CHAPTER 02

RESERVOIR
 INTRODUCTION
CONDITION FOR AN ACCUMULATION OF
OIL AND GAS

ØA mature source rock

Ø A reservoir rock
Ø A migration route (betw. Source & Res.)
Ø An impermeable seal
Ø A trap &
Ø Timing
 RESERVOIR DEFINITIONS
ü A single continuous deposit of gas and/or
oil in the pores of a reservoir rock. A
reservoir has a single pressure system and
don’t communicate with other reservoirs.
ü The portion of the trap that contains
petroleum, including the reservoir rock,
pores, and fluids.
(A pond, lake or environment that is used store
liquids).
RESERVOIR TYPICAL TYPES
The only common rock types that normally
have the favorable combination of porosity
and permeability to be reservoirs are
sandstones and carbonates (Figure 01).
Figure 01: Main reservoir rock
 The Reservoir Rock: Sandstone

An outcrop of pebbly sandstone (at base of cliff) overlain by red sandstone. The
Budleigh-Salterton pebble beds, of Triassic age. A few kilometres to the east
these beds dip into the subsurface, and form part of the oil reservoir at the
Wytch Farm Field, which is Britain’s largest onshore oil field.
 The Reservoir Rock: Sandstone

• The Jurassic Bridport Sand. Another of the reservoir sandstones important in

the Wytch Farm field of southern Britain. The layering in this sandstone may
be the result of rhythmic climatic changes in the shallow sea where this
sandstone was deposited.
The Reservoir Rock: Dolomite

• The Cairns Formation, of Devonian age, exposed near Canmore, in the

Front ranges of the Rocky Mountains, just east of Banff, Alberta. This is
one of the more important reservoir units in the subsurface of Alberta.
 The Reservoir Rock: Dolomite

This is an example of an important reservoir rock type. Fossil

stromatoporoids have been hollowed out by the chemical
conversion of limestone to dolomite, creating pore spaces so
large that they are sometimes called “cavernous porosity”
 Making reservoirs today: Limestones
• An exposure of modern
limestone in the Florida
Keys. This limestone is only
a few hundred years old. It
shows the structure of coral
and other organic remains.
Note the numerous pore
spaces.
• Burial of this limestone
would probably lead to
reduction in porosity as a
result of cementation. Good
quality reservoir rocks, such
as the dolomite shown in
another picture, are created
by dissolution of some of the
rock. This usually occurs
many millions of years after
the initial formation and
burial
 Fundamental physical
properties of a reservoir
 RESERVOIR (cont.)
Ø There are two fundamental physical
properties that a good reservoir must have:
+ Porosity: sufficient void space contain
significant petroleum.
+ Permeability: the ability of petroleum
to flow into, or out of these voids.
Ø The common rock types that have favorable
combination of porosity and permeability to
be reservoirs are sandstones and
carbonates.
 POROSITY

Ø Porosity is the percentage of volume of

voids to the total volume of rock. It has the
symbol Φ: 0 ≤ Φ ≤ 1 (or 0% ≤ Φ ≤ 100%)
Ø Effective porosity: the amount of internal space
or voids that is interconnected, and so able to
transmit fluids.
Ø Non-effective porosity: isolated pores and
pores volume occupied by adsorbed water.
• Porosity in reservoir rocks is normally
between 10% ÷ 20%, but some excellent
reservoirs may have porosities of 30% or
more.
• Accumulations in reservoirs with less than
about 5% porosity are usually not
commercial.
Almost all
reservoirs have
porosities in a
range of five to
thirty percent

Figure 2:
The frequency of oil and gas reservoirs plotted against porosity.
 CLASSIFIED POROSITY

Ø There are three main types of porosity

(based on Hydraulic properties):
+ Interconnected porosity has multiple pore
throat passages to connect neighboring pore.
+ Connected porosity has only one pore throat
passages connecting with another pore space.
+ Isolated porosity has no connection between
pore.
Ø Interconnected and connected pore contribute
effective porosity because hydrocarbon can
move out from them.
Interconnected porosity
Connected porosity
Isolated porosity
 CLASSIFIED POROSITY (cont.)
Porosity can be also classified into two major types
according to their origin:
v Primary porosity
ü Intergranular, or interparticle porosity with
occurs between grains of sediment.
ü Intragranular, or intraparticle porosity which
actually occurs within the sediment grains
themselves.
v Secondary porosity
ü Fenestral
ü Intercrystalline
ü Solution (moldic and vuggy)
ü Fracture
Moldic porosity
Primary Porosity
• Primary porosity is divisible into two types:
intergranular or interparticle porosity,
which occurs between the grains of a
sediment ( Figure 1) and intragranular or
intraparticle porosity,
Intergranular porosity Intragranular porosity
 Secondary Porosity
Secondary porosity is porosity formed within
a reservoir after deposition. The major types
of secondary porosity are:
• Fenestral;
• Intercrystalline;
• Solution (moldic and vuggy);
• Fracture.
Fenestral porosity is developed where there is a
gap in the rock framework larger than the normal
grain-supported pore spaces.
Fenestral porosity is characteristic of lagoonal
pelmicrites in which dehydration has caused
shrinkage and buckling of the laminae. This type of
porosity is less frequently encountered.
Fenestral porosity
Crystalline dolomite reservoir: Reservoirs are
usually composed of secondary dolomite formed
by "dolomitization", the process whereby a pre-
existing calcium carbonate deposit is replaced
by dolomite.
Figure 1: A sketch of a thin section of a crystalline dolomite
Several types of secondary porosity can be
caused by solution.
 Fracture porosity
• Fractured reservoirs can occur in any brittle rock
that breaks by fracturing rather than by plastic
deformation. Thus, there are fractured reservoirs
in shales, hard-cemented quartzitic sandstones,
limestones, dolomites and, of course, basement
rocks such as granites and metamorphics.
• In Figure 3, fractures may develop from
tectonic forces associated with folding and
faulting.
Figure 3
• They may also develop from overburden
unloading and weathering immediately
under unconformities. Shrinkage from
cooling of igneous rocks and dehydrating
of shales also causes fracturing.
• Fractures are generally vertical to
subvertical with widths varying from paper
thin to about 6 mm
• One must be able to distinguish between fracture
porosity and porosity which occurs within the rock
itself. Very often fractures are an important part of
storage capacity, and sometimes only oil or gas
from the fracture pore space itself is actually
produced.
• Fracture porosity can result in high production
rates during initial testing of a well, followed by a
rapid decline in production thereafter. When a rock
has been fractured, the fractures do not
necessarily remain open. They may be infilled by
later cementation by silica, calcite or dolomite
The fractures may be infilled by later cementation
by silica, calcite or dolomite
STUDY FOR BASEMENT POROSITY

° Basement construction simulation.

° Determining values:

v Vuggy (range, dimension)

v Fracture (range, dimension)

v Determine collection capacity.

 RANGE OF POROSITY VALUES
QUALITATIVE EVALUATION
OF (CLASTIC) RESERVOIRS

Φ (percent) Qualitative evaluation

0–5 Negligible
5 – 10 poor
10 – 15 fair
15 – 20 good
> 20 very good
 PERMEABILITY
Ø Permeability is the property of a medium of
allowing fluids to pass through it without
change in the structure of the medium or
displacement of its parts.
Ø Permeability is related to porosity but not
always dependent upon its.
Ø It is controlled by the size of the connecting
passages (pore throats or capillaries)
between pores.
Ø It is measured in darcies or millidarcies.
 K
ϕ
Q In Q Out

Figure 4: experiment to determine permeability

 k * ( P1 − P 2) * A
Q=
µ*L
Where:
• Q: Flow rate
K: Permeability
(P1-P2): Pressure drop across
A: Cross-section area of sample
µ: Viscosity of fluid
L: Length of the sample
Due to flow rate depends on the Ratio of K to µ, so in
term of commercial rates: Gas ????
• Most reservoirs, however, only have
permeabilities recorded in the range of the
millidarcy (0.001 Darcy).
• Reservoir permeabilities typically range
between 5 ÷ 500 millidarcies, although
some reservoirs may have permeabilities
exceeding 5 Darcies.
• Gas, which is less viscous than crude oil,
may be able to flow from tight sands or
dense limestones having permeabilities of
only a few millidarcies or less.
 CLASSIFIED PERMEABILITY
Ø Absolute permeability is a measure of the
ease (permeability) in which a single fluid can
flow through the pores of the rock when it is
100% saturated with that fluid.
Ø Effective permeability refer to the presence
of two fluids in a rock, and is the ability of the
rock to transmit a fluid in the presence of
another fluid when the two fluids are
immiscible .
Ø Relative permeability is ratio of Effective
permeability & Absolute permeability.
 RANGE OF PERMEABILITY VALUES
QUALITATIVE EVALUATION OF
RESERVOIRS

K values (mD) Qualitative evaluation Reservoir

1.0 – 15 Poor to fair
15 – 50 Moderate
50 – 100 Good
100 – 1000 Very good
> 1000 Excellent
 PRIMARY FACTORS
CONTROLLING POROSITY &
PERMEABILITY
Ø GRAIN SIZE
Ø THE SHAPES OF THE GRAIN
Ø GRAIN SORTING
Ø ROCK FABRIC
Ø EFFECTS OF COMPOSITION DURING OR
AFTER DEPOSITION
 Grain Size
• Porosity is independent of grain size.
Permeability, however, is very different. All
other things being equal, finer grain sizes of
sediment mean lower permeabilities. This is
because the finer the grain size, the
narrower the throat passages between pore
spaces and, therefore, the harder it is for
fluids to move through a rock. Therefore,
permeability declines with decreasing grain
size.
Figure 5: A sketch of a poorly-sorted sand and a
well-sorted sand.
Grain Sorting
Figure 6:
The effect of sorting on porosity and permeability:
the better sorted the sand, the higher are both the
porosity and permeability.
Rock Fabric
Figure 7: A sketch of a typical bedded sandstone consisting of
quartz grains elongated parallel to current direction and mica
flakes and other particles aligned parallel to the bedding.
DIAGENESIS
SANDSTONE RESERVOIR
 EFFECT DIAGENESIS
ON SANDSTONE RESERVOIR
 SANDSTONE BURIAL

q In general, sandstone lose porosity with

burial at various rates according to several
factors:
v The chemical composition of a sand is one
of controlling factors on its overall rates of
porosity loss.
v The geothermal gradient, the higher the
geothermal gradient, the greater the rate
of porosity reduction with depth.
v Overpressure can help to preserve porosity
at great depth.
Preservation of porosities below the Top of the
Super-Normal Pressure zone.
SANDSTONE CEMENTATION
A sketch of a thin section of a sandstone reservoir
rock from the Brent field in the North Sea.
Many sandstone reservoirs have lost some of their
porosity by secondary silica cementation of this type.
 SANDSTONE CEMENTATION
Many other types of
cement are found in
sandstone reservoirs,
especially calcite and the
clay minerals.
Figure 09 is a sketch of a
thin section of a sandstone
showing porosity having
been totally destroyed by a
cement of large calcite
crystals.
A third important type of cement in sandstone reservoirs is
provided by the authigenic clay minerals. There are several types
of clay. Two particularly important ones are kaolin and illite.

Figure 10 is a sketch of a
sandstone with
interstitial kaolin
crystals.
These generally occur
with a chunky euhedral
habit. As you can see,
these kaolin crystals
occupy pore space, but
they do not significantly
affect the permeability
of the rock
Figure 11 is a sketch of a
sandstone with illite in the pore
spaces.
Authigenic illite generally
occurs as long thin angular
crystals which radiate from the
quartz grains on which they
grow. Thus, a small amount of
illite may affect the
permeability to a very large
extent by bridging over and
blocking the throat passages
between the pores.
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Fibrous Authigenic Illite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Significant
Permeability
Reduction

Negligible
Porosity
Illite Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation

Migration of
Fines Problem
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Hatters
70 Pond
Geology Field,
of Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Petroleum
 Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph

Significant Permeability
Reduction

High Irreducible Water

Saturation

Migration of Fines
Problem

Carter Sandstone
71 Geology of
North
Petroleum
Blowhorn
Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
• Figure 12: a graph on which porosity is plotted
against permeability on a logarithmic scale,
showing the porosity: permeability distributions for
illite-cemented sands and kaolin-cemented sands
from some North Sea gas fields.
• It should be noted that the porosity is mostly
between 5 to 25 percent, irrespective of the type of
clay, but the permeabilities for kaolin-cemented
sands are far higher than the permeabilities of the
illite-cemented sands.
Figure 12
 Effects of Clays on Reservoir Quality
Authigenic Illite Authigenic Chlorite
100 1000
Permeability (md)

100
10

10
1
1

0.1
0.1

0.01 0.01
2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 18
Porosity (%)
(modified from Kugler and McHugh, 1990)
74 Geology of
Petroleum
 Influence Of Clay-Mineral Distribution
On Effective Porosity
φe Clay
Minerals
Dispersed Clay
Detrital Quartz
Grains

φe
Clay Lamination

Structural Clay φe
(Rock Fragments,
Rip-Up Clasts,
Clay-Replaced Grains)
75 Geology of
Petroleum
 Sandstone Secondary Porosity
• Secondary porosity generally involves the
leaching of carbonate cements and grains,
including calcite, dolomite, siderite and
shell debris. It also involves the leaching of
unstable detrital minerals, particularly
feldspar. In this latter case, leached
porosity is generally associated with kaolin
cementation, both replacing feldspar and
occurring as an authigenic cement in its
own right.
 Summary: Diagenetic Pathways

20-30

Figure 13
Carbonat Rock Types
• Carbonate reservoirs are usually cemented quite
early, and most lose their primary porosity.
Carbonates in petroleum reservoirs usually
exhibit secondary porosity.
• This may be due to solution processes, to
fracturing, or to intercrystalline pore
development. Intercrystalline porosity is
particularly important in many dolomite
reservoirs, where coarse crystalline dolomite
has replaced limestone.
• A volume reduction of up to 13% accompanies
this reaction and may help to create the
secondary voids.
• Secondary porosities in both limestones
and sandstones are often developed by
leaching along fault zones and
unconformity surfaces.
• In such cases, these zones may become
important conduits for secondary migration
of hydrocarbons.
 EFFECT DIAGENESIS
ON CARBONATE RESERVOIR
 Limestones

Figure 14: the

various routes that
may be taken by a
skeletal lime sand
as it is buried and
undergoes
diagenesis.
•At time of deposition initial porosities are as high
as 50 percent (a).
•If burial takes place very quickly without early
diagenesis, porosity may be reduced, largely by
compaction as the shells and grains are squashed
(b).
•Residual porosity may then be in filled by a sparite
cement (c).
•In some environments early diagenesis takes
place with a rim cement of sparry calcite crystals
(d),
•sometimes accompanied by solution of the original
cells or grains giving rise to bimoldic porosity (e).
•If hydrocarbons invade the reservoir, further
porosity loss by cementation is prevented and the
rim cement gives the rock sufficient resistance to
compaction (f).
•At any time in its history, even if all porosity has
been destroyed by compaction and cementation,
secondary solution porosity can form (g).
•This can be either fabric-selective moldic porosity
or vuggy porosity, which cross-cuts the original
grains and fabric of the rock. This later secondary
porosity can also be invaded by hydrocarbons
preventing any further cementation of the
secondary pores (h).
•If petroleum invasion does not occur, the
secondary pores may be infilled with a sparry
calcite cement (i).
Thus, it can be seen that the diagenetic pathways
of carbonates are extremely complex and that
carbonate reservoirs are very difficult to develop.
Porosity distribution may be unrelated to the
original depositional facies.
Two types of
secondary solution
pores: moldic and
vuggy, as shown in
the previous
diagram
 Dolomites

A secondary
dolomite,
showing that the
intercrystalline
pores are large
and often
interconnected.
 Atypical Reservoirs Rocks
• About >90 percent of the world's discovered
petroleum occurs in sandstone and carbonate
reservoirs.
• The remaining reserves occur in what can best
be described as atypical reservoirs. Almost any
rock can serve as a reservoir, providing that it
has the two properties of porosity and
permeability.
• Atypical reservoirs include shales, granites and
other igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Generally, porosity that occurs in these is due to
fracturing.
• A small fraction of world oil reserves has
been found in lithologies such as shale or
igneous and metamorphic basement
rocks. In these rocks, as in many tight,
brittle sandstones and carbonates, the oil
resides within fracture porosity. Such
reservoirs can be quite productive;
• The Augila field of Libya, Bach Ho oil
field of Viet nam, the fractured Monterey
chert reservoirs of California are prominent
examples.
 The Augila field of Libya

This field consists of an old basement high of weathered granite

with onlapping sands and reefal carbonates.
Production comes from the carbonates and sands, as well as
the granite.
One well, the #1 well on the cross-section, penetrated through
the cap rock of the field into granite without penetrating either
reefal or sand reservoir. This well flowed at over 40,000 barrels
of oil per day from the granite.
The porosity was a mixture of fracturing and solution, where
chemically-unstable feldspar grains were leached out to leave a
granite wash largely made up of residual quartz grains.
 An atypical reservoir, a cross-section through the Augila
field of Libya (Williams, 1972).

Figure 15
The Bach Ho field of Viet Nam
Fig 16: Schema of weathered activities when the
structure is uplifted to the surface
Fig 17:
Paleotecto
nic sections
along
White
Tiger-
Northern
Eastern
Dragon
structures
Fig 18: Geological longitudinal section along White
Tiger-Northern Eastern Dragon structures
 CAUSE OF FRACTURING
IN LAYERED ROCKS
Ø Buckling folding is due to forces parallel to
the layering of rock.
Ø Bending folding is a consequence of force
perpendicular to the rock layering.
Ø Faulting is itself an aspect of fracturing.

Ø Fluid pressure.
 CAUSE OF FRACTURING
IN LAYERED ROCKS (cont.)
Ø Relief lithostatic pressure.
Ø Pressure solution.

Ø Loss of fluid content.

Ø Weathering.

Ø Cooling of igneous rocks creates fractures.

Ø Impact crater.
 Fracture porosity in a brittle limestone formation caused by
folding (left) and faulting (right)

Figure 19
Figure 20
 ROCK TYPES PROVIDING
FRACTURED RESERVOIR

Ø Limestone and dolomites.

Ø Chalks and marls.
Ø Diatomites, cherts, siliceous shales.
Ø Bituminous and siliceous shales.
Ø Siltstone.
Ø Igneous rock.
Ø Basement rock in buried uplifts, overlapped
by source sediments.
Figure 21
 Reservoir Continuity

• Most oil fields do not occur in single sheet-

shaped reservoirs of great lateral continuity with
uniform porosity and permeability distributions.
• Most oil accumulations occur in
heterogeneous reservoirs with permeability
barriers because of shale breaks or local
cemented zones.
Figure 22 is the reservoir engineer's dream: a blanket sand of
uniform porosity and permeability distribution. This occurs with
a single oil- water contact. In this case for a well drilled at
location 1 or through the reservoir of any other location, gross
pay equals net pay.
Figure 23 is somewhat different: the sand is shaling out from
right to left across the section, thus for a well drilled at location
2 the net pay of the reservoir is less than the gross pay. There
is still one oil accumulation, or at least one major one, but
there is a small separate accumulation with its own oil: water
contact in the lower left-hand part of the figure..
Figure 24 shows another situation. There is a series of
separate oil pools with their own oil: water contacts. This is
not a genuine anticlinal structural trap, but a series of
stratigraphic traps which pinch out towards the crest of the
structure. For each reservoir, net pay equals gross pay.
 Areal Continuity
The following is based on the scheme proposed by Potter (1962).
 The dendroid variety has length: width ratios which are generally
greater than 3 to -1. This is typically encountered in fluvial and deltaic
sands which trend perpendicular to the paleo-shoreline. The
depositional environment of this type of sand body is illustrated in
Figure 25

Figure 25
 The ribbon or shoestring sands are characteristically
produced by marine barrier bar sands and usually trend
parallel to the paleoshoreline. The depositional environment
of this type of sand body is illustrated in Figure 26.

Figure 26
 Cross-Sectional Continuity
Reservoir continuity in cross-section is an important consideration in
determining reservoir quality (Harris and Hewitt, 1977). Figure 27 ,

Figure 27
Figure 28 a: a series of channels has coalesced. Oil
entrapment in this case would be stratigraphic
and Figure 28b: oil entrapment can only be stratigraphic.

Fig 28: Different degrees of vertical continuity.

 If the sand body with lateral continuity, shown in Figure 28a , were
deformed structurally, oil entrapment would become structural rather
than stratigraphic

Figure 29
 Case History: Intisar Field, Libya

Figure 30 is an isopach map of one of the Intisar

(formerly Idris) reef fields located in the Sirte basin
of Libya.
This field is a stratigraphic trap contained within a
reef or carbonate buildup. In the map, notice the
simple sub circular geometry of the reservoir. The
thickness of the reservoir increases from zero to
about 1,200 feet in an approximate distance of
only 2.5 miles.
Figure 30
Figure 31: geological cross-section showing the various
lithological facies of the reef. .
Figure 32: Petrophysical cross-section showing the
distribution of zones of different porosity.
 RESERVOIR ENERGY SOURCE

Ø Gas dissolved in oil.

Ø Free gas under pressure.
Ø Gas reservoir.
Ø Oil reservoir wet/free gas cap.
Ø Fluid pressure.
Ø Hydrostatic – hydrodynamic.
Ø Compressed water, gas, oil.
Ø Elastically compressed rock.
Ø Gravity
Ø Combination of the above.
 RESERVOIR DRIVE
Ø Reservoir drive is the natural energy in a
reservoir that forces the fluids out of the rock
and into the well.
Ø Every oil field has at least one reservoir
drive.
Ø Type of reservoir drives in oil field include:
 RESERVOIR DRIVE (Cont.)
Former:
Ø Solution gas drive.
Ø Gas cap drive.
Ø Water drive.
Ø Gravity Drainage.
Ø Combination drive.

Now:
1. Fluid Extension drive
2. Gas-cap drive
3. Water drive
4. Compaction drive
5. Combination drive
 DISSOLVED GAS DRIVE RESERVOIR

Characteristics Trend
1. Reservoir pressure Decline rapidly and continuously
2. Surface gas-oil ratio First low, then rises to maximum
and then drops.
3. Water production Non
4. Well behavior Requires pumping at early stage
5. Expected oil recovery 5 to 30 % of OIP
 GAS CAP DRIVE RESERVOIR

Characteristics Trend
1. Reservoir pressure Falls slowly and continuously

2. Surface gas-oil ratio Rises continuously in up -

structure wells

3. Water production Absent or negligible

4. Well behavior Long flowing life

5. Expected OR 10 to 20-30 % of OIP
 WATER DRIVE RESERVOIR

Characteristics Trend
1. Reservoir pressure Remains high
2. Surface gas-oil ratio Remains low
3. Water production Starts early and increases
appreciable amount
4. Well behavior Flow until water
production gets excessive
5. Expected oil recovery 35 to 70 percent
 GRAVITY DRAINAGE DRIVE RESERVOIR

Characteristics Trend
1. Reservoir pressure Remains in medium rates
2. Surface gas-oil ratio Stable
3. Water production Negligible
4. Well behavior Requires pumping at
early stage
5. Expected oil recovery 15 to 20 percent
 ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (EOR)

Enhanced oil recovery methods attempt to improve these

efficiency factors by:
° Reducing the mobility ratio by increasing water
viscosity;
° Reducing the mobility ratio by decreasing oil viscosity;

° Altering interfacial tension of the water – oil interface;

and
° Improving the relative permeability characteristics.
 ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY METHODS

° Water flooding.
° Chemical recovery processes:
v Polymer flooding.
v Surfactant – polymer flooding.
v Caustic flooding.
° Thermal recovery processes:
v Steam flooding

v In-situ combustion
° Miscible recovery processes
REFERENCES
Akbar, M., Vissapragada, B., Alghamdi, A. H., Allen, D., Herron, M., Carnegie, A., Dutta, D., Olesen, J.
R., Chourasiya, R. D., Logan, D., Stief, D., Netherwood, R., Russell, S.D., and Saxena, K. (2000). "A
Snapshot of Carbonate Reservoir Evaluation." Schlumberger Oilfield Review, v. 12, No. 4, p. 20-41.
Allison, S. B., Pope, G. A. and Sepehrnoori, K. (1991). "Analysis of Field Tracers for Reservoir Description,"
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, v. 5 (2), p. 173-186.
Bathurst, R.G.C., 1975, Carbonate Sediments and Their Diagenesis: Second Edition, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 658 p.
Blatt, H., Middleton, G., and Murray, R., 1980, Origin of Sedimentary Rocks: Second Edition, Prentice Hall, Inc.,
New Jersey, 782 p.
Botset, H.G., 1931, The measurement of permeability of porous alundum discs of water and oils, Rev. Sci. Instr. v.
2, p. 84-95.
Chilingar, G.V., Mannon, R.W., and Rieke, H., 1972, Oil and Gas Production from Carbonate Rocks, Elsevier,
Amsterdam, 408 p.
Çagatay, M. N., Saner, S., Al-Saiyed, I. and Carrigan, W. J. (1996). "Diagenesis of the Safaniya Sandstone
Member (Mid-Cretaceous) in Saudi Arabia. " Sedimentary Geology, v. 105, No 3-4, p. 221-239.
Choquette, P.W., and Pray, L.C., 1970, Geologic nomenclature and classification of porosity in sedimentary
carbonates, Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull., v. 54, p. 207-250.
Dodge, M.M., and Loucks, R.G., 1979, Mineralogic composition and diagenesis of Tertiary sandstones along
Texas Gulf Coast, Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull., v. 63, p. 440.
Dyman, T. S. and Perry, Jr,. W. J. (1987). "Sandstone Diagenesis and Source Rock Analysis of Cretaceous
Blackleaf and Frontier Formations in Parts of Beaverhead, Madison, and Gallatin Counties, Montana. (Abs)." AAPG
Bulletin , Vol. 71, p. 1005-1005.
Friedman, G.H., and Sanders, J.E., 1978, Principles of Sedimentology, J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 792 p.
Fuchtbauer, H., 1967, Influence of different types of diagenesis on sandstone porosity, 7th World Petroleum Cong.
Proc., p. 353-369
Galloway, W.E., 1974, Deposition and diagenetic alteration of sandstone in northeast Pacific arc-related basins:
Implications for Graywacke Genesis, Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 85, p. 379-390.
Giles, M. R. (1987). "Mass Transfer and Problems of Secundary Porosity Creation in Deeply Buried Hydrocarbons
Reservoirs." Marine Geology, v. 4, p. 188-203.
REFERENCES
Greig, D.A., 1958, "Oil Horizons in the Middle East" in Habitat of Oil, a Symposium: Am. Assoc. Petroleum
Geologists, p. 1182-1193.
Hansley, P. L. and Nuccio, V.F. (1992). "Upper Cretaceous Shannon Sandstone Reservoirs, Powder River Basin,
Wyoming; Evidence for Organic Acid Diagenesis?." AAPG Bulletin, v. 76, No. 6, p. 781-791
Harris, D.G., and Hewitt, 1977, Synergism in reservoir management. The Geologic Perspective, J. Pet. Tech., July
1977, p. 761-770.
Harvey, R.L., 1972, West Campbell Gas Field, Major County, Oklahoma, in Stratigraphic Oil and Gas Fields, Am.
Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Memoir 6, p. 568-578.
Hull, C.E., and Warman, H.R., 1970, Asmari Oil Fields of Iran, in Geology of Giant Petroleum Fields: Am. Assoc.
Petrol. Geol., Memoir 14, p. 428-437.
Isham, J. R. (1987). "Determination of Vertical and Lateral Extent of Porous Zones in Subsurface Mississippian
Monteagle Limestone, Rugby Quadrangle, Morgan, Scott, and Fentress Counties, Tennessee. (Abs.)." AAPG Bulletin
, v. 71, p. 1106-1106.
Jeong, C. K. and Yong, I. L. (1996). "Marine Diagenesis of Lower Ordovician Carbonate Sediments (Dumugol
Formation), Korea: Cementation in a Calcite Sea." Sedimentary Geology, v. 105, No 3-4, p. 241-257. Levorsen,
A.I., 1967, The Geology of Petroleum, Freeman & Co., Oxford, 724 p.
Kim, J. W., Berg, R. R., Watkins, J. and Tieh, T. T. (2001). "Texture, Mineralogy and Petrophysical Properties of
Geopressured Shales, Gulf of Mexico." Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 51, p. 161-
172.
Longman, M.W., 1980, Carbonate diagenetic textures from near-surface diagenetic environments, Amer. Assoc.
Petrol. Geol. Bull., v. 64, p. 461-487.
Loucks, R.G., dodge,.M., and Galloway, W.W., 1979, Reservoir quality in Tertiary sandstones along Texas Gulf
Coast, Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull., v. 63, p. 488.
REFERENCES
Marfil, R., Scherer, M. and Turrero, M. J. (1996). "Diagenetic Processes Influencing Porosity in Sandstones
from the Triassic Buntsandstein of the Iberian Range, Spain." S edimentary Geology, v. 105, No 3-4, p. 203-219.
McConnell, P.C., 1951, Drilling and production techniques that yield nearly 850,000 barrels per day in Saudi
Arabia's fabulous Abqaiq field, Oil & Gas Journal, Dec. 20, 1951, p. 197.
Mial, A. D. (1988c). "Reservoir Heterogeneities in Fluvial Sandstones: Lessons from Outcrop Studies." AAPG
Bulletin, v. 72, p. 682-697.
Miller, J.B., et al, 195 8, Habitat of oil in the Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela, in Habitat of Oil, a Symposium: Am.
Assoc. Petrol. Geol., p. 626-627.
Murray, R.C., 196 0, Origin of porosity in carbonate rocks, J. Sedim. Petrol., v. 30, p. 59-84.
Muskat, M., 1937, Flow of Homogeneous Fluids Through Porous Media, McGraw Hill, New York, 763 p.
Muskat, M., and Botset, H.G., 1931, Flow of gas through porous materials, Physics, v. 1, p. 27-47.
Ottmann, R.D., Keyes, P.L., and Ziegler, M.A., 1976, Jay Field, Florida in North American Oil and Gas Fields,
Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Memoir 24, p. 276-286.
Pippin, L., 1970, Panhandle-Hugoton Field Texas-Oklahoma-Kansas in Geology of Giant Petroleum Fields, Am.
Assoc. Petrol. Geol,. Memoir 14, p. 204-222.
Plumley, W.J., 1980, Abnormally high fluid pressure: Survey of some basic principles, Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.
Bull., v. 64, p. 414-422.
Potter, P.E., 1962, Late Mississippian sandstones of Illinois Basin, Illinois Geol. Surv. Circ. p. 340.
Pryor, W.A., 1973, Permeability - porosity patterns and variations in some Holocene sand bodies, Amer. Assoc.
Petrol. Geol. Bull., v. 57, p. 162-189.
Purser, B.H., 1978, Early diagenesis and the preservation of porosity in Jurassic limestones, Jl. Pet. Geol., v. 1, p.
83-94.
Robinson, R.B., 1966, Classification of reservoir rocks by surface texture, Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull., v. 50,
p. 547-559.
Ruppel, S. C. and Holtz, M. H. (1994). "The Silurian and Devonian of the Permian Basin: Patterns of the
Depositional and Diagenetic Facies and Reservoir Development." University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of Economic
Geology Report of Investigations 216, 89 p.
Salem, A. M. K., Abdel-Wahab, A. and McBride, E. F.(1998). "Diagenesis of Shallowly Buried Cratonic
Sandstones, Southwest Sinai, Egypt." S edimentary Geology, v. 119, No 3-4, p. 311-335.
REFERENCES
Selley, R.C., 1982, Introduction to Sedimentology: Second Edition, Academic Press, London, 475 p.
Stormont, D.H., 1949, Huge caverns encountered in Dollarhide Field, Oil & Gas Journ., April 7, 1949, pp. 66-68 &
94.
Terry, C.E., and J.J. Williams, 1969, The Idris "A" Bioherm and Oilfield, Sirte Basin, Libya - its Commercial
Development, Regional Paleocene Geologic Setting and Stratigraphy, in: The Exploration for Petroleum in Europe
and North Africa, Hepple, P. (ed.). ; Elsevier Publishing Co., Ltd., Amsterdam.
Truex, J.N., 1972, Fractured shale and basement reservoir Long Beach Unit, California, Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.
Bull., v. 56, p. 1931-1938.
Verdier, A.C., Oki, T., and Atik, S., 1980, Geology of the Handil field (East Kalimantan, Indonesia). In: Giant Oil
and Gas Fields of Decade 1968-1978, Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Memoir 30, p. 399-422.
Wilkinson, W.M., 1953, Fracturing in Spraberry reservoir, W. Texas, Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull., v. 37, p. 250-
265.
Williams, J.J., 1972, Augila Field, Libya: Depositional environment and diagenesis of sedimentary reservoir and
description of igneous reservoir. In: Stratigraphic Oil and Gas Fields, Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Memoir NOR. 16, p.
623-632.
Wilson, J.L., 1975, Carbonate Facies in Geologic History, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 471 p.
Williams, L. A. and Crerar, D. A. (1985). "Silica Diagenesis II: General Mechanisms." Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, v. 55, No. 3, p. 301-311.
Zengzhao F., Yongsheng, Z. and Zhenkui, J. (1998). "Type, Origin, and Reservoir Characteristics of Dolostones
of the Ordovician Majiagou Group, Ordos, North China Platform." S edimentary Geology, v. 118, No 3-4, p. 127-
140.
Zenger, D.H., Dunham, J.B., and Ethington, R.L., editors 1980, Concepts and Models of Dolomitization, Soc.
Econ. Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Spec. Pub. No. 28, Preface.
Exercise