The Subject

The Subject and the Predicate are the main syntactic parts of a sentence. The Subject plays a number of different semantic roles and the most common are: 1) Agent Subject The Agent Subject is the classical doer of the action. It is consider the most typical Subject. An agent subject is an animate being that acts with intention: E.g The girl drank some water. The baby was laughing. We can notice from the examples that in the first example the agent acts on somebody, and in the last example the agent acts on themselves. 2) Causer subject A causer subject is either an animate being who acts without volition or an inanimate entity. Causers are quite different from agents because the semantics of the two roles are quite different. A sentence like Mark pushed John is ambiguous, if Mark pushed John only to see if John falls, Mark is an agent, but if Mark pushed John accidentally in a crowd, then Mark is a causer. Animate causer subjects: E.g. He sprained her ankle by accident. The man hurted his leg. Sometimes animate causers affect the psychological state of other persons. E.g. The man amused the baby. The singer astonished me. It is not always easy to tell whether an animate subject is an agent or a causer. Out of the context, we do not know whether the following subjects act deliberately or not. E.g. The parents frightened their little child. The professor astonished her students. Inanimate entities lack volition or intention due to their nature. Causers can be expressed by any things such as oil, rock or can be abstract qualities. E.g. Rain wet the street. Love touched her. Unlike agents, causers always act on something or somebody else. In other words, they are always followed by a direct object. 3) Instrumental Subjects An instrument subject is an inanimate entity which acts on someone or something else because it is being used as an instrument. E.g. The padlock locked the door. Sometimes an instrument subject allows the speaker to avoid taking responsibility. A child may say The ball broke the window instead of I broke

the window with a ball. Here the ball is the instrument used by the child in the breaking of the window. Instrument Subjects are not very common in English. Instruments are often found in adverbial phrases. E.g. The man locked the door with a padlock. The boy broke the window with his ball. 4) Experiencer Subject Experiencer Subject are always animate, usually humans. This type of Subjects experience a sensory perception or a psychological state, This Subject does not do anything, but it experience something through the mental capabilities. E.g. Jane saw a dead body. (She didnt want to see it) Tony could smell the perfume in the room. Mental state verbs, most often called psych-verbs, also take experiencer Subjects. These Subjects do not really engage in action. Normally, when an agent acts, the direct object is directly affected by the action. But none of the experiencer Subjects has a direct effect upon the direct object. E.g. I trust her. She remembers her mother. I appreciate my mother. 5) Patient Subjects In such sentences as: E.g. The milk froze. The Subject is affected by the action expressed by the verb. The traditional label for affected Subjects is patient. A patient is never volitional, it never exercises control. Most patient Subjects occur with vverbs that denote a change of state. E.g. The water vaporized. The vase broken. 6) Described and located Subjects Some Subjects are simply being characterized or described by the information in the Predicate. These Subjects always co-occur with copulas, verbs have little independent meaning but relate the information in the predicate back to the Subject. E.g. The day is sunny. The girl is clever. Other Subjects are simply located in space. E.g. The children are in the classroom. Mother is in the room. 7) Empty IT The normal function of the pronoun it is to refer to something that had already been mentioned in the discourse (anaphoric reference).

E.g. My mother had a new dress. It is expensive. Many language have special ways of expressing the weather. In sentences like It is raining the Subject it does not refer to any previously introduced noun. It is Subject in those cases where there is not a semantically meaningful Subject. E.g. It is dark. Empty it is sometimes called expletive it in traditional grammars. 8) Cataphoric it When a complex clause functions as the semantic Subject of a sentence, a speaker will put the clause at the end and replace it with it. E.g. That the seller tricked me was surprising. It was surprising that the seller tricked me. This is called cataphoric use because it refers to something that comes after.

The Object
There are three types of objects: the Direct Object, the Indirect Object and the Prepositional Object. The semantic roles of Direct Object are less varied than those of Subject and lines between semantic types are less clear. Patient Direct Objects Patient Direct Objects are always affected by the action of the verb (to a grater or lesser degree). In fact, direct objects are so named because they are in a sense the direct target or object of the verbs action. E.g. Mary has done her homework. The woman watered the flowers. The Subject can also have the semantic role of patient. If a sentence contain a direct object, it will be patient, not the subject. Experiencer Direct Object Direct Objects can be experiencers as well if the verb causes the direct object to achieve a new psychological state. It does not matter. It does not matter whether the Subject is an agent (volitional and animate) or a causer (nonvolitional and animate or inanimate). In a sense experiencer is a subcategory of patient in that the direct objectis affected by the action of the verb in a very particular way. E.g. The man scared the little baby. The presentation amazed the spectators. A direct Object can be an experiencer only when the Subject is not. There can be only one experiencer in a simple sentence. When the Subject of a verb is an experiencer, the Direct Object is relatively unaffected by the action of the verb. E.g. I see the blue sky. I eat chocolate.

Created Direct Object Sometimes a transitive verb actually creates a direct object, rather than affecting an already existing entity. Such direct objects are created objects. The difference between a patient direct object and a created one explains the ambiguity of some sentences: In a example like- The man painted the walls of the room, Walls of the room is a patient D.O. if the man paints pictures on the wall, and a created D.O. if the man put a different color on the wall. E.g. Mother is waving a fur cap. The boy is drawing a horse. Locative Direct Object Sometimes noun phrases expressing location are used as direct objects. E.g. The man has climbed Mount Himalaya. The boy swan the Red Lake. Empty It Direct Object In some highly idiomatic expressions, empty it occurs as a direct object. In utterances like Lets call it some day, They are living it up, it has no reference. Nevertheless, these constructions are not very often.

The Predicate
It occurs after link verbs forming with them Nominal Predicates. It is expressed by means of: 1) a noun phrase, usually a [-definite] NP; E.g. He is a engineer. 2) a prepositional noun phrase: -with debatable preposition: NP indicating attributes connected with colour, size, age, quality, shape. They may undergo preposition deletion E.g. They are (of) the same age -with undeletable preposition E.g. She falls in love. 3) a noun substitute: -a numeral E.g. Mary arrived the third. -a pronoun (personal, possessive, interrogative, indefinite) E.g. The book is hers. -a non- finite verbal form( an infinitival or gerundial phrase) E.g. His pleasure is to sleep. His hobby is reading. 4) a predicative clause E.g. His problem was that he was always busy.

The Apposition. The apposition is an element which renders the main noun more precise or definite. The apposition resembles coordination since two or more units in apposition are constituents of the same level. For units to be appositives, they must normally be identical in reference or else, the reference of one must be included in the reference of the other. E.g. My best friend, Tom, is coming here. My best friend and Tom refer to the same person. a)the simple (close) apposition is closely connected with the respective had noun; it determined or defines names of persons, titles, professions, geographical names. E.g. I hope that Doctor Michel will consult me. b)the loose apposition is considered less important than the close apposition; it is separated by commas even if it does not include more than one word. The loose apposition follows the head noun and has the force of a descriptive attribute. E.g. Sandra, my mother, loves me very much. The Verb Phrase A sentence is made up of a NP (functioning as Subject) and VP( functioning as Predicate) as immediate constituents. The Structure of the Verbal Group The one constituent that Verbal Phrase must contain is the Verbal Group. The Verbal group consists of a lexical verb which can be optionally preceded by one or more auxiliaries. A Verbal Group consisting of Head verb ( without auxiliaries) is called Simple Verbal group. A Verbal group with auxiliary verbs is called Complex Verbal group. Lexical verbs can be easily identified by their morphological possibilities. They are those words that can take some if not all the following inflections: -s, -ing, -ed, -en. E.g. sing: sings, singing, sang. The Simple Finite Verbal Group A simple Verbal group contains only a lexical verb: E.g. He works to become a teacher. He worked to become a teacher. From the examples above it can notice that the Verbal group can be further analyzed. These two sentences differ in tense. A Verbal group that contains a tensed verb is traditionally called a Finite group. Every sentence must contain a Finite Verbal group. Every sentence must contain a Finite Verbal group. A sentence can contain more than one Verbal group, but only one can be Finite. In the examples above the form of verb is made up of the stem + present tense inflection (in example 1), and

stem + past tense inflection (in example 2). In sentences which contain irregular verbs the separation is not so easy to notice. The maker of the past tense is so bound up to the stem that it is impossible to distinguish them. There are cases of the past tense does not exist. E.g. I cut the paper.( present) I cut the paper. (past). The Structure of the Auxiliary As it is known, every Verbal group (excepting the elliptical ones) contains a lexical verb as its Head. Lexical verbs are those verbs which belong to the general vocabulary of a language. The lexical Head always appears last in the Verbal Groups. The lexical Head Verb may not be modified by auxiliary verbs. There are two types of auxiliary verbs: i. primary auxiliaries, e.g. be, do and have ii. modal auxiliaries, e.g. can, may, must, shall, will, and need. It can be noticed that, in addition to being auxiliary verbs, the primary auxiliaries and the modal auxiliary need can all function as lexical Head verbs as well. Since some auxiliaries can also function as lexical verbs, we must mention some of the differences between them. There are three important differences: 1) in questions an auxiliary verb can move in front of the Subject Noun Phrase. A lexical verb can not. 2) The negative particle ( not or nt) can attach to an auxiliary verb but never to a lexical verb. E.g. He can sing./ Can he swim? / He can not swim. He sang./ * Sang he? / *He sang not. It can be noticed that there are two verbs need, one an auxiliary, the other lexical, with subtle difference in meaning. E.g. He doesnt need to write. (lexical ) He neednt write. ( auxiliary ) We can notice that only when it function as lexical verb, need can be followed by a long infinitive. This led us to the third difference: 3) When a verb follows a lexical verb, it can be introduced by the infinitive particle to, but not when it follows an auxiliary verb ( within the same Verbal group). The Structure of the Auxiliary The auxiliary contains up to four immediate constituents each one being represented by its own auxiliary verb: modal perfect aspect, progressive aspect and passive voice. It is possible to combine them in any way, but the order they appear in is very strict, each of them is optional and can appear only once. We also have to bear in mind that only the first auxiliary is tensed, and the form of each auxiliary is determined by the auxiliary before it.

i. Modal Auxiliaries They can be represented by any modal verb. The main difference between modal auxiliaries and primary auxiliaries and lexical verb is that the modal auxiliaries do not have non- finite forms, namely they are always tensed. Some modals have both a present and a past tense form: e.g. can/ could, may/ might, will/ would, shall/ should E.g. He admits he can lose. He admitted he could lose. Must and need do not have a past form. However, the verb need has a special situation. Need has a past tense form, needed, but this is used when the verb is a lexical one, not an auxiliary. Let us analyze the following examples: E.g. *He needed stop. He needed to stop. From these examples we can notice that it is only the lexical verb, not the auxiliary verb that can appear in a past tense form. Another characteristic of modal auxiliaries is that they do not fulfill the Subject-Predicate agreement. They do not change their form in the third person singular in present tense. E.g. I can swim. He can swim. We mentioned that each constituent of the auxiliary determines the form of the verb that follows it in the Verbal group. The verb following the modal auxiliary in the Verbal group appears in its basic stem form (Burton- Roberts). This apply to all following verbs, auxiliary or lexical. E.g. I can swim. ( present modal Verbal group). I could dance. ( past modal Verbal group). ii. Perfect Auxiliary The perfect auxiliary is the verb to have. Let us analyse the following Verbal groups. E.g. has sung ( present perfect Verbal group) had sung ( past perfect Verbal group) will have sung ( present modal perfect Verbal group) could have sung ( past modal perfect Verbal group) In the first two examples the perfect auxiliary comes in front of the Verbal group, so it appears in a finite form; in the last two examples the perfect auxiliary follows the modal verb ( in present and past tense), so it must be a non-finite form .One aspect that should be taken into account is that sometimes the form of a verb is not different from the stem form, e.g. the simple present tense differs from the stem only when the Subject is in the third person singular, e.g. They have left the house. It can be noticed that, although the tense used is the present, the sentence refers to past tense, showing a lack of correlation between time and tense. There are several ways of referring to the past than using a past tense:

a. the use of the perfect auxiliary have. As the two examples show how the perfect auxiliary itself can be used in both present and past tense. b. the verb that follows the perfect auxiliary have in the Verbal group always appears in its non-finite perfect participle form. This applies whether this following verb is a lexical or another auxiliary. Note: Have can function both as the perfect auxiliary ( modifying its Head verb) and as the Head verb itself: E.g. I will have enough time to do my homework.( lexical verb) I have thought to give it a try. ( perfect auxiliary) iii. Progressive Auxiliary The progressive auxiliary is the verb to be. Let us analyse the following Verbal group: E.g. was singing ( past progressive Verbal group) is singing ( present progressive Verbal group) would be singing ( past modal progressive Verbal group) have been singing ( present perfect progressive Verbal group) All that these examples have in common is a form of the progressive auxiliary be, but they also have in common the ing inflection of the lexical verb within the Verbal group . Just as the perfect auxiliary have determines the form of the following verb, requiring a perfect participle form, the progressive auxiliary requires a progressive participle. Note: Like the verb to have, to be can function both as progressive auxiliary, but also as a lexical verb ( Head Verb). E.g. He is clever. You are being impolite. In the second example, is is the present tense form of the progressive auxiliary be, and being is the progressive participle of the copula. Before analyzing the passive auxiliary, it would be useful to review all the possible structures of a Verbal group which contain, perfect and progressive structures of a Verbal group which contain modal, perfect and progressive auxiliaries. Present/past Verbal group ( central structure) Present/past modal Verbal group Present/past Verbal group Present/ past progressive Verbal group Present/ past modal perfect Verbal group Present/past modal progressive Verbal group Present/ past progressive Verbal group Present/ past modal perfect progressive Verbal group iii. Passive auxiliary All the Verbal groups we have examined so far are in Active Voice. Verbal groups which are in Passive Voice must contain the passive auxiliary to be. E.g. sang/ was sung ( simple Active/ Passive) is singing/ is being sung ( present progressive Active/ Passive)

has sung/ had been sung (present perfect Active/ Passive) must sing/ must be sung ( present modal Active/ Passive) The verb to be can function both as progressive auxiliary and as passive auxiliary. However, it is easy to distinguish them: the difference lies in the form of the following verb. After the progressive auxiliary, the verb is in progressive participle, while after the passive auxiliary, the verb is in perfect ( passive) participle. Notice that the passive participle and the perfect participle have the same form. In traditional grammars this participle is called past participle. The Verbal phrase which contain a passive participle are similar to the one mentioned above: E.g. Present/ past passive Verbal group( general structure) Present/ past modal passive Verbal group Present /past perfect passive Verbal group Present/ past progressive passive Verbal group Present / past modal perfect passive Verbal group Present/ past modal progressive passive Verbal group Present/ past perfect progressive Verbal group Present/ past modal perfect progressive passive Verbal group Note: Passivization is the only grammatical transformation that influences the structure of the whole sentence, not only the Verbal group. The Direct or Indirect Object becomes the Subject and the Subject becomes a Prepositional phrase introduced with by functioning as an Adverbial. As a result, the Direct Object position with a monotransitive Verbal Group will not be filled when the Verbal group is passive. E.g. The children are being told stories by their grandparents in childhood. Amore complex passive Verbal group is the one which contain a Direct object and a Predicate that characterizes the Direct Object. E.g. He hammered the metal flat. The metal was hammered flat. After passivization the Predicate does not describe the Object, but the Subject. Have and be In this paper we mentioned that have and be can function both as auxiliary verbs and as Head verbs. When they function as auxiliaries, they must behave like auxiliaries, moving in front of the Subject in questions and accepting the negative particles. Do which is required in the absence of the auxiliary is ungrammatical when the verbs have and be are used as auxiliaries. E.g. * Do they be going? * Do they have gone? Note: Have can behave like an auxiliary even when it is functioning as Head verb. E.g. functioning as Head Verb, behaving like Head Verb Do you have enough time? I do not have enough time. - functioning as Head verb, behaving like an auxiliary

Have we time? We havent time. This is not possible in the case of be which can not function as a Head verb and behave as an auxiliary. E.g. *Does he be talented? * He doesnt be talented. Negative particle and auxiliary do The auxiliary do is obligatory in certain questions and in negative sentences with not. The negative particle not is placed immediately after the auxiliary that carries the tense ( the first auxiliary). E.g. He may not win. We havent been working. The above rule refers to the first auxiliary in the Verbal Group. The problem appears when the Verbal group is (in) simple. E.g. Mary spoke. In this example the tense is expressed by the lexical verb. In contrast to auxiliary verbs, lexical verbs do not accept the negative particle. E.g. Mary spoke not. In such cases, an auxiliary verb is necessary for carrying the tense. In order to achieve that the auxiliary verb do is inserted in the sentence. E.g. Mary did not speak. Since the auxiliary do carries the tense, the lexical verb is used in its stem form. The auxiliary do has no meaning. Its only function is to carry the tense instead of a lexical Head verb when required. Like the auxiliaries have and be, do can function as an auxiliary verb and as a lexical verb. Moving the auxiliary in front in questions Let us analyse the following examples: E.g. They have been writing. Has they been writing. He spoke. Did he spoke? As we can notice, the auxiliary verb that carries the tense moves in front of the Subject. If there is no auxiliary we have to use the auxiliary do to carry the tense. The auxiliary do moves in front of the Subject. This movement is called Subject Auxiliary inversion. The Subject remains in its position, only the auxiliary moves in front of the sentence. The Complements of the Verbal Phrase This part is concerned with the functional relations between the Verbal Group and other constituents that appear in the basic Verb Phrase. In a sentence like Mary

put the hat down. The Verb Phrase is put the hat down, and put is the verb. We can say that the relation between the VP (as head) and the NP ( as complement). The use of the verb put with a NP is ungrammatical: E.g. *He put down. Not all VP require a following NP. In fact, if we replace the verb we can get an ungrammatical construction with NP and a correct one without NP. E.g. * He sings the car. He sings. We can conclude that the NP depends not just on there being Verbal Group, but also on what kind of verb is the Head of the Verbal Group. Verbs are subcategorized according to what other elements must appear with them in the VP. In other words, they are sub-categorized in terms of their complementation types ( in terms of what complements they must take). There are six sub-categories of Verbal Group> 1. Transitive ( sometimes called monotransitive). 2. Intransitive 3. Ditransitive 4. Intensive 5. Complex Transitive 6. Prepositional 7. 1 Monotransitive Verbal Group A monotransitive Verbal Group is one which requires a single Noun Phrase to complement it. The Noun Phrase that complements a transitive verb is said to function as its Direct Object. We have to notice that the pronoun functioning as a Direct Object is in objective ( accusative ) case. When the form of an NP is determined by its complement relation with another constituent, it is said to be governed by that other other constituent ( in this case the verb). 2. Intransitive Verbal Groups An intransitive Verbal Group is one that does not require any further constituents. For example, to die, to disappear, to sleep, etc. Since an intransitive Verbal Group does not require any further element to form a complement predicate, a single-word verb can count not only as a complete Verbal Group, but also as a complete VP. 3.Ditransitive Verbal Group A ditransitive Verbal is one which requires TWO NPs as its complementation, one functioning as Direct Object and the other as Indirect Object. E.g. Smith sent his brother a book. The boy bought his girlfriend a bunch of flowers. The complements in italics are the Indirect Objects of the ditransitive verbs. The second complements NP ( underlined ) function as Direct Objects. Both NPs are in objective case.

An important characteristic of VPs consisting of a ditransitive verb complemented by two NPs that they are systematically related to VPs in which the Indirect Object NP corresponds to a Prepositional Phrase ( PP) in a position following the Direct Object. E.g. Smith sent a book to his brother. The boy bought a bunch of flowers for his girlfriend. The only two preposition that can precede an Indirect Object are To and For. The PP corresponding to an Indirect object NP has a rather special status. With monotransitives, when PP follows the Direct Object NP, it is not part of the complementation of the verb, but is an optional modifier. However, in using a ditransitive verb such as send, we need to specify not only: - a sender (usually the Subject) - what is send ( usually the Direct Object) - to whom it is send ( usually the Indirect Object). The Indirect Object can be specified either by an NP or by a PP containing TO and FOR. So PPs that correspond to Indirect Objects are part of the complementation of ditransitive verbs. 4. Intensive verbal Groups Intensive Verbal Groups require a single complement, which can take the form of an Adjective Phrase, or a Noun Phrase, or a Prepositional Phrase. The most obvious intensive verb is to be. As the most central of the intensive sub- category of verb, be is called the copula E.g. John is rather curious. ( AdjP) His mother is a doctor. (NP) The director is in the conference room. ( PP) The complement of an intensive verbal Group functions ( more specifically) as a Predicative. Other intensive verbs ( other verbs taking a predicative as a complement) are: become, seem, appear, turn, remain, look, taste, feel, smell, sound. E.g. Your face is turning yellow. They remained silent. When a verb is complemented just by an AdjP ( V Group Adj) you have to be sure that you are dealing with an intensive Verbal Group+ Predicative because intensiveis the only sub- category of verb that can take just as AdjP complement. This point is worth mentioning because intensives can also be complemented by PN or a PP. When a verb is complemented a NP we have to decide whether V Group + NP is monotransitive+ DO or intensive V Group+ Predicative. Understanding the concept of predicative involves understanding the difference between predicative and Direct Object. E.g. Her mother is a doctor.( predicative) Her mother saw a doctor. ( Vt+ DO) Prdicatives are used to attribute proprieties to the things picked out ( or refered to) other expressions. Predicatives ( unlike Direct and Indirect Objects) do not refer to the things in the world. It is because intensive verbs only take predicatives that can be completed by Adjective Phrases because these can identify properties.

Prepositional Phrase can also function as Predicative. We have already mentioned that all Verbal Phrases can include optional modifiers by PPs. PPs should be treated as part of the necessary complementation of an intensive verb (i.e. as Subject-predicative) if they can not be omitted. So, in our example above The director is in the conference room, is a predicative since the sentence is not complete without the PP: E.g. * The director is. 5.Complex Transitive Verbal Phrase Complex Transitive Verbal Group take two complements: a direct object ( NP) and an objective predicative. Again, the pre can be expressed by an AdjP, NP or PP. E.g. We met a girl with dark blue eyes. ( Adj P) The director made her his subordinate. ( Np) She put the papers on the desk. (PP) We have to notice that there is a big difference between the predicatives discussed in the previous section and these predicatives. The difference in a complex transitive VP characterizes the Direct Object, not the Subject, hence the name object-predicative. The semantic relation between Direct Object and object-predicative in a complex transitive Verbal Group is similar to the one between Subject and subject-predicative in an intensive sentence. 6.Prepositional Verbal Groups Prepositional Verbal Groups are the Verbal Groups followed by a compulsory preposition: E.g. *He looked. *He looked the boy. He looked at the boy. These constructions need to be distinguished from intransitive verbs with optional modification by PP ( e.g. Ann was sitting near the forest). The PP that complements a (prepositional) Verbal Group is called a prepositional complement. In sub-categorization offered in this chapter such Verbal Groups also need to be distinguished from intensive Verbal Groups when they are complemented by a Prepositional Phrase, as in Tom is in the house This Verbal Group has been sub-categorised as intensive rather than prepositional because it can alternatively be complemented by an Adjectival Phrase or Noun Phrase functioning as Subject-Predicative. Prepositional Verbs can be complemented only by PPs. As mentioned, other elements may optionally appear. These are not part of necessary complementation of the verb, but are modifiers. The next chapter is concerned with these and with some of the factors that need to be taken into account in distinguishing between complements and modifiers in the Verbal Phrase. The sub-categorization can be summarized as follows: 1. monotransitives: Subject- Verbal Group- DO 2. intransitives: Subject-Verbal Group 3. ditransitives: Subject-Verbal Group-IO-DO or Subject-Verbal Group-Do- to/for IO

4. intensive: Subject- Verbal Group subject-predicative 5. complex transitive: Subject Verbal Group-Do- object-predicative 6. prepositional: Subject-Verbal Group-prepositional complement. Adjectival Phrases The structure of Adjectival Phrase An Adj.P consists of an adjective as Head, alone or accompanied by one or more dependants. The dependents may be complements, licensed by the Head, or modifiers, less restricted in their occurrence. a) Complements The complements are always PPs or subordinate clauses: E.g. frightened of the loneliness, good at mathematics, strange for us to accept, busy making homework The choice of the preposition depends on the Head adjective. With some adjective the PPs is obligatory. The kind of subordinate clauses likewise depends on the adjective: we couldnt say: *busy to make homeworks, for example. b) Modifiers The most common type of modifier is an adverb ( or AdvP), but other categories are: determinatives, PPs or NPs. E.g. Adv P: very normal, extremely easy Determinatives: this flower PP: boring in the extreme (dangerous) .NPs: seven years old, Adjectives restricted to attributive or predicative function Although most adjectives can be used both attributively and predicatively, there are nevertheless many that are restricted to one or another of these uses: Attributive use: a small present. Predicative use: The present is small. Attributive use: intelligent thing Predicative use: * The thing is intelligent. Attributive use : *the asleep child Predicative use: The child was asleep. We can notice that small can be used both attributively and predicatively, intelligent can be use only attributively, and asleep can be used only predicatively. Structural restrictions on attributive adjectives Attributive Adjectival Phrase mostly can not contain dependents that follow the Head. The typical case is as in the following examples where the underlined adjective licenses a post-head dependent, and the Adjective Phrase is allowed only predicatively as in the (a) cases, not attributively as in the (b) case: Predicative: i.a. She was dedicated to her hobbies.

ii.a. She was afraid not to lose. Attributive: i.b. * a dedicated to her hobbies girl. ii.b. *an afraid not to lose girl. There are few post-head dependents that can occur with attributive adjectives: Predicative: i.a. The room was large enough. ii.a The score was worse than expected. Attributive: i.b. a large enough room. ii.b. a worse than we expected score. Enough is allowed quite generally after gradable adjectives. Than expected is a short comparative complement that is allowed within an attributive Adjectival Phrase. The Functions of the Adjectival Phrase I. Predicative complements and predicative Adjuncts In their predicative use, adjectives generally function as complement in clause structure. As we say, predicative complements appear in intransitive and complex transitives. E.g. intransitive.: The decision is absurd. complex transitives: I consider the decision absurd. The adjective is related to the Subject in the first example, and to the DO in the second example. In addition to being complements, licensed by the head, AdjP can also function as adjuncts. Compare: E.g. Marc was unused to work hard. (Pred. comp.) Unused to work hard, Marc gave up. ( Predicative Adjunct) In the first example AdjP is a complement licensed by the verb ( to be), but in the second example it is an Adjunct, detached by punctuation from the rest of the clause, being still predicateive. II. Other functions of Adjective Phrase Beside the two major functions discussed above, there are two relatively minor functions in which adjectives and Adjectival Phrases are found: a) Post-head internal modifier Adjective Phrases functions as post-head internal modifier in a NP structure. There are three cases that should be taken into account: i. those sensible, ii. students keen on reading, a letter full of errors iii. the director elected, the children asleep i. The examples have fused determiner-heads, making it impossible for the adjectives to occur in the usual pre-head position. Compare everything useful with useful thing. ii. The modifiers would be inadmissible in pre-head position because the adjective has its own post-head dependents. Such Adjectival Phrase can not

iii.

be used as attributive modifiers. Adjectival Phrase can not be used as attributive modifiers. A limited number of adjectives can occur in post position without their own dependants and with a non-fused head noun: for example asleep can not be used attributively, while elect is one of a very small number of adjectives which can be used only in post-position.

b)External modifiers Certain forms of Adjectival Phrases occur right at the beginning of the NP, before the indefinite article a: E.g. I couldnt miss (such a chance). (What a fool) I was. The Adverbial Phrase The Adverb is the fourth and last of the categories of lexemes that we call open- the categories which can be expanded. Nouns and verbs are the main open categories. Every clause must contain a NP and a VP. Such elementary constructions can be expanded by adding adjectives and adverbs as modifiers. Nouns take adjectives, while verbs take adverbs. The main thing that makes the adverb category open is that such a high proportion of adverbs are morphologically derived from adjectives by adding the suffix ly. It is with these related adjective-adverb pairs that can see most clearly the contrast between the modifiers of nouns and the modifiers of verbs. E.g. a careful manner They packed my things carefully. a simple life They lived simply. The structure of the Adverbial Phrases The structure of AdvPs is similar to that of AdjP, but simpler. Dependents can be divided again into complements and modifiers: a) Complements A few adverbs formed with-ly license complements: E.g. This problem is treated separately from last years problem. Sadly for the students, they lose the competition. In the first example, the adverb licenses the same kind of complement as the adjective from which is formed. Other adverbs of this kind are : similarly (to), independent (of) equally(with). A very few adverbs, such as sadly in the second example, take complements that are not licensed by a corresponding adjective with a matching sense: The loose of the competition was sad for the boys. b) Modifiers Modifiers are mostly AdvPs, but again determinatives, PPs and certain NPs can be found: E.g. AdvPs She played very well. She pronounced the word loudly. Determinatives: I didnt pay that well. PPs : She didnt think at all seriously.

The Function of Adverbial Phrase The adverbial Phrase discharges the function of an adverbial modifier or of a predicative in the sentence. The adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies or renders more precise a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It is expresses the various circumstances that may attend an activity or a state such as place, time, manner, cause etc. Adverbial Modifier of Place Adverbs of place indicate when someone or something is located or where an event takes place. Adverbs of place usually answer the question where? These adverbs are typically prepositional phrases but can also be single lexical items. E.g. They played basketball on the playground. Put the book there. There is one further sub-type of adverbial modifiers of place: adverbial modifier of direction. Unlike adverbs of place, adverbs of direction must co-occur with dynamic verbs. Adverbs of direction typically include a preposition that inscribes an actual direction in space: up, down, under, across, into. E.g. We walked around the lake. The man trudge up the stairs. They meet down the valley. Not all adverb of direction are prepositional phrases. E.g. She walked downstairs. In adverbs of direction, English speakers can sometimes omit the object of a preposition if it is obvious from the discourse context. E.g. Come in! Sit down! It is obvious that full sentence is Come in the room! Sometimes adverbs of direction literally name directions. E.g. We headed for south. We traveled north. Sometimes they indicate moving toward a goal: E.g. They headed for the mountains He headed for the woods. In other cases, adverbs of direction simply indicate a path: E.g. She walked near the lake. All directions adverbs can be preceded by other modifiers: E.g. She droved straight to the city centre. The Place of Adverbial Modifiers of Place The Adverbial Modifiers of Place usually appears in the end position. E.g. I went to the theatre. Nevertheless, there are some exceptions: i. the adverbial modifier of place can appear in front position if it indicates the place, especially it is expressed by a prepositional phrase: E.g. In school were a lot of children.

ii. the adverbial modifier of place can be placed between the Predicate and the Direct Object if the Direct Object is too long. E.g. They found outside the remains of a death body. iii. The adverbial modifier of place which indicates direction can be sometimes placed immediately after the predicate. E.g. He sometimes travels to work by taxi iv. Some adverbial modifiers of place can come in the initial position for stylistic reason. E.g. Outside/ Away they walked. Adverbial Modifier of Time English has at least four different types of adverbs related to time. Like locative adverbs, temporal adverb take a variety of forms- single words, prepositional phrases and complex clauses. i. Adverbs of point or boundary in time Adverbs of point or boundary in time indicate when an event occurs, and, as a rule, answer the question when? Such adverbs are generally prepositional phrases but they can also be lexical items or phrases. This type of adverbs can be divided into several categories according to the way the bound the time frame: -specific time frame: E.g. I was in the park yesterday. I bought a book two days ago. You are watching a movie right now. -time frame bounded on one side: E.g. We will see each other after lunch. The promotion is available until 28 May. -time frame bounded on two sides. E.g. I should call you between 8 and 9. She worked at that book between 1886 1889. -vague time frame E.g. My friend bought a new dress recently. I will come and bring you cookies later. Where have you been lately? Adverbs of duration specify how long an event or state last. They typically answer the question how long? and usually take the form of prepositional phrases, noun phrases or clauses Adverbs of duration constitute one of the most important strategies for constraining the time frame communication by the perfect tense, although they can appear in other constructions, too. E.g. They have been together for twenty years. I spent a few weeks in London. We worked in a restaurant from April to October.

iii. Adverbs of frequency Adverbs of frequency specify the frequency with which an event occurs. They typically answer the question how often? Nouns referring to time units can often be transformed into adverbs of frequency by adding ly suffixes, e.g. daily, monthly, yearly. Adverbs of frequency can range from common occurrences, e.g. usually, always to few or zero occurrences, e.g. seldom, rarely, never. E.g. I rarely drink wine. I go to my grandparents monthly. iv. Time relationship adverbs There are some adverbs of time which do not fall into any of the above categories. These adverbs usually communicate a time frame which is relative to some other time frame and the semantics are sometimes quite complex. None of these adverbs answer the adverbial questions When? How long? How often? E.g. Jim lost his temper again. I dont smoke any more. We havent meet yet. The Place of the Adverbial Modifiers of Time i. Most of the adverbials of point or boundary in time come in the end position after the adverbial modifiers of manner and place. E.g. He left the room pushing the door yesterday. A special case is represented by nowadays which is placed in initial position. E.g. Nowadays people are very busy. ii. If there are more than one adverbial modifiers of place they are place from the shortest period of time to the most extended period of time. E.g. I will visit you at 9 o clock this week. iii. Adverbial modifiers of time expressed by adverbial phrases are usually placed at the end of the sentence. E.g. He eats every day. iv. Adverbial modifiers of time expressed by adverbs of frequency are place between the auxiliary (if present) and the Verb, or between the subject and the Predicate. E.g. She has never borrowed money from strangers. Adverbial Modifier of Manner Adverbs of manner indicate the manner or style in which the Subject of the sentence acts or is acted upon. Adverbs of manner are often formed by adding the suffix ly to an adjective form. Adverbs that are formed this way have degrees of comparison. There are also a few uninflected one-word adverbs of manner that are gradable E.g. They move really slow. We can also use a prepositional phrase headed by the preposition like or with to form am adverbial modifier of manner,

E.g. She cries like a fool. They deal the problem with patience. Adverbs of manner most often occur with agent Subjects but they can also occur with patient, causer, and even instrument Subjects. Sentences containing experiencer Subjects seldom occur with adverbs of manner because they reflect internal states. A sub-type of adverbials of manner is represented by the adverb of means. They express by means or method an action is carried out. When an agent, causer or instrument appears in position other than Subject, it is usually an adverb of means. They are expressed by: -by prepositional phrase, especially in passive constructions E.g. Maria was upset by her brother. -with prepositional phrases, especially with instruments E.g. He sliced the bread with a knife. -adverbs derived from adjectives with the suffix ly E.g. Comment this news politically. The Place of the Adverbial Modifier of Manner i. The Adverbial Modifier of Manner are usually placed after the Predicate, before the adverbial modifier of place and manner. E.g. She spoke loud to French classes yesterday If the verb is transitive, the adverbial modifier od Manner is placed after the Direct Object: E.g. She put the book attentively on the other shelf. ii. Adverbial modifier indeed can be placed in final position: E.g. I love you very much indeed. iii. The Adverbial modifiers of manner expressing quantity precede or follow the words they refer to: -very much usually precede a participle used predicatively, but follow a Direct Object: E.g. I was very much disappointed by his attitude. I like cakes very much. iv. The Adverbial modifiers of manner which emphasize the idea expressed by the verb such as absolutely, fairly, quite, fully, so, well are placed before the main verb in final position in negatives, interrogatives and imperatives. E.g. I must fully agree with you. Has she driven the car well? Dont do so! The Adverbial Modifier of Concession It may be expressed by: - prepositional noun phrase formed with the preposition: in spite of, despite, for, with. E.g. I am his friend in spite of his rudness. Despite his timidity, he is a social person.

The preposition for and with can occur in the constructions for/with+all+NP E.g. For all his honesty, he is rewarded. - a NP introduced by the conjunction though in the structure though+not/no+NP E.g. Though not cheerful, he is a very loyal and sociable friend. -an adjective, or past participle introduced by the conjunctions (al)though, however, whatever. E.g. However sad, Mike has the courage to smile. The Adverbial Modifier of Reason. Adverbs of reason/ purpose indicate why or to what purpose occurs. They answer the question why?. These two semantic categories are often grouped together because they have a similar semantic area. E.g. He did it for hate. I analyzed the corpse for evidence. They can be expressed by: -prepositional noun phrase introduced by because of, on account of, owing to, thanks to, from, out of, for, with, through. E.g. I succeeded thanks to my determination. - a non-finite form: a. gerundial phrase introduced by the preposition by, owing to, for because of. E.g. I b. participial constructions E.g. Considering it useless to explain something to him, I left and never came back. c. an absolute construction E.g. It being very cold, we stayed home. The Adverbial Modifier of Result It is expresses by means of an infinitival phrase I four patterns: a) a to-infinitive E.g. They scared me to death. b) an infinitive preceded by as to whose correlative can be: so- Adj/ Adv. E.g. I really want to be so brave as to succeed. c) a to-infinitive whose correlative is too + Adj/ Adv. E.g. I am too sad to smile. He is to intelligent to make a wrong move. d) a non finite form: -a participial construction: E.g. Taken in big quantities it can cause you death. The construction may be introduced by the conjunction if, unless. E.g. If locked, it can be unlocked any more. I dont do that unless being told the whole truth. -an absolute construction, E.g. Time permitting, the things will improve.

The Adverbial Modifier of purpose It is expressed by: a)an infinitive phrase preceded by in order to, so as, for+ NP. The infinitive preceded by in order to is rather more formal and more emphatic than the infinitive alone. E.g. I have to go to market to buy things. I have to run to catch the bus. The constructions so as + Infinitive is used especially when the idea of result is also present. E.g. I want to do my homework today so as to be relaxed tomorrow. (Purpose+ Result). So as is frequently used with a negative purpose. E.g. We take the medicines so as not to be ill. The construction for+NP+to-infinitive is employed when the two actions have different subjects/agents. E.g. Maria changed her sit for her colleague to see. b) A gerundial phrase preceded by the prepositions for, with a view to. E.g. They entered the competition with a view to winning the prize. c) A noun phrase preceded by the preposition for. E.g. All of you compete for glory. The Adverbial Modifier of Concession It is expressed by: - a noun phrase introduced by the preposition with, without, but for. E.g. But for your help, I wouldnt have succeded. -an adjective or participle introduced by the conjunction if, unless. E.g. If wrong, we cannot make it. -a non finite form: -a participial construction, E.g. Being early, they stayed in bed. -an absolute construction E.g. Time permitting, the project will be finished in March. The Adverbial Modifier of Exception It is expressed by means of a noun phrase introduced by expect (for), with the exception of, but. E.g. All the colleagues come to the party except Tom. Everyone is happy with the exception of Mike. We have a great party except for the loud music. The Adverbial Modifier of Relation. It is expressed by means of a noun phrase introduced by the preposition about, on, concerning, regarding, as for, with regard to, with reference to, with respect to. E.g. We have an argue concerning money.

As for the child timetable, it remained the same. As we have mentioned an adverb can also discharge the function of a Predicate: Time is up. My patience is over. An adverb used as a subject complement loses its adverbial meaning and begins to indicate a state.