COMPUTER AIDED DES IGN(CAD) NOTES (UNIT 1&2)

1. INTRODUCTION TO CAD

2. THE DES IGN PROCESS

3. DES IGN CRITERIA

4. TYPICAL PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE

5. GEOMETRIC MODELING

Wireframe modeling

Surface modeling

Solid modeling

6. GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS

Translation
Rotation
Scaling
Reflection
Computer-aided design (CAD) can be defined as the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification,
analysis, or optimization of a design. The computer systems consist of the hardware and software to perform the
specialized design functions required.

THE DESIGN PROCESS

The process of designing something is characterized by Shigley’s as an iterative procedure, consists of six
identifiable steps or phases:-

l. Recognition of need
2. Definition of problem
3. Synthesis
4. Analysis and optimization
5. Evaluation
6. Presentation

Recognition of need involves the identification of some defect in a current machine design by an engineer for which
a corrective action needs to be taken or the perception of a new product.

Definition of problem involves a thorough specification of the item to be designed. This specification includes
physical and functional characteristics, cost, quality, and operating performance.

Synthesis and analysis are closely related and highly interactive in the design process. A component of system is
conceptualized by the designer, subjected to analysis, improved and redesigned. The process is repeated until the
design has been optimized within the constraints imposed on the designer.

Evaluation is concerned with measuring the design against the specifications established in the problem definition
phase. This evaluation often requires the fabrication and testing of a prototype model to assess operating
performance, quality, reliability, and other criteria.

The final phase in the design process is the presentation of the design. This includes documentation of the design by
means of drawings, material specifications, assembly lists, and so on. Essentially, the documentation requires that a
design database be created

Design Process
 Design criteria: The criterion for design depends on the following factors:

Cost material Strength Weight

Noise level Density Transparency Friction

Aesthetics Vibration Quality Ease of use

Typical product life cycle:

Benefits of CAD

• Improved engineering productivity • Reduced manpower required • More efficient operation

• Customer modification are easier to make • Low wastages • Improved accuracy of design
• Better design can be evolved • Saving of materials and machining time by optimization

Limitations of CAD
• The system requires large memory and speed.
• The size of the software package is large.
• It requires highly skilled personal to perform the work.
• It has huge investment.
Geometric modeling:

Wire frame Modeling:

It is also called edge representation or a stick figure. Wireframe model consists of points, lines, arcs and circles,
conics and curves.
The major advantage of wireframe modeling is its simplicity to construct It does not require as much computer time
and memory as does surface or solid modeling. Wireframe modeling is considered a natural extension of traditional
methods of drafting.

The major disadvantage is the ambiguous representation of real object and purely depends on human interpretation.
The interpretation of the correct object becomes difficult in the case of complex model. This limits the application of
wireframe models from engineering viewpoint.

Curve representation:

Curves can be described mathematically by nonparametric or parametric equations. Nonparametric equations can be
e xplicit or implicit.

For a nonparametric curve, the coordinates y and z of a point on the curve are e xp ressed as two separate functions of
the third coordinate x as the independent variable.(Explicit)

In NP implicit form, no distinction is made between the dependent and independent variables.They are expressed as
separate functions.

There are proble ms with describing curves using nonparametric equations: (1) If the slope of a curve at a point is
vertical or near vertical, its value becomes infin ity or very large.

(2) Shapes of most engineering objects are intrinsically independent of any coordinate system.

(3) If the curve is to be displayed as a series of point or straight-line segments, the computations involved could be
e xtensive.

In parametric form, each point on a curve is expressed as a function of a parameter ‘u’. The parametric equation for
a three-dimensional curve in space takes the following vector form:

 The parametric curve is bounded by two parametric values umax and umin.
 The parametric variable ‘u’ is normalized to have limits 0 and 1.
Advantages:
1) Geometric transformations can be easily applied on parametric equations.
2) Parametric geometry can be easily e xp ressed in terms of vectors and matrices which enable to use of simple
computation techniques to solve analytical geometry problem.
3) The parametric form is better suited for display by the special graphics software.
 dP(u)
P´(u)=
𝑑𝑢

P´(u)=[x´ y´ z´]T =[x´(u) y´(u) z´(u)]T umin ≤ u ≤ umax

The magnitude of tangent vector is

│p´(u)│= √ (x´2 +y´2 + z´2)

Wire-frame entities can be divided into analytic and synthetic entities

 There are two categories of curves that can be represented parametrically: Analytic curves and synthetic
curves.
 Analytic curves are defined as those that can be described by analytic eq uations such as lines, circles, and
conics.
 Synthetic curves are the ones that are described by a set of data points (control points) such as splines and
Bezier curves.
 Lines and circles(&Conics) are often e xpressed in analytic equation

Parametric representation of analytic curves

Lines:

The parametric equation of the line is:

In scalar form, this equation can be written as:

Parametric representation of line

Circles:

Circles and circular arcs are among the most common entities used in wireframe modeling.

The parametric equation of a circle can be written as:

Synthetic curves:

 The need for synthetic curves in design arises on two occasions: when a curve is represented by a collection
of measured data points and when an existing curve must change to meet new design requirements.
 Analytic curves are usually not sufficient to meet geometric design requirements of mechanical parts.
Synthetic curves provide designers with greater flexibility and control of a curve shape by changing the
positions of the control points.
 Products such as car bodies, ship hulls, airplane fuselage and wings, propeller blades, bottles are a few
e xa mples that require free-form, or synthetic curves
Examples: Bezier curves-spline curves
Synthetic curves are divided into interpolating and approximating entities.

Order of a synthetic curve(curve continuity):

Mathematically, synthetic curves represent a curve-fitting problem to construct a smooth curve that passes through
given data points.

Zero-order continuity C0 yields a position continuous curve.

1 2
❖ First C - and second C -order continuities imply slope and curvature continuous curves respectively.

A C1 curve is the minimum acceptable curve for engineering design.

.A cubic polynomial is the minimum-order polynomial that can guarantee the generation of C0 , C1 or C2 curves.

❖ The designer may prefer to control the shape of the curve locally instead of globally by changing the control
points

Notes: “Continuity” describes the smoothness of a curve. If a break (or speed change) occurs in the curve this is
called a discontinuity.

Analytic vs Synthetic entities:

 Analytic curves are those that can be described by analytic equations. Eg: line, circles, conics.
Synthetic curves are described by a set of data points eg: Splines and Bezier curves.
 Analytic curves provide compact forms of shape representation and simplify the computation of related
properties as area, volumes etc.
Synthetic curves provide designers with great flexibility and control of curve shape by changing the
positions of the control points.

HERMITE CUBIC SPLINE:

Spline:

It is a piecewise polynomial curve with certain order of continuity.

A degree N curve possess continuity of (N-1).

HERMITE CUBIC SPLINE is determined by defining positions and tangent vectors at the data points

The parametric cubic spline curve connects two data points and utilizes a cubic equation. Hence, 4 conditions are
required to determine the coefficients of the equation. When these are the two end points and two tangent vectors, a
HERMITE CUBIC SPLINE results. The parametric equation of a cubic spline segment is given by:
where ‘u’ is the parameter and Ci are the polynomial (also called algebraic) coefficients.

In scalar form,(since ,P(u)=[x(u),y(u),z(u)] )

In an e xpanded vector form:

………………………(1)

Matrix form:

Applying the boundary conditions (P0, P’0 at u=0 & P1, P’1 at u=1) and substituting in (1),we get:
Note: Below is the detailed derivation for your reference
Notes:

The use of the cubic splines in design applications is not very popular compared to Bezier or B-spline curves. The
control of the curve is not very obvious from the input data due to its Global Control characteristics.

Changing the position of a data point[as shown below in(a)] or an end slope [ias in (b) below] changes the entire
shape of the spline, which does not provide the intuitive feel required for design.

In addition, the order of the curve is always constant (cubic) regardless of the number of data points .

(Note: Red colour is the new curve position after its position is been change by change in control point / change in
end slope)
F2(u) F3(u)

Bezier cur ves

The major differences between Bezier and cubic splines are:

1) The shape of the Bezier curve is controlled by its defining points only. First derivatives are not used in the
curve development as in the case of cubic spline. This allows the designer a much better feel for the
relationship between input (points) and output(curve).
2) The order or the degree of the Bezier curve is variable and is related to the number of the points defining it
; n+1 points define nth degree curve which permits higher order continuity .This is not the case for cubic
splines where degree is always cubic for a spline segment.
3) The Bezier curve is smoother than the cubic spline because it has higher order derivatives.

The Bezier curve is defined by n+1 points. These are called data/control points. They form the vertices of the Bezier
characteristic polygon which uniquely defines the curve shape. The curve is tangent to the first and last polygon
segments. The curve shape follows the polygon shape.
Cubic Bezier curve

Note: A degree ‘n’ curve has “n+1” control points i.e. A degree three curve will have 4 control points.

Cubic Bezier curves for various control points

Parametric equations of the Bezier cur ve:

In general, a Bezier curve section can be fitted to any number of control points. The number of control points to be

approximated determines the degree of the Bezier curve.

For n+1 control points, the Bezier curve is defined by the following polynomial of degree n:

……(1)

Where P(u) is any point on the curve and Pi is a control point, Bi,n are the Bernstein polynomials.
The Bernstein polynomial serves as the blending or basis function for the Bezier curve and is given by

….. (2)
where C(n,i) is the binomial coefficient.

……(3)

Equation (1) can be e expanded to

give
 …..(4)

Characteristics of Bezier cur ve:

1. The curve interpolates through first and the last control points…the curve passes through P0 and Pn
at u=0 and u=1.

2. The curve is tangent of first and the last segment of Characteristic Polygon
𝑟
𝑛!
𝑝'(0) = ∑(−1)𝑟−i𝐶(𝑟, i)𝑃i
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
i =0
𝑟
𝑛!
𝑝'(1) = ∑(−1)i𝐶(𝑟, i)𝑃𝑛−1
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
i=0

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 fi𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑟i𝑣𝑎𝑡i𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜i𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎 :

𝑃'(0) = (𝑃1 − 𝑃0 )

𝑃'(1) = (𝑃𝑛 − 𝑃𝑛−1)

where (P1 - P0) and (Pn-Pn-1) define the first and last curve segments of the polygon.

3. The curve is symmetric about u and (1-u). This means that the sequence of control points defining the
curve can be reversed without change of the curve shape; that is, reversing the direction of parametrization
does not change the curve shape. This can be achieved by substituting 1-u=v in Equation (4) and noticing
that C(n,i)=C(n,n-i).This is a result of the fact that Bi,n(u) and B n-i,n(u) are symmetric if they are plotted as
functions of u.

4 The interpolation polynomial Bi,n(u) 0n-has the maximum value of C n,i(i/n)i(1-i/n)n-I occurring at u=i/n.
This implies that each control point is most influential on the curve shape at u = i / n. For example, for a
cubic Bezier curve, P0 ,P1 ,P2 ,P3 and are most influential when ,u=0,1/3,2/3 and 1 respectively.
Therefore, each control point is weighed by its blending function for each u value.
 5 The curve shape can always be modified by either changing one or more vertices of the characteristic
polygon or by keeping the polygon fixed and specifying the multiple coincident points at the vertex.

⚫ In (a) In (a) P2 is pulled to new positon P2*

⚫ In (b) P2 is assigned higher multiplicity..

⚫ More the multiplicity, more the curve is pulled towards P2.

6. A closed Bezier curve is obtained by closing the characteristic polygon or by choosing P0 and Pn to be
coincident.

7. The sum of functions of Bi,n associated with the control points is always equal to unity for any degree of
Bezier curve , for any valid value of u.

Bezier curve construction:

B-Spline curves:

 B-Spline curves are the powerful generation of the Bezier curves.

 They provide local control of the curve shape using a special set of blending functions that provide the
local influence.
 They provide the ability to add control points without changing the curve shape.
 B-splines curves can interpolate as well as approximate the set of control points.
 B-spline curves separate the degree from the number of control points.

The equation of the B-Spline defined by n+1 control pints Pi is given by:

Ni,k (u) are the B-Spline functions. The B-Spline curves have B-Spline Basis.
Here the parameter k controls (k -1) of the resulting B-Spline curve and is usually independent of the
number of control points.
Second, the maximum limit of the parameter u is no longer unity (as chosen for Bezier curves).
The B-spline function also has the property of recursion defined as:

Characteristics of B-Spline curve:

1. The local control of the curve is obtained by changing the position of a control points(s),using multiple
control points by placing several points at the same location, or by choosing a different degree (k -
1).Changing one control point affects only K segments.

Local control of B-Spline curves

2. A non-periodic B-spline curve passes through the first and las t control points P 0 and Pn+1 and is tangent to
first (P1-P0) and last segments (Pn+1 – Pn) of the control polygon.
3. Increasing the degree of the curve tightens it.In general , the lesss the degree the closer the curve gets to
the control points.when K=1, a zero –degree curve results.The curve then becomes the control points
themselves.When K=2,the curve becomes the polygon segments themselves.
 Effect of degree on Bezier curve

4. A second degree is always tangent to the midpoints of all the internal polygon segments. This is not the
case for other degrees.(fig above)

5. When K= No. of control points(n+1) the B-spline curve becomes the bezier curve.Here the range of u
becomes u=0 to 1.

Identical Bezier and B-Spline curve

6. Multiple control points induce regions of high curvatureof a B-Spline curve.This is useful when creating
sharp corners in curve.this effect is equivalent to asying that the curve is pulled more towards the control
point by increasing its multiplicity.

Multiple control point B-spline curve

7. Increasing the degree of the cureve makes it more difficult to control.Hence, a cubic B -spline is sufficient
for a large number of applications.

Notes:

The knot vector can, by its definition, be any sequence of numbers provided that each one is greater than or equal to
the preceding one. Knot vectors are generally placed into one of three categories: uniform, open uniform, and non-
uniform. As u varies from initial value umin towards umax the curve is drawn. Knots are defined in the parameter
space of a curve. Notation ui to refer to a particular knot. The collection of knots for a particular curve is called the
knot vector.

The number of polynomials needed to define a curve depends on the number of control points and the order of the
curve. The knot vector determines where in the parameter range these polynomials start and stop as the curve is
drawn. (They’re called “knots” because the values “tie together” the polynomials.) Fortunately, you don’t need to
understand the details of polynomial math in order to use knot vectors.
b-spline problem:

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NURBS

A Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline curve is defined by three things:

• Control points • The curve's order. • A knot vector

Uniform cubic B-splines are the curves with the parametric intervals defined at equal lengths. The most common
scheme used in all CAD systems is the non-uniform rational B-splines(NURB) with a non –uniform knot vector.
This include both Bezier and B-spline curves.

NURBS use additional set of (n+1) parameters ,wi, called weights to add greater flexibility to the curve.

Eg: the rational form of Bezier curve is written as:

Where Wi is the weighing factor for each of the vertices. When all the w=1 ,the above expression becomes
conventional Bezier form as

The Rational form of B-splines can be written as

Advantages of NURBS:

 Uniform representation for a large variety of curves and surfaces. This helps with the storage of the data
 NURBS can overcome the limitations of B-spline surfaces by associating each control point with weight.
 Evaluation of NURBS is fast ad stable.
 NURBS are invariant during Geo metric Transformations.

Some of the problems with NURBS are:

 Analytical curves and surfaces require additional storage

 If chosen weights are improper ,construction using NURBS may lead to subsequent problems.
 S URFACE MODELING

It is just an extension of representation of curves. Surfaces can represented as a series of grid points inside its
bounding curves.
Surfaces can be in two-dimensional space (planar) or in three-dimensional space (general surfaces). Surface can be
described using non-parametric or parametric equations
They can be represented by equations to pass through all the data points (fitting) or have patches of them connected
at the data points (approximations)
Surface Representation

NON-PARAMETRIC REPRESENTAION The natural choice for f(x,y) is a polynomial.

In general a surface or surface patch is represented Thus for analytical representation of surfaces we can
analytically by an equation of the form use equations of type
P(x, y,z) = [x y z] = [x y f (x, y )]

PARAMETRIC REPRESENTAION
In parametric surfaces a vector valued function All complex surfaces are represented using
P(u,v) of two variables is used as follows: manypatches

A surface may be one patch or constructed using

several patches.

There are set of boundary conditions associates with the rectangular patch. There are 16 vectors and 4 boundary
curves the vectors are four position vectors for corner points P(0,0), P(1,0),
P(1,1),P(0,1) ; eight tangent vectors (two at each corner) ; and four twist vectors at the corner points
The four boundary curves are described by holding one parametric variable fixed at one of its limiting values and
allowing the other to change .the boundary curves are then defined by the curve equations u=0,u=1,v=0,v=1

Two-patch surface A parametric surface patch with Boundary conditions

The tangent vector at any point is given by holding one parameter constant and differentiating with respect to the
other. The tangent vectors are given by:

(along v=constant curve)

(along u=constant curve)

The magnitudes and unit tangent vectors are given by

The twist vector at a point on a surface is said to measure the twist in the surface at the point .It is the rate of change
of the tangent vector Pu w.r.t. v or Pv with respect to u.

Surface entities:
Types:
Analytical surfaces E.g. Plane surfaces, sphere, and ellipsoid

Synthetic surfaces E.g. Bicubic surface, Bezier surface

Application:

Modeling parts in CAD/ CAM, representation of data surfaces like isothermal planes, stress surfaces/contour

1. Plane surface:
• It is the simplest surface and require 3 non coincident points to define an infin ite plane
• Used to generate c/s views by intersecting a model with it, generate mass property calculations

• The position vector at any point P on the plane is given by

The tangent vector at point P is given by:

And the surface normal is given by

2. Ruled or lofted surface:

• It is the linear surface and interpolates linearly between two boundary curves that defines the surface(rails)
• Rails can be any curves
• This is ideal for representing surfaces without any kinks or twists.

Parametric representation of Ruled Surface

The equation of the Ruling becomes

where v is the parameter along the ruling

The equation of the Ruled surface is ,

3. Surface of revolution:
  It is an axi symmetric surface that can model axi symmetric objects
 It is generated by rotating a planar curve in space about axis of symmetry at a certain angle

Surface of Revolution

The parametric equation for a point on the surface of revolution is developed by the parametric equation of the
entity to be rotated {Eg :P(t)=[x(t ) y(t) z(t)] 0≤t≤1} is a function of single parameter t. rotation about an axis
causes the location of the point also to be a function of rotation angle Ф.thus ,a point on the surface of

revolution is specified by two parameters t and Ф.

Example: For the Rotation about x-axis of an entity in xy plane, the surface equation is

Q(t,Ф) = [x(t) y(t)cos Ф y(t)sin Ф]

4. Tabulated surface:

• This is the surface generated by translating a planar curve a certain distance along a specified direction
(axis of cylinder or directrix).
• It is used to generate surfaces that have identical curved cross-section .

Tabulated surface

It can also be defined as a surface that is generated by moving a straight line (Generat rix) along a given planar
curve (directrix).
The straight line always stays parallel to a fixed given vector that defines the v direction of the cylinder.
 Tabulated surface

The planar curve G(u) can be any wireframe entity.

5. Hermite Bicubic Surface patch:

• The parametric Bicubic patch connects 4 corner points and utilizes a bicubic equation
• 16vector conditions are required to fined the coefficients of the equation
• When these are 4 control points ,u & v tangent vectors and 4 twist vectors this becomes as Hermite Bicubic
surface patch

• On e xpanding,

In order to determine the coefficients Ci , apply Boundary conditions,

 • Like Bicubic Hermite curve, this surface also offers C0 and C1 continuity

6. BEZIER SURFACE:
• This approximates the given input data and is a synthetic surface
• Similar to Bezier curve this does not pass through all the data points
• This type of surface permits kinks and twists.
• This allows only global control.
• The equation of the Bezier surface is given by:
•

where P(u,v) is any point o the surface and

Pij are the control points.

4 X 5 Bezier surface

Expanding the above equation

The characteristics of Bezier surface are same as that of a Bezier curve.

The surface interpolates the 4 control points. The surface is also tangent
to the corner segments of the control polyhedron. The tangent vectors at
the corners are:
 .
The Normal to the Bezier curve is given by:

In design environment, the Bezier surface is superior to a bicubic surface

as it does not require the tangent and twist vectors.
The surface does not have the local control. Changing one or more control
points affects the whole shape of the curve. The user cannot selectively
change the shape of the part surface.

 Find the equivalent Bicubic equation of the cubic Bezier curve.

By substituting n=3 ,m=3 in the equation,

The above equation can be expanded as,

This equation can be written in matrix form as :

A cubic Bezier Patch

Where the subscript B denotes Bezier and

And the U & V vectors are [u3 u2 u 1] and [v3 v2 v 1]

7. B-Spline Surface:
A B-Spline surface patch is defined by (n+1) X (m+1) array of control points and is given by:

B-Spline surfaces have the same characteristics as B-spline curves. Their major advantage over Bezier surfaces is
local control. Composite B-spline surface can be generated with C0 and/or C1 continuity in the same way as
composite Bezier surfaces.

8. Coons patch:
The coons patch is is used to create a surface using curves that forms closed boundaries.
9. Fillet surface :
This is a B-spline surface that blends two surfaces together.the origina; surfaces may or may not be trimmed.
 10. Offset surface:
Existing surfaces can be offset to create new ones identical in shape but may have different dimensions. It is a
useful surface to use to speed up surface construction. For e.g, to create a hollow cylinder , the outer or inner
cylinder can be created using a cylinder command and the other can be created by an offset command.

Coons patch Fillet Surface

Offset surface

Solid modeling
• Recalling weakness of wireframe and surface modeling
– Ambiguous geometric description
– incomplete geometric description
– lack topological information
– Tedious modeling process
– Awkward user interface
Solid models are known to be comp lete , valid and unambiguous representations of objects.
A complete solid is the one which enables a point to be classified relative to the object, if it is inside, outside or on
the object.
A valid solid is the one that does not have dangling edges or faces.
An unambiguous solid has one and only one interpretation.
Solid modeling gives completeness, validity and un ambiguity.
CAD system offer two approaches to creating solid models: Primitives and features. The former approach allows
designers to use predefined shapes (primitives) as building blocks to create complex solids. Boolean operations are
used to used combine the primitives. This approach is limited to the use of primitives.
The features are more flexible as they allow the construction of more complex shapes than what the primitives
offer.
Geometry vs Topology
A solid model consists of both the topology and geometric data of the object .
The completeness and unambiguity of a solid model are attributes to the fact that its database stores both its
geometry and its topology.
Geometry is the actual dimensions that define the entities of the object.

Topology is the connectivity and associativity of the object entities. It determines the relational information
between the object entities.
In the above fig, L1 shares a vertex with L2 and C1.L2 shares a vertex with L1 and L3, L3 shares a vertex with L2 and
C1, L1 and L3 do not overlap and P1 lies outside the object. Based on these definitions, neither geometry nor
topology alone can completely define the objects.

Solid entities:
The entities we use to create solid models depend on the approach we use.the primitives approach uses primitives
and the features approach uses sketches. Many CAD systems provide both approaches to increase their modeling
domain.
Primitives are the building blocks. Primitives are the simple, basic shapes which can be combind by mathematical
set of Boolean operations to create solid.
Primitives are usually translated & / rotated and oriented properly before applying Boolean operations.
The commonly used primitives are:
 Block, Cylinder ,Cone ,Sphere Wedge ,Torus
 Common Primitives

BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION(B-REP)
Boundary representation is one of the most popular representation schemes widely used to create solid model.
A boundary model is based on the topological notion that a physical object is bounded by a set of faces. These
faces are regions or subsets of closed and orientable surfaces. A closed surface is the one without breaks. An
orientable surface is one in which it is possible to distinguish two sides by using the direction of surface normal to
point to the inside or outside of the solid model under construction.
Each face is bounded by edges and each edge is bounded by vertices. The data base of boundary model contains
both geometry and topology.
A B-rep model of an object consists of faces, edges, vertices, loops and handles.

The database of a boundary model contains both its topology and geometry. Topology is created by performing
Euler operations and geometry is created by performing Euclidean calculations. They offer a mechanism to check
the validity of these models.

Primitives of B-rep
Objects that are often encountered in engineering applications can be classified as either polyhedral or curved
objects. A polyhedral object (plane-faced polyhedron) consists of planar faces (or sides) connected at straight
(linear) edges which, in turn, are connected at vertices. A cube or a tetrahedron is an obvious exa mple. A curved
object (curved polyhedron) is similar to a polyhedral object but with curved faces and edges instead.

Polyhedral objects can be classified into four classes.

The first class is the simple polyhedra (fig a below)

The second class is similar to the first with the e xception that a face may be bounded by more than one loop of
edges. (Fig b)
The third class includes objects with holes that do not go through the entire object. (Fig c)
The fourth and the last class includes objects that have holes that go through the entire objects. (Fig
d))Topologically, these through holes are called handles.

A vertex is a unique point (an ordered triplet) in space.

An edge is a finite, non-self-intersecting, directed space curve bounded by two vertices that are not necessarily
distinct.
A face is defined as a finite connected, non-self-intersecting, region of a closed oriented surface bounded by one or
more loops.
A loop defines a non-self-intersecting, piecewise, closed space curve which, in turn, may be a boundary of a face. A
handle (or through hole) is defined as a passageway that pierces the object completely. The topological name for the
number of handles in an object is genus.
Body (sometimes called a shell) is a set of faces that bound a single connected closed volume. Thus a body is an
entity that has faces, edges, and vertices. A minimum body is a point. Topologically this body has one face, one
vertex, and no edges.

Euler's Law

Euler proved that polyhedra are topologically valid if they satisfy the following equation:

 V– E+ F = 2 (simple solids)

 or (for objects with holes/loops)

This is the Euler Poincare equation. Where F, E, V, L, B, and G are the number of faces, edges, vertices,
faces' inner loop, bodies, and genus respectively

Open objects satisfy the following Euler's law:

Applying Euler’s law to the above objects for validity check

Examples :

Fig a Fig b Fig c

V– E + F = 2

16-24+10=2(valid) 16-36+24-2=2(1-0) 16-24+11-1=2(1-0)

Fig d ____16-24+10-2=2(1-1)

Advantages and disadvantages of B-rep

The B-rep scheme is very popular and has a strong history in computer graphics because it is closely related to
traditional drafting. Its main advantage is that it is very appropriate to construct solid models of unusual shapes that
are difficult to build using primitives.

Another major advantage is that it is relatively simple to convert a B-rep model into a wireframe model because the
model's boundary definition is similar to the wireframe definition.

One of the major disadvantages of the boundary model is that it requires large amounts of storage because it stores
the exp licit definition of the model boundaries. It is also a verbose scheme－more verbose than CSG. The model is
defined by its faces, edges, and vertices which tend to grow fairly fast for complex models. If B-rep systems do not
have a CSG-compatible user interface, then it becomes slow and inconvenient to use Euler operators in a design and
production environment.

Constructive Solid Geometry(CSG)

According to CSG model a physical object can be divided in to set of primitives (basic element or shapes) that can
be combined in certain order following a set of rules (Boolean operation) to form the object . Primitives are also
valid CSG model. Each primitive is bounded by a set of surfaces usually close and orientable.

Boolean operations:
Each primitive solid is assumed to be a set of points, a Boolean operation is performed on point sets and the result
is a solid model. Boolean operation are union(U or +), intersection (∩ or I)and difference(-).

The relative location and orientation of the two primitives have to be defined before the boolean operation can be
performed.
Boolean operation can be applied to two solids other than the primitives
The database of CSG model, stores its topology and geometry. The geometry stored in the database of a CSG model
includes the geometry of its primitives and rigid motion and transformations.

The data of the solid model is stored in its database in a Tree, called as CSG tree.

A CSG tree is defines as an inverted ,ordered binary tree whose leaf nodes are primitives and interior nodes are
(regularized set) operations.

Examples:

The CSG scheme is a powerful one. It has many advantages. It is easy to construct out of primitives and Boolean
operations. It is concise and requires minimum storage to store solid definition(CSG tree).Algorithms based on CSG
are very reliable.
GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS

A geometric transformation is an operation that modifies its shape, size, position, orientation etc with respect to its
current configuration operating on the vertices (position vectors).

The problem of transformation is states as:

Given a point P that belong to a geometric model that undergoes a rigid-body motion, find P´ (which is the new
position) such that :

P´=P[T]

Where [T] is the transformation matrix.

[T] must apply for all rig id body transformations (Translations, Rotations, Scaling and Reflection) and applies for
2D and 3D transformations.

• Translation

• Rotation

• Scaling

• Reflection

• Shearing

Translation [t]:

A translation is applied to an object by repositioning it along a straight line path from one coordinate location to
another. We translate a two-dimensional point by adding translation distances, txand ty, to the original coordinate
position (x,y) to move the point to a new position (x',y')

x´=x+ tx; y´=y+ ty; z´=z+tz(for 3rd

dimension) The translation distance pair (tx, ty) is called translation vector (or
shift vector)

Where ‘ t’ is the Translation Transformation

Rotation [R]:

A two-dimensional rotation is applied to an object by repositioning it along a circular path in the x -y plane. When
we generate a rotation by rotating at an angle (θ) [and the position about which the object is rotated (xr , yr) this is
known as rotation point or pivot point]. The transformation can also be described as a rotation about rotation
a xis that is perpendicular to x-y plane and passes through the pivot point. Positive values for the rotation angle
define counter-clockwise rotations about the pivot point and the negative values rotate objects in the clockwise
direction.
Here, r - constant distance of the point from the origin.
Φ - original angular position of the point from the horizontal
θ - rotation angle

Suppose the pivot point be at origin, to understand the relationship between angular and coordinate points of original
and transformed position lets look at the figure below:

The transformation can be e xp ressed by the following equations:

x = r cos (Ф) y = r sin (Ф)

The final position P´ is obtained by can be related by writing

Where ‘R’ is the 2-D Rotation matrix

Scaling transformation[S]:
Scaling is used to increase or decrease the size of the object .

where ‘s’ is the 2d scaling matrix

Where x´= x.sx ; Y´= y.sy ; z´=z.sz(for 3 dimensions)

Any positive numeric values can be assigned to the scaling factors s x, and sy.
Values less than 1 reduce the size of objects; values greater than 1 produce an enlargement.
Specifying a value of 1 for both sx, and sy, leaves the size of objects unchanged.
When sx, and sy, are assigned the same value, a uniform scaling is produced that maintains relative object
proportions.
Unequal values for sx, and sy, result in a differential scaling that are often used in design applications.
Polygons are scaled by applying transformations, to each vertex and then regenerating the polygon using the
transformed vertices.
Other objects are scaled by applying the scaling transformation equations to the parameters defining the objects.
An ellipse in standard position is resized by scaling the semi major and semi minor axes and redrawing the ellipse
about the designated center coordinates. Uniform scaling of a circle is done by simply adjusting the radius.

Matrix representations and HOMOGENEOUS coordinates

Many graphics applications involve sequences of geometric transformations. An animation, for e xa mple, might
require an object to be translated and rotated at each increment of the motion
This can be exp ressed as:
P=P.T1+T2

P and P'- represent the row vectors.

T1 - is a 2 by 2 array containing multiplicative factors.
T2 - is a 2 element row matrix containing translation terms.

We can combine multiplicative and translational terms for 2D geometric t ransformations into a single matrix
representation by expanding the 2 by 2 matrix representations to 3 by 3 matrices. This allows us to express all
transformation equations as matrix multiplications, providing that we also expand the matrix representations for
coordinate positions. To express any 2D transformations as a matrix multiplication, we represent each Cartesian
coordinate position (x,y ) with the homogeneous coordinate triple (xh,yh,h),such that

[x y h]=[x/h y/h 1] = [x/h y/h]

For 2D geometric transformations, we can choose the homogeneous parameter h to any non -zero value. Thus, there
is an infinite number of equivalent homogeneous representations for each coordinate point (x,y ). A convenient
choice is simply to h=1. Each 2D position is then represented with homogeneous coordinates (x,y,1).

Exp ressing positions in homogeneous coordinates allows us to represent all geometric transformation equations as
matrix multiplications. Coordinates are represented with three element row vectors and transformation operations
are written as 3 X 3 matrices.

Example:

For example, both the points (6, 9, 3) and (4, 6, 2) in the homogeneous coordinates corresponds to (2, 3) in the
Cartesian coordinates. Conversely, the point (2, 1) of the Cartesian corresponds to (2, 1, 1), (4, 2, 2) or (6, 3, 3) of
the homogeneous system

For Translation, (homogeneous translation matrix)

Similarly for Rotation transformation,

For scaling transformation,

Rotation about the fixed point (a,b) / pivot point(a,b):

A generalized rotation about an arbitrary point (a,b) can be obtained by performing the following transformations :

1 Translate the object so that the pivot-point(a,b) position is moved to coordinate origin.
2 Rotate the object about the coordinate origin.
3 Translate the object so that the pivot point is returned to its original position.

The composite matrix for this sequence is obtained as:

T=T1 .T2. T3
Where,

SCALING about an arbitrary point:

The Transformation sequence to produce scaling with respect to a selected fixed position (a,b) using a scaling
function that can only scale rela tive to the coordinate origin.

1. Translate object so that the fixed point coincides with the coordinate origin.
2. Scale the object with respect to the coordinate origin.
3. Use the inverse translation of step 1 to return the object to its original position.

The composite matrix for this sequence is obtained as:

T=T1 .T2. T3
REFLECTION(R):

Reflection is nothing more than a rotation of the object by 180o. In case of reflection the image formed is on the
opposite side of the reflective medium with the same size. Therefore we use the identity matrix with positive and
negative signs according to the situation respectively.

The reflection about the x-a xis can be shown as:

The reflection about the y-axis can be shown as:

Reflection about a origin :

When both the xand y coordinates are flipped then the reflection produced is relative to an axis that is perpendicular
to x-yplane and that passes through the coordinate origin. This transformation is referred as a reflection relative to
coordinate origin and can be represented using the matrix below.

REFLECTION ABOUT AN ARBITRARY LINE

Reflection about any line y= mx + c can be accomplished with a combination of translate-rotate-reflect

transformations.

Steps are as follows

1. Translate the line Y=mX + C so that the line passes through the origin.[t]

2. Rotate the line at an angle Tan-1(-m) so that it coincides with x-axis.[R]

3. Reflect about the line [M]

4. Restore back the line by using the inverse rotation and translation transformation.[R-1 & t-1].

[T]=[t] [R]-θ[MX] [R-1 ][ t-1].

REFLECTION ABOUT AN ARBITRARY POINT
Reflection about an arbitrary point P (x,y) can be accomplished by translate-reflect transformation i.e.

• First the arbitrary point is translated to the the origin is and then the reflection is taken about the origin.
• And finally the point is translated back to its original position.
• [T]=[t] [M] [ t-1].
 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

Contents

1. Numerical control of machine tools

Definition
Elements
Advantages problems
CNC-what is CNC, Why CNC, Features, Advantages
Classification of CNC
Fundamentals of part programming
Canned (Fixed) Cycles
Cutter radius Compensation
Tool Length Compensation
Machining Center-Features
Turning Center-Features
Adaptive Control
2. Direct numerical control
DNC, Components, Features, Types, Advantages
3. Group technology
What is GT, Part family, identification of Part Families
Part classification and Coding Method, The Opitz Classification System,
Developing FORM Code-Examples
4. Industrial Robots
What is Robot, Configurations, Components of robot, work volume, Accuracy,
Repeatability, Resolution, Robot programming methods, Robot programming
languages.
5. Flexible Manufacturing Systems
What is FMS, FMS equipment, FMS layout; Benefits of FMS
6. Computer aided quality control(CAQC)
Classification of inspection sensor technologies;
Non-contact inspection methods- Non-contact optical methods: Machine
vision; Scanning laser beam device; Non contact , non optical inspection methods-
Electrical field techniques; Radiation techniques;Ultrasonics

Turnkey Cad/Cam systems,

Computer Integrated manufacturing(CIM), Rapid prototyping (RP)
 Numerical Control of Machine Tools (UNIT-3)

What is numerical control

Numerical control is defined as programmable automation in which various functions of machine

tools are controlled by letters, numbers and symbols

(A) Program of instructions (b) Controller unit (C) Machine tool

Elements of Numerical control

Advantages of NC over Conventional Machine Tools

a. Reduced lead time b. Elimination of operator errors c.Operator activity

d. Lower labor cost e.Longer tool life

f. Flexibility in changes of component design g.Reduced inspection

Problems with NC

 Part programming mistakes

 Non optional speeds and feeds

 Punched tapes

 Tape reader

 Controller

 Management information

Computer Numerical Control

CNC Machining is a process used in the manufacturing sector that involves the use of computers
to control machine tools like lathes, mills and grinders.

Control units for NC machines are usually hardwired, which means that all machine functions
are controlled by the physical electronic elements that are built into the controller.

Computer numerical control (CNC) is the numerical control system in which a dedicated
computer is built into the control to perform basic and advanced NC functions. CNC controls are
also referred to as soft-wired NC (which means the machine functions are encoded into the
computer at the time of manufacture, and they will not be erased when the CNC machine is
turned off. Computer memory that holds such information is known as ROM or read-only
memory) systems because most of their control functions are implemented by the control
software programs.

CNC is a computer assisted process to control general purpose machines from instructions
generated by a processor and stored in a memory system. It is a specific form of control system
where position is the principal controlled variable. All numerical control machines manufactured
since the seventies are of CNC type.
The computer allows for the following: storage of additional programs, program editing, running
of program from memory, machine and control diagnostics, special routines, inch/metric,
incremental/absolute switchability.

Why CNC

To manufacture complex curved geometries in 2D or 3D was extremely expensive by

mechanical means (which usually would require co mplex jigs to control the cutter motions)

 Machining components with high Repeatability and Precision

 Unmanned machining operations
 To improve production planning and to increase productivity
 To survive in global market CNC machines are must to achieve close tolerances

Computer Numerical control:

The basic components of CNC machine are:

• Microcomputer

• Tape reader

• NC part program storage

• Computer hardware interface and servo system

• Machine tool

Configuration of CNC

Features of computer numerical control:

The features of CNC are:

 Storage of more than one program

  Use of Diskettes
 Program editing at the machine tool site
 Fixed cycles
 Interpolation
 Cutter length compensation
 Diagnostics

CLASSIFICATION OF CNC MACHINE TOOLS

(1) Based on the motion type ' Point-to-point & Contouring systems (NC modes)

There are two main types of machine tools and the control systems required for use with them
differ because of the basic differences in the functions of the machines to be controlled. They are
known as point-to-point and contouring controls.

A. Point-to-point systems:

Machine tools for example drilling, boring and tapping machines etc, require the cutter
and the work piece to be placed at a certain fixed relative positions at which they must
remain while the cutter does its work. These machines are known as point-to-point
machines and the control equipment for use with them are known as point-to-point
control equipment. Feed rates need not to be programmed. In theses machine tools, each
axis is driven separately. In a point-to-point control system, the dimensional information
that must be given to the machine tool will be a series of required position of the two
slides.

(a) Point-to-point system (b) Contouring system

 Point to point (positioning) control in NC

B. Contouring systems (Continuous path systems)

Other type of machine tools involves motion of work piece with respect to the cutter while
cutting operation is taking place. These machine tools include milling, routing machines etc. and
are known as contouring machines and the controls required for their control are known as
contouring control. These machines require simultaneous control of axes. In contouring
machines, relative positions of the work piece and the tool should be continuously controlled.
The control system must be able to accept information regarding velocities and positions of the
machines slides. Feed rates should be programmed.

(2) Based on the control loops ' Open loop & Closed loop systems
Open loop systems:
Programmed instructions are fed into the controller through an input device. These instructions
are then converted to electrical pulses (signals) by the controller and sent to the servomotors. The
primary drawback of the open- loop system is that there is no feedback system to check whether
the program position and velocity has been achieved. If the system performance is affected by
load, temperature, humidity, or lubrication then the actual output could deviate from the desired
output. For these reasons the open - loop system is generally used in point-to-point systems where
the accuracy requirements are not critical. Very few continuous-path systems utilize open- loop
control.

Open Loop Control System

Closed loop systems:

The closed- loop system has a feedback subsystem to monitor the actual output and correct any
differences from the programmed input. These systems use position and velocity feedback.
Majority of CNC systems operate on servo mechanism, a closed loop princip le. If a discrepancy
is revealed between where the machine element should be and where it actually is, the sensing
device signals the driving unit to make an adjustment, bringing the movable component to the
required location.
Closed- loop systems are very powerful and accurate.

Closed Loop Control System

(3 ) Based on the number of axes 2, 3, 4 & 5 axes CNC machines.

(3.1) 2&3 axes CNC machines:

CNC lathes will be coming under 2 axes machines. There will be two axes along which motion
takes place. The saddle will be moving longitudinally on the bed (Z-axis) and the cross slide
moves transversely on the saddle (along X-axis). In 3-axes machines, there will be one more
axis, perpendicular to the above two axes. By the simultaneous control of all the 3 axes, complex
surfaces can be machined.

(3.2)4&5 axes CNC machines:

4 and 5 axes CNC machines provide multi-axis machining capabilities beyond the standard 3-
axis CNC tool path movements. A 5-axis milling centre includes the three X, Y, Z axes, the A
axis which is rotary tilting of the spindle and the B-axis, which can be a rotary index table.
.

4. Based on the power supply ' Electric, Hydraulic & Pneumatic systems

Mechanical power unit refers to a device which transforms some form of energy to mechanical
power which may be used for driving slides, saddles or gantries forming a part of machine tool.
The input power may be of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic.

Different components related to NC machine tools

Any CNC machine tool essentially consists of the following parts:

( 1.1 ) Part program:

A part program is a series of coded instructions required to produce a part. It controls the
movement of the machine tool and on/off control of auxiliary functions such as spindle rotation
and coolant. The coded instructions are composed of letters, numbers and symbols.

(1.2 ) Program input device:

The program input device is the means for part program to be entered into the CNC control.
Three commonly used program input devices are punch tape reader, magnetic tape reader, and
computer via RS-232-C communication.

( 1.3 ) Machine Control Unit

The machine control unit (MCU) is the heart of a CNC system. It is used to perform the
following functions

 To read the coded instructions.

 To decode the coded instructions.
 To implement interpolations (linear, circular, and helical) to generate axis motion
commands.
 To feed the axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the axis
mechanisms.
 To receive the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis.
 To implement auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle on/off and tool
change.

( 1.4 ) Drive System:

A drive system consists of amplifier circuits, drive motors, and ball lead-screws. The MCU feeds
the control signals (position and speed) of each axis to the amplifier circuits.

( 1.5 ) Machine Tool:

CNC controls are used to control various types of machine tools. The machine table is controlled
in the X and Y axes, while the spindle runs along the Z axis.

( 1.6 ) Feed Back System:

The feedback system is also referred to as the measuring system. The MCU uses the difference
between reference signals and feedback signals to generate the control signals for correcting
position and speed errors.
Machine axes designation

Machine axes are designated according to the "right-hand rule", When the thumb of right hand
points in the direction of the positive X axis, the index finger points toward the positive Y axis,
and the middle finger toward the positive Z axis.
Axes of vertical Milling machine
X,Y,Z ---- Translational axes
a,b,c ---- Rotational axes

Axes of Horizontal Milling machine

Part programming consists of sequence of instructions performed on NC/CNC machines.

The four basic formats used for NC input are:

1. Fixed sequential format

2. Tab sequential format
3. Block address format
4. Word address format

CNC part program contains a combination of machine tool code and machine-specific
instructions. It consists of:

(a) Information about part geometry

(b) Motion statements to move the cutting tool

(c) Cutting speed (d) Feed (e) Auxiliary functions such as coolant on and off, spindle
direction
Preparatory functions: It is a preset function associated with the movement of the machine axes
and the associated geometry.
The term "preparatory" in NC means that it "prepares" the control system to be ready for
implementing the information that follows in the next block of instructions. A preparatory
function is designated in a program by the word address G followed by two digits. Preparatory
functions are also called G-codes and they specify the control mode of the operation.

Eg: G00…rapid traverse ; G02…linear interpolation

Miscellaneous function: These involve the actions necessary for machining.(coolant On/Off;
spindle On/Off) .these are used to designate a particular a mode of operation for a CNC machine
. End of program ; M03 Spindle clockwise; M06 Tool change; M30 End of program.

In principle, all codes are either modal or non-modal(one–shot codes). Modal code stays in effect
until cancelled by another code in the same group. The control remembers modal codes. This
gives the programmer an opportunity to save programming time. Non- modal code stays in effect
only for the block in which it is programmed. Afterwards, its function is turned off
automatically.

Interpolation :Interpolation consists of the calculation of the coordinated movement of several

axes using the programmed parameters, in order to obtain a resulting trajectory, which can be of
various types, such as: - Straight line – Circular.

It is the capacity of the machine tool to perform the movements in straight lines or curves
,carefully computed to fit overall pattern of the curve .

Canned Cycles:

A canned cycle consists of series of motions replaced a number of times like drilling, boring
,tapping etc,. For example, a drilling cycle consists of the following motions of the drill bit :

1. Rapid approach to work piece

2. Drill at feed rate
3. Rapid return to the initial position

The same action is repeated for each of the holes. For each of the operations,3 NC blocks are
written ,out of which 2 blocks need to be repeated without any change for each of the holes to be
drilled. Hence it is possible to define a canned cycle or fixed cycle which can repeat all the
motions without having to repeat the same information for each of the holes. The most common
cycles that are useful for the hole- making operations as drilling, reaming, tapping etc.

The format for the canned cycle is

N G81 X Y Z R

Where

N = Sequence number

G81 = Canned cycle(Drilling)

X, Y = coordinates of the point where the drilling is to be performed.

Z = depth of the hole to be drilled
R = Position of the clearance plane

Canned cycle of drilling operation

Standard canned cycle motions

Code Application
G80 Canned Cycle cancel
G81 Drilling; Center drilling
G82 Counter sinking; Counter boring
G83 Deep hole drilling
G84 Tapping
G86 Reaming
G87 Multiple Boring
G88 Boring
G89 Boring
Cutter radius compensation:

In contouring operation it becomes necessary to calculate the tool path by offsetting the contour
by an amount equal to the radius of the cutter.

Also when there is change in cutter size the program needs to be edited .if a compensation equal
to the radius of the cutter is entered and stored in the control system, the program can be written
for the component profile and no change in program would be required .It is as if the program is
written with the cutter is of zero radius. When cutter radius compensation is ON ,the control
automatically calculates tool path offset in the correct direction by the radius of tool in spindle.

The preparatory functions G 40, G41 and G42 are used for the cutter radius compensation group.

These are modal and remain active until cancelled.

G40: Cutter radius compensation off

G41: used when cutter is on the left of the programmed path looking in the direction of the tool
movement.

G42: used when cutter is on the right of the programmed path looking in the direction of the tool
movement.

Tool length compensation:

If more than one tool was used is used for performing the machining function, the programmer
that he has to take care of the individual tool lengths for the purpose of programming Z depth in
each case.

All the tools are measured in the assembled state using a tool presetter, which can be mechanical,
optical or electrical.

Whenever a tool is changed, it is necessary to measure the new length and input it into the
memory of the cnc machine.

G45 and G46 are the codes

 Machining center (Unit-4)

This is a machine tool capable of performing several different machining operations on a

workpart in one setup under program control.

The machining center is capable of milling, drilling, reaming, tapping, boring, facing and similar
operations.

Machining centers are classifies as Horizontal or vertical ,on the basis of orientation of machine
tool spindle.(HMC and VMC)

Features of CNC machining centers:

Automatic tool changer : The tools are contained in a storage unit that is integrated with the
machine tool. When a cutter needs to be changed, the tool drum rotates to the proper position and
an automatic tool changer (ATC) operating under program control, exchanges the tool in the
spindle for the tool in the tool storage unit. Capacities of tool storage unit commonly range from
16 to 80 cutting tools.

Automatic work part positioner: Many horizontal and vertical machining centers have the
capability to orient the work part relative to the spindle. This is accomplished by means of a
rotary table on which work part is fixtured. The table can be oriented at any angle about a
vertical axis to permit the cutting tool to access almost the entire surface of the part in a single
setup.

Automatic pallet changer: Machining centers are often equipped with two (or more) separate
pallets that can be presented to the cutting tool using an automatic pallet changer. While
machining is performed with one pallet in position at the machine, the other pallet is in a safe
location away from the spindle. In this location, the operator can unload the finished part and
then fixture the raw work part for next cycle.

Turning center

CNC lathes are used to produce cylindrical shaped components. A majority of the components
are machined in the industry are of cylindrical shape.

Lathes generally only turn while turning centers can be more advanced. These machines can be
capable of facing, threading, knurling, drilling, boring, reaming, and taper turning.
Main features are:
Tool turrets: Most of the turning are provided with the tool turret ,which may have a capacity of
8 to 12 tools of various types.

Multiple axis turning centers: A large number of axes is provided in addition of turning.the
turning center area available with z-,x- and c –axes of operation. The main spindle holding the
work piece can be indexed to get the variety of profiles, the c-axis.

Multiple spindle turning centers: For a large volume production of small and medium sized
components, it may be necessary to incorporate multiple spindles.

Vertical turning centers: To machine large diameter components on horizontal turning center is
difficult so vertical turning center has spindle in vertical direction.

Adaptive control Machining

 Adaptive control machining is developed to optimize machining parameters.

 It is the control system that measures certain output processes variables and uses the m to
control speed and /or feed.
 Some of the processes variables used in adaptive control machining systems are spindle
force or deflection , torque ,cutting temperature , vibration amplitude ,metal removable
rate cost or horse power.

Adaptive control:

 Adaptive control system is a logical extension of the CNC-mechanism .

 The adaptive control feedback provides sensory information on machining processes
variables such as force or deflection , torque ,cutting temperature , vibration amplitude
,metal removable rate cost or horse power ,worktool air gaps.
 The data is processed by an adaptive controller that converts the processes information
into feedback data to be incorporated into the machine control unit.
 NC/CNC controls the sequence of tool positions or the continuous tool path of the tool
during machining.
 There is every possibility of spindle deflection or increasing of cutting temperature or
work piece tool air gaps or material property variations or machine tool vibrations.
 These process parameters waste non productive time.
 To reduce this non productive time, Adaptive control if used determines proper speeds /
feeds during machining as function of variations in process variables such as work-
material hardness,width or depth of cut,air gaps in part geometry etc..
 Adaptive Control machining system which uses
cutter forces as the measured Process variables

SOURCES OF VARIABILITY

The following are the typical sources of variability in machining where AC can be most
advantageously applied.

1. Variable geometry of cut in the form of changing depth or width of cut : In these cases,
feed rate is usually adjusted to compensate for the variability.
2. Variable work piece hardness and Variable machinability : When hard spots or other
areas of difficulty are encountered in a work piece, either speed or feed is reduced to
avoid premature failure of tool,
3. Variable work piece rigidity: if the work piece deflect as a result of insufficient rigidity
in set up, the feed rate must be reduced to maintain accuracy in the process.
4. Tool wear: It has been observed in research that as the tool begins to dull, the cutting
force increases. The adaptive controller will typically respond to tool dulling by reducing
feed rate.

These are the sources of variability present themselves as time varying and for most part,
unpredictable changes in the machining process

In practice the AC system of machine tools can be classified into two types:

 AC with optimization (ACO)

 AC with constrains (ACC)

AC with optimization ACO: refers to systems in which the performance is optimized according
to a prescribed IP, sometimes called the figure of merit. The IP is usually an economic function
such as maximum production rate or minimum machining cost.
 𝑀𝑅𝑅
IP= where MRR=material removal rate; TWR=Tool wear rate
𝑇𝖶𝑅

In metal cutting process, MRR is dependent on cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut.

TWR depends on cutting process parameters as well as other dynamic characteristics of

machines.

The tool wear cannot be measured directly from the process and hence parameters like cutting
power, cutting forces, vibration of cutting tool are entered into the program (online parameter
estimator).

The online parameter estimator generates an estimate PI at each time‘t’ by processing the system
performance inputs and outputs.

This index is compared with the desired value by another program in the system software which
recalculates the cutting processes parameters like feed rate and speed rate so as to keep
performance index at highest level without violating any constraints.

Adaptive control constraints(ACC):

In this system control is simplified by safe limits for any relevant processes parameters in the
form of constraints. A few examples are :

Limit the deflection of cutter, Cutting force, Cutting –tool temperature, Vibration amplitude of
cutter

The objective of the adaptive controller is to manipulate speed/feed to maintain the measured
variables at or below their constraint limit values .Constraints define the permissible range of
operation. The constraint violation detection logic determines whether the processes variable
exceeded the predefined limit or not. If constraint violation has occurred, the logic subsystem
increments or decrements the value of the ACU out such that the process variable is within the
limits.

Direct numerical control

DNC can be defined as a manufacturing system in which a number of machines are controlled by
a computer through direct communication and in real- time.

One large computer can be used to control more than 100 separate machines.
The computer provides instructions to each machine tool whenever needed.
The part program is directly is directly transmitted to the machine tool directly from the
computer memory .
 General configuration of DNC
Components of DNC:

The basic components of DNC are:

1. Central Computer
2. Bulk memory
3. Telecommunication lines
4. Machine tools

The computer calls the part program instructions from bulk storage and sends them to the
individual machines whenever needed. It also receives back the data from the machines. This
two way information flow occurs in real time.

Functions of DNC systems:

The functions of DNC are:

1. NC without punched tape

2. NC part program storage
3. Data collection, processing and reporting
4. Communications

Types of DNC systems:

There are two types of DNC systems are:

1. Behind the tape reader(BTR) systems

 BTR system

The BTR replaces the machine’s tape reader, integrating the older machine tools into a modern
DNC system. The BTR simplifies operation and reduces set-up time by loading part programs
and executive software directly from the computer.
The controller uses two temporary storage buffers to receive blocks of instructions from the
DNC computer and convert them back to machine actions.
While one buffer is receiving a block of data, the other is providing control instructions to the
machine tool.

2 Special Machine control unit(SMCU)systems

A special machine control unit completely replaces the NC controller .

The special MCU facilitates communication between machine tool and computer.

SMCU systems
Advantages of DNC:

 Elimination of punched tapes and tape readers

 Greater computational capability for such functions as circular interpolation
 Reporting of machine shop performance
 Computer located away from working place
 Group Technology (Unit-5)

WHAT IS GROUP TECHNOLOGY?

It is a manufacturing philosophy in which similar parts are identified and grouped together in
order to take advantage of their similarities in design and production .

Group technology seeks to improve productivity by grouping parts and products with similar
characteristics into families and forming production cell with a group of dissimilar machining
process i.e. grouping of products and machine, so that productivity can be improved.

Similarities among parts permit them to be classified into part families. In each part family,
processing steps are similar.

The improvement is typically achieved by organizing the production facilities into

manufacturing cells that specialize in production of certain part families.

Part Family:

A group of parts that possess similarities in geometric shape and size, or in the processing
steps used in their manufacture.

Part families are a central feature of group technology.

There are always differences among parts in a family. But the similarities are close enough that
the parts can be grouped into the same family.

• Large manufacturing systems can be decomposed into part families (smaller

subsystems)based on similarities in

• Design attributes

• Manufacturing attributes

Hence GT is the integration of CAD & CAM

Part Design Attributes

 Major dimensions  Basic external shape  Basic internal shape  Length/diameter ratio 
Material type  Tolerances  Surface finish

Part Manufacturing Attributes

 Major process (operation)  Operation sequence  Batch size  Machine tools  Cutting tools 
Material type
Ways to Identify Part Families( 3 methods for changing over to GT):

1. Visual inspection - using best judgment to group parts into appropriate families, based on the
parts or photos of the parts

2. Production flow analysis - using information contained on route sheets to classify parts

3. Parts classification and coding - identifying similarities and differences among parts and
relating them by means of a coding scheme

Part classification and Coding Method

A code is assigned to each part based on its characteristics, e.g., geometry, material, etc.

Three basic types of coding systems:

• Monocode

• Polycode

• Hybrid

The Opitz Classification System:

This is the most commonly used coding system Developed by Prof H Opitz of Technical
University of Aachen

The code number has a maximum of 13 positions(digits).

Each digit has a meaning which needs to be ascertained from the coding system.

Each position may assume 10 different values (attributes).

This system uses following sequence:

12345 6789 ABCD

Form Code Supplementary Code Secondary Code

 Form code: focuses on part geometry dim and feature

 Supplementary code: info relevant mfg such as raw material, tolerance and surface roughness

 Secondary code: intended for production operation type and sequence .

Benefits of Group Technology

a. Standardization of tooling, fixtures, and setups is encouraged

b. Material handling is reduced
c. Parts are moved within a machine cell rather than entire factory
d. Process planning and production scheduling are simplified
e. Work-in-process and manufacturing lead time are reduced
f. Improved worker satisfaction in a GT cell
g. Higher quality

Problems in Group technology:

a. Identifying the part families (the biggest problem)

b. If the plant makes 10,000 different parts, reviewing all of the part drawings and
grouping the parts into families is a substantial task
c. Rearranging production machines in the plant into the appropriate machine cells.
EXAMPLE -1

Opitz part coding system

Given the part Design below, determine the form code in the opitz classification and coding
system

Example :2
COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANNING

Process planning is concerned with determining the sequence of individual manufacturing

operations needed to produce a given part or product.

The resulting operation is documented on a sheet called ‘route sheet’.

The route sheet is a listing of the production operations and associated machine tools for a work
part or assembly.

Manufacturing firms try to automate the task of process planning using CAPP systems due to
many limitations of manual process planning which include: ––

 Personal experience factor involved in planning for a physical product and absence of
standardization of process
 Manual process planning is time consuming and slow.
 Slow in responding to changes in product design and production.

Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)is a means of automatically developing the process
plan from the characteristics of the component i.e. the program automatically generate the
manufacturing operation sequence.

CAPP reduces the manual work of the manufacturing engineers and provides the opportunity to
generate production routings which are rational and consistent.

Approaches to CAPP:

 Retrieval type CAPP(variant) systems

 Generative CAPP systems
 Hybrid CAPP systems

Retrieval type CAPP(variant) systems:

 Here parts produced in the plant are grouped into part families and are distinguished
according to their manufacturing characteristics.
 For each part family, a standard process plan is established.
 The standard process plan is stored in the computer files and then retrieved for new work
parts, which belong to that family.
 The user initiates the procedure by entering the part code number at the user terminal.
 The CAPP program then searched for the part family matrix file to determine if a match
exists.
  If the file contains the identical code number, the standard machine routing (route sheet)
and operation sequence are retrieved from the respective computer for the display on the
computer.
 The standard process plan is examined by the user and necessary changes are made to
make it compatible with the new part design.
 If exact match cannot be found between the code numbers in the computer and code
numbers for the file ,the user may search the machine routing file and the operation
sequence file for similar for similar parts that can be used to develop the plan for the new
part.
 Once the process plan for the new part code number has been entered, it becomes the
standard process for future parts of the same classification.

User enters th e
part numb er Part family search Part Family matrix file

Standard Machine Routing File

machine routing

Standard operation Operation sequence file

Retrieve /edit

Process pLan Process pLan other application programs

formatter
Retrieval(variant) type CAPP systems

GENERATIVE CAPP SYSTEM:

 Generative process plan involves the use of the computer to create an individual process
plan from scratch, automatically and without any human assistance.
 This uses a set of algorithms to progress through various technical and logical decisions
towards a final plan for manufacturing.
 Inputs to the system would include comprehensive description of work part.
 A pure generative system can produce a complete process plan from GT code with part
classification and design data. Two types of planning are available: Forward and
Backward planning.
 Using forward planning, we begin with the stock as the initial state and
part features are removed until the part is obtained
 Using backward planning, we begin with the final part as the initial state
and part features are built- up until the stock is obtained.
 Description of Technic al+lo gical
Capabilities of
User part on code decisions
machine tools
available

PROCESS
PLAN

GENERATIVE TYPE CAPP SYSTEMS

Type Software

Variant CAPP MIPLAN,MITURN,MULTICAPP

Generative CAPP AUTAP,KAPLAN,RATE,MCOES,CROPS
BENEFITS OF CAPP:

1. The computer-automated preparation of operation routing is likely to be more consistent,

logical and optimal than its manual counterpart.
2. The productivity of the process planners increase on account of reduced clerical effort,
fewer errors, and immediate access to process planning database.
3. With CAPP, the process planer is able to prepare a route sheet for a new part in less time
as compared to a manual operation. This leads to the overall reduction in manufacturing
lead time.
4. The computer prepared document is neater and easier to read than manually written route
sheet. This improves the legibility of the document.
5. It facilitates savings of material.It saves list of tooling.

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS (Unit -4)

Definition:

A robot is a programmable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move parts ,tools or

special devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of variety of tasks.

An industrial robot is a general purpose programmable machine having anthropomorphic

characteristics.

Configurations:

Robot manipulators are available in several different styles/configurations.

Cartesian or Linear: (3Lor 3P) Cartesian robots are easiest and least expensive robots to build.
They can be made using linear joints and programmed using a PLC or PC. The axis
configuration of Cartesian robots provides good rigidity compared with other robots
configurations.

Cartesian Robot

Cylindrical configuration: (2L ,1R)

Cylindrical Robot

It consists of a vertical column. An arm assembly is moved up or down relative to the vertical
column. The arm can be moved in and out relative to the axis of the column.

Polar configuration(2R 1L)(spherical robot)

Jointed-arm robot(3R)

It is similar to the configuration of a human arm. It consists of a vertical column that swivels
about the base using a T-joint.(R for rotary joint)
SCARA Robot:

Its full form is ‘Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm.

BASIC COMPONENTS OF A ROBOT:

1. MANIPULATOR: This does the physical work and consists of links. The movement of
the manipulator is controlled by the actuators. These actuators allow the various axes to
move along the work cell.

2. CONTROLLER: This is the heart of the operation and stores the programmed
information. This controls the peripheral devices within the work cell and communicates
with the computers.(Manipulator movements are also controlled)
3. POWER SOURCE: The Drive system or the power source can be hydraulic , Pneumatic
or Electric.
Hydraulic is power and expensive. It is preferred for spray painting applications.
Pneumatic power is least expensive but provides less power.
Electric power provides the most versatile application and used for precision jobs. These
can follow complicated paths .The types rives used are stepper or servo motors.
4. END EFFECTOR: It is the arm of robot that establishes the connection between work
piece and robot and does specific tasks. The task can be material handling ,spot welding,
spray painting. The end effector can be
 (1) Grippers: These are used to hold either workparts or tools (magnetic grippers,
Mechanical Grippers,Hooks,Suction Grippers)
(2) Tools: The tool is fastened directly to the robot wrist and becomes the end effector
(Spot welding gun, drilling gun,spray painting gun…)

Work envelope:

The work envelope is the range of motion over which a robot arm can move. It is the set of
points in space that the End effector can reach. (There are often areas within the working
envelope which cannot be reached by the end of the Robot arm. Such areas are termed dead
zones).

Spatial resolution:-

The spatial resolution of a robot is the smallest increment of movement into which the robot can
divide its work volume. Spatial resolution depends on two factors: the system's control resolution
and the robot's mechanical inaccuracies. It is easiest to conceptualize these factors in terms of a
robot with 1 degree of freedom.

Accuracy:-

Accuracy refers to a robot's ability to position its wrist end at a desired target point within the
work volume. The ability to achieve a given target point depends on how closely the robot can
define the control increments for each of its joint motions. Accuracy relates to the robot's
capacity to be programmed to achieve a given target point

Repeatability:-

Repeatability of a robot might be defined as its ability to achieve repetition of the same task. It is
the robot’s ability to return to the programmed point when commanded to do so.
Robot Programming methods:

A robot program can be defined as a space to be followed by the manipulator .The robot
programming is classified as:

1. Manual Method
2. Walkthrough
3. Lead through method
4. Off-Line Method

Manual Method: This is not really programming but more like setting of a machine. It is
used for simpler robots and involves the setting up of stops, cams or switches in the robot’s
control unit. This programming method is used for pick-and –place operations. This is the
procedure used for simpler robots.

Walkthrough Method

In this method, the programmer manually moves the robot’s arm and hand through the
motion sequence of the work cycle. Each movement is recorded into memory for subsequent
playback during production .The speed with which the movements are performed can be
controlled and the programmer does not have to worry about the cycle time during the
walkthrough. The main concern is getting the position sequence correct. The walkthrough
method would be appropriate for spray painting and arc welding.

Leadthrough Programming

The Lead through programming method makes use of a teach pendant to power drive the
robot through its motion sequence .The teach pendant is usually a small hand- held device
which switches and dials to control the robot’s physical movements. Each motion is recorded
into memory for future playback during the workcycle. Leadthrough programming is very
popular among robot programming methods because of its ease and convenience.

Off-line Programming

This method involves the preparation of the robot program off- line similar to NC part
programming and is accomplished on a computer terminal. After the program has been
prepared , it is entered into robot memory for use during the work cycle .The advantage of
off- line robot programming is that the production time of the robot is not lost to delays in
teaching the robot a new task .Programming off- line can be done while the robot is still in
production on the preceding job . This means higher utilization of the robot and of the
equipment with which it operates.
 Robotic programming languages

With the introduction of computer control for robots, computer-oriented robot programming
languages were developed. Following are two such languages:

 The Val language: It stands for Victor’s assembly language. This was developed by
Victor Scheinman for the PUMA robot.
 The MCL language: It stands for machine control language and was developed by
McDonell- Douglas Corporation under contract with the U.S Air Force . This
language is based on the APT NC language

Flexible manufacturing system

Flexible manufacturing system consists of group of programmable production machines

interconnected by means of automated material handling system and storage system and
controlled by an integrated computer system to produce a variety of parts.

FMS equipment : This consists of

 Manufacturing system
 Material handling and storage
 Tool handling and storage
 Computer control system
FMS EQUIPMENT
Manufacturing system:
 The machining system of FMS consists of CNC machine tools (horizontal, vertical
machining center; turning center) that perform operations on families of parts.
 This also include assembly stations, inspection stages etc
 The machining system can perform operations on work piece automatically.
 Machining center consist of automatic tool changing and tool storage, pallet changer, CNC
and DNC control.
 Assembly workstations are used to assemble products made in batches. Industrial robots are
usually programmed to perform various tasks.
 Inspection stations are incorporated into FMS by including inspection operation at a given
workstation. CMM, special inspection probes ,machine vision are used in FMS

Material handling and storage:

 This facilitates the timely supply of unmachined work pieces from storage to the
machining centers and transport of the machined parts from the machining centers to
desired locations.
 Its functions include :
 Independent movement of work pieces between the workstations.
 Computer control of handling system to load and unload stations etc.
 Different work configurations can be accommodated.
The material handling equipment consists of:
 Load/unload stations
 Robotics
 AGV
 AS/RS
Components are set up on pallets. Fixtures are used to fix them.FMS uses modular fixtures
which can accommodate part families and reduce change over time.
Workpiece storage and retrieval can be automated by using an AS/RS. This consists of storage
racks, computer controlled crane. Servomotors used in cranes can achieve positioning accuracy.

AGV (Automatically guided vehicle) is a material handling system which uses independently
operated, self-propelled vehicles that are guided along pathways in the floor. They are powered
by means of on-board batteries. These are guided by sensors on them. It helps in automatic
loading and unloading by means of moving belts, powered rollers etc.

Tool handling and storage

In FMS, various cutting tools are loaded in intervals depending on their use. From the secondary
storage they are loaded onto tool magazine. These are of chain, disc or drum type. If tools are to
be changed during operations they are changed automatically without stopping the machine. The
maximum no of tools that can be loaded is of the order 120.

Computer (FMS) control system:

The elements of FMS –tool handling, material handling, machine tools –are all computer
controlled.
The functions performed by FMS computer control are as follows:
 Control of workstations: A centralized computer controls and monitors all stations
 continuously.
 Production control: workstations, load/unload stations ,pallets ,production rate/day,
volume of raw materials, tools and materials are controlled .For this there exists a
communication between operators and computer through data entry unit.
 Traffic control: control of pallets is regulated from load area to workstation /workstation
to unload area.
 Tool control: this ensures that the correct tool is available at right time in proper
condition.
This has two aspects: tool location monitoring and tool life monitoring
a. Tool location accounting: if the cutting tools required in processing of a work part
are not available on time at workstation, the computer control system will not
deliver that part to that workstation.
b. Tool life monitoring: the tool has to be continuously monitored while in operation
for tool wear and tool breakage .A file is maintained on the machining time used
by each tool every time. If this cumulative time reaches/exceeds the life for a
given tool, the tool replacement is notified by computer.
 Scheduling: Creates the sequence of operations within the specified constraints of
resources.
 System performance and monitoring: The computer generates various reports on system
performance. It maintains data of the cutting tools, work part movement and fixtures.

FMS layout:
 Progressive or Line layout
 Loop layout
 Ladder layout
 Rectangular layout
 Robot centered layout

Progressive or Line layout

The machines and material handling systems are arranges in a line (unidirectional path).
Here progress of part from one workstation to next happens in a well defined
Sequence with no backflow

Loop Layout:
Workstations and material handing are organized in a loop.
Parts usually flow in one direction around the loop with the capability to stop and be
transferred to any station.
Each station has secondary handling equipment so that part can be brought-to and
 transferred- from the station workhead to the material handling loop.

Load/unload stations are usually located at one end of the loop.

Ladder layout:
This consists of a loop with rungs upon which workstations are located.
The rungs increase the number of possible ways of getting from one machine to the next,
and obviates the need for a secondary material handling system.

It reduces average travel distance and minimizes congestion in the handling system,
thereby reducing transport time between stations.

Rectangular layout:
Rectangular layout allows recirculation of Pallets back to first station in sequence after
unloading at the final station.
 Robot-centered layout :

This layout uses one or more robots as the material handling system

Benefits of FMS:

 Flexibility to change part variety

 Higher productivity & Better control over production
 Higher machine utilization
 Less rejections
 High product quality
 Reduced work- in-process and inventory
 Minimally manned operation & Easier to expand

Computer aided quality control(CAQC)

The conventional (manual) inspection desires highly skilled procedures for setting work pieces
and instruments, which is not only time consuming but also monotonous.

It requires the component to be taken to another section, which needs additional handling
resulting in delays, higher cost etc.

On the other hand, use of statistical techniques can never result in the selection of absolutely
defect free component and defects get known later only.

Hence it is desirable if post inspection process is eliminated and develop automated systems
which would integrate inspection with manufacturing wherein 100% inspection were carried out
online.

With Online 100%inspection, the inspection measurements can be used as feedback data to make
corresponding adjustments in the manufacturing process.
The objectives of CAQC are:

To improve the product quality

To increase the productivity in the inspection process
To increase the productivity and reduce the lead times in manufacturing.

Quality is defined as the degree to which product or its component conforms to the standards
that have been specified by designer (such as materials, dimensions and tolerances, appearance,
performance)

For a product to be within specified standards, a firm will practice two approaches:

1. Quality assurance 2. Quality control

Quality assurance (QA) is concerned with the activities of increasing the probability that the
product and its components will be manufactured within design specifications.

Quality control (QC) is concerned with the activities related to inspection of product and
component quality, detection of poor quality and corrective action needed to eliminate poor
quality.

Inspection is the term used to examine a component of a product in relation to the design
standards specified for it. E.g., dimensions of a component.

Common situations that need inspection are:

(a) Incoming raw materials,(b) various stages of manufacturing, (c)before the shipping the final
assembled product to the customer

Testing is associated with functional aspects of the items especially the final product rather than
it component and is done on the final product than its components. It consists of observation of
the final product during the operation under actual or simulated conditions. If the product passes
the test then it is suitable for sale.

Importance of computer aided inspection (CAI):

a. Computer Aided Inspection (CAI) involves 100% checking than sampling method.

b. Inspection is integrated into manufacturing than taking parts away from the
manufacturing area. This reduces the total time of manufacturing.

c. The noncontact sensors are used within CAI. With contact sensors the parts is
usually stopped, repositioned for the inspection to be done on the component.
Stopping and repositioning will lot of time . Using non-contact sensors; the part is
 inspected during the manufacturing.

d. The online non- contact sensors will be utilized as the measurement component of
the computerized feedback systems. These systems will be capable of making
adjustments to the process variables based on the data collected by the sensors.

e. The basic assumption (anything less than 100% good quality is acceptable) of
statistical sampling QC is challenged as inspection is 100% with CAI.
The quality control personnel will become more computer-wise and be more
sophisticated to operate the automated methods of inspection.

Classification of inspection sensor technologies:

(A)Contact inspection (B)Noncontact inspection methods

methods

(a) Optical methods

 Machine vision
(a) Coordinate measuring  Scanning laser Beam
machine.  Photogrammettry
(b) Non optical methods
 Electrical field techniques
 Reluctance
 Inductance
 Capacitance
 Radiation techniques
 Ultrasonics

Contact inspection methods:

Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

This is one of the developments in contact type of inspection.

These are controlled by computers or NC systems.

CMM is used to measure the actual size of w/p in comparison with desired shape and evaluation
of metrological information such as

• Size • Form • Location • Position

Actual size is obtained by probing the surface at discrete measuring points.

Every point is expressed in terms of its x,y,z coordinates
The system is capable of transmitting data from the measuring machine back to the computer.

The CMM consists of a machine tool- like structure with precision slide ways and scales and
sensor to determine the point of contact and probes.
During operation, the probe is brought into contact with the part surface to be measured and
three (X, Y, Z) are indicated to a high level of accuracy.

The components of CMM are (features):

1: Stationary granite measuring table: it is the reference plane for the parts to be measured.

2: Length measuring system: Each axes of CMM is provided with a incremental length
measuring system.

3: Air bearings: the bridge, crossbeam and spindle are supported on air bearings.

4: Control unit: it is a microprocessor controller.

5: Software: it includes the measurement of diameter, center distances and lengths. The software
also provides a generalized method for reverse engineering of complex shape objects.

Four types of CMM available are:

o Cantilever type CMM

o Column type CMM
o Bridge type CMM
o Gantry type CMM

These machines need deep foundation to isolate from the vibrations which accuracy.

The machine has heavy base and has rigid structure.

Specifications of CMM are:

 Measuring range: manual and motorized along X,Y and Z axes ,in mm
  Positioning accuracy: in microns (e.g. 3+5L/1000 where L is the length of the
measuring stroke in mm)
 Measuring accuracy: in microns (e.g. 15+20L/1000)
 Table clamping surface: X x Y, in mm
 Maximum weight of the component which can be place, in KG.
 Clearances under bridge and under probe, in mm
Non-contact inspection methods:
ADVANTAGES
 Eliminates the need to reposition of work part
 Much faster than contact inspection
 Eliminates the mechanical wear and tear since no probe is present.
 Reduces danger to people, who must touch a hazardous material if contact inspection is
used.
 No damage of work part surface since no contact is involved

Non-contact , optical methods:

Machine vision:

Machine vision is the process of extracting information from visual sensors to enable machines
and/or people to make decisions.

The operation of machine vision is divided into 3 functions:

1 Sensing and digitizing image data(image acquisition)

2 Image processing and analysis
3 Interpretation(Decision making)
Sensing and digitizing image data: This requires some type of image formation device such as a
camera and a digitizer, which stores a video frame in the computer memory .

This requires capturing the image with vision camera.

The image consists of relative light intensities at various portions of the scene.

The light intensities are the continuous analog values which are converted in digital form which
is achieved by Analog-to-Digital converter.

Image processing and analysis: This is concerned with the sensing of vision data and its
interpretation by computer. This consists of the camera and digitizing hardware and software to
interface them.

This requires image reduction and segmentations (areas of image having similar features into
distinct entities).Next the object is recognised
Interpretation: Here the image is enhanced using computer algorithms and the information
contained is understood.

Machine VisionScanning laser beam device:

The scanning measurement laser beam device is based on the principle of measurement of time
than light. A laser is used to project a continuous thin beam of light.

A rotating mirror deflects the beam so that it sweeps across the object to be measured.

The light source is located at the focal point of the lens system to detect the interruption of the
light beam blocked by the object.

The time lapse corresponding to the interruption of the light beam is measured to determine the
desired dimension of the object.

A microprocessor is provided for the conversion of the time lapse into dimensional value and
automatically rejects the defective part.
Photogrammettry:

This involves the extraction of the 3D data from a pair of photographs taken at different angles.

In measurement process used for inspection, the two photographs are read by the device called
comparator to establish the positions and coordinates of objects. The data is then analyzed to
extricate the desired information.

Non contact , non optical inspection methods:

Electrical field techniques

The reluctance transducers are proximity devices that establish the distance of the probe from
the Electromagnetic device.

The capacitance based transducer is also used to measure the distance of the object from the face
of the probe.

The capacitance transducer is used to detect variety of materials. The material must be an
electrical conductor.

Inductance systems operate by subjecting the object to alternating fields of magnetic field by
means Of an electromagnetic coil. The result is that small circulating currents (eddy currents) are
generated in object. These eddy currents create their own magnetic field, which interact with
primary field. The impedance of the coil is measured and analyzed to determine certain
characteristics of object.

Radiation techniques:

In X-ray radiation techniques, the amount of radiation absorbed by material can be used to
measure its thickness and other quality characteristics.

E.g.: X-ray techniques are used to inspect weld quality in fabricate steel and AL pressure
vessels and pipes. This can also be used to detect flaws and voids in the weld.
Ultrasonics:

This uses high frequency sound waves to indicate quality. The principle application is in Non-
destructing testing of materials. These are also used to determine dimensional features of the
parts. The sound waves are produced by the emitter are directed against the object. Assuming
that all else remains constant; the reflected sound pattern from the object should be same. During
inspection, the sound pattern is analyzed by a computer program and is compared with the
standard part. If the pattern of the test part differs significantly from that standard, it is rejected
References:

1.Ibrahim Zeid, ―CAD/ CAM Theory and Practice‖, McGraw Hill Inc, New York, 2011.
2. Mikell P.Groover, ―Automation, Production Systems and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing‖,
Pearson
Publication, 4/e, 2016.
3. P.N. Rao, ―CAD/CAM - Principles and Applications‖, 2/e, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2004