the most
also common findings. Suh et al.,387 using reconstructed frequent and severe problem was graft malposition. Local
computed tomography, objectively evaluated the size of infection developed in six patients but was controlled with
the internal nasal valve in Asians. The study found that the antibiotics. The authors concluded that ear cartilage graft
internal nasal valve in Asians measures 21.6° ± 4.5° and is is the best alternative for dorsal nasal augmentation in
substantially larger that what has been reported for white Japanese patients.
patients. The following points should be considered when
Deva et al.392 reported a 10-year experience with
contemplating rhinoplasty on an Asian patient:
silicone augmentation rhinoplasty. A dorsal-columellar
•• Thick, sebaceous nasal tip and columellar strut prosthesis was most commonly used. Of 422 patients
skin can limit the amount of lobule (412 of whom were of Asian ethnicity), 5.5% experienced
refinement that can be achieved. major complications requiring removal of the implant
•• Patients tend to prefer intranasal or within the first 30 days. The causes of implant removal
closed approaches. were displacement, hemorrhage, prominence, and supratip
deformity. An additional 4.3% of patients required later
•• The scars of transcolumellar incisions might removal, mainly for excessive prominence or displacement.
remain visible, with notching Only two (0.5%) patients had implants removed because
or hypertrophy. of extrusion. No infections occurred. The satisfaction
•• Patients generally opt for procedures rate was 84%, and those who were dissatisfied wanted
without grafts because of their aversion to further augmentation of the nose. The authors purported
external scars. that the main cause of extrusion is over-augmentation,
that an augmentation threshold exists beyond which
•• Septal cartilage availability is questionable.
the complication rate rises dramatically. They discussed
•• Flat or absent nasal dorsa might require implant selection in relation to nasal morphology and
extensive dorsal augmentation. desired augmentation and maintained that silicone nasal
rhinoplasty is safe for selected patients.
Alloplastic augmentation through closed techniques has
been advocated over more traditional open rhinoplasty Zeng et al.393 reported 406 cases of silicone
techniques with autogenous materials. The safety and augmentation rhinoplasty. Complications were related to
efficacy of alloplastic materials remains controversial. depth of implantation and character of overlying tissue.
The authors concluded that subperiosteal implantation
Falces et al.388,389 presented a review of specific
is superior to subfascial implantation. The published
techniques designed to create Western features in Asian
complication rates in other series of dorsal nasal
and Black noses. Flowers390 addressed rhinoplasty in Asian
augmentation with silicone implants vary.394−396
noses and listed indications and limitations of alloplastic
materials for dorsal augmentation. Clark and Cook397 described their technique of
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue C7 • 2015
immediate nasal reconstruction with irradiated homograft Afro-Caucasian narrowest, and Afro-Indian longest. The
costal cartilage after extrusion of alloplastic nasal implants alar cartilages tended to be small and thin in the African
in 18 patients. One complication (warping) required graft group and large and thick in Afro-Indian noses.
removal. The authors stated that the procedure might be a
Rees,99,402 Bernstein,403 Kamer and Parkes,404
reasonable alternative to staged reconstruction because it
Santana,405 and Song et al.406 reviewed techniques of
avoids soft-tissue scarring and contracture. They discussed
rhinoplasty in blacks. Santana405 advocated correction
typical sites of extrusion for Silastic (nasal tip), Supramid,
of alar base flaring without alar base excision. Through a
and Gore-Tex (nasal valves, nasal sidewall, rhinion)
Caldwell-Luc incision, the soft tissues in the middle third
implants. Jung et al.398 recommended autogenous cartilage
of the face are undermined subperiosteally and sutures are
grafts from the seventh rib over alloplastic materials for
placed across the alar line and are tightened in the midline.
dorsal augmentation >8 mm.
This narrows the alar bases somewhat and elevates the
Jang et al.399 reviewed their experience of combining columella. The authors report no recurrence of flaring.
crushed cartilage and processed fascia lata (Tutoplast) for Song et al.406 discussed the use of cantilevered costal
dorsal augmentation in 113 Asian patients. With a mean cartilage grafts for nasal dorsal augmentation in 19 black
follow-up period of 26.6 months, complications were patients. They detailed the techniques for graft harvest,
encountered in four patients (3.5%). The complications design, and placement.
included overcorrection, graft resorption, and dorsal
Rohrich and Muzaffar407 presented a discussion
irregularities. A patient satisfaction rate of 85% was
of the classic anatomic features of black noses (Table 3).
reported, and eight patients (7%) underwent revision
The authors rejected the notion that the alar cartilages are
rhinoplasty secondary to dissatisfaction with the nasal
smaller or weaker than in white noses and attributed the
tip shape, graft resorption, and overcorrection of the
lack of tip projection to the relatively obtuse angle between
nasal dorsum.
the medial and lateral crura with underdevelopment of
In a retrospective study, Park et al.400 analyzed the nasal spine. The many techniques for increasing tip
post-rhinoplasty deformities in Asian noses. The authors projection, increasing tip definition, dorsal augmentation,
reported that 89% of revision rhinoplasty is performed and correction of alar base abnormalities are reviewed. The
to correct upper-third deformities, which predominantly authors advised liberal use of tip grafts, alar base excision,
result from inadequate insertion or dislocation of the and dorsal augmentation, with cautious use of
augmentation graft material. Most of the upper-third nasal osteotomies.
deformities were treated with a rasp, camouflage graft, and
Porter and Olson408 offered an anthropometric
expanded polytetrafluoroethylene augmentation.
analysis of the black female nose, with a classification
Other autogenous and alloplastic materials of nostril morphology and norms. For example, the
for dorsal augmentation are discussed in the “Saddle columella-to-lobule ratio is 1.5:1, the nasolabial angle is
Nose Deformity” and “Dorsal Augmentation and the 86°, and the alar width-to-intercanthal distance ratio
Nasofrontal Angle” sections presented earlier in is 5:4.
this monograph.
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dorsum, columella, and tip and alar base resection. refinement, rotation, and projection; low osteotomies; and
depressor septi nasi muscle transection and transposition.
Daniel410 proposed a classification system for
Hispanic nasal morphology, as follows (Table 4):
•• Type I (Castilian): high radix and dorsum THE COCAINE NOSE
and relatively normal tip projection
Slavin and Goldwyn412 noted the potential problem of
•• Type II (Mexican-American): low radix and cocaine users presenting for rhinoplasty. In their series
bony dorsum, normal cartilaginous dorsum, of 13 patients who had used cocaine, fewer than half
and depressed tip were properly identified as cocaine users during initial
•• Type III (Mestizo): low radix, normal consultation. The preoperative rhinoscopic findings
dorsum, decreased tip projection, and that should alert a physician to cocaine use are visible
thickened nasal ala/tip perforation, microscopic evidence of granulomas,
inflammation, and necrosis. Surgical complications
The author’s surgical approach to rhinoplasty varied with related to cocaine use include localized septal collapse,
the type of deformity: a functional reduction rhinoplasty delayed mucosal healing, and inadequate correction of
for Type I noses; a “finesse” rhinoplasty for Type II; and a septal deflection. The authors concluded that SMR and
“balanced” rhinoplasty for Type III. He also emphasized septoplasty should be avoided in patients with a known
conservative dorsal reduction for Type II and III noses, history of intranasal cocaine use.
radix grafting for Type II, and lobular soft-tissue reduction
with alar base and/or sill excisions for Type III. Millard and Mejia413 discussed their approach to
reconstruction of cocaine-damaged noses. Cocaine causes
vasoconstriction of the intranasal mucosal blood vessels
The Middle Eastern Nose and, with continuing ischemia, mucosal necrosis ensues.
The exposed cartilage can succumb to chondritis and
This ethnic group possesses characteristic morphological
septal perforation to varying degrees. The authors support
features that exist on a spectrum between the black and
the use of local mucosal flaps for smaller perforations. For
white noses. Rohrich and Ghavami411 retrospectively
more severe deformities, including complete midvault
analyzed the morphological traits in patients of Middle
and/or tip collapse, staged reconstruction is required. The
Eastern origin. Their findings identified a combination of
authors recommended the use of bilateral nasolabial flaps
specific nasal traits, including thick sebaceous skin (excess
for soft-tissue reconstruction and then staged rib cartilage
fibrofatty tissue), high wide dorsum with cartilaginous
grafting of the tip and dorsum 3 months later.
and bony humps, ill-defined nasal tip, weak thin lateral
crura relative to the skin envelope, nostril-tip imbalance, Guyuron and Afrooz414 reviewed the different
acute nasolabial and columellar-labial angles, and a surgical methods with which to correct cocaine-related
hyperdynamic (droopy) nasal tip. The authors presented nasal defects. They emphasized that reconstruction of
an open rhinoplasty approach to address the nasal massive septal perforation is unnecessary because the nasal
imbalance. The approach requires soft-tissue debulking; shape can be restored without repair of this defect as long
substantial cartilaginous framework modification; tip as infection is avoided.
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TABLE 3
White and Black Noses407
Alar cartilage
Size Large Large
Support Strong Strong
Alar base Slight alar flaring Excess alar flaring, increased intermalar distance
Nasal pyramid
Nasal bones Long Long and flattened
Base Narrower Wide
Dorsum Thin Broad and depressed
TABLE 4
Anatomic Characteristics and Recommended Surgical Procedures for Hispanic Noses410
Dorsum
Tip
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