Unit 5 Centre for English Language Studies, University of Birmingham

UNIT 5 TRANSLATION AT WORD LEVEL

5.1 Aims

In this unit we will look at issues arising from lack of equivalence between source and
target languages at word level.

5.2 Objectives

By the end of this unit you will become familiar with: a) various features of the
lexical meaning of a word; b) different types of mismatches across languages at word
level; c) the strategies that professional translators use to deal with lack of
equivalence at word level.

5.3 Reading

The reading for this unit is:

• Baker, M. (2011) In Other Words: A coursebook on translation. Second Edition.

Oxon and New York: Routledge. Chapter 2.

5.4 Main types of meaning in words

Is equivalence really possible between languages? Translation scholars largely agree

that because “languages are never sufficiently similar to express the same realities”
and “‘reality’ cannot be assumed to exist independently of language” (Baker 2011: 7),
attempts at achieving equivalence necessarily aim for the closest possible
approximation to the source text (Hatim and Mason, 1990: 8). In this unit, our
analysis of problems arising from lack of direct equivalence across source and target
languages adopts a bottom-up approach to the interpretation of the meaning of a text
and starts at word level.

Words convey different types of meaning. The propositional meaning of a word

relates to what a word refers to in a concrete or imaginary world. For example, the
word Internet refers to ‘a computer system that allows people in different parts of the
world to exchange information’. The word troll refers to ‘a very ugly creature in old
Scandinavian stories that lives in a cave and is either very small or very tall’.

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The expressive meaning of a word relates to the speaker’s feelings and attitudes. An
interjection such as yuck is used for saying that ‘you think that someone or something
is dirty, ugly or unpleasant’ as in the utterance Oh, yuck! It’s slimy! The word oops is
another interjection used “when a small mistake or slight accident has happened” as
in Oops. Sorry about that! The impolite word bloody is used for emphasizing the
speaker’s anger and annoyance in expressions such as He can be a bloody nuisance at
times! The word wow is used to express surprise, as in Wow! Just look at all those
lovely cakes! Words may convey the same propositional meaning but differ in their
expressive meanings. The adjectives disabled and handicapped, for example, are
different in that the latter is considered impolite.

Presupposed meaning is linked to expected patterns of expression in language. It is

derived from co-occurrence restrictions which are sometimes arbitrary since they do
not follow logically from the propositional meaning of a word. The adjectives putrid,
rotten and rancid are synonyms, but co-occur with different types of food: putrid fish,
rotten fish or eggs, and rancid butter, oil or lard. Presupposed meaning can also relate
to our expectations about the propositional meaning of a word. For example, we
expect the adjective rectangular to refer to an inanimate subject such as shape, while
we expect intelligent to refer to an animate subject such as woman.

Evoked meaning arises from variation in dialect and register. Dialect is a variety of a
language that is used in a particular geographical area (e.g., American English,
Australian English, British English); in different periods in the history of a language
(e.g., Middle English, Early Modern English); or by a particular social class. Register
is a variety of language that a speaker or writer considers appropriate in a particular
situational context, whose relevant components are: field of discourse, tenor of
discourse and mode of discourse.

Field of discourse refers to what is going on in the situational context, for example
describing, selling, buying or advertising a product or service, making love,
delivering a lecture, chairing a business meeting, having an argument with somebody,
writing a novel, preparing a political speech, giving an order. Tenor of discourse
refers to the interpersonal and social relationships between the people taking part in
the situational context, for example student and lecturer, doctor and patient, lovers,

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friends, employer and employee, teenage and adult. Mode of discourse refers to the
role the language is playing (e.g., informative, persuasive, instructive, or pedagogic)
and the medium of transmission (e.g., spoken, written, or multimedia). All of these
affect the lexical and grammatical features of the language variety used.

Discussion/Reflection Task 1

In relation to what we have just discussed, reflect on any differences in meaning

between the following

English adverbs:

yes, yeah, yep

no, nope

English adjectives:

comfortable, comfy, cosy

English nouns:

mother, mum, mummy

5.5 Semantic fields and lexical sets

Another way of bringing out the meaning of words is to view the vocabulary of a
language in semantic fields. Semantic fields are conceptual fields that reflect the
categorization established by a given linguistic community on the continuum of
experience. For example, the semantic field of ball sports is subdivided into American
football, baseball, basketball, football, rugby, cricket, hockey, volleyball, tennis.

Semantic fields are abstract concepts, the actual words that make up a semantic field
form a lexical set. See the diagram below for an example of a lexical set that makes
up the semantic field of games.

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The relationship that links a specific word to a general word in a semantic field is
called hyponymy. The specific word is called hyponym; the general word is called
hypernym or superordinate. For example, flowers, shrubs and trees are different kinds
of plants. They are therefore hyponyms of the hypernym plants. Semantic fields and
lexical sets are useful for translators because they help them organize the vocabulary
of the source and target languages into taxonomies, thus noticing overlaps,
mismatches and correspondences across the two languages.

Activity 1

Organize the following sets of words in semantic fields:

a) euro, sterling, dollar, yen, rouble, rand

b) windsurfing, rowing, scuba diving, canoeing, snorkelling, swimming

c) spaghetti, tagliatelle, lasagne, gnocchi, ravioli

5.6 Translation problems

5.6.1 Culture-specific concepts

A culture-specific word or expression in the source language conveys an idea linked

to a cultural situation that may be unknown in the target language. A culture-specific
concept in the source language may relate to social and political organisation,
customs, religious beliefs, food, and so on. For example, the concept of English
common-law (‘the English legal system’) does not have an equivalent in French. It
may also be that the source- language concept exists but it is not lexicalised in the

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target language, for instance the French verb bouffer in the sense of eating a lot and
well does not have a direct equivalent in English. Also, a word or expression in the
source-language may be semantically complex, such as the English expression a
theory-laden (‘dense with theory’), which in French would have to be paraphrased.

5.6.2 Different distinctions in meaning

Languages may differ in the way they perceive important distinctions in meaning. The
Portuguese language distinguishes between: banana d’agua (‘water banana’), banana
ouro (‘golden banana’), banana da terra (‘earthy banana’) while in English, there is
just one word to refer to this type of fruit. Conversely, the English language
distinguishes between city, town and village, but in Portuguese, there is one word,
cidade, which can be premodified by the adjective grande (‘large’) or pequena
(‘small’). In Spanish, ciudad encompasses the meanings of city and town, and village
corresponds to pueblo or even pueblicito.

5.6.3 The target language lacks a superordinate

The Kimeru language, used in Kenya, has a large number of specific words for
different species of tree but no superordinate word corresponding to tree. The English
word utilities, a superordinate term denoting essential services to a community such
as water, gas and electricity has no direct equivalent in French.

5.6.4 The target language lacks a hyponym

More often, languages lack a specific word relating to a religious belief, a social
custom, a type of food, dwelling, dance and so on, since the organisation of life
differs from culture to culture. In French, for example, maison is the superordinate
word for château, villa, manoir, maison de campagne, maisonnette, chaumière, hutte;
these hyponyms do not have exact equivalents in many languages.

5.6.5 Differences in perspective

There may be differences related to time, space or interpersonal relationships. For

instance, division of time during the day differs across cultures.

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How is the day divided? When does the morning end and the afternoon/evening start
in England as compared to other parts of the world? Greetings depend on these
divisions:

English French Spanish Italian

Good Morning Bonjour Buenos Dias Buon Giorno

Good Afternoon Bonjour Buenas Tardes Buona Sera

Good Evening Bonsoir Buenas Tardes Buona Sera

Perspective in space is related to pairs of words indicating the position of people or

things in space: come/go, take/bring. While in English, the perspective is related to
the addresser as in When I come I will bring a bottle of wine, in Portuguese and
Spanish, the perspective is related to the addressee Quando eu for, eu levarei uma
garrafa de vinho’ (‘When I go, I will take …’ ).

Perspective can also be related to the relationship of participants to one another

(tenor): pronouns of address can be used differently. Several European languages, for
example, have a formal/informal distinction which is not present in English (tu, vous,
in French; tú, vos, ustedes in Spanish; tu, voce, o senhor/a in Portuguese; tu, Voi, Lei
in Italian).

5.6.6 Differences in expressive meaning

Words across languages may convey the same propositional meaning but different
expressive meanings. The English verb mumble, for instance, expresses confusion,
disorientation or embarrassment; while its Italian equivalent, mugugnare, tends to
suggest dissatisfaction (Baker, 2011: 25-26).

5.6.7 Differences in form

English uses a variety of suffixes to create new words. Here are some examples of
derivational suffixes that have no counterpart in Italian:

{WARD} northward {WISE} careerwise

{WARDS} northwards crosswise
{ED} blue-eyed {AHOLIC} chocaholic

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red-haired shopaholic
{ATHON} swimathon

5.6.8 False friends

False friends are words or expressions that have the same form in two or more
languages but convey different meanings. Some examples are: the English
adjective sensible, the German sensibel (‘sensitive’), the Italian sensibile
(‘sensitive’).

5.7 Translation strategies

The activities below will give you the opportunity to apply some of the strategies
used by professional translators for dealing with various types of non-equivalence
at word level. While translating the short texts, pay particular attention to the
words underlined. If you encounter difficulties finding a direct equivalent in the
target language, refer to the commentary on the activities.

5.7.1 Translating a specific word with a more general word

Activity 2

John arrived at the dance in the buggy his uncle had lent him. All his friends were
there: Peter, Marlene, Patrick and Mary. Soon the dance started and they were all
happy to try out a jig.

5.7.2 Translating with a more neutral or less expressive word

Activity 3

Jack is a very difficult child. He drives his parents crazy and his outbursts often
occur during our visits. He has had so many tantrums we think he is highly strung
and sometimes even wonder if he is not possibly a freak or even bewitched!

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5.7.3 Cultural substitution (replacing a culture-specific word or expression

with a target-language item which has a different propositional meaning
but is likely to have a similar effect on the target reader)

Activity 4

That woman is vicious! She is such a bitch!

5.7.4 Using a loan word or loan word plus explanation

Activity 5

Our restaurant in Cornwall (England) is renowned for its pasties, succulent fresh
fish dishes, treacle pudding, and of course its impeccable service.

5.7.5 Translation by paraphrase

Activity 6

Our restaurant overlooking the sea will offer you relaxation and unsurpassed food.
From the large front window you can enjoy beautiful and unspoilt beaches. Nearby,
our own art gallery is a fitting venue for exhibits by well known artists from the area.

5.8 Conclusion

It is difficult to reach complete equivalence across source and target languages;

loss is, at times, inevitable. Nevertheless, if the various nuances of meaning
expressed by a source-language word/expression can be identified and a near-
equivalent retrieved from the target language, an equivalence of effect can be
hoped for.

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5.9 Commentary on activities

Commentary on Activity 1

• euro, sterling, dollar, yen, rouble, rand make up the semantic field of
currencies

• windsurfing, rowing, scuba diving, canoeing, snorkelling, swimming

make up the semantic field of water sports

• spaghetti, tagliatelle, lasagne, gnocchi, ravioli make up the semantic

field of pasta

Commentary on Activity 2

Buggy and jig (American English) might have direct equivalents in your target
language; if not, you might have chosen a superordinate such as the equivalent for
vehicle and dance.

Commentary on Activity 3

Tantrums, highly strung and bewitched probably have direct equivalents or

closely related terms. Freak might present problems and care has to be taken to
choose an equivalent with the connotation of out of the ordinary but not
necessarily monstrous.

Commentary on Activity 4

Vicious and bitch are expressively forceful. In English, vicious, as is the case
here, can relate to being bad, malicious, full of spite but not necessarily to
moral conduct.

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Commentary on Activity 5

Pasties and treacle pudding are culture-specific words; if there is not a direct
equivalent in your culture you could have borrowed the source-language word
(plus an explanation) along the lines of: pasties, small meat pies; treacle
pudding, a dessert sweetened with treacle.

Commentary on Activity 6

The underlined source-language words might have equivalents in your target

language; otherwise you can use paraphrase along the lines of overlooking:
situated above the sea; unspoilt: untouched by pollution; beautiful; fitting
venue: appropriate place. Unfortunately, with paraphrasing there is usually a
loss in expressive meaning.

5.10 References

Baker, M. (2011) In Other Words: A coursebook on translation. Second Edition.

Oxon and New York: Routledge.

Hatim, B. and Mason, I. (1990) Discourse and the Translator. London: Longman.

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