IRON

Iron AND
is an ancient metal that became the basis of our
civilization. It is usually used in the form of steel which
IT’S
contains 0.5% and 1% carbon. World steel production in 1
year equals the production of all other metals combined in 10
ALLOY
years. It is a transition metal, that is, it is less reactive than the
typical metals but more reactive than the less-typical metals. It
occurs asS an alloy with nickel in meteorites.
ALLOYS OF IRON
1.Steel -
Compositon of steel- Steel consists of primarily of iron
and carbon. The ratio of these two elements varies
depending on the specific type of steel being made. With
that said, most types of steel contain about 1% carbon
and 97% iron, with the remaining 2% consisting of trace
elements and impurities.
Properties- It has a number of properties, including:
hardness, toughness, tensile strength, yield strength,
elongation, fatigue strength, corrosion, plasticity,
malleability and creep.
Uses- Because of its high tensile strength and low cost,
steel is used in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships,
trains, cars, machines, electrical appliances, and
weapons.

2.Stainless steel (chromium, nickel)-

 COMPOSITION- It contains chromium and nickel. It
contains 67%-71% of iron, 18%-20% of chromium
and8%-12% nickel.
  PROPERTIES- Some of the properties of stainless steel
are Corrosion resistant, High tensile strength, Very
durable, Temperature resistant, Easy formability and
fabrication, Low-maintenance (long lasting), Attractive
appearance, Environmentally friendly (recyclable)
USES-
Culinary uses
Kitchen sinks
Cutlery
Cookware
Surgical tools and medical equipment
Hemostats
Surgical implants
Temporary crowns (dentistry)
Architecture (pictured above: Chrysler Building)
Bridges
Monuments and sculptures
Airport roofs
Automotive and aerospace applications
Auto bodies
Rail cars
Aircraft
3.CAST IRON-
  COMPOSITION- Most cast irons have a chemical
composition of 2.5–4.0% carbon, 1–3% silicon,
and the remainder iron.
 PROPERTIES- Properties of cast iron are hardness
toughness, ductility, elasticity, malleability, tensile
strength, fatigue strength.
 USES- It is used in making pipes, to carry suitable
fluids, making different machines, making
automotive parts, making pots pans and utensils,
making anchor for ships.
4.PIG IRON- Pig iron is a solid form of hot metal,
obtained from iron ore or scrap recycling, and it is
processed with a blast furnace or an electric arc furnace.
Pig iron is used as a raw material for iron steel making
and most of this material was imported.
 COMPOSITION- Pig iron contains about 90-95%
of elemental iron together with several other
elements mainly carbon, silicon, phosphorus,
manganese, and sulfur – in varying proportions
depending on the compositions of the raw materials
and the mode of an operating blast furnace.Pigs
may hold from 3.0 – 4.5% of carbon, 0.5 – 4.0% of
silicon, 0.025 – 2.5% phosphorus, 0.15 – 2.15%
manganese and up to 0.2% sulphur. The
composition required for steel making differs from
that required for use in foundries to make iron
castings.
  PROPERTIES- As it includes a high content of
carbon and many other impurities it is very brittle
and can break easily. In comparison to steel and
iron, pig iron has a lower melting point due to the
presence of high carbon.
 USES- The applications of pig iron in an electric
arc furnace are for steelmaking. High purity pig
iron is used in foundries for producing ductile iron
castings. Pig iron is also used in foundry pig iron in
grey iron castings.
5. FERNICO-
 COMPOSITION- Fernico alloys consist of iron
(Fe), nickel (Ni), and cobalt (Co). Fernico is used
at high temperatures (20 to 800°C). It contains 55%
iron, 28% nickel and 17% cobalt.
 PROPERTIES- Fernico possess the properties of
electrical conductivity, minimal oxidation and
formation of porous surfaces at working
temperatures of glass and thermal coefficients of
expansion which match glass closely.
 USES-There are very few uses of Fernico. Some of
them are:
o It is used to seal metals and glass.
o It is often used in the form of nanopowder.

6.INVAR- is a nickel–iron alloy.

  COMPOSITION- it contains 64% iron and 36% nickel.
 PROPERTIES- The name Invar comes from the word
invariable, referring to its relative lack of expansion or
contraction with temperature changes. Invar has a near-
zero coefficient of thermal expansion, making it useful in
constructing precision instruments whose dimensions
need to remain constant in spite of varying temperature.
 USES- Invar was formerly used for absolute standards of
length measurement and is now used for surveying tapes
and in watches and various other temperature-sensitive
devices. Invar is used where high dimensional stability is
required, such as precision instruments, clocks, seismic
creep gauges, television shadow-mask frames, valves in
engines and large aerostructure molds.
7. WEATHERING STEEL-Weathering steel is a family of
low carbon steels that have additional alloying elements
mixed in with the carbon and iron atoms.
 COMPOSITION- As a low carbon steel, weathering steel
typically has less than 0.3% carbon by weight. This low
amount of carbon allows it to remain ductile and tough.
Weathering steel also includes other alloying elements
that help to increase the strength, but more importantly,
the corrosion resistance. There are many different
alloying elements used, but the key three elements in
weathering steel are nickel, copper, and chromium.
 PROPERTIES- Weathering refers to the chemical
composition of these steels, allowing them to exhibit
increased resistance to atmospheric corrosion compared
to other steels. This is because the steel forms a
protective layer on its surface under the influence of the
 weather. The corrosion-retarding effect of the protective
layer is produced by the particular distribution and
concentration of alloying elements in it. The layer
protecting the surface develops and regenerates
continuously when subjected to the influence of the
weather. In other words, the steel is allowed to rust in
order to form the protective coating.
 USES- Because weathering steel can outlast plain carbon
steel in outdoor conditions, it is frequently used for
exposed steel structures. This removes the need for
constant repainting and recoating of the steel. Examples
include building and bridge construction.
8.KOVAR- Kovar was invented to meet the need for a
reliable glass-to-metal seal, which is required in electronic
devices such as light bulbs, vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes,
and in vacuum systems in chemistry and other scientific
research.
o COMPOSITION- It contains 53% iron, 29% nickel, 17%
cobalt, 0.2% silicon and 0.3% manganese.

NON- FERROUS ALLOYS

Non-ferrous metals or alloys are materials that are not iron-
based like their ferrous counterparts. A distinguishing feature
of nonferrous alloys is that they are highly malleable.
Nonferrous alloys have one valuable advantage over ferrous
alloys and metals, which is that they are highly corrosion and
rust resistant because they do not have any iron content in
them. Consequently, these materials are suitable for highly
corrosive environments such as liquid, chemical and sewage
pipelines. Nonferrous alloys and metals are also non-
magnetic, making them suitable for many electrical and
electronic applications. Some commonly used nonferrous
metals and alloys are copper, zinc, alluminum, lead, nickel,
cobalt, chromium, gold, and silver.
COPPER ALLOYS
1. BRASS- Brass, alloy of copper and zinc, of historical
and enduring importance because of its hardness and
workability.
COMPOSITION- Basic modern brass is 67% copper and
33% zinc. However, the amount of copper may range from
55% to 95% by weight, with the amount of zinc varying from
5% to 45%. Lead is commonly added to brass at a
concentration of around 2%. The lead addition improves the
machinability of brass.
PROPERTIES- Brass has higher malleability than either
bronze or zinc.
o Brass has desirable acoustic properties appropriate for
use in musical instruments.
o The metal exhibits low friction.
o Brass is a soft metal that may be used in cases when a
low chance of sparking is necessary.
o The alloy has a relatively low melting point.
o It's a good conductor of heat.
o Brass resists corrosion, including galvanic corrosion
from saltwater.
o Brass is easy to cast.
 o Brass is not ferromagnetic. Among other things, this
makes it easier to separate from other metals for
recycling.
USES- Musical instruments, plumbing, decoration, low-
friction applications (e.g., valves, locks), tools and fittings
used around explosives.
2.BRONZE- Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of
copper.
COMPOSITION- It typically consists of approximately 88%
copper and 12% tin. Trace amounts of other metals, such as
aluminum, manganese, phosphorus, and silicon, may also be
present in the alloy. The content of aluminium ranges mostly
between 5-11%. Iron, nickel, manganese and silicon are
sometimes added.
PROPERTIES- Excellent thermal conductivity
Resistance to saltwater corrosion
High ductility
However, it also exhibits a few unique characteristics, such as
brittleness.
Copper is resistant to corrosion in most atmospheres including
marine and industrial environments. It is corroded by
oxidizing acids, halogens, sulphides and ammonia based
solutions.
USES- Due to its corrosion resistance and unique colouring,
bronze is commonly used in the manufacture of coins,
hardware mounts, furniture trim, ceiling or wall panels, ship
hardware, and all sorts of automobile parts.
 ARSENICAL COPPER- It is an alloy of copper and
arsenic.
COMPOSITION- Arsenical copper contains up to 0.5%
arsenic.
PROPERTIES- When at elevated temperatures, imparts
higher tensile strength and a reduced tendency to scaling.
USES- It is typically specified in boiler work, especially
locomotive fireboxes. It also helps prevent embrittlement
of oxygen free copper by bismuth, antimony and lead by
the formation of complex oxides. Copper with a larger
percentage of arsenic is called arsenical bronze, which
can be work-hardened much harder than copper.
2. ALUMINIUM ALLOYS- Aluminium alloys
are alloys in which aluminium (Al) is the predominant
metal. The typical alloying elements are copper,
magnesium, manganese, silicon, tin and zinc. There are
two principal classifications, namely casting alloys and
wrought alloys, both of which are further subdivided into
the categories heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable.
About 85% of aluminium is used for wrought products,
for example rolled plate, foils and extrusions. Cast
aluminium alloys yield cost-effective products due to the
low melting point, although they generally have lower
tensile strengths than wrought alloys.
 SILUMIN- Silumin is a general name for a group
of lightweight, high-strength aluminium alloys
based on an aluminum–silicon system.
COMPOSITION- Aluminium-silicon alloys
typically contain 3 to 25% silicon content and the
rest aluminium. Alloys used by powder metallurgy,
 rather than casting, may contain even more silicon,
up to 50%. Silumin has a high resistance to
corrosion, making it useful in humid environments.
PROPERTIES- High castability, fluidity, corrosion
resistance, ductility, and low density.
o Usable for large castings, which can operate under
heavy load conditions.
o Considered to not be a heat-treatable alloy, but the
addition of Mg & Cu can allow it to be heat treated,
e.g. AΠ4 alloys.
o Strengthened by solution treatment, e.g. adding
0.01% sodium (in the form of sodium fluoride
[NaF] and sodium chloride [NaCl]) to the melt just
before casting.
o A disadvantage is a tendency for porosity in the
casting, i.e. the casting can become foam-like. This
can be avoided by casting under pressure in
autoclaves.
USES- Casting is the primary use of aluminum-
silicon alloys, but they can also be utilized in rapid
solidification processes and powder metallurgy.

 Aluminium–lithium alloy(Al-Li)- These are a

set of alloys of aluminium and lithium, often also
including copper and zirconium.
COMPOSITION- Aluminium–lithium alloys (Al–Li
alloys) are a set of alloys of aluminium and lithium,
often also including copper and zirconium.
PROPERTIES- High strength, low density,
 ELASTIC MODULUS- Lithium additions increase the
strength and modulus of aluminium alloys while lowering the
density. The main advantage over standard aluminium alloys
is a lower density combined with improved elastic modulus.
Resistance to fatigue cracking is also generally superior to
standard 2000 and 7000 series aluminium alloys.
USES- Aluminium Lithium finds use in aerospace
and high-performance applications requiring high strength,
low density, high stiffness, superior damage tolerance,
excellent corrosion resistance, superior fatigue cracking
resistance and weldability.

 ALNICO- Alnico is a family of iron alloys which

in addition to iron are composed primarily of
aluminium (Al), nickel (Ni), and cobalt (Co), hence
acronym- al-ni-co. They also include copper, and
sometimes titanium. Alnico alloys are
ferromagnetic, and are used to make permanent
magnets. Before the development of rare-earth
magnets in the 1970s, they were the strongest type
of permanent magnet.
COMPOSITION- The composition of alnico
alloys is typically 8–12% Al, 15–26% Ni, 5–24%
Co, up to 6% Cu, up to 1% Ti, and the balance is
Fe.
PROPERTIES- They can be magnetised to
produce strong magnetic fields and have a high
coercivity (resistance to demagnetization), thus
making strong permanent magnets. They have some
 of the highest Curie temperatures of any magnetic
material. Also they are brittle and have high melting
point. They are also one of the most stable magnets
if they are handled properly. Alnico magnets are
electrically conductive, unlike ceramic magnets.
USES- Alnico magnets are widely used in industrial
and consumer applications where strong permanent
magnets are needed; examples are electric motors,
electric guitar pickups, microphones, sensors,
loudspeakers, magnetron tubes, and cow magnets.
In many applications they are being superseded by
rare-earth magnets, whose stronger fields (Br) and
larger energy products (B·Hmax) allow smaller-size
magnets to be used for a given application.

3.MAGNESIUM ALLOYS- They are

mixtures of magnesium (the lightest structural metal)
with other metals (called an alloy), often aluminium,
zinc, manganese, silicon, copper, rare earths and
zirconium. magnesium alloys are typically used
as cast alloys, but research of wrought alloys has been
more extensive since 2003. Cast magnesium alloys are
used for many components of modern automobiles and
have been used in some high-performance vehicles; die-
cast magnesium is also used for camera bodies and
components in lenses.
 MAGNOX- It is an alloy—mainly of magnesium
with small amounts of aluminium and other metals.
 COMPOSITION- The magnox alloy Al80 has a
composition of 0.8% aluminium and 0.004%
beryllium.
PROPERTIES- It limits the maximum temperature
(to about 415 Celsius), and hence the thermal
efficiency, of the plant.
It reacts with water, preventing long-term storage of
spent fuel under water in spent fuel pools.
USES- used in cladding unenriched uranium metal
fuel with a non-oxidising covering to contain fission
products in nuclear reactors.

 MAGNALIUM- It is an alloy of magnesium and

aluminium.
COMPOSITION- Magnalium is an aluminium
alloy with 5% magnesium and 95% aluminum.
PROPERTIES- Alloys with small amounts of
magnesium (about 5%) exhibit greater strength,
greater corrosion resistance, and lower density than
pure aluminium. Such alloys are also more
workable and easier to weld than pure aluminium.
Alloys with high amounts of magnesium (around
50%) are brittle and more susceptible to corrosion
than aluminium.
USES- It is used in pyrotechnics as a metal fuel and
to produce sparks. Due to the high reactivity,
magnalium burns comparably hot and forms bright
yellowish white sparks. It is also used for making
balance beams and other components of light
instruments.
HAND TOOLS FOR METAL
WORKING
1.HOLDING TOOLS
They are used to hold all types of components between jaws
(fixed jaws and movable jaws).
The various work holding devices are :-
 WORKBENCH
 BENCH VICE
 PIPE VICE
 HAND VICE
 TOOLSMAKERS VICE

1)WORKBENCH
A workbench is a sturdy table at which manual work is done.
They range from simple flat surfaces to very complex designs
that may be considered tools in themselves. Workbenches
vary in size from tiny jewellers benches to the huge benches
used by staircase makers. Almost all workbenches are
rectangular in shape, often using the surface, corners and
edges as flat/square and dimension standards. Design is as
varied as the type of work for which the benches are used but
most share these attributes:

 A comfortable height for working with provisions for

seated or standing work
 A way to fix the workpiece to the surface so that it may
be worked with both hands
 Provisions for mounting, storing and accessing tools
Workbenches are made from many different materials
including metal, wood, stone, and composites depending on
the needs of the work.
Types
Workbench types may be divided according to the particular
work they are designed to accommodate:
Multi-purpose/portable
These benches are small, light, collapsible, and typically have
built in clamps. Epitomized by the Black & Decker
Workmate, a bench invented and patented by Ron Hickman,
[1] they can be used for a wide range of manual work.
Woodworking
May be used for general woodworking but may be specialized
for joinery, cabinetmaking, patternmaking, stairbuilding,
carving, carpentry or trim work. They are usually made from
solid wood and have integral clamping mechanisms. A
workbench is a table used by woodworkers to hold
workpieces while they are worked by other tools. There are
many styles of woodworking benches, each reflecting the type
of work to be done or the craftsman's way of working. Most
benches have two features in common: they are heavy and
rigid enough to keep still while the wood is being worked, and
there is some method for holding the work in place at a
comfortable position and height so that the worker is free to
use both hands on the tools. The main thing that distinguishes
benches is the way in which the work is held in place. Most
benches have more than one way to do this, depending on the
operation being performed.
Metalworking
Metalworkers need benches built to handle grinding, welding,
light casting and forging, and layout. Most of these benches
include a metalworker's vise mounted to the top.
Gardening
Gardener's benches must be resistant to moisture and dirt.
They are used for potting, seeding, and grooming, and usually
have built-in shelving and storage.
Electronics
Formally a fixture in radio shacks, now used for assembly and
repair of all sorts of electronic equipment including
communication, computer, and home entertainment items.
These benches usually have sources of power built in, along
with shelves and task lighting. The height of most electronics
benches are set for a seated worker and are equipped with
ESD (electrostatic dissipative) materials.
Software
Software used the metaphor of a workbench for exposing file
management and application launching functionality, like in
the AmigaOS workbench, or for designing processes
connecting data sources to operations and models.
Industrial
These workbenches offer the benefits of traditional
workbenches but on a stronger and larger scale. They're built
to withstand heavy-duty projects and made with materials like
steel that are designed for such purposes.
General repair
Almost all family farms have one of these. Also found in
small engine repair shops. Used for sharpening, cleaning,
lubricating, assembly/disassembly, and light metal work.
Laboratory work
Utilized, especially with the chemical and biological sciences.
Surfaces are typically made of chemical resistant materials
such as epoxy resin, phenolic resin, high-density polyethene,
and stainless steel. Some of these benches have integrated
services like water, gas, and power, built in or near at hand.
Art and sculpture
These benches are most likely to be used in the round. They
are designed so that the workpiece can be mounted firmly,
usually from underneath, and accessed from all sides. Used by
wood and stone carvers.
Jewelers and Watchmakers
Purpose built benches which generally have a "bench pin" - a
small wooden work surface protruding out towards the
worker, allowing for working on small parts. In addition, there
is usually a tray or leather apron underneath to catch precious
metal filings or dropped items. They are designed so that
when the worker is seated the work is at or near eye level.
Fitting and assembling
Used by machinists, pipefitters, electricians, textile workers,
handloaders, and piece workers, these benches usually have
space for layout and built-in tools, jigs and measuring devices
to facilitate the work.
Workbench Surface
The workbench surface is a vital part of the workbench.
Workbench surface can be mainly divided as 4 types. They
are:
Particleboard: This kind of tops features tiny wood particles
that are pressure-bonded together. Most of the tops are also
coated with melamine or laminate making them easy to wipe
clean.
Wood: Such workbench tops typically built of thick and solid
maple.
Plastic/Laminate
Steel
2.BENCH VICE
A bench vise, also known as a metalworking vise, machinist's
vise, formally, an "engineer’s vise", is used to clamp metal
instead of wood. It is used to hold metal when filing or
cutting. It is sometimes made of cast steel or malleable cast
iron, but most are made of cast iron. The jaws are often
separate and replaceable, usually engraved with serrated or
diamond teeth. Soft jaw covers made of aluminum, copper,
wood (for woodworking) or plastic may be used to protect
delicate work. The jaw opening of an engineer's vise generally
equals its jaw width, though it may be wider.
An engineer's vise is bolted onto the top surface of a
workbench,[2] with the face of the fixed jaw just forward of
its front edge. The vise may include other features such as a
small anvil on the back of its body. Most engineer's vises have
a swivel base. Some engineer's vises marketed as "homeowner
grade" are made of pot metal[citation needed] or a very low
grade of iron. Many homeowner's bench vises have an
exposed screw.
3.PIPE VISE
A pipe vise is used by a plumber to hold pipes for threading
and cutting. There are two main styles, yoke and chain. The
yoke uses a top-mounted screw to clamp the pipe between two
fixed angled jaws at its base; the chain style secures the pipe
by wrapping it within a chain designed to adjust to length by
link, tightened by a cam lever.
4.HAND VISE
A hand vise is a small clamp or vise on a handle designed for
holding small objects while they are being worked usually by
hand. It is used to hold small objects tight while grinding,
drilling, filing, hammering, sanding, shaping, etc. Jaws have
vertical and horizontal V grooves for holding round objects.
Use a hand vise and save your fingers. Hand vise has a handle
attached to a set of jaws which can clamp down on various
items.