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Pre-Islamic Arabia

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 Life
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Muhammad
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the Islamic prophet. For other people named Muhammad,
see Muhammad (name). For other uses, see Muhammad (disambiguation). For the
Islamic view and perspective, see Muhammad in Islam.

Muhammad

‫ُم َح َّم د‬

"Muhammad, the Messenger of God"

inscribed on the gates of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina

Personal

Born c. 570 CE (53 BH)[1]

Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia

Died 8 June 632 (11 AH) (aged 61–62)

Medina, Hejaz, Arabia

Resting place Green Dome at al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Medina,

Arabia

24°28′03″N 39°36′41″E

Spouse See Muhammad's wives

Children See Muhammad's children

Parent(s) Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (father)

Amina bint Wahb (mother)

Known for Establishing Islam

 Rasūl Allāh (Messenger of God)

Other names
 (see Names and titles of
Muhammad)

Relatives Family tree of Muhammad, Ahl al-

Bayt ("Family of the House")

Arabic name
Personal (Ism)
Muḥammad
Patronymic (Nasab)
Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-

Muṭṭālib ibn Hāshim ibn ʿAbd

Manāf ibn Quṣayy ibn Kilāb

Teknonymic (Kunya)
ʾAbu al-Qāsim
Epithet (Laqab)
Khātam an-Nabiyyīn (Seal of the Prophets)

Part of a series on

Muhammad
 show

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Muhammad[a] (Arabic: ‫ُم َح َّمد‬, romanized: Muḥammad; English: /moʊˈhɑːməd/; Arabic: [mʊ
ˈħæm.mæd]; c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE)[b] was an Arab religious, social, and political
leader and the founder of Islam.[c] According to Islamic doctrine, he was
a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings
of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.[2][3][4] He is believed to be the Seal
of the Prophets within Islam, with the Quran as well as
his teachings and practices forming the basis for Islamic religious belief.

Muhammad was born in approximately 570 CE in Mecca.[1] He was the son of Abdullah
ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Amina bint Wahb. His father, Abdullah, the son of Quraysh tribal
leader Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, died a few months before Muhammad's birth. His
mother Amina died when he was six, leaving Muhammad an orphan.[5] He was raised
under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal uncle, Abu Talib.[6] In
later years, he would periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named Hira for
several nights of prayer. When he was 40, circa 610 CE, Muhammad reported being
visited by Gabriel in the cave[1] and receiving his first revelation from God. In 613,
[7]
Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly,[8] proclaiming that "God is
One", that complete "submission" (islām) to God (Allah) is the right way of life (dīn),
[9]
and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the other prophets in
Islam.[3][10][11]

Muhammad's followers were initially few in number, and experienced hostility from
Meccan polytheists for 13 years. To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his
followers to Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca
to Medina (then known as Yathrib) later in 622. This event, the Hijra, marks the
beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina,
Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. In December 629, after
eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of
10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca. The conquest went largely
uncontested, and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed. In 632, a few months
after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill and died. By the time of his death,
most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.[12][13]

The revelations (each known as Ayah — literally, "Sign [of God]") that Muhammad
reported receiving until his death form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as
the verbatim "Word of God" on which the religion is based. Besides the Quran,
Muhammad's teachings and practices (sunnah), found in
the Hadith and sira (biography) literature, are also upheld and used
as sources of Islamic law.

Sources of biographical information

Main articles: Historiography of early Islam and Historicity of Muhammad
Quran
Main article: Muhammad in the Quran
 A folio from an early Quran, written
in Kufic script (Abbasid period, 8th–9th centuries)
The Quran is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe it represents the words
of God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammad.[14][15][16] The Quran, however,
provides minimal assistance for Muhammad's chronological biography; most Quranic
verses do not provide significant historical context.[17][18]

Early biographies
Main article: Prophetic biography
Important sources regarding Muhammad's life may be found in the historic works by
writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Hijri era (around 8th and 9th century CE
respectively).[19] These include traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, which
provide additional information about his life.[20]

The earliest written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn
Ishaq's Life of God's Messenger written c. 767 CE (150 AH). Although the original work
was lost, this sira survives as extensive excerpts in works by Ibn Hisham and to a lesser
extent by Al-Tabari.[21][22] However, Ibn Hisham wrote in the preface to his biography of
Muhammad that he omitted matters from Ibn Ishaq's biography that "would distress
certain people".[23] Another early historical source is the history of Muhammad's
campaigns by al-Waqidi (d. 207 AH), and the work of Waqidi's secretary Ibn Sa'd al-
Baghdadi (d. 230 AH).[19]

Many scholars accept these early biographies as authentic, though their accuracy is
unascertainable.[21] Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between traditions
touching legal matters and purely historical events. In the legal group, traditions could
have been subject to invention while historic events, aside from exceptional cases, may
have been only subject to "tendential shaping".[24]

Hadith
Main article: Hadith
Other important sources include the hadith collections, accounts of verbal and physical
teachings and traditions attributed to Muhammad. Hadiths were compiled several
generations after his death by Muslims including Muhammad al-Bukhari, Muslim ibn al-
Hajjaj, Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi, Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasai, Abu Dawood, Ibn
Majah, Malik ibn Anas, al-Daraqutni.[25][26]

Some Western academics cautiously view the hadith collections as accurate historical
sources.[25] Scholars such as Wilferd Madelung do not reject the narrations which have
been compiled in later periods, but judge them in the context of history and on the basis
of their compatibility with the events and figures.[27] Muslim scholars on the other hand
typically place a greater emphasis on the hadith literature instead of the biographical
literature, since hadiths maintain a traditional chain of transmission (isnad); the lack of
such a chain for the biographical literature makes it unverifiable in their eyes.[28]

Pre-Islamic Arabia
Main articles: Pre-Islamic Arabia, Jahiliyyah, and Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia

Main tribes and settlements of Arabia in

Muhammad's lifetime
The Arabian Peninsula was, and still is, largely arid with volcanic soil, making
agriculture difficult except near oases or springs. Towns and cities dotted the
landscape, two of the most prominent being Mecca and Medina. Medina was a large
flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for
many surrounding tribes.[29] In the desert, communal life was crucial for survival.
Indigenous tribes relied on each other to endure the challenging conditions and way of
life. Tribal affiliation, whether through family ties or alliances, played a significant role in
fostering social unity.[30] Indigenous Arabs were either nomadic or sedentary. Nomadic
groups constantly traveled seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the
sedentary settled and focused on trade and agriculture. Nomadic survival also
depended on raiding caravans or oases; nomads did not view this as a crime.[31]

In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes,

their spirits associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. As well as being the
site of an annual pilgrimage, the Kaaba shrine in Mecca housed 360 idols of tribal
patron deities. Three goddesses were worshipped, in some places as daughters of
Allah: Allāt, Manāt and al-'Uzzá. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including
Christians and Jews.[d] Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arabs who "professed a rigid
monotheism"[32] – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic
Arabia, although scholars dispute their historicity.[33][34] According to Muslim tradition,
Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of Ishmael, son
of Abraham.[35][36]

The second half of the sixth century was a period of political disorder in Arabia and
communication routes were no longer secure.[37] Religious divisions were an important
cause of the crisis.[38] Judaism became the dominant religion in Yemen while Christianity
took root in the Persian Gulf area.[38] In line with broader trends of the ancient world, the
region witnessed a decline in the practice of polytheistic cults and a growing interest in a
more spiritual form of religion. While many were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith,
those faiths provided intellectual and spiritual reference points.[38]

During the early years of Muhammad's life, the Quraysh tribe to which he belonged
became a dominant force in western Arabia.[39] They formed the cult association
of hums, which tied members of many tribes in western Arabia to the Kaaba and
reinforced the prestige of the Meccan sanctuary.[40] To counter the effects of anarchy,
Quraysh upheld the institution of sacred months during which all violence was
forbidden, and it was possible to participate in pilgrimages and fairs without danger.
[40]
Thus, although the association of hums was primarily religious, it also had important
economic consequences for the city.[40]

Life
Meccan years
Main article: Muhammad in Mecca
Childhood and early life
See also: Mawlid and Family tree of Muhammad
showTimeline of
Muhammad's life
 The birth of Muhammad in the 16th-
century Siyer-i Nebi
Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim[41] was born in Mecca[42] about
the year 570,[1] and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi' al-awwal.[43] He
belonged to the Quraysh tribe's Banu Hashim clan, which was one of the more
distinguished families in the city, although the clan seems to have experienced a lack of
prosperity during his early years.[11][e] The name Muhammad means "praiseworthy" in
Arabic and it appears four times in the Quran.[44] He was also known as al-Amin
(lit. 'faithful') when he was young; however, historians differ as to whether it was given
by people as a reflection of his nature[45] or was simply a given name from his parents,
i.e. a masculine form of his mother's name "Amina".[46] Muhammad acquired the kunya of
Abu al-Qasim later in his life after the birth of his son Qasim, who died two years
afterwards.[47]

Islamic tradition states that Muhammad's birth year coincided with Yemeni
King Abraha's unsuccessful attempt to conquer Mecca.[48] Recent studies, however,
challenge this notion, as other evidence suggests that the expedition, if it had occurred,
would have transpired substantially before Muhammad's birth.[1][49][50][51][52][46] Later Muslim
scholars presumably linked Abraha's renowned name to the narrative of Muhammad's
birth to elucidate the unclear passage about "the men of elephants" in Quran 105:1–5. [49]
[53]
The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity deems the tale of Abraha's war elephant
expedition as a myth.[50]
Muhammad's father, Abdullah, died almost six months before he was born.[54] According
to Islamic tradition, soon after birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the
desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants; some western scholars reject
this tradition's historicity.[55] Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi
Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammad lost
his biological mother Amina to illness and became an orphan.[55][56] For the next two
years, until he was eight years old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his
paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan until his death. He then
came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Banu Hashim.[6]

Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while
accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit
named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammad's career as a prophet of God.
[57]
In his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on Syrian trading journeys to gain
experience in commercial trade.[58]

Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth as available information is

fragmented, making it difficult to separate history from legend.[58] He reportedly became a
merchant and "was involved in trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean
Sea".[59] His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a successful
businesswoman. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a
happy one.[59]

Miniature from Rashid-al-Din

Hamadani's Jami al-Tawarikh, c. 1315, illustrating the story of Muhammad's role in re-
setting the Black Stone in 605 (Ilkhanate period)[60]

In 605, the Quraysh decided to roof the Kaaba, which had previously consisted only of
walls. A complete rebuild was needed to accommodate the new weight. Amid concerns
about upsetting the deities, a man stepped forth with a pickaxe and exclaimed, "O
goddess! Fear not! Our intentions are only for the best." With that, he began
demolishing it. The anxious Meccans awaited divine retribution overnight, but his
unharmed continuation the next day was seen as a sign of heavenly approval.
According to a narrative collected by Ibn Ishaq, when it was time to reattach the Black
Stone, a dispute arose over which clan should have the privilege. It was determined that
the first person to step into the Kaaba's court would arbitrate. Muhammad took on this
role, asking for a cloak. He placed the stone on it, guiding clan representatives to jointly
elevate it to its position. He then personally secured it within the wall.[61][62]

Beginnings of the Quran

See also: Muhammad's first revelation, History of the Quran, and Wahy

The cave Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour where,

according to Muslim belief, Muhammad received his first revelation
Muhammad began to pray alone in a cave named Hira on Mount Jabal al-Nour,
near Mecca, for several weeks every year.[63][64] According to Islamic tradition, in 610 CE,
when he was 40 years old, the angel Gabriel appeared before him during his visit to the
cave. The angel showed him a cloth with Quranic verses on it and instructed him to
read. When Muhammad confessed his illiteracy, Gabriel choked him forcefully, nearly
suffocating him, and repeated the command. As Muhammad reiterated his inability to
read, Gabriel choked him again in a similar manner. This sequence took place once
more before Gabriel finally recited the verses, allowing Muhammad to memorize them. [65]
[66][67]
These verses later constituted Quran 96:1-5.[68]

The experience terrified Muhammad, but he was immediately reassured by his

wife Khadija and her Christian cousin Waraqa ibn Nawfal.[69] Khadija instructed
Muhammad to let her know if Gabriel returned. When he appeared during their private
time, Khadija conducted tests by having Muhammad sit on her left thigh, right thigh, and
lap, inquiring Muhammad if the being was still present each time. After Khadija removed
her clothes with Muhammad on her lap, he reported that Gabriel left at that very
moment. Khadija thus told him to rejoice as she concluded it was not a Satan but an
angel visiting him.[70][71][69]

Muhammad's demeanor during his moments of inspiration frequently led to allegations

from his contemporaries that he was under the influence of a jinn, a soothsayer, or a
magician, suggesting that his experiences during these events bore resemblance to
those associated with such figures widely recognized in ancient Arabia. Nonetheless,
these enigmatic seizure events might have served as persuasive evidence for his
followers regarding the divine origin of his revelations. Some historians posit that the
graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition in these instances are likely genuine, as
they are improbable to have been concocted by later Muslims.[72][73]

A 16th-century Siyer-i Nebi image of

angel Gabriel visiting Muhammad
Shortly after Waraqa's death, the revelations ceased for a period, causing Muhammad
great distress and thoughts of suicide.[67][f] On one occasion, he reportedly climbed a
mountain intending to jump off. However, upon reaching the peak, Gabriel appeared to
him, affirming his status as the true Messenger of God. This encounter soothed
Muhammad, and he returned home. Later, when there was another long break between
revelations, he repeated this action, but Gabriel intervened similarly, calming him and
causing him to return home.[74][75]

Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these
messages.[76] The early Quranic revelations utilized approaches of cautioning non-
believers with divine punishment, while promising rewards to believers. They conveyed
potential consequences like famine and killing for those who rejected Muhammad's God
and alluded to past and future calamities. The text also stressed the imminent final
judgment and the threat of hellfire for skeptics.[77] According to Muslim tradition,
Muhammad's wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet.[78] She was followed
by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and
adopted son Zaid.[78]

Opposition in Mecca
See also: Persecution of Muslims by Meccans
Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public.[8][79] Initially, he had no serious
opposition from the inhabitants of Mecca, who were indifferent to his proselytizing
activities, but when he started to attack their beliefs, tensions arose.[80][81][82]
[83]
The Quraysh challenged him to perform miracles, such as bringing forth springs of
water, yet he declined, reasoning that the regularities of nature already served as
sufficient proof of God's majesty. Some satirized his lack of success by wondering why
God had not bestowed treasure upon him. Others called on him to visit Paradise and
return with tangible parchment scrolls of the Qur'an. But Muhammad asserted that the
Quran, in the form he conveyed it, was already an extraordinary proof.[84][85]

According to Amr ibn al-As, several of the Quraysh gathered at Hijr and discussed how
they had never faced such serious problems as they were facing from Muhammad.
They said that he had derided their culture, denigrated their ancestors, scorned their
faith, shattered their community, and cursed their gods. Sometime later, Muhammad
came, kissing the Black Stone and performing the ritual tawaf. As Muhammad passed
by them, they reportedly said hurtful things to him. The same happened when he
passed by them a second time. On his third pass, Muhammad stopped and said, "Will
you listen to me, O Quraysh? By Him (God), who holds my life in His hand, I bring you
slaughter." They fell silent and told him to go home, saying that he was not a violent
man. The next day, a number of Quraysh approached him, asking if he had said what
they had heard from their companions. He answered yes, and one of them seized him
by his cloak. Abu Bakr intervened, tearfully saying, "Would you kill a man for saying God
is my Lord?" And they left him.[86][87][88]

The Quraysh attempted to entice Muhammad to quit preaching by giving him admission
to the merchants' inner circle as well as an advantageous marriage, but he refused both
of the offers.[89] A delegation of them then, led by the leader of the Makhzum clan, known
by the Muslims as Abu Jahl, went to Muhammad's uncle Abu Talib, head of
the Hashim clan and Muhammad's caretaker, giving him an ultimatum:[90]

"By God, we can no longer endure this vilification of our forefathers, this derision of our
traditional values, this abuse of our gods. Either you stop Muhammad yourself, Abu
Talib, or you must let us stop him. Since you yourself take the same position as we do,
in opposition to what he’s saying, we will rid you of him."[91][92]
Abu Talib politely dismissed them at first, thinking it was just a heated talk. But as
Muhammad grew more vocal, Abu Talib requested Muhammad to not burden him
beyond what he could bear, to which Muhammad wept and replied that he would not
stop even if they put the sun in his right hand and the moon in his left. When he turned
around, Abu Talib called him and said, "Come back nephew, say what you please, for
by God I will never give you up on any account."[93][94]

While a group of Muslims were praying in a ravine, some Quraysh ran into them and
blamed them for what they were doing. One of the Muslims, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, then
took a camel's jawbone and struck a Quraysh, splitting his head open, in what is
reported to be the first bloodshed in Islam.[95][96]

The initial persecution by the Meccans has been described by modern historians as
"mostly mild",[97][98][99] being constrained by the clan system, the main guarantee of security
within Mecca.[97] By ensuring that any inter-clan violence would be considered an attack
on the honor of the whole clan, the threat of retributive action largely prevented
instances of serious violence against professed Muslims, who were instead principally
subject to economic sanctions and verbal insults.[97][98][100] The most notable instances of
bodily violence against Muslims in this period were against slaves, famously Bilal ibn
Rabah and Amir ibn Fuhayra, who lacked clan protection.[97] The Qur'an does not
mention the persecution, with this material being found instead in the prophetic
biography.[101]

Quraysh delegation to Yathrib

See also: Seven Sleepers and Theories about Alexander the Great in the Quran
The leaders of the Quraysh sent Nadr ibn al-Harith and Uqba ibn Abi
Mu'ayt to Yathrib to seek the opinions of the Jewish rabbis regarding Muhammad. The
rabbis advised them to ask Muhammad three questions: recount the tale of young men
who ventured forth in the first age; narrate the story of a traveler who reached both the
eastern and western ends of the earth; and provide details about the spirit. If
Muhammad answered correctly, they stated, he would be a Prophet; otherwise, he
would be a liar. When they returned to Mecca and asked Muhammad the questions, he
told them he would provide the answers the next day. However, 15 days passed without
a response from his God, leading to gossip among the Meccans and causing
Muhammad distress. At some point later, the angel Gabriel came to Muhammad and
provided him with the answers.[102][103]

In response to the first query, the Qur'an tells a story about a group of men sleeping in a
cave (Qur'an 18:9–25), which scholars generally link to the legend of the Seven
Sleepers of Ephesus. For the second query, the Qur'an speaks of Dhu al-Qarnayn,
literally "he of the two horns" (Qur'an 18:93–99), a tale that academics widely associate
with the Alexander Romance.[104][105] As for the third query, concerning the nature of the
spirit, the Qur'anic revelation asserted that it was beyond human comprehension.
Neither the Jews who devised the questions nor the Quraysh who posed them to
Muhammad converted to Islam upon receiving the answers.[103] Nadr and Uqba were
later executed on Muhammad's orders after the Battle of Badr, while other captives
were held for ransom. As Uqba pleaded, "But who will take care of my children,
Muhammad?" Muhammad responded, "Hell!"[106][107][108][109]

Migration to Abyssinia and the incident of Satanic Verses

Main articles: Migration to Abyssinia and Satanic Verses
In 615, fearful that his followers would be seduced from their religion,[110] Muhammad
sent some of them to emigrate to the Abyssinian Kingdom of Aksum and found a small
colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.
[11]
Among those who departed were Umm Habiba, the daughter of one of the Quraysh
chiefs, Abu Sufyan, and her husband.[111] The Quraysh then sent two men to retrieve
them. Because leatherwork at the time was highly prized in Abyssinia, they gathered a
lot of skins and transported them there so they could distribute some to each of the
kingdom's generals. But the king firmly rejected their request.[112]

While Tabari and Ibn Hisham mentioned only one migration to Abyssinia, there were
two sets according to Ibn Sa'd. Of these two, the majority of the first group returned
to Mecca before the event of Hijra, while the majority of the second group remained in
Abyssinia at the time and went directly to Medina after the event of Hijra. These
accounts agree that persecution played a major role in Muhammad sending them there.
According to historian W. M. Watt, the episodes were more complex than the traditional
accounts suggest; he proposes that there were divisions within the embryonic Muslim
community, and that they likely went there to trade in competition with the prominent
merchant families of Mecca. In Urwa's letter preserved by Tabari, these emigrants
returned after the conversion to Islam of a number of individuals in positions such
as Hamza and Umar.[113]

Along with many others,[114] Tabari recorded that Muhammad was desperate, hoping for
an accommodation with his tribe. So, while he was in the presence of a number
of Quraysh, after delivering verses mentioning three of their favorite deities (Quran
53:19–20), Satan put upon his tongue two short verses: "These are the high flying
ones / whose intercession is to be hoped for." This led to a general reconciliation
between Muhammad and the Meccans, and the Muslims in Abyssinia began to return
home. However, the next day, Muhammad retracted these verses at the behest
of Gabriel, claiming that they had been cast by Satan to his tongue and God had
abrogated them. Instead, verses that revile those goddesses were then revealed.[115][g]
[h]
The returning Muslims thus had to make arrangements for clan protection before they
could re-enter Mecca.[11][116]

This Satanic verses incident was reported en masse and documented by nearly all of
the major biographers of Muhammad in Islam's first two centuries,[117] which according to
them corresponds to Quran 22:52. But since the rise of the hadith movement and
systematic theology with its new doctrines, including the isma, which claimed that
Muhammad was infallible and thus could not be fooled by Satan, the historical memory
of the early community has been reevaluated. And as of the 20th century CE, Muslim
scholars unanimously rejected this incident.[114] On the other hand, most European
biographers of Muhammad recognize the veracity of this incident of satanic verses on
the basis of the criterion of embarrassment. Historian Alfred T. Welch proposes that the
period of Muhammad's turning away from strict monotheism was likely far longer but
was later encapsulated in a story that made it much shorter and imputed Satan as the
culprit.[113]

In 616, an agreement was established whereby all other Quraysh clans were to enforce
a ban on the Banu Hashim, prohibiting trade and marriage with them.[118] Nevertheless,
Banu Hashim members could still move around the town freely. Despite facing
increasing verbal abuse, Muhammad continued to navigate the streets and engage in
public debates without being physically harmed.[100] At a later point, a faction within
Quraysh, sympathizing with Banu Hashim, initiated efforts to end the sanctions,
resulting in a general consensus in 619 to lift the ban.[119][113]

Attempt to establish himself in Ta'if

Main article: Muhammad's visit to Ta'if
After the deaths of Khadija, Muhammad's wealthy wife, who had provided him with
financial and emotional support,[120] and Abu Talib, his guardian, Muhammad's position
became increasingly hopeless.[113] He went to Ta'if to try to establish himself in the city
and gain aid and protection against the Meccans,[121][122] but he was met with a response:
"If you are truly a prophet, what need do you have of our help? If God sent you as his
messenger, why doesn’t He protect you? And if Allah wished to send a prophet, couldn’t
He have found a better person than you, a weak and fatherless orphan?"[123] Realizing
his efforts were in vain, Muhammad asked the people of Ta'if to keep the matter a
secret, fearing that this would embolden the hostility of the Quraysh against him.
However, instead of accepting his request, they pelted him with stones, injuring his
limbs.[124]

On Muhammad's return journey to Mecca, news of the events in Ta'if had reached the
ears of Abu Jahl, and he said, "They did not allow him to enter Ta'if, so let us deny him
entry to Mecca as well." Knowing the gravity of the situation, Muhammad asked a
passing horseman to deliver a message to Akhnas ibn Shariq, a member of his mother's
clan, requesting his protection so that he could enter in safety. But Akhnas declined,
saying that he was only a confederate of the house of Quraysh. Muhammad then sent a
message to Suhayl ibn Amir, who similarly declined on the basis of tribal principle.
Finally, Muhammad dispatched someone to ask Mut'im ibn 'Adiy, the chief of the Banu
Nawfal. Mut'im agreed, and after equipping himself, he rode out in the morning with his
sons and nephews to accompany Muhammad to the city. When Abu Jahl saw him, he
asked if Mut'im was simply giving him protection or if he had already converted to his
religion. Mut'im replied, "Granting him protection, of course." Then Abu Jahl said, "We
will protect whomever you protect."[125]

Isra' and Mi'raj

Main article: Isra and Mi'raj

Quranic inscriptions on the Dome of the Rock.

It marks the spot Muhammad is believed by Muslims to have ascended to heaven. [126]

It is at this low point in Muhammad's life that the accounts in the Sira lay out the famous
Isra' and Mi'raj. Nowadays, Isra' is believed by Muslims to be the journey of Muhammad
from Mecca to Jerusalem, while Mi'raj is from Jerusalem to the heavens.[127] There is
considered no substantial basis for the Mi'raj in the Quran, as the Quran does not
address it directly.[128]

Quranic verse 17:1 recounts Muhammad's night journey from a revered place of prayer
to the most distant place of worship. The Kaaba, or holy enclosure, in Mecca is widely
accepted as the starting point, but there is disagreement among Islamic traditions as to
what constitutes "the farthest place of worship". Some modern scholars maintain that
the earliest tradition saw this faraway site as a celestial twin of the Kaaba, so that
Muhammad's journey took him directly from Mecca through the heavens. A later
tradition, however, refers to it as Bayt al-Maqdis, which is generally associated with
Jerusalem. Over time, these different traditions merged to present the journey as one
that began in Mecca, passed through Jerusalem, and then ascended to heaven.[129]

The dating of the events also differs from account to account. Ibn Sa'd recorded that
Muhammad's Mi'raj took place first, from near the Kaaba to the heavens, on the 27th
of Ramadan, 18 months before the Hijrah, while the Isra' from Mecca to Bayt al-
Maqdis took place on the 17th night of the Last Rabi’ul before the hijrah. As is well
known, these two stories were later combined into one. In Ibn Hisham's account, the
Isra' came first and then the Mi'raj, and he put these stories before the deaths of Khadija
and Abu Talib. On the other hand, al-Tabari only included the story of Muhammad's
ascension from the sanctuary in Mecca to "the earthly heaven". Tabari placed this story
at the beginning of Muhammad's public ministry, between his account of Khadija
becoming "the first to believe in the Messenger of God" and his account of "the first
male to believe in the Messenger of God".[127]

Migration to Medina (Hijrah)

Main article: Hijrah
Medina, located over 200 miles (320 km) to the north of Mecca, is a lush oasis.
[130]
According to Muslim sources, the city was established by Jews who had survived the
revolt against the Romans.[131] While agriculture was far from being the domain of the
Arab tribes, the Jews were outstanding farmers, cultivating the land in the oases.
[131]
There were reportedly around 20 Jewish tribes residing in the city, with the three
most prominent being Banu Nadir, Banu Qaynuqa and Banu Qurayza.[132] In time, Arab
tribes from southern Arabia migrated to the city and settled down alongside the Jewish
community.[131] The Arab tribes consisted of Banu Aws and Banu Khazraj, both
collectively known as Banu Qayla.[133] Before 620, there had been fighting among the two
Arab tribes for almost a hundred years,[130] with each of them attempting to court the
assistance of the Jewish tribes,[134] which occasionally led to infighting between the latter.
[130]

Having lost all hope of winning converts among his fellow townspeople, Muhammad
limited his efforts to non-Meccans who attended fairs or made pilgrimages.[135] During
these endeavors, Muhammad had an encounter with six individuals from the Banu
Khazraj. These men had a history of raiding Jews in their locality, who in turn would
warn them that a prophet would be sent to punish them. On hearing Muhammad's
religious message, they said to each other, "This is the very prophet of whom the Jews
warned us. Don't let them get to him before us!" Upon embracing Islam, they returned to
Medina and shared their encounter, hoping that by having their people—the Khazraj
and the Aws, who had been at odds for so long—accept Islam and adopt Muhammad
as their leader, unity could be achieved between them.[136][137]
The next year, five of the earlier converts revisited Muhammad, bringing with them
seven newcomers, three of whom were from the Banu Aws. At Aqaba, near Mecca,
they pledged their loyalty to him.[136] Muhammad then entrusted Mus'ab ibn Umayr to join
them on their return to Medina to promote Islam. Come June 622, a significant
clandestine meeting was convened, again at Aqaba. In this gathering, seventy-five
individuals from Medina attended, including two women, representing all the converts of
the oases.[138] Muhammad asked them to protect him as they would protect their wives
and children. They concurred and gave him their oath,[139] commonly referred to as the
second pledge of Aqaba or the pledge of war. Paradise was Muhammad's promise to
them in exchange for their loyalty.[140][141]

Subsequently, Muhammad called upon the Meccan Muslims to relocate to Medina.[138]

[142]
This event is known as the Hijrah, which basically means "severing of kinship ties."[143]
[144]
The departures spanned approximately three months. To avoid arriving in Medina by
himself with his followers remaining in Mecca, Muhammad chose not to go ahead and
instead stayed back to watch over them and persuade those who were reluctant.
[138]
Some were held back by their families from leaving, but in the end, there were no
Muslims left in Mecca.[145][146] Muhammad regarded this migration as an expulsion by the
Quraysh.[146]

According to Islamic tradition, Abu Jahl, in light of the unfolding events, proposed a joint
assassination of Muhammad by representatives of each clan. Having been informed
about this by the angel Gabriel, Muhammad asked his cousin Ali to lie in his bed
covered with his green hadrami mantle, assuring that it would safeguard him. After
staying hidden for three days, Muhammad subsequently departed with Abu Bakr for
Medina,[147] which at the time was still named Yathrib. The Meccan Muslims who
undertook the migration were then called the Muhajirun, while the Medinan Muslims
were dubbed the Ansar.[148]

Medinan years
Main article: Muhammad in Medina
According to the 19th-century orientalist Julius Wellhausen, when Muhammad arrived in
the city in 622, the Jewish tribes were allied with the two Arab tribes as subordinates.
However, 21st-century historian Russ Rodgers disagrees. He argues that during
Muhammad's second pledge of Aqaba, members of the Arab tribes stated they had to
break certain alliances with the Jews due to the nature of the pledge. Rodgers infers it
was the Arab tribes who held a subservient or, at most, an equal position to the Jews,
since otherwise, the Jews would have been drawn into the covenant.[149]

Constitution of Medina
See also: Constitution of Medina
Ibn Ishaq, following his narration of the hijrah, maintains that Muhammad penned a text
now referred to as the Constitution of Medina and divulges its assumed content without
supplying any isnad or corroboration.[150] The appellation is generally deemed imprecise,
as the text neither established a state nor enacted Quranic statutes,[151] but rather
addressed tribal matters.[152] While scholars from both the West and the Muslim world
agree on the text's authenticity, disagreements persist on whether it was a treaty or a
unilateral proclamation by Muhammad, the number of documents it comprised, the
primary parties, the specific timing of its creation (or that of its constituent parts),
whether it was drafted before or after Muhammad's removal of the three leading Jewish
tribes of Medina, and the proper approach to translating it.[150][153]

Beginning of armed conflict

Main article: Battle of Badr
See also: Military career of Muhammad and List of expeditions of Muhammad
show
 v

 t

 e
Campaigns of Muhammad

In the early stages of his time in Medina, Muhammad was optimistic that the Jewish
people would acknowledge him as a Prophet and strove to obtain converts from their
community.[148] However, his efforts were unsuccessful and even faced ridicule, as the
Jews perceived inconsistencies between the Quran and their own scriptures.
Consequently, the Quran accused the Jews of hiding and modifying parts of their holy
texts. The Jewish criticism and refusal presented a danger to his prophetic claims, and,
as a result, the views of Muhammad and the Quran towards them worsened.[154][155][156] This
then led to the reorientation of the Muslim prayer direction, the qibla, from Jerusalem to
the Kaaba in Mecca.[157][158]

Muhammad's designation of Mecca as the center of Islam, coupled with his need to
settle scores with the Meccans after his threats of divine punishment against them
never materialized,[159] as well as the economic hardships he and the Muhajirun faced in
Medina,[160][161] culminated in a new divine directive—to fight the polytheists.[159] Muhammad
thus dispatched his followers to perform raids on the Quraysh's trading caravans.[159][162]
[163]
Certain Meccan followers of his were reluctant to participate, as it would mean
attacking their own tribespeople. This vexed Muhammad, resulting in the revelation of
Quran verse 2:216, among others, which asserts that fighting is good and has been
made obligatory for them.[159] After several months of failures, Muhammad managed to
achieve his first successful raid, at Nakhla, during a month that the pagans forbade
themselves from shedding blood.[164][165] When the bountiful plunder was being brought
back to him in Medina,[159] Muhammad was met with censure from the locals. He
contended that his followers had misconstrued his command, and he postponed taking
his one-fifth portion of the spoil until a verse was ultimately revealed, legitimizing the
attack.[166][167][168][169]
Permission has been given to those who are being fought, because they were wronged. And indeed, Allah is competent to give
them victory. Those who have been evicted from their homes without right—only because they say, "Our Lord is Allah." And
were it not that Allah checks the people, some by means of others, there would have been demolished monasteries, churches,
synagogues, and mosques in which the name of Allah is much mentioned. And Allah will surely support those who support Him.
Indeed, Allah is Powerful and Exalted in Might.
— Quran (22:39–40)
Two months hence, a grand Quraysh trade caravan, representing the investments of all
Meccans, traveled home from Gaza. Recognizing this, Muhammad rallied his followers
to intercept it at Badr.[170] Abu Sufyan, who led the caravan, remembering earlier Muslim
raids, scouted ahead and discovered the Muslims lurking near Badr. He then had a
messenger rush to Mecca for aid.[171][172] Roughly 950 men journeyed to Badr in response.
After the caravan narrowly escaped through a risky route, some reinforcements opted to
withdraw,[173] while others remained and camouflaged their camp behind a hill.
[174]
Muhammad, upon discovering their presence through their water carrier, strategically
covered all wells with sand, reserving one for his forces. This bold maneuver compelled
the lingering Meccans to engage in battle for water.[175][174]

The battle commenced with individual duels between warriors from both sides, which
then escalated into a chaotic melee.[176] Although not participating in the combat,
Muhammad inspired his followers with the promise of paradise if they died fighting.
Many of the Quraysh were reluctant to kill their own kin, and just prior to midday, they
succumbed to panic and ran away.[177] Muhammad ordered the search for Abu Jahl. A
Muslim found him, beheaded him, and threw the head to Muhammad's feet who
jubilantly exclaimed: "The head of the enemy of God. Praise God, for there is no other
but He!"[178][179][180][181] The battle concluded with the Quraysh suffering 49 to 70 losses, while
the Muslims had 14 casualties.[178] The Muslims obtained considerable war spoils and a
number of prisoners. Umar desired that all of them be slain, yet Muhammad resolved
that ransom must be requested first, and afterwards, they could execute any for whom
no one was willing to pay.[177]

Upon his return to Medina, Muhammad immediately worked to solidify his authority. He
instructed the removal of Asma bint Marwan, who had criticized him in poetry.[182] One of
his followers executed her while she slept with her children, the youngest still nursing in
her arms. Upon learning of the deed, Muhammad lauded the act as a service to God
and his Messenger.[183][182][184] Shortly after, he called upon his followers to end the life of
the centenarian poet Abu Afak.[182] Simultaneously, Muhammad employed poets
like Hassan ibn Thabit to circulate his propaganda among the tribes.[182][185] When inquired
if he could shield Muhammad from his foes, Ibn Thabit is reported to have extended his
tongue and claimed there was no defense against his verbal prowess.[182][186]

Conflicts with Jewish tribes

Further information: Muhammad's views on Jews
Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad revealed his intention to expel the Jews from
the land.[187][188][189] Once the ransom arrangements for the Meccan captives were finalized,
he initiated a siege on the Banu Qaynuqa,[190] regarded as the weakest and wealthiest of
Medina's three main Jewish tribes.[191][192] Muslim sources provide different reasons for the
siege, including an altercation involving Hamza and Ali in the Banu Qaynuqa market,
and another version by Ibn Ishaq, which tells the story of a Muslim woman being
pranked by a Qaynuqa goldsmith.[192][193] Regardless of the cause, the Banu Qaynuqa
sought refuge in their fort, where Muhammad blockaded them, cutting off their access to
food supplies. After roughly two weeks, they capitulated without engaging in combat. [191]
[192]
At first, Muhammad planned to annihilate the surrendered tribe, but Abdullah ibn Ubayy,
a Khazraj chieftain who had embraced Islam, stepped in. Previously, the Qaynuqa had
protected him during multiple conflicts. Ibn Ubayy implored Muhammad to show
leniency, but Muhammad turned away without responding. Undeterred, Ibn Ubayy
grasped Muhammad's cloak, causing his face to darken with anger and demanding his
release. Ibn Ubayy persisted, refusing to let go until Muhammad consented to treat the
Qaynuqa well. Consequently, Muhammad spared their lives, stipulating that they must
depart Medina within three days and relinquish their property to the Muslims, with
Muhammad retaining a fifth.[191][192][194]

Having dealt with the Qaynuqa, Muhammad moved on to another personal matter. His
staunch critic, Ka'b ibn Ashraf, a wealthy half-Jewish man from Banu Nadir, had just
come back from Mecca after producing poetry that mourned the death of the Quraysh at
Badr and aroused them to retaliate.[195][196] Muhammad asked his followers, "Who is ready
to kill Ka'b, who has hurt God and His apostle?"[197][198] Ibn Maslama offered his services,
explaining that the task would require deception. Muhammad did not contest this. He
then gathered accomplices, including Ka'b's foster brother, Abu Naila. They pretended
to complain about their post-conversion hardships, persuading Ka'b to lend them food.
On the night of their meeting with Ka'b, they murdered him when he was caught off-
guard.[196][199][197]

Meccan retaliation
Main article: Battle of Uhud
 "The Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim
Army at the Battle of Uhud", from a 1595 edition of the Mamluk-Turkic Siyer-i Nebi
In 625, the Quraysh, wearied by Muhammad's continuous attacks on their caravans,
decided to take decisive action. Led by Abu Sufyan, they assembled an army to oppose
Muhammad.[190][200] Upon being alerted by his scout about the impending threat,
Muhammad convened a war council. Initially, he considered defending from the city
center, but later decided to meet the enemy in open battle at Uhud Hill, following the
insistence of the younger faction of his followers.[201] As they prepared to depart, the
remaining Jewish allies of Abdullah ibn Ubayy offered their help, which Muhammad
declined.[202] Despite being outnumbered, the Muslims initially held their ground but lost
advantage when some archers disobeyed orders.[190] As rumors of Muhammad's death
spread, the Muslims started to flee, but he had only been injured and managed to
escape with a group of loyal adherents. Satisfied they had restored their honor, the
Meccans returned to Mecca.[190][203]

Sometime later, Muhammad found himself needing to pay blood money to Banu Amir.
He sought monetary help from the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir,[204][205][206] and they agreed to
his request.[205] However, while waiting, he departed from his companions and
disappeared. When they found him at his home, according to Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad
disclosed that he had received a divine revelation of a planned assassination attempt on
him by the Banu Nadir, which involved dropping a boulder from a rooftop. Muhammad
then initiated a siege on the tribe,[207][208] during which he also commanded the felling and
burning of their palm groves.[209] After a fortnight or so, the Banu Nadir capitulated.
[210]
They were directed to vacate their land and permitted to carry only one camel-load of
goods for every three people.[211] From the spoils, Muhammad claimed a fertile piece of
land where barley sprouted amongst palm trees.[212]

Raid on the Banu Mustaliq

Upon receiving a report that the Banu Mustaliq were planning an attack on Medina,
Muhammad's troops executed a surprise attack on them at their watering place, causing
them to flee rapidly. In the confrontation, the Muslims lost one man, while the enemy
suffered ten casualties.[213] As part of their triumph, the Muslims seized 2,000 camels,
500 sheep and goats, and 200 women from the tribe.[214] The Muslim soldiers desired the
captive women, but they also sought ransom money. They asked Muhammad about
using coitus interruptus to prevent pregnancy, to which Muhammad replied, "You are
not under any obligation to forbear from that..."[215][216] Later, envoys arrived in Medina to
negotiate the ransom for the women and children. Despite having the choice, all of them
chose to return to their country instead of staying.[215][216]

Assassination of Khaybar leaders and the Banu Uraynah affair

Muhammad's northward raids of Medina had by now caused significant opposition.
Many, including Abu Rafi, one of Khaybar's key chieftains, were part of this resistance.
[217]
He was then killed in his room by the Muslims at night.[218] Sometime later, Khaybar
people selected Usayr ibn Razim as their emir.[219] Muhammad extended an invitation for
him to come to Medina for a settlement. He agreed, but during the journey, the Muslims
killed him along with his companions by surprise. Muhammad praised the commandos’
leader for his work when he came back to Medina.[220][221][219]

Around this particular time, eight men from the Banu Uraynah tribe sought to embrace
Islam. They conveyed their discomfort with the city's climate to Muhammad. As a
solution, he ordered them to drink the urine and milk of his camels. However, they opted
to steal the camels, killing the caretakers in the process. Upon their capture,
Muhammad had their eyes gouged out and their limbs cut off. They were then left to die
in the desert.[222][223]

Battle of the Trench

Main article: Battle of the Trench
Realizing that their victory at Uhud had failed to substantially weaken Muhammad's
position as he continued to orchestrate raids on their trade caravans, the Quraysh finally
saw the imperative of capturing Medina, a move they had previously neglected.[190] This
decision, according to Muslim sources, was partly influenced by some leaders of
the Banu Nadir, who were distressed over the loss of their lands.[224][190] However, that
account may simply have been Muslim propaganda.[225] Aware of their limited warfare
skills as city merchants, the Quraysh initiated extensive negotiations with
various Bedouin tribes, amassing a force believed to number around 10,000 men.
[190]
Informed early by his allies in Mecca, Muhammad ordered his followers to fortify
Medina with trenches, on the advice of Salman the Persian.[226] The Jews of Banu
Qurayza assisted with this effort by digging the trenches and lending their tools to the
Muslims.[227][228][226] The approaching Quraysh and their allies, unfamiliar with trench
warfare, were drawn into a protracted siege. Muhammad exploited this situation, using
covert negotiations with the Ghatafan tribe to create discord among his enemies. As the
weather deteriorated, morale among the Quraysh and their allies waned, leading to their
withdrawal.[190] The siege saw minimal casualties, with five to six on the Muslims' side
and three among the besiegers.[229][230]

Massacre of the Banu Qurayza

Main article: Invasion of Banu Qurayza
On the exact day the Quraysh forces and their allies withdrew, Muhammad, while
bathing at his wife's abode, received a visit from the angel Gabriel, who instructed him
to attack the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza.[229][231][232] Islamic sources recount that during
the preceding Meccan siege, Abu Sufyan, the Quraysh leader, incited the Qurayza to
attack the Muslims from their compound, but the Qurayza demanded the Quraysh to
provide 70 hostages from among themselves to ascertain their commitment to their
plans, as proposed by Muhammad's secret agent Nu'aym ibn Mas'ud. Abu Sufyan
refused their requirement.[233] Nevertheless, later accounts claim that 11 Jewish
individuals from the Qurayza were indeed agitated and acted against Muhammad, but
no evidence substantiates such an attack, and the tradition had every reason to
dramatize the incident as a justification for the subsequent massacre.[234][231]

Muhammad besieged the tribe, alleging they had taken sides against him, which they
firmly refuted.[235] As the situation turned dire, they proposed to leave their land but asked
to be allowed to take movable goods, the load of a camel per person; Muhammad
refused. They then offered to leave without taking anything, but Muhammad rejected
this as well. He insisted on their unconditional surrender.[236][235] The Qurayza
subsequently requested to confer with one of their Aws allies who had embraced Islam,
leading to the arrival of Abu Lubaba. When asked about Muhammad's intentions, he
gestured towards his throat, indicating an imminent massacre. He immediately regretted
his indiscretion and tied himself to one of the Mosque pillars as a form of penance. [237][236]

After a 25-day siege, the Banu Qurayza surrendered.[238] The Muslims of Banu Aws
entreated Muhammad for leniency, prompting him to suggest that one of their own
should serve as the judge, which they accepted. Muhammad assigned the role to Sa'd
ibn Muadh, a man nearing death due to wounds from the previous Meccan siege.[237]
[239]
He pronounced that all the men should be put to death, their possessions distributed
among Muslims, and their women and children taken as captives. Muhammad declared,
"You have judged according to the very sentence of God above the seven heavens."[237]
[238]
Consequently, 600–900 men of Banu Qurayza were executed. The women and
children were distributed as slaves, with some being transported to Najd to be sold. The
proceeds were then utilized to purchase weapons and horses for the Muslims.[240][241][242][243]

Incidents with the Banu Fazara

After a few months of rest following the annihilation of the Qurayza, Muhammad
prepared to conduct numerous operations. The sources no longer frequently report him
receiving word of impending attacks against the Muslims in Medina, suggesting that
Muhammad, recognizing his newfound strength, felt capable enough to discard any
pretenses and directly confront potential rivals.[244] Several tribes, finding no other
defensive option, eventually joined the Muslims, understanding from Muhammad's clear
decree that Muslims could only raid non-Muslims, thus the most efficient way to avoid
the raids was to join the raiders.[245]

During this period, Muhammad organized a caravan, presumably stocked with recent
spoils, to conduct trade in Syria. Zayd ibn Harithah was tasked with guarding the
convoy. However, when they journeyed through the territory of Banu Fazara, whom
Zayd had raided in the past, the tribe seized the opportunity for revenge, attacked the
caravan, and injured him. Upon his return to Medina, Muhammad decided that a
punitive expedition was necessary. Zayd led this operation, successfully capturing Umm
Qirfa, the esteemed Fazara matriarch. As punishment, Zayd ordered Qays ibn al-
Musahhar to execute her. He did so by tying each of her legs to separate camels, which
were then driven in opposite directions, leading to her brutal death.[246][247]

Treaty of Hudaybiyya
Main article: Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

The Kaaba in Mecca long held a major

economic and religious role for the area. Seventeen months after Muhammad's arrival
in Medina, it became the Muslim Qibla, or direction for prayer (salat). The Kaaba has
been rebuilt several times; the present structure, built in 1629, is a reconstruction of an
earlier building dating to 683.
[248]

Early in 628, following a dream of making an unopposed pilgrimage to Mecca,

Muhammad embarked on the journey. He was dressed in his customary pilgrim attire
and was accompanied by a group of followers.[249] Upon reaching Hudaybiyya, they
encountered Quraysh emissaries who questioned their intentions. Muhammad
explained they had come to venerate the Kaaba, not to fight.[250] He then
sent Uthman, Abu Sufyan's second cousin, to negotiate with the Quraysh. As the
negotiations were prolonged, rumors of Uthman's death began to spark, prompting
Muhammad to call his followers to renew their oaths of loyalty. Uthman returned with
news of a negotiation impasse. Muhammad remained persistent. In the end, the
Quraysh sent Suhayl ibn Amr, an envoy with full negotiation powers. Following lengthy
discussions, a treaty was finally enacted,[251] with terms:

1. A ten-year truce was established between both parties.

2. If a Qurayshite came to Muhammad's without his guardian's allowance,
he was to be returned to the Quraysh; yet, if a Muslim came to the
Quraysh, he would not be surrendered to Muhammad.
3. Any tribes interested in forming alliances with Muhammad or the Quraysh
were free to do so. These alliances were also protected by the ten-year
truce.
4. Muslims were then required to depart back to Medina, however, they were
permitted to make the Umrah pilgrimage in the coming year.[251][250]
Invasion of Khaybar
Main article: Battle of Khaybar
Roughly ten weeks subsequent to his return from Hudaybiyya, Muhammad expressed
his plan to invade Khaybar, a flourishing oasis about 75 miles (121 km) north of Medina.
The city was populated by Jews, including those from the Banu Nadir, who had
previously been expelled by Muhammad from Medina. With the prospect of rich spoils
from the mission, numerous volunteers answered his call.[252][253] To keep their movements
hidden, the Muslim military chose to march during the nighttime. As dawn arrived and
the city folks stepped out of their fortifications to harvest their dates, they were taken
aback by the sight of the advancing Muslim forces. Muhammad cried out, "Allahu Akbar!
Khaybar is destroyed. For when we approach a people's land, a terrible morning awaits
the warned ones."[254] After a strenuous battle lasting more than a month, the Muslims
successfully captured the city.[255] The loss in the confrontation was 15–17 Muslims and
93 Jews.[256]

The spoils, inclusive of the wives of the slain warriors, were distributed among the
Muslims.[257] Muhammad claimed Safiyya bint Huyayy, a beautiful 17-year-old girl, from
among the captives.[258] Following the battle, her husband, Kinana ibn al-Rabi, was put
through torture by Muhammad's decree for declining to reveal his tribe's hidden wealth,
and subsequently beheaded.[259][258][260] Her father and brother had been executed during
the massacre of the Banu Qurayza.[261] Overwhelmed by her beauty, Muhammad had
sex with her the very night, contradicting his own mandate that his followers should wait
for the captives' next menstrual cycle to begin before having intercourse.[258][262][263]

Following their defeat by the Muslims, some of the Jews proposed to Muhammad that
they stay and serve as tenant farmers, given the Muslims' lack of expertise and labor
force for date palm cultivation. They agreed to give half of the annual produce to the
Muslims. Muhammad consented to this arrangement with the caveat that he could
displace them at any time. While they were allowed to farm, he demanded the surrender
of all gold or silver, executing those who secreted away their wealth.[264][265] Taking a cue
from what transpired in Khaybar, the Jews in Fadak immediately sent an envoy to
Muhammad and agreed to the same terms of relinquishing 50% of their annual harvest.
However, since no combat occurred, the rank and file had no claim to a portion of the
spoils. Consequently, all the loot became Muhammad's exclusive wealth.[266][267]

At the feast following the battle, the meal served to Muhammad was reportedly
poisoned. His companion, Bishr, fell dead after consuming it, while Muhammad himself
managed to vomit it out after tasting it.[266][268] The perpetrator was Zaynab bint al-Harith, a
Jewish woman whose father, uncle, and husband had been killed by the Muslims.
[258]
When asked why she did it, she replied, "You know what you've done to my people...
I said to myself: If he is truly a prophet, he will know about the poison. If he's merely a
king, I'll be rid of him."[266][258] One account suggests Muhammad forgave her, but in other
more accepted reports, she was killed thereafter.[266] Muhammad suffered illness for a
period due to the poison he ingested, and he endured sporadic pain from it until his
death.[269][270]

Fulfilled umrah and the Battle of Mu'tah

A year after the treaty of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad took some of his followers to perform
the umrah in Mecca.[271] The Quraysh moved out of the city for the nearby mountain and
allowed the Muslims to complete the ritual.[272] Taking the opportunity of his stay,
Muhammad married Maymunah bint al-Harith, a 27-year-old sister of the wife of his
uncle al-Abbas.[273] On the fourth day, when his allotted time by the treaty was over,
Muhammad offered the Quraysh to join his wedding feast he was planning to hold in the
city, but they refused and told him to depart immediately.[274]

Upon returning to Medina, Muhammad launched four raids on tribes in the vicinity. Two
of these ended in defeat, while the remaining two yielded plunder. Muhammad then
directed his army to move northwards, towards the frontier of the Byzantine Empire.
[274]
Although outnumbered, the Muslim army advanced to confront their adversaries, with
victory or martyrdom as their aim. The two parties clashed at Mu'tah and it ended in
defeat for the Muslims. Zayd ibn Haritha, Muhammad's adopted son, died as a
commander at the battle.[275] Khalid ibn Walid, who had now embraced Islam, gathered
the surviving Muslims to retreat.[276]

Final years
Conquest of Mecca
Main articles: Conquest of Mecca and Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca
 A depiction of Muhammad (with veiled face) advancing
on Mecca from Siyer-i Nebi, a 16th-century Ottoman manuscript. The angels Gabriel,
Michael, Israfil and Azrail, are also shown.
After amassing a powerful alliance, Muhammad once more set his sights on his
hometown, Mecca. He leveraged his covert agent, Budayl ibn Warqa, to fan the flames
of discord between Banu Bakr, supported by the Quraysh, and Banu Khuza'ah, his ally.
[277]
Taking the ensuing conflict as a casus belli, Muhammad led his forces towards
Mecca.[278] Upon nearing the city, he ordered the creation of individual fires to magnify
the perceived size of his army. He sent al-Abbas, his uncle, to warn the Meccan
chief Abu Sufyan that if they were to invade the city, it could result in the slaughter of
the Quraysh, including himself.[279] Abu Sufyan then went to meet Muhammad and
converted to Islam. He subsequently went back to the city and told the citizens that their
lives and property would be safe as long as they did not resist and remained in their
homes, went to the Kaaba, or stayed with him.[280]

Muhammad sent out his forces with a short list of six men and four women to be killed
on sight. Among those targeted was his former scribe, Abdullah ibn Sa'd ibn Abi Sarh.
[281]
While transcribing the Quranic verses from Muhammad's dictation, Abdullah filled a
brief pause by Muhammad by vocalizing his own version of the rest of the verse.
Absentmindedly, Muhammad instructed him to include it.[282] He also professed to have
intermittently modified the substance of the Quran's dictation, which Muhammad failed
to detect. These factors led him to abandon Islam and return to Mecca. Later, during the
conquest, Abdullah, in the company of his foster brother Uthman, implored Muhammad
for mercy, which was eventually given. However, as they left, Muhammad rebuked his
companions, "I was silent for a long time. Why did not one of you kill this dog?" When
inquired why he did not signal, Muhammad irritably retorted, "One does not kill by
signs." After Muhammad's death, Abdullah became a top official in the Islamic state. [281][283]
Ibn Khatal al-Adrami, another apostate, was not as fortunate. He authored verses
critical of Muhammad and had two girls sing them at a party he held. Amid the
conquest, he desperately clung to the Kaaba's curtain. Muhammad, upon hearing this,
ordered his execution, nonetheless. One of the songstresses was later found and
similarly executed.[281][283] In sum, only three out of the ten targets were located and
eliminated. The remainder were able to secure a form of pardon for their past deeds
and were allowed to join the ranks of Islam.[284] In their advances, the Muslim forces
faced only little resistance from one sector of Mecca, which was effortlessly defeated
by Khalid ibn al-Walid.[285] Eventually, Muhammad visited the Kaaba and had it cleared of
all idols and images, except, reportedly, the paintings of Abraham, Jesus, and Mary.[285]
[283]
All of Mecca's residents were then gathered and made to pledge their allegiance to
him and convert to Islam.[285]

Subduing the Hawazin and Thaqif and the expedition to Tabuk

Main articles: Battle of Hunayn and Expedition to Tabouk

Conquests of Muhammad (green lines) and

the Rashidun caliphs (black lines). Shown: Byzantine empire (North and West) &
Sassanid-Persian empire (Northeast).
Upon learning that Mecca had fallen to the Muslims, the Banu Hawazin gathered their
entire tribe, including their families, to fight.[286] They are estimated to have around 4,000
warriors.[287][288] Muhammad led 12,000 soldiers to raid them, but they surprised him at
Wadi Hunayn.[289] The Muslims overpowered them and took their women, children and
animals.[290] Muhammad then turned his attention to Taif, a city that was famous for its
vineyards and gardens. He ordered them to be destroyed and besieged the city, which
was surrounded by walls. After 15–20 days of failing to breach their defenses, he
abandoned the attempts.[291][292]

When he divided the plentiful loot acquired at Hunayn among his soldiers, the rest of the
Hawazin converted to Islam[293] and implored Muhammad to release their children and
women, reminding him that he had been nursed by some of those women when he was
a baby. He complied but held on to the rest of the plunder. Some of his men opposed
giving away their portions, so he compensated them with six camels each from
subsequent raids.[294] Muhammad distributed a big portion of the booty to the new
converts from the Quraysh. Abu Sufyan and two of his sons, Muawiyya and Yazid, got
100 camels individually.[295][296] The Ansar, who had fought bravely in the battle, but
received close to nothing, were unhappy with this.[297][298] One of them remarked, "It is not
with such gifts that one seeks God's face." Disturbed with this utterance, Muhammad
retorted, "He changed color."[295]

Roughly 10 months after he captured Mecca, Muhammad took his army to attack the
wealthy border provinces of Byzantine Syria.[299][300] Several motives are proposed,
including avenging the defeat at Mu'tah and earning vast booty.[301][302] Because of the
drought and severe heat at that time, some of the Muslims refrained from participating.
This led to the revelation of Quran 9:38 which rebuked those slackers.[303] When
Muhammad and his army reached Tabuk, there were no hostile forces present.
[304]
However, he was able to force some of the local chiefs to accept his rule and
pay jizya. A group under Khalid ibn Walid that he sent for a raid also managed to
acquire some booty including 2,000 camels and 800 cattle.[305]

The Hawazin's acceptance of Islam resulted in Taif losing its last major ally.[306] After
enduring a year of unrelenting thefts and terror attacks from the Muslims following the
siege, the people of Taif, known as the Banu Thaqif, finally reached a tipping point and
acknowledged that embracing Islam was the most sensible path for them.[307][308][309]

Farewell pilgrimage
Main article: Farewell Pilgrimage
See also: Ghadir Khumm

Anonymous illustration of al-Bīrūnī's The

Remaining Signs of Past Centuries, depicting Muhammad prohibiting Nasī' during
the Farewell Pilgrimage, 17th-century Ottoman copy of a 14th-century (Ilkhanate)
manuscript (Edinburgh codex)
On February 631, Muhammad received a revelation granting idolaters four months of
grace, after which the Muslims would attack, kill, and plunder them wherever they met.
[310][311]

During the 632 pilgrimage season, Muhammad personally led the ceremonies and gave
a sermon. Among the key points highlighted are said to have been the prohibition of
usury and vendettas related to past murders from the pre-Islamic era; the brotherhood
of all Muslims; and the adoption of twelve lunar months without intercalation.[312][313] He
also reaffirmed that husbands had the right to discipline and strike their wives without
excessive force if they were unfaithful or misbehaved. He explained that wives were
entrusted to their husbands and, if obedient, deserved to be provided with food and
clothing, as they were gifts from God for personal enjoyment.[314]

Death and tomb

The death of Muhammad. From the Siyer-i

Nebi, c. 1595.
After praying at the burial site in June 632, Muhammad suffered a dreadful headache
that made him cry in pain.[315][316] He continued to spend the night with each of his wives
one by one,[317] but he fainted in Maymunah's hut.[318] He requested his wives to allow him
to stay in Aisha's hut. He could not walk there without leaning on Ali and Fadl ibn
Abbas, as his legs were trembling. His wives and his uncle al-Abbas fed him an
Abyssinian remedy when he was unconscious.[319] When he came to, he inquired about
it, and they explained they were afraid he had pleurisy. He replied that God would not
afflict him with such a vile disease, and ordered all the women to also take the remedy.
[320]
According to various sources, including Sahih al-Bukhari, Muhammad said that he
felt his aorta being severed because of the food he ate at Khaybar.[321][270] On 8 June 632,
Muhammad died. In his last moments, he reportedly uttered:

"O God, forgive me and have mercy on me; and let me join the highest companions." [322]
[323][324]

— Muhammad
Historian Alfred T. Welch speculates that Muhammad's death was caused by Medinan
fever, which was aggravated by physical and mental fatigue.[325]

Muhammad was buried where he died in Aisha's house.[11][326][327] During the reign of the
Umayyad caliph al-Walid I, al-Masjid an-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) was
expanded to include the site of Muhammad's tomb.[328] The Green Dome above the tomb
was built by the Mamluk sultan Al Mansur Qalawun in the 13th century, although the
green color was added in the 16th century, under the reign of Ottoman sultan Suleiman
the Magnificent.[329] Among tombs adjacent to that of Muhammad are those of his
companions (Sahabah), the first two Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, and an empty
one that Muslims believe awaits Jesus.[327][330][331]

When Saud bin Abdul-Aziz took Medina in 1805, Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its
gold and jewel ornamentation.[332] Adherents to Wahhabism, Saud's followers, destroyed
nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration,[332] and the one of
Muhammad is reported to have narrowly escaped.[333] Similar events took place in 1925,
when the Saudi militias retook—and this time managed to keep—the city.[334][335][336] In the
Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, burial is to take place in unmarked graves.[333] Although
the practice is frowned upon by the Saudis, many pilgrims continue to practice a ziyarat
—a ritual visit—to the tomb.[337][338]

Al-Masjid an-Nabawi ("the Prophet's mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, with the Green Dome built over
Muhammad's tomb in the center

After Muhammad
Further information: Succession to Muhammad, Rashidun, and Early Muslim
conquests

Expansion of the caliphate, 622–750 CE:

Muhammad, 622–632 CE.
Rashidun caliphate, 632–661 CE.
Umayyad caliphate, 661–750 CE.
With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out over who his successor would be.[12]
[13]
Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr,
Muhammad's friend and collaborator. With additional support Abu Bakr was confirmed
as the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who
held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated the
successor by Muhammad at Ghadir Khumm. Abu Bakr immediately moved to strike
against the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces because of the previous
defeat, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an event that
Muslim historians later referred to as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[i]

The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sassanian empires.
The Roman–Persian Wars between the two had devastated the region, making the
empires unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, in the lands that would be
conquered by Muslims many Christians
(Nestorians, Monophysites, Jacobites and Copts) were disaffected from the Eastern
Orthodox Church which deemed them heretics. Within a decade Muslims
conquered Mesopotamia, Byzantine Syria, Byzantine Egypt,[339] large parts of Persia, and
established the Rashidun Caliphate.

Household
Further information: Muhammad's wives and Ahl al-Bayt

The tomb of Muhammad is located in the

quarters of his third wife, Aisha (Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Medina).
Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in
Mecca (from 570 to 622), and post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is
said to have had thirteen wives in total (although two have ambiguous
accounts, Rayhana bint Zayd and Maria al-Qibtiyya, as wife or concubine[j][340]). Eleven of
the thirteen marriages occurred after the migration to Medina.

At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy Khadijah bint Khuwaylid who was 40
years old.[341] The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.[342] Muhammad did
not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage.[343][344] After Khadijah's
death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad that he should marry Sawdah bint
Zam'ah, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, daughter of Umm Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca.
Muhammad is said to have asked for arrangements to marry both.[345]
According to traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to
Muhammad,[345][346][347] with the marriage not being consummated until she reached the age
of nine or ten years old.[k] She was therefore a virgin at marriage.[346]

After migration to Medina, Muhammad, who was then in his fifties, married several more
women.

Muhammad performed household chores such as preparing food, sewing clothes, and
repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he
listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.[355][356][357]

Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad (Ruqayyah bint
Muhammad, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, Zainab bint Muhammad, Fatimah Zahra)
and two sons (Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad and Qasim ibn Muhammad, who both died in
childhood). All but one of his daughters, Fatimah, died before him.[358] Some Shi'a
scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter.[359] Maria al-
Qibtiyya bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, who died at two years old.[358]

Nine of Muhammad's wives survived him.[340] Aisha, who became known as

Muhammad's favorite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was
instrumental in helping assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad that form the
Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.[345]

Muhammad's descendants through Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids.

These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning
'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and
Shi'a, though the Shi'a place much more emphasis and value on their distinction.[360]

Zayd ibn Haritha was a slave that Khadija gave to Muhammad. He was bought by her
nephew Hakim bin Hizam at the market in Ukaz.[361] Zayd then became the couple's
adopted son, but was later disowned when Muhammad was about to marry Zayd's ex-
wife, Zaynab bint Jahsh.[362] According to a BBC summary, "the Prophet Muhammad did
not try to abolish slavery, and bought, sold, captured, and owned slaves himself. But he
insisted that slave owners treat their slaves well and stressed the virtue of freeing
slaves. Muhammad treated slaves as human beings and clearly held some in the
highest esteem".[363]

Legacy
Islamic tradition
Main article: Muhammad in Islam
Following the attestation to the oneness of God, the belief in Muhammad's prophethood
is the main aspect of the Islamic faith. Every Muslim proclaims in the Shahadah: "I
testify that there is no god but God, and I testify that Muhammad is a Messenger of
God". The Shahadah is the basic creed or tenet of Islam. Islamic belief is that ideally the
Shahadah is the first words a newborn will hear; children are taught it immediately and it
will be recited upon death. Muslims repeat the shahadah in the call to prayer (adhan)
and the prayer itself. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the
creed.[364]

Calligraphic rendering of "may God honor him and

grant him peace", customarily added after Muhammad's name, encoded as
a ligature at Unicode code point U+FDFA ‫ﷺ‬ [365]

In Islamic belief, Muhammad is regarded as the last prophet sent by God.[366]

[367]
The Quran affirms that the only miracle given to Muhammad was the Quran itself,[128]
[368][369]
and offers various reasons for why he was unable to perform any other miracles
when his enemies requested them.[84][85] However, later writings such
as hadith and sira attribute several miracles or supernatural events to Muhammad after
his death.[369] One of these is the splitting of the moon, which according to a report from
Muhammad's cousin Ibn Abbas, was in fact a lunar eclipse, but this event was
transformed into a literal splitting of the moon in later interpretations. [85]

The Sunnah represents actions and sayings of Muhammad (preserved in reports known
as Hadith) and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from religious
rituals, personal hygiene, and burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving the
love between humans and God. The Sunnah is considered a model of emulation for
pious Muslims and has to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture. The greeting
that Muhammad taught Muslims to offer each other, "may peace be upon you"
(Arabic: as-salamu 'alaykum) is used by Muslims throughout the world. Many details of
major Islamic rituals such as daily prayers, the fasting and the annual pilgrimage are
only found in the Sunnah and not the Quran.[370]
 The Muslim profession of faith, the Shahadah,
illustrates the Muslim conception of the role of Muhammad: "There is no god except the
God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God", in Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, Turkey.
Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad. Stories of
Muhammad's life, his intercession and of his miracles have permeated popular Muslim
thought and poetry. Among Arabic odes to Muhammad, Qasidat al-Burda ("Poem of the
Mantle") by the Egyptian Sufi al-Busiri (1211–1294) is particularly well-known, and
widely held to possess a healing, spiritual power.[371] The Quran refers to Muhammad as
"a mercy (rahmat) to the worlds"[372][11] The association of rain with mercy in Oriental
countries has led to imagining Muhammad as a rain cloud dispensing blessings and
stretching over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly dead
earth.[l][11] Muhammad's birthday is celebrated as a major feast throughout the Islamic
world, excluding Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are
discouraged.[373] When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad, they usually follow
it with the Arabic phrase ṣallā llahu ʿalayhi wa-sallam (may God honor him and grant
him peace) or the English phrase peace be upon him.[374] In casual writing, the
abbreviations SAW (for the Arabic phrase) or PBUH (for the English phrase) are
sometimes used; in printed matter, a small calligraphic rendition is commonly used (
‫)ﷺ‬.

Appearance and depictions

Main article: Depictions of Muhammad
Various sources present a probable description of Muhammad in the prime of his life.
He was slightly above average in height, with a sturdy frame and wide chest. His neck
was long, bearing a large head with a broad forehead. His eyes were described as dark
and intense, accentuated by long, dark eyelashes. His hair, black and not entirely curly,
hung over his ears. His long, dense beard stood out against his neatly trimmed
mustache. His nose was long and aquiline, ending in a fine point. His teeth were well-
spaced. His face was described as intelligent, and his clear skin had a line of hair from
his neck to his navel. Despite a slight stoop, his stride was brisk and purposeful.
[375]
Muhammad's lip and cheek were ripped by a slingstone during the battle of Uhud.[376]
[377]
The wound was later cauterized, leaving a scar on his face.[378]

However, since the hadith prohibits the creation of images of sentient living beings,
Islamic religious art mainly focuses on the word.[379][380] Muslims generally avoid depictions
of Muhammad, and instead decorate mosques with calligraphy, Quranic inscriptions, or
geometrical designs.[379][381] Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad—
designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God—is much more strictly
observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and Ahmadiyya Islam (1%) than
among Shias (10%–15%).[382] While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of
Muhammad in the past,[383] Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare.[379] They have
mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since about
1500 most depictions show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent
him as a flame.[381][384]

Muhammad's entry into Mecca and the

destruction of idols. Muhammad is shown as a flame in this manuscript. Found in
Bazil's Hamla-i Haydari, Jammu and Kashmir, India, 1808.
The earliest extant depictions come from 13th century Anatolian
Seljuk and Ilkhanid Persian miniatures, typically in literary genres describing the life and
deeds of Muhammad.[384][385] During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia's Mongol rulers
converted to Islam, competing Sunni and Shi'a groups used visual imagery, including
images of Muhammad, to promote their particular interpretation of Islam's key events.
[386]
Influenced by the Buddhist tradition of representational religious art predating the
Mongol elite's conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the Islamic world, and
accompanied by a "broader shift in Islamic artistic culture away from abstraction toward
representation" in "mosques, on tapestries, silks, ceramics, and in glass and metalwork"
besides books.[387] In the Persian lands, this tradition of realistic depictions lasted through
the Timurid dynasty until the Safavids took power in the early 16th century.[386] The
Safavaids, who made Shi'i Islam the state religion, initiated a departure from the
traditional Ilkhanid and Timurid artistic style by covering Muhammad's face with a veil to
obscure his features and at the same time represent his luminous essence.
[388]
Concomitantly, some of the unveiled images from earlier periods were defaced.[386][389]
[390]
Later images were produced in Ottoman Turkey and elsewhere, but mosques were
never decorated with images of Muhammad.[383] Illustrated accounts of the night journey
(mi'raj) were particularly popular from the Ilkhanid period through the Safavid era.
[391]
During the 19th century, Iran saw a boom of printed and illustrated mi'raj books, with
Muhammad's face veiled, aimed in particular at illiterates and children in the manner
of graphic novels. Reproduced through lithography, these were essentially "printed
manuscripts".[391] Today, millions of historical reproductions and modern images are
available in some Muslim-majority countries, especially Turkey and Iran, on posters,
postcards, and even in coffee-table books, but are unknown in most other parts of the
Islamic world, and when encountered by Muslims from other countries, they can cause
considerable consternation and offense.[383][384]

Islamic social reforms

Main article: Early social changes under Islam
According to William Montgomery Watt, religion for Muhammad was not a private and
individual matter but "the total response of his personality to the total situation in which
he found himself. He was responding [not only]... to the religious and intellectual
aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which
contemporary Mecca was subject."[392] Bernard Lewis says there are two important
political traditions in Islam—Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and Muhammad as
a rebel in Mecca. In his view, Islam is a great change, akin to a revolution, when
introduced to new societies.[393]

Historians generally agree that Islamic social changes in areas such as social security,
family structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on the status
quo of Arab society.[393][m] For example, according to Lewis, Islam "from the first
denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the
career open to the talents".[393] Muhammad's message transformed society and moral
orders of life in the Arabian Peninsula; society focused on the changes to perceived
identity, world view, and the hierarchy of values.[394][page needed] Economic reforms addressed
the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in pre-Islamic Mecca.[395] The Quran
requires payment of an alms tax (zakat) for the benefit of the poor; as Muhammad's
power grew he demanded that tribes who wished to ally with him implement the zakat in
particular.[396][397]

European appreciation
 Muhammad in La vie de Mahomet by M. Prideaux
(1699). He holds a sword and a crescent while trampling on a globe, a cross, and
the Ten Commandments.
Guillaume Postel was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad
when he argued that Muhammad should be esteemed by Christians as a valid prophet.
[11][398]
Gottfried Leibniz praised Muhammad because "he did not deviate from the natural
religion".[11] Henri de Boulainvilliers, in his Vie de Mahomed which was published
posthumously in 1730, described Muhammad as a gifted political leader and a just
lawmaker.[11] He presents him as a divinely inspired messenger whom God employed to
confound the bickering Oriental Christians, to liberate the Orient from the despotic rule
of the Romans and Persians, and to spread the knowledge of the unity of God from
India to Spain.[399] Voltaire had a mixed opinion on Muhammad: in his play Le fanatisme,
ou Mahomet le Prophète he vilifies Muhammad as a symbol of fanaticism, and in an
essay in 1748 he calls him "a sublime and hearty charlatan". But in Voltaire's historical
survey Essai sur les mœurs, he presents Mohammed as a legislator and conqueror and
calls him an "enthusiast".[399] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in his Social Contract (1762),
"brushing aside hostile legends of Muhammad as a trickster and impostor, presents him
as a sage legislator who wisely fused religious and political powers".[399] Emmanuel
Pastoret published in 1787 his Zoroaster, Confucius and Muhammad, in which he
presents the lives of these three "great men", "the greatest legislators of the universe",
and compares their careers as religious reformers and lawgivers. He rejects the
common view that Muhammad is an impostor and argues that the Quran proffers "the
most sublime truths of cult and morals"; it defines the unity of God with an "admirable
concision". Pastoret writes that the common accusations of his immorality are
unfounded: on the contrary, his law enjoins sobriety, generosity, and compassion on his
followers: the "legislator of Arabia" was "a great man".[399] Napoleon Bonaparte admired
Muhammad and Islam,[400] and described him as a model lawmaker and conqueror.[401]
[402]
Thomas Carlyle in his book On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History (1841)
describes "Mahomet" as "A silent great soul; he was one of those who cannot but be in
earnest".[403] Carlyle's interpretation has been widely cited by Muslim scholars as a
demonstration that Western scholarship validates Muhammad's status as a great man
in history.[404]

Ian Almond says that German Romantic writers generally held positive views of
Muhammad: "Goethe's 'extraordinary' poet-prophet, Herder's nation builder
(...) Schlegel's admiration for Islam as an aesthetic product, enviably authentic, radiantly
holistic, played such a central role in his view of Mohammed as an exemplary world-
fashioner that he even used it as a scale of judgement for the classical (the dithyramb,
we are told, has to radiate pure beauty if it is to resemble 'a Koran of poetry')". [405] After
quoting Heinrich Heine, who said in a letter to some friend that "I must admit that you,
great prophet of Mecca, are the greatest poet and that your Quran... will not easily
escape my memory", John Tolan goes on to show how Jews in Europe in particular held
more nuanced views about Muhammad and Islam, being an ethnoreligious minority
feeling discriminated, they specifically lauded Al-Andalus, and thus, "writing about Islam
was for Jews a way of indulging in a fantasy world, far from the persecution
and pogroms of nineteenth-century Europe, where Jews could live in harmony with their
non-Jewish neighbors".[406]

Recent writers such as William Montgomery Watt and Richard Bell dismiss the idea that
Muhammad deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that Muhammad "was
absolutely sincere and acted in complete good faith"[407] and Muhammad's readiness to
endure hardship for his cause, with what seemed to be no rational basis for hope,
shows his sincerity.[408] Watt, however, says that sincerity does not directly imply
correctness: in contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken his subconscious
for divine revelation.[409] Watt and Bernard Lewis argue that viewing Muhammad as a
self-seeking impostor makes it impossible to understand Islam's development.[410]
[411]
Alford T. Welch holds that Muhammad was able to be so influential and successful
because of his firm belief in his vocation.[11]

Criticism
Main article: Criticism of Muhammad
See also: Criticism of Islam and Criticism of the Quran
Criticism of Muhammad has existed since the 7th century, when Muhammad was
decried by his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching monotheism, and by
the Jewish tribes of Arabia for his perceived appropriation of Biblical
narratives and figures and proclamation of himself as the "Seal of the Prophets".[412][413]

During the Middle Ages, various Western and Byzantine Christian thinkers criticized
Muhammad's morality, and labelled him a false prophet or even the Antichrist, and he
was frequently portrayed in Christendom as being either a heretic or as
being possessed by demons.[414][415][416][417]

Modern religious and secular criticism of Islam has concerned Muhammad's sincerity in
claiming to be a prophet, his morality, his marriages, his sex life, his ownership of
slaves, his treatment of his enemies, his handling of doctrinal matters, and his
psychological condition.[414][418][419][420]

Sufism
See also: Sufism
The Sunnah contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the
end of the first Islamic century.[421] Muslim mystics, known as sufis, who were seeking for
the inner meaning of the Quran and the inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the prophet
of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect human being. All Sufi orders trace
their chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad.[422]

Other religions
See also: Judaism's view of Muhammad and Muhammad in the Baháʼí Faith
Followers of the Baháʼí Faith venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or
"Manifestations of God". He is thought to be the final manifestation, or seal of
the Adamic cycle, but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those
of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí faith, and the first manifestation of the current
cycle.[423][424]

Druze tradition honors several "mentors" and "prophets",[425] and Muhammad is

considered an important prophet of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven
prophets who appeared in different periods of history.[426][427]

See also
 Ashtiname of Muhammad
 Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad
 Diplomatic career of Muhammad
 Glossary of Islam
 List of biographies of Muhammad
 List of founders of religious traditions
 List of notable Hijazis
 Muhammad and the Bible
 Muhammad in film
 Muhammad's views on Christians
 Muhammad's views on Jews
 Possessions of Muhammad
 Relics of Muhammad

References
Notes
1. ^ He is referred to by many appellations, including Muhammad ibn Abdullah, Messenger of
God, The Prophet Muhammad, God's Apostle, Last Prophet of Islam, and others; there
 are also many variant spellings of Muhammad, such
as Mohamet, Mohammed, Mahamad, Muhamad, Mohamed and many others.
2. ^ Goldman 1995, p. 63, gives 8 June 632 CE, the dominant Islamic tradition. Many earlier
(primarily non-Islamic) traditions refer to him as still alive at the time of the Muslim conquest
of Palestine.
3. ^ According to Welch, Moussalli & Newby 2009, writing for the Oxford Encyclopedia of the
Islamic World: "The Prophet of Islam was a religious, political, and social reformer who gave
rise to one of the great civilizations of the world. From a modern, historical perspective,
Muḥammad was the founder of Islam. From the perspective of the Islamic faith, he was God's
Messenger (rasūl Allāh), called to be a "warner," first to the Arabs and then to all humankind."
4. ^ See Quran 3:95
5. ^ See also Quran 43:31 cited in EoI; Muhammad.
6. ^ See:
 Emory C. Bogle (1998), p. 7.
 Rodinson (2002), p. 71.
7. ^ The aforementioned Islamic histories recount that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm
(Q.53), as revealed to him by the Archangel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following
lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the
other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and
Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166.
8. ^ "Apart from this one-day lapse, which was excised from the text, the Quran is simply
unrelenting, unaccommodating and outright despising of paganism." (The Cambridge
Companion to Muhammad, Jonathan E. Brockopp, p. 35).
9. ^ See:
 Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1977, p. 57.
 Hourani & Ruthven 2003, p. 22.
 Lapidus 2002, p. 32.
 Esposito 1998, p. 36.
10. ^ See for example Marco Schöller, Banu Qurayza, Encyclopedia of the Quran mentioning the
differing accounts of the status of Rayhana
11. ^ [345][346][348][349][350][351][352][353][354]
12. ^ See, for example, the Sindhi poem of Shah ʿAbd al-Latif
13. ^ See:
 Watt 1974, p. 234.
 Robinson 2004, p. 21.
 Esposito 1998, p. 98.
 R. Walzer, Ak̲ h̲ lāḳ, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

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