Analysis of Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Warm and
Humid Tropical Climate
Mobi Mathew
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal, India
mobimathew@gmail.com
Abstract—A phenomenal shift in human population towards
town centers caused as a result of Urbanization affects standard
of life and environmental quality in urban cities. High temper-
atures and humidity are the unique characteristics of tropical
cities. As a result of which cities suffer to a large extent due to
a phenomenon called urban heat island effect, which is caused
due to urban population growth and increased impervious built
infrastructures. Thus, the study of climate change in urban areas
is extremely vital. The aim of the paper is to analyze the outdoor
thermal trends of urban centers in a warm and humid tropical
region. A case study of the thermal comfort conditions for a span
of 10 years in warm and humid cities of Trivandrum, Mangalore
and Mumbai is presented.Weather data was obtained from the
weather stations of Indian Meteorological department located at
Trivandrum, Mangalore and Mumbai. Thermal comfort trends
in these cities are analyzed using emperical and analytical indices.
Seasonal study is conducted and it revealed thermal discomfort
during summer season in this climate.
Index Terms—Thermal comfort, Temperature Humidity Index
(THI), Relative Strain Index (RSI), Effective Temperature (ET).
I. INTRODUCTION
Ver the past 200 years, while the world population
O has increased by six folds, the urban population has
shot up to 128 times [1]. The standard of living and the
quality of urban environment has been affected drastically
by the continuous shift of human population towards the
town centers. Rapid urbanization has resulted in numerous
significant alterations to society, mankind and the environment.
As a result of this urbanization, the natural landscapes are
transformed into the impervious urban land. Urban fabrics
accelerated warming which indicates a rise in global and
regional temperatures as well. Cities become the source of heat
and pollution, as they are the centers of several services and
activities. An Island of heat in the midst of low temperature
area called the Urban Heat Island is thus formed in almost all
major urban centers [2]. This results in increase in average air
temperature mainly during day time.
For the case study, three tropical cities have been selected,
viz. Trivandrum, Mangalore and Mumbai. Trivandrum, a tropi-
cal city in the west cost is distinguished by its British colonial
architecture. Mangalore is the strategic port city located in
Karnataka. Mumbai is the financial hub of India, located on the
west coast. All these three cities are characterized by moderate
978-1-4673-6725-7/16/$31.00 c 2016 IEEE
Siddhartha
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal, India
siddhartha.mit@manipal.edu
temperature and high humidity. They suffer extensively due to
prevailing urban heat island effect, which in turn affects the
outdoor thermal comfort significantly. In almost all countries,
especially the developing countries, the comfort conditions in
the outdoor area is given less priority, and hence the urban
poor who spend most of the time in outdoor activities suffer
a lot. The poor of the urban areas suffer a lot due to non
adaptation of their houses to the prevailing climatic conditions.
A study on the thermal comfort using the weather data is done
for a period of 10 years in the warm humid tropical cities of
Trivandrum, Mangalore and Mumbai using standard thermal
comfort indices.
Most of the thermal comfort studies are confined to indoor
applications. Few researchers have conducted studies on the
Urban Heat Island and its effects on the environment. Their
studies prove that micro-climatic changes occur as an outcome
of the Urban Heat Island. Urban heat island intensities in India
are investigated by the Indian Meteorological Department[3].
II. AREA OF STUDY
Coastal zone has always been in the fore front of civilization
and are the most exploited geographical unit of the Earth.
Mangalore, an important Educational and Industrial port city
situated on the west coast bounded by the Western Ghats in
the east and the Arabian sea in the west. It has a mean altitude
of 22m with latitude and longitude of 12◦ 52’ N and 74◦ 53’ E
respectively. With an area of 132 square kilometers, it has an
urban area population of 6.2 lakh. Trivandrum characterized
by the British colonial art and many forts, lies on the west
coast of India near the extreme south of the main land has
a population of 9.57 lakh. The latitude and longitude are
respectively 8◦ 29’ N and 76◦ 59’ E. It has an average altitude
of 4.9 m above the sea level. The financial capital of India,
Mumbai is also located on the west coast. This port city with
14m elevation and population of 207 lakh has latitude and
longitude of 18◦ 55’ N and 72◦ 54’ E respectively. Thus this
paper focuses to analyze the outdoor thermal comfort of the
west coast of India.
III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
According to the climate classification developed by Kop-
pen, tropical regions have a non arid climate resulting in an
average temperature of 18◦ C throughout the year. In India,
the west coastal low lands, the western ghats have tropical
wet climate. It is characterized by high temperature through
out the year. The area for the study, Trivandrum, Mangalore
and Mumbai being in the west coast, has got such a climate.
Figure 1 shows the climatic region of India.
Fig. 1. Climatic Regions of India
The condition of the mind that expresses satisfaction with
the thermal environment is coined as Thermal Comfort and
is evaluated by subjective assessment. Thermal Neutrality is
maintained when heat generated by human metabolism is
allowed to dissipate, which is possible on if the surrounding
is cool and thus maintaining the thermal equilibrium.
The factors that affect the thermal comfort are of two
categories viz. personal factors and environmental factors.
Metabolic rate and clothing insulation (degree of clothing)
are the personal factors, which vary from person to person.
Air temperature, relative humidity, mean radiant temperature,
Operative temperature and air velocity constitute the environ-
mental factors affecting the thermal comfort.
To analyze the thermal comfort trends in Trivandrum,
Mangalore, and Mumbai, a series of weather data obtained
from Weather stations of these places. (weather station codes:
43371, 43284 and 43003 respectively) are studied for a span of
10 years ranging from 2005 to 2014. Air temperature (Dry bulb
Temperature) in ◦ C, Relative Humidity in %, were analyzed.
In terms of both empirical indices and analytical indices, the
thermal comfort trends of these cities are studied. Temperature
Humidity Index (THI), Effective Temperature (ET) are the
empirical indices used and Relative Strain Index (RSI) is
the analytical index used to analyze the thermal comfort
conditions.
A. Temperature Humidity Index
Temperature Humidity Index is a measure of degree of
discomfort experienced by an individual in warm weather. It
gives a rough approximation of the changes in thermal stress
in a city over the time and it helps in formulating suitable
design guidelines for those cities. Summer climatic conditions
and its effect on human comfort, is determined by THI. The
THI which is also called as Discomfort index has initially
combined the wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures, was later
on modified by Nieuwold in [5] with the air temperature and
relative humidity.
T × RH
T HI = 0.8T + ( ) (1)
100
where :
T and RH are respectively the Air Temperature in ◦ C and
Relative Humidity in %
O M Eludoyin et.al in [6] propose that the Heat stress exists
if THI > 24 and cold stress exists if THI < 15. The comfort
zone is 15<THI<24. Acclimatization, level of clothing etc.
make the thermal comfort range higher in tropical regions.
Regardless of its demerits, V Deaosthali in [7] explains the
applicability of THI in tropical area.
B. Effective Temperature
Effective temperature method of analyzing the thermal
comfort of a city was developed by Yagloglou and Houghten
in 1923 at the ASHVE Pittsburgh research laboratories[8]. It is
defined as the temperature of a still, saturated atmosphere, in
the absence of any radiation, would produce the same thermal
effect as the atmosphere of study. The effect of dry bulb
temperature and relative humidity is combined by this index.
RH
ET = T − (0.4(T − 10)(1 − )) (2)
100
where :
T and RH are respectively the Air Temperature in ◦ C and
Relative Humidity in %
According to O M Eludoyin the Heat stress exists if
ET>25.6◦ C and cold stress exists if ET<18.9◦ C. So the
comfort zone as per Effective Temperature Method is 18.9◦ C
< ET <25.6◦ C.
C. Relative Strain Index
Relative Strain Index is an analytical thermal comfort index
developed by Lee and Henschel in 1963. The clothing level of
the individuals is also considered in this index. For a standard
man (25 year old healthy male, unacclimatized to heat, in
business clothing) with the rate of internal heat production of
100 W/sq.m and 1 m/s wind velocity, Relative Strain Index
(RSI) is given by:
10.7 + 0.74(T − 35)
RSI = (3)
44 − 0.0075RH × V P
 TABLE I
W EATHER DATA FOR T RIVANDRUM

Year Summer Monsoon Winter

Mean T (◦ C) RH(%) VP (hPa) Mean T (◦ C) RH(%) VP (hPa) Mean T (◦ C) RH(%) VP (hPa)
2005 28.5 75.7 38.9 27.6 83.2 36.8 26.6 81.7 34.7
2006 28.5 76.0 38.7 26.9 83.0 35.4 26.8 79.3 35.3
2007 28.5 75.7 38.5 26.6 85.7 34.8 26.9 79.2 35.4
2008 27.9 78.0 37.4 26.8 83.7 35.3 27.1 77.5 35.8
2009 28.6 74.3 39.2 26.9 84.5 35.5 27.7 80.0 37.0
2010 28.8 78.0 39.6 26.7 85.3 34.9 26.5 82.5 34.6
2011 28.3 72.2 38.3 26.9 84.0 35.5 27.0 78.0 35.6
2012 28.5 76.0 38.8 27.2 82.7 36.1 27.3 78.7 36.2
2013 28.8 73.2 39.5 26.2 86.5 33.9 27.1 78.7 35.8
2014 28.6 76.5 39.0 27.0 84.7 35.5 26.9 82.0 35.3

where :
T, RH and VP are respectively the Air Temperature in ◦ C,
Relative Humidity in %,and Vapor Pressure in hPa
Heat stress exists if RSI>0.2 and cold stress exists if
RSI<0.1. So the comfort zone as per Relative Strain Index
is 0.1<RSI<0.2. Since the vapor pressure values are not
obtained from the weather station, it is calculated using the
following relation.
7.5T
V P = 6.11 × 10 237.7+T (4)
For a better understanding of the thermal comfort, seasonal
analysis was carried out. Three seasons viz. summer, monsoon,
winter. February, March, April and May are hot months and Fig. 2. Trend of Relative Strain Index for Trivandrum
hence are categorized as summer. Good amount of rainfall
is obtained during the months of June, July, August, and
September. Hence they are grouped into monsoon season.
October, November, December and January have got a cool
atmosphere in the morning and night. Hence they are grouped
into winter season.
The thermal comfort analysis is carried out for all the
three seasons, using Temperature Humidity Index, Effective
Temperature method and Relative Strain Index.

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The weather data obtained from the weather stations of In-
dian Meteorological department located at Trivandrum, Man-
galore and Mumbai are sorted into the three climates viz.
summer, monsoon and winter. Tables I, II, III show the Mean
temperature in ◦ C, Relative humidity in %, Vapor pressure in
hPa, for summer, monsoon, winter of Trivandrum, Mangalore
and Mumbai respectively for a span of 10 years ranging from
2005 to 2014.
Figures 2 and 3 show the trend of RSI and ET of Trivan-
drum for 10 years during the three considered seasons. It is
found that the RSI of Trivandrum for winter season is less
than 0.2, which indicates thermal comfort during winter. RSI
for monsoon season is around 0.2, indicating an acceptable
thermal comfort level in the area. ET of Trivandrum is less
than 25.6◦ C. during winter and monsoon season, indicating
good comfort level in the area. Both RSI and ET indicate
thermal discomfort during the summer season. The average
Fig. 3. Trend of Effective Temperature for Trivandrum
temperature during summer is greater than 28◦ C, which makes
the summer thermally uncomfortable.
RSI and ET trends for the three seasons during the analysis
period for Mangalore is depicted in figures 4 and 5. The RSI
values obtained for Mangalore city for monsoon and winter
seasons are less than 0.2, for all the years considered in the
analysis period. The trend of ET is below 25.6◦ C, the border
line of comfort and discomfort zone. Both of these results
clearly indicate a good level of thermal comfort that exist in
the city area. RSI is greater than 0.2 and ET is greater than
25.6◦ C, implicate thermal discomfort in the summer season,
 TABLE II
W EATHER DATA FOR M ANGALORE

Year Summer Monsoon Winter

Mean T (◦ C) RH(%) VP (hPa) Mean T (◦ C) RH(%) VP (hPa) Mean T (◦ C) RH(%) VP (hPa)
2005 28.2 71.0 38.0 26.1 87.3 33.7 26.8 73.2 35.2
2006 28.3 69.5 38.3 26.4 86.7 34.2 26.6 75.2 34.8
2007 28.5 75.3 38.6 25.9 89.0 33.3 26.6 75.0 34.7
2008 27.7 75.0 37.0 26.2 86.7 33.9 27.0 71.5 35.6
2009 28.6 73.6 39.1 26.2 88.5 33.9 27.1 76.0 33.6
2010 28.8 74.2 39.6 26.0 89.2 32.5 26.3 77.2 34.0
2011 28.1 72.5 37.7 25.7 89.2 33.9 26.7 72.2 34.9
2012 28.2 72.5 38.1 26.0 87.7 33.5 26.8 73.2 35.2
2013 28.4 72.7 38.7 26.1 89.2 33.7 26.7 74.2 34.8
2014 28.4 72.0 38.5 26.3 86.7 34.0 26.9 74.2 35.4

it thermally uncomfortable. Mumbai has a mean temperature

of 28◦ C during summer cause the thermal discomfort during
summer months.

Fig. 4. Trend of Relative Strain Index for Mangalore

Fig. 6. Trend of Relative Strain Index for Mumbai

Fig. 5. Trend of Effective Temperature for Mangalore

which is caused due to the average air temperature of 28◦ C

in the city area.
The financial capital of India, Mumbai has good outdoor
thermal comfort during the winter season, as per RSI and
ET thermal comfort indices. The RSI and ET values are
greater than 0.2 and 25.6◦ C respectively for both summer and
monsoon season in Mumbai. This indicate thermal discomfort
existing there during these seasons. The trends of RSI and ET
for the seasons considered for Mumbai are plotted in figures 6
and 7 respectively. Average relative humidity greater than 80%
which persist during the monsoon season in the city makes
Fig. 7. Trend of Effective Temperature for Mumbai
The analysis of thermal comfort of outdoor spaces for the
three cities viz. Trivandrum, Mangalore and Mumbai using
THI shows that, there exist thermal discomfort throughout
the year irrespective of the seasons. For the three cities, the
results obtained using THI for all the season are greater than
24 indicate thermal discomfort. This result is contradictory to
the results of analysis using RSI and ET. Since RSI takes into
account the clothing level and metabolic rate of the individuals,
 TABLE III
W EATHER DATA FOR M UMBAI

Year Summer Monsoon Winter

Mean T (◦ C) RH(%) VP (hPa) Mean T (◦ C) RH(%) VP (hPa) Mean T (◦ C) RH(%) VP (hPa)
2005 27.5 66.7 36.6 28.2 83.0 38.2 25.4 62.7 32.4
2006 27.7 68.2 37.0 27.8 84.2 37.3 26.5 66.0 34.5
2007 28.4 66.5 38.5 28.2 84.7 38.3 25.4 65.2 32.5
2008 27.2 66.0 36.0 27.2 83.0 37.4 26.5 64.7 34.6
2009 28.5 65.0 38.9 28.7 81.2 39.2 26.3 67.2 34.2
2010 26.6 68.7 34.8 28.0 84.2 37.8 25.8 70.2 33.2
2011 27.7 67.5 37.1 27.9 84.7 37.5 25.8 65.0 33.2
2012 27.2 64.2 35.9 28.4 81.0 38.7 25.4 66.0 32.4
2013 27.7 65.7 37.0 27.7 83.5 39.1 26.1 61.5 33.8
2014 27.8 66.5 37.4 28.6 81.5 39.0 26.3 65.0 34.1

Fig. 8. Trend of Temperature Humidity Index for Trivandrum Fig. 10. Trend of Temperature Humidity Index for Mumbai

depletion of green space etc. The thermal comfort study

Fig. 9. Trend of Temperature Humidity Index for Mangalore
the results obtained using RSI are more accurate and realistic.
Hence, with this set of results, it is concluded that THI is not
appropriate index for thermal comfort analysis of warm and
humid climate.
V. CONCLUSION
The study focused around outdoor thermal comfort in
tropical climates, by examining the meteorological data of
Trivandrum, Mangalore and Mumbai over a span of ten
years. Although, the study used elementary indices, the results
highlight growing climate concerns due to rapid urbanization,
conducted, proves that there exists heat stress or thermal
discomfort in all the three cities during the summer season.
It is generalized that thermal discomfort exists in the warm
humid climate region along the west coast of India. Relative
humidity in Mumbai during monsoon is greater than 80%
and high population density, result in thermal discomfort in
the city during monsoon season. Both RSI and ET indices
describe Trivandrum and Mangalore as cities with thermally
comfortable outdoor spaces during the monsoon and winter
seasons. Mean air temperature of 28◦ C makes the summer of
all the three cities thermally umcomfortable.
The number of apartments and high rise buildings have gone
up tremendously in these cities over the past years. The air
conditioning and HVAC systems installed in them for indoor
thermal comfort transfer heat from interior of the building to
the atmosphere, thus adding up to the heat stress, resulting
in outdoor thermal discomfort mainly during summer. It also
causes micro-climatic changes like Heat island effect.The per
capita energy consumption has also increased which would
result in more heat release to the environment. The population
shift to the urban areas create more humidity and thus lead
to thermal discomfort. Heat stagnation in the urban due to
closely built apartments and buildings also cause the thermal
discomfort.
The study can be further extended by analyzing the causes
of thermal discomfort mainly during summer season like
pollution, rate of industrialization, reduction in green space
etc. and quantifying them. Developing green belts in the cities
would reduce the discomfort to an extend. This paper aimed
to analyze thermal comfort conditions of outdoor environment
of west coast of India. While indoor thermal comfort can be
controlled by various measures, controlling outdoor thermal
comfort is not that easy. The results of Thermal comfort
analysis of such cities can be used by the town planners,
so that significant improvements can be achieved. All the
three indices used in this study incorporates Temperature
and relative humidity for the analysis. An index for thermal
comfort incorporating air temperature, relative humidity and
air velocity would give more accurate results.

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