BA I, Semester 1, Unit IV 1

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Edwards (1999) holds that “motivation is the collection of accounts of choices, intensities, and
feelings of acts”. Ultimately all motivational concepts try to explain behavior or acts. They try to
explain the choices that are made, the intensity of the motive, and the feelings associated with an act.

The variety of motivational theories may be studied as follows:

1. Historical viewpoint: Ever since people first began to think about human nature, the question
of motives has arisen. Closely related is the problem of free will i.e. are individuals the masters of
their fate or mere pawns of fate. Indian philosophers have held both views at various places in
different texts. A synthesis of opposites is the theory of Karma and reincarnation explained in the
Bhagavad-Gita; which holds that the events and happenings in the present birth are determined by
action in previous births and the actions in this birth determine the events of subsequent births of the
soul. The Greek philosophers favored a bodily basis for motivation. The father of medicine,
Hippocrates, held that there are four basic personality types, each originating due to different body
humors(fluids). Since Hippocrates (400BC) and perhaps even earlier, the link between physical and
psychological aspects of personality has been recognised. Hippocrates believed that depending
on the liquid content of the body, four types of people with different temperament may be
distinguished:
 Excess of Blood - Sanguine - Active and fast.
 Excess of Phlegm - Phlegmatic - Slow and dull.
 Excess of Yellow Bile - Choleric - Industrious and irritable.
 Excess of Black Bile - Melancholic - Pessimist and Reflective.

Another important motivational concept in both eastern and western philosophy is that of
psychological hedonism i.e. all organisms strive to seek pleasure and avoid pain. Currently however,
this is considered an oversimplification. Hedonism is now considered not a cause of our conduct but
an emotional accompaniment to motivated behavior. It is held that satisfaction of motives is
associated with pleasure and dissatisfaction of motives is associated with pain.

2. Psychoanalytic view of motivation: Many critics hold that psychoanalytic theory is nothing but a
description of psychic energy – how it originates, how it is transformed, how it is manifested and
so on. The human organism is a complex energy system. Since human beings are psychological
beings, their energy is known as Psychic Energy. According to the Principle of conservation of
energy, it may be transformed or redistributed but it can neither be increased nor decreased. An
instinct is a quantum of Psychic energy. All the instincts taken together constitute the sum total
of psychic energy available to the personality. An instinct related to the body is defined as an
inborn psychological representation of an inner somatic source of excitation. The Psychological
representation is called a wish and the bodily excitation from which it stems is called a need. An
instinct has four aspects:
a. Source: The source is the bodily process that produces excitation.
b. Aim: The aim of the instinct is satisfaction in some from or in some degree.
c. Object: The object is that entity towards which the instinct is directed and which can satisfy it
in some measure.
d. Impetus: It is the force behind the instinct determined by the intensity of the underlying need.
BA I, Semester 1, Unit IV 2

E.g. Hunger is an instinct whose source is the physiological need of food; aim is to eat; object is
food, and impetus is shown when the individual seeks food. The source, aim, and impetus, of an
instinct remain constant. However the object of an instinct can and does vary considerably during
the lifetime of a person. This variation is possible because psychic-energy is displaceable.

Freud classified all instincts under two fundamental instincts -- eros and thanatos or the life and
death instinct. The life instincts serve the purpose of the individual or species survival. Hunger,
thirst, sex etc. fall in this category. Freud divides eros into the ego drives and sex drives. However
he doesn’t give importance to the ego drives and lays special emphasis on the sex drive. In his
earlier writings, he thinks of this instinct or energy as libido. Later, he almost equates the concept of
psychic energy to libido. Consequently, Freudian theory is also known as libido theory of
motivation. Thus, as his thinking developed, the nature and kind of behaviors that came under the
purview of libido became more and more extensive; eventually encompassing all behaviors. In fact,
he elaborated the stages of psychosexual development entirely on the basis of the changing nature
and objects of this instinct.

The death instinct is the other fundamental unconscious drive present in all individuals from birth to
death. It manifests itself mostly in a desire for suicide. Turned outwards it is an urge to destroy,
injure, or kill. It also covers milder forms of aggression such a self-punishment, self-condemnation,
jealousy among rivals, and rebellion against authority. Thus eros is the principle of life and growth.
Thanatos is the principle of decay and death. Eros is pleasurable and constructive. Thanatos is
hateful and destructive. Freud dramatically stated, “The goal of all life is death”. He felt that the
death instinct was the ultimate reality of life. Unlike the life instincts, death instincts perform their
work silently and thus it has not been possible to study them extensively except in the case of
aggression. Aggression is generally diverted outward and shows itself in destruction and Sadism. Or
sometimes it may be turned inward leading to self-mutilation and suicide.

Interaction of life and death instinct: The two instincts interact with and against each other. There
are behaviors in which both occur in parallel. E.g. in eating which serves the life instinct of survival,
there are destructive actions such as tearing, biting, chewing. One instinct may also replace the other,
as when former friends become enemies.

3. Instinct theory: William James (1890) and William McDougall (1908) were greatly influenced by
Darwin’s idea of survival of the fittest and proposed that much human and animal behavior is
instinctive. They believed that an instinct is a genetically determined tendency to act in a
particular manner in the presence of certain stimuli. E.g. the instinct for flight may be triggered
by stimuli such as a lion, a loud noise, a snake etc. They believed that all organisms share basic
instincts such as those to eat, drink avoid pain etc. Various writers also included instincts such as
gregariousness, attachment, aggressiveness etc. in instincts, though these can be shown only in a
social context.

Human behavior is thus claimed to be as instinctively determined as animal behaviour. It seems

more complex simply we because humans are affected by many more instincts than the lower
animals. E.g. in a tiger the sight of a fawn elicits only one instinct i.e. to kill and eat it. But in human
beings, the sight of a fawn may elicit other instincts as well, such as to protect the fawn, to acquire it
as a property, to study it as curiosity and so on. Such competing instincts influence one another and
BA I, Semester 1, Unit IV 3

result in complex and often unpredictable human behavior. Moreover, humans differ from animals
in that they are often aware of their instinctive behavior and its consequences. E.g. a man may move
towards a fire on a cold night knowing that he does so to get warm. This awareness, however, does
not change the fact that his approach to the fire on the cold night is still instinctive. James and
McDougall also acknowledge that learning can modify instinctive tendencies, especially learning
associated with early occurrence of instinctive behavior. James described this process as inhibition
of instinct by habit.

Criticism of this theory: Today scientists still recognize that certain aspects of motivated behavior
have genetic roots but traditional instinct theory is criticized because:
 No one would identify the core instincts. Different authors gave different lists of instincts. By
1920s authors had proposed the existence of 6000 instincts (Murray, 1964). In fact the belief in
instincts was so common that Weiner (1985) suggested humorously that there must be an instinct
to believe in instincts.
 The theory of instincts gives a circular explanation of behavior. E.g. we eat because of an instinct
called hunger and we have an instinct called hunger because we eat. Such circular explanations
only describe behavior. They do not explain, predict, or help in controlling it. Hence they are
unscientific.

4. Drive Theory: These might be described as the “push theories of motivation”; behavior is pushed
towards goals by driving states within the person or animal. When an internal driving state is
aroused, the individual is pushed to engage in behavior which will lead to a goal that reduces the
intensity of the driving state. In human beings, reaching the appropriate goal which reduces the
drive state is pleasurable and satisfying. Thus, motivation is said to consist of

a. A driving state
b. The goal directed behavior initiated by the
driving state
c. The attainment of an appropriate goal
d. Reduction of the driving state and
subjective satisfaction and relief when the
goal is reached.

After a time, the driving state builds up again to push behaviour towards the appropriate goal.
The sequence of events is called the “Motivational Cycle”

5. Theories of balance, equilibrium or homeostasis: This is an addition to the drive theory.

Motivation theorists used the term homeostasis in a physiological as well as a psychological
sense. Homeostasis is the maintenance of optimum level of biological conditions within an
organism. The French physiologist Claude Bernard (1853-1878) was the first to observe that
animals must maintain a stable internal environment to survive. They must be able to control
their level of blood sugar to function properly. This is true of human beings as well in whom
homeostatic imbalance leads to a drive to return to a balanced state, not to reduce all drive to
zero. Lewin used the concept of psychological equilibrium as the motivator of human behavior.
He held that all human beings try to maintain a balance among the various areas of their life.
BA I, Semester 1, Unit IV 4

Imbalance exists either due to needs within the person or conflicts due to environment. Human
beings behave in response to the various environmental demands on their personality so that they
can return to a state of psychological equilibrium.

6. Reinforcement theory: Most behaviorists explained behavior in terms of reinforcement.

According to Thorndike, learning (which was not distinct from performance or behavior) occurred
due to the law of effect i.e. a connection was strengthened when it was followed by a “satisfying
state of affairs” and weakened when followed by an “annoying state of affairs”. Thus reinforcement
in the form of “satisfying state of affairs” was essential for learning. Skinner also held that all
behavior is determined by its consequences. Positive reinforcement leads to recurrence of approach
behaviour whereas negative reinforcement leads to recurrence of avoidance behavior. Punishment
leads to weakening or cessation of behavior. He also studied the various schedules of reinforcement
delineating the partial reinforcement effect which showed that behavior is acquired and extinguished
at a slower rate if reinforcement is not continuous. Reinforcement theory is one of the most widely
accepted notions in psychology today.

7. Incentive theory of motivation: Many motivational theorists argue that people’s behavior is
often motivated by the quality and desirability of stimuli, rather than by internal states. They
hold that motivational behavior depends strongly on the presence of powerful motivational
stimuli or incentives such as the smell of food, the sight of attractive sexual partners and so on.
Incentive theorists recognize that needs influence behavior but they place greater emphasis on
incentive stimuli than on drives. Drive theorists view behavior as being pushed by drives. An
incentive theorist sees behaviour as being pulled by incentives. Suppose, for instance, that we
compare the motivated, goal-directed behaviour of two groups of rats which have equivalent
hunger drives; the rats in both groups have starved for a day. One group is give tasty food (e.g.
chocolate chip cookies), while the other gets plain old laboratory rat chow. As you can expect,
the chocolate-chip group would probably eat far more than would the lab-chow group. There is
something about the goal itself that motivates behaviour. Perhaps, this is even clearer in the case
of sexual motivation; rats and people are aroused and motivated by the perception of appropriate
sexual objects. Thus the stimulus characteristics of the goal can sometimes start a train of
motivated behaviour.

A powerful method to motivate behavior is to expose the organism to a small amount of incentive
stimulus, a technique called priming. It is shown when a person finds it difficult to resist things like
popcorn or peanuts after taking the initial few. Clearly the hunger drive is stronger before the first
peanut is eaten but one has more trouble resisting peanut no. 12 or 20 than peanut no. 1. This is
known as the ‘peanut effect’. Clearly, the organism need not be in the state of deprivation for
priming to work. Priming is effective because it ‘reminds’ the organism of the pleasant and
unpleasant qualities or incentives. Incentives effect people even if priming has not occurred.
Previous learning often creates expectations about goals. Motivated behavior is often due to
expectations. E.g. In a workaday world, motivation seems to be more a matter of expected
incentives – wages, salaries, bonuses, vacations and the like – than of drives and their reduction.
BA I, Semester 1, Unit IV 5

8. Arousal theory of Motivation: According to drive theorists, drive is always aversive. However,
according to arousal theorists, the pleasantness of drive or arousal depends on the type or amount of
stimulation. If the animal has had relatively little stimulation, stimuli that increase arousal level are
rewarding. However, if one has been exposed to a lot of stimulation, more stimulation is punishing.
Thus organisms work for an optimum level of arousal. If arousal is too high, behaviour will be
directed towards decreasing it; if arousal is too low, a person will seek situations or stimuli to
increase arousal. E.g. Imagine yourself on an extremely busy day at work, toomuch is happening,
and you are highly aroused. More than likely you find yourself doing things such as taking the
telephone off the hook in order to reduce the overload of arousal to which you are being subjected. In
doing so, you are behaving as to move towards a level of optimal arousal.

Arousal theory of motivation is supported by research on sensory deprivation by Hebb in the 1950’s
at McGill University in Canada,. His subjects were paid 20 dollars a day to do nothing, see nothing,
and hear or touch very little for 24 hours a day. They suffered no pain and were fed on request. The
remuneration was quiet high, far more than the students could earn by any other means. Hebb had
reportedly hoped to observe his subjects for six weeks. As it turned out, the majority lasted no more
than a few days in isolation—and none more than a week. A series of cognitive tests showed that the
volunteers’ mental faculties were, in fact, temporarily impaired. While in isolation, for instance, the
subjects were played tapes arguing that supernatural phenomena, including ghosts and poltergeists,
were real; when interviewed later, they proved amenable to such beliefs. They performed poorly on
grade-school tasks involving simple arithmetic, word associations, and pattern recognition. They also
experienced extreme restlessness, childish emotional responses, and vivid hallucinations.

Arousal theory explains why people ride roller coasters, read murder mysteries, and listen to loud
music. Even animals like monkeys work so that they can play with puzzles later on (Harlow, 1950),
though they are not rewarded for solving the puzzle. Arousal theorists have used the Yerkes –
Dodson law to support the assertion that there is an optimum level of arousal, required by each
animal. Yerkes – Dodson (1908), an experimental psychologist, noted that animals seem to perform
best at moderate rather than high level of motivation.
The Yerkes-Dodson Law suggests
that there is a relationship between
performance and arousal.
Increased arousal can help improve
performance, but only up to a
certain point. At the point when
arousal becomes excessive,
performance diminishes. If your
arousal levels are too low, you
might find yourself drifting off or
even falling asleep before you can
even get started on the assignment.
Arousal levels that are too high
could be just as problematic,
making it difficult to concentrate
on the information long enough to
complete the task.
BA I, Semester 1, Unit IV 6

9. Opponent process theory: This theory takes a hedonistic view of motivation and explains how the
effect of powerful motivation changes over time. Because of what it says about pleasure and
displeasure (pleasant versus unpleasant), this theory is also sometimes classed as a theory of
emotion. Basic to this theory is the observation that many emotional-motivational states are followed
by opposing or opposite states. E.g. a person using heroin for the first time may feel an initial rush of
intense pleasure; followed by less intense good feeling; and then by craving and displeasure before
the emotional-motivating state returns to normal (baseline).

Solomon (1980) holds that the central nervous system of mammals is organized such that it
automatically opposes strong emotional reactions. These opposing reactions get stronger with every
repetition of strong emotion, eventually, overwhelming the initial process. Solomon uses the term a –
processes for the initial emotional reaction to stimuli and b – processes for the opponent processes.
This theory explains behavior such as sky diving, roller coaster riding, drug addiction, etc. In such
behaviors the later happiness and exhilaration overwhelm the initial fear reactions.

10. Attribution theory of motivation: It emphasizes the cognitive factors in motivation. It holds that
the causes to which people attribute their behavior strongly determine their level of motivation and
the type of motivated behavior they engage in. E.g. A student is higher in motivation as long as she
believes that her effort will determine her marks i.e., she makes an internal attribution. However, if
she believes that her marks depend on luck or chance i.e., she makes an external attribution, she
would not pay any attention to her studies.

Attributions are inferences that people construct about the causes of their own behaviour, others'
behaviour, and events (Weiner, 1974). Attributions have cognitive and affective consequences that
influence our future actions and likelihood of success and failure (Weiner, 1992, 2005). For example,
the winning tennis player attributed her success to her ability. This influenced her to feel confident
and motivated to play her next match. On the other hand, the losing tennis player attributed her loss
to the fact she was not feeling well and the weather conditions were not ideal. This in turn may
decrease her motivation and she may decline future matches, until perhaps these perceived causal
factors change.

Bernard Weiner’s Three-Dimensional theory of attribution (1985) assumes that people try to
determine why we do what we do. According to Weiner, the reasons we attribute to our behavior can
influence how we behave in the future. For example, a student who fails an exam could attribute
their failure to a number of factors and it’s this attribution that will affect their motivation in the
future. Weiner theorized that specific attributions (e.g. bad luck, not studying hard enough) were less
important than the characteristics of that attribution. According to Weiner, there are three main
characteristics of attributions that can affect future motivation.
BA I, Semester 1, Unit IV 7

1. Stability – how stable is the attribution? For example, if the student believes they failed the exam
because they weren’t smart enough, this is a stable factor. An unstable factor is less permanent, such
as being ill. According to Weiner, stable attributions for successful achievements, such as passing
exams, can lead to positive expectations, and thus higher motivation, for success in the future.
However, in negative situations, such as failing the exam, stable attributions can lead to lower
expectations in the future.

2. Locus of control – was the event caused by an internal or an external factor? For example, if the
student believes it’s their own fault they failed the exam because they are innately not smart enough
(an internal cause), they may be less motivated in the future. If they believed an external factor was
to blame, such as poor teaching, they may not experience such a drop in motivation.

3. Controllability – how controllable was the situation? If an individual believes they could have
performed better, they may be less motivated to try again in the future than someone who believes
they failed because of factors outside of their control.
BA I, Semester 1, Unit IV 8

MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Abraham Maslow proposed the hierarchy of needs in 1943 in a paper titled “A Theory of Human
Motivation,” though Maslow's theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book Motivation and
Personality.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest and most
fundamental levels of needs at the bottom, and the need for self-actualization at the top.

The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency
needs" or "d-needs": esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical needs. With the exception of
the most fundamental (physiological) needs, if these "deficiency needs" are not met, the body gives
no physical indication but the individual feels anxious and tense. Maslow's theory suggests that the
most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation
upon) the secondary or higher level needs. Maslow also coined the term Meta-motivation to describe
the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of the basic needs and strive for constant
betterment. Meta-motivated people are driven by B-needs (Being Needs), instead of deficiency needs
(D-Needs).

1. Physiological needs
For the most part, physiological needs are obvious – they are the literal requirements for human
survival. If these requirements are not met, the human body simply cannot continue to function.

Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for survival in all animals, including humans.
Clothing and shelter provide necessary protection from the elements. The intensity of the human
sexual instinct is shaped more by sexual competition than maintaining a birth rate adequate to
survival of the species.
BA I, Semester 1, Unit IV 9

2. Safety needs
With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take precedence and
dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety – due to war, natural disaster, or, in cases of
family violence, childhood abuse, etc. – people (re-)experience post-traumatic stress disorder and
trans-generational trauma transfer. In the absence of economic safety – due to economic crisis and
lack of work opportunities – these safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference
for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings
accounts, insurance policies, reasonable disability accommodations, and the like.

Safety and Security needs include:

 Personal security

 Financial security

 Health and well-being

 Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts

3. Love and belongingness

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs are social and
involve feelings of belongingness. The need is especially strong in childhood and can over-ride the
need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. Deficiencies with respect to
this aspect of Maslow's hierarchy – due to hospitalism, neglect, shunning, ostracism etc. – can impact
individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in general, such as:

 Friendship

 Intimacy

 Family

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social
group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs,
or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues,
confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of
these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical
depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs,
depending on the strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, may ignore the need to eat
and the security of health for a feeling of control and belonging.

4. Esteem
All humans have a need to be respected and to have self-esteem and self-respect. Esteem presents the
normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain
recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel self-
valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an
inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or
glory, which again depends on others. However, many people with low self-esteem will not be able
to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, since
BA I, Semester 1, Unit IV 10

they must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also
prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.

Most people have a need for a stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of
esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the
need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need for self-respect,
the need for strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom. The latter
one ranks higher because it rests more on inner competence won through experience. Deprivation of
these needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness and helplessness.

Maslow also states that even though these are examples of how the quest for knowledge is separate
from basic needs he warns that these “two hierarchies are interrelated rather than sharply separated”
(Maslow, 1997). This means that this level of need, as well as the next and highest level, are not
strict, separate levels but closely related to others, and this is possibly the reason that these two levels
of need are left out of most textbooks.

5. Self-actualization
“What a man can be, he must be” (Maslow, 1954).This forms the basis of the perceived need for
self-actualization. This level of need pertains to what a person's full potential is and realizing that
potential. Maslow describes this desire as the desire to become more and more what one is, to
become everything that one is capable of becoming. This is a broad definition of the need for self-
actualization, but when applied to individuals the need is specific. For example one individual may
have the strong desire to become an ideal parent, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in
another it may be expressed in painting, pictures, or inventions. As mentioned before, in order to
reach a clear understanding of this level of need one must first not only achieve the previous needs,
physiological, safety, love, and esteem, but master these needs.

Criticism
In their extensive review of research based on Maslow's theory, Wahba and Brudwell (1976) found
little evidence for the ranking of needs Maslow described, or even for the existence of a definite
hierarchy at all. Chilean economist and philosopher Manfred Max-Neef has also argued fundamental
human needs are non-hierarchical, and are ontologically universal and invariant in nature—part of
the condition of being human; poverty, he argues, may result from any one of these needs being
frustrated, denied or unfulfilled.

The order in which the hierarchy is arranged (with self-actualization as the highest order need) has
been criticised as being ethnocentric by Geert Hofstede (1984). Hofstede's criticism of Maslow's
pyramid as ethnocentric may stem from the fact that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs neglects to
illustrate and expand upon the difference between the social and intellectual needs of those raised in
individualistic societies and those raised in collectivist societies. Maslow created his hierarchy of
needs from an individualistic perspective, being that he was from the United States, a highly
individualistic nation. The needs and drives of those in individualistic societies tend to be more self-
centered than those in collectivist societies, focusing on improvement of the self, with self
actualization being the apex of self improvement. Since the hierarchy was written from the
perspective of an individualist, the order of needs in the hierarchy with self actualization at the top is
not representative of the needs of those in collectivist cultures. In collectivist societies, the needs of
BA I, Semester 1, Unit IV 11

acceptance and community will outweigh the needs for freedom and individuality (Cianci and
Gambrel, 2003).

Maslow's hierarchy has also been criticized as being individualistic because of the position and value
of sex on the pyramid. Maslow’s pyramid puts sex on the bottom rung of physiological needs, along
with breathing and food. It views sex from an individualistic and not collectivist perspective: i.e., as
an individualistic physiological need that must be satisfied before one moves on to higher pursuits.
This view of sex neglects the emotional, familial and evolutionary implications of sex within the
community (Kenrick, 2010).

McClelland’s MANIFEST NEED THEORY OF MOTIVATION

Some people have an intense desire to achieve while others are not so keen about achievement.
David C. McClelland had studied this phenomenon for over twenty years at Harvard University and
proposed his Achievement Motivation Theory (Also called Manifest Need Theory). According to
him, there are certain needs that are learned and socially acquired as the individual interacts with the
environment. McClelland classified such needs into three broad categories. These are (a) Need for
power, (b) Need for affiliation, and (c) Need for achievement.

(a) Need For Power.

This need is indicated by a person's desire to control and influence the behavior of others. A person
with desire for power likes to compete with others when the situation is favorable for such
domination. Such persons prefer jobs that provide them an opportunity to acquire leadership with
power. There are two aspects of power accordingly to McClelland. These are: positive and negative.
Positive use of a power is necessary when a manager desires to achieve results through the efforts of
BA I, Semester 1, Unit IV 12

others. The negative use of power is possible when a person uses power for personal
aggrandizement. Such use of power may prove to be harmful to the Organisation.

The n-pow person is 'authority motivated'. This driver produces a need to be influential, effective and
to make an impact. There is a strong need to lead and for their ideas to prevail. There is also
motivation and need towards increasing personal status and prestige.

A person's need for power can be one of two types - personal and institutional. Those who need
personal power want to direct others, and this need often is percieved as undesirable. Persons who
need institutional power (also known as social power) want to organize the efforts of others to further
the goals of the organization. Managers with a high need for institutional power tend to be more
effective than those with a high need for personal power.

(b) Need For Affiliation.

Here, the person has a need/desire for affection and wants to establish friendly relationships. A
person with high need for affiliation seeks to establish and maintain friendships and dose emotional
relationships with others. He wants to be liked by others and develops a sense of belonging by
joining informal groups in the Organisation. Such persons (managers) prefer tasks that require
frequent interaction with subordinates/co-workers.

The n-affil person is 'affiliation motivated', and has a need for friendly relationships and is motivated
towards interaction with other people. They need harmonious relationships with other people and
need to feel accepted by other people. The affiliation driver produces motivation and need to be liked
and held in popular regard. These people are team players. They tend to conform to the norms of
their work group. High n-affil individuals prefer work that provides significant personal interaction.
They perform well in customer service and client interaction situations.

The need for affiliation is similar to Maslow’s need to belong. It can be a dominant motivating force
affecting behaviour and may manifest itself in many different ways. In its most straightforward form,
a need for affiliation manifests itself in a desire to be liked by others, to be part of a group, to enter
into warm, personal relationships. High n-affil people value relationships over accomplishments, and
friendship over power.

(c) Need For Achievement.

Need for achievement (N-Ach) refers to an individual's desire for significant accomplishment,
mastering of skills, control, or high standards. The term is associated with a range of actions. These
include: "intense, prolonged and repeated efforts to accomplish something difficult. To work with
singleness of purpose towards a high and distant goal. To have the determination to win". Need for
Achievement is related to the difficulty of tasks people choose to undertake. Those with low N-Ach
may choose very easy tasks, in order to minimize risk of failure, or highly difficult tasks, such that a
failure would not be embarrassing. Those with high N-Ach tend to choose moderately difficult tasks,
feeling that they are challenging, but within reach.

Here, the person desires to succeed in competitive situations. He desires to prove his superiority over
others. Such person sets reasonably difficult but potentially achievable goals for himself. He accepts
BA I, Semester 1, Unit IV 13

moderate degree of risk. He is more concerned with personal achievement than with the rewards of
success. Moreover, he feels that he can achieve the goal with his efforts and abilities. He also desires
to have concrete feedback (social or attitudinal) on his performance. Such person has high level of
energy and capacity to work hard. He naturally prefers jobs which tax his abilities and skills fully.
This again is for achieving the objectives set. According to McClelland, the need for achievement is
the most important need which can be used effectively for the economic progress of a nation.

Persons with achievement needs tend to be motivated by difficult, challenging and competitive work
situations and not by routine and non-competitive situations. They habitually spend their time
thinking about doing things better. They are not motivated by money but in their future
achievements. Such employees are better achievers and naturally get promotions faster. An
Organization also grows faster and move towards prosperity with the support of such achievement
seekers employees.

People high in N-Ach are characterized by a tendency to seek challenges and a high degree of
independence. Their most satisfying reward is the recognition of their achievements. Sources of high
N-Ach include:

1. Parents who encouraged independence in childhood

2. Praise and rewards for success

3. Association of achievement with positive feelings

4. Association of achievement with one's own competence and effort, not luck

5. A desire to be effective or challenged

6. Intrapersonal Strength

McClelland's acquired needs theory states that most people possess and exhibit a combination of
these characteristics. Some people exhibit a strong bias to a particular motivational need, and this
motivational or needs 'mix' consequently affects their behaviour and working/managing style.

Mcclelland's achievement motivation theory suggests that a strong n-affil 'affiliation-motivation'

undermines a manager's objectivity, because of their need to be liked, and that this affects a
manager's decision-making capability. A strong n-pow 'authority-motivation' will produce a
determined work ethic and commitment to the organization, and while n-pow people are attracted to
the leadership role, they may not possess the required flexibility and people-centered skills.

McClelland's motivation theory argues that n-ach people with strong 'achievement motivation' make
the best leaders, although there can be a tendency to demand too much of their staff in the belief that
they are all similarly and highly achievement-focused and results driven, which of course most
people are not.

2. Importance of Achievement Motivation Theory

McClelland's theory is important as he argues that the achievement motive can be taught. It can be
achieved by learning. A manager can raise achievement need level of his subordinates by creating a
healthy work atmosphere, provision of reasonable freedom to subordinates, provision of more
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responsibilities and by making tasks more interesting and challenging. Even reward and appreciation
of high performance of subordinates is useful for raising their achievement need level. This is how
motivation of employees is possible by developing the desire for higher achievement in their mind.
Such achievement motivation is necessary and useful for the success of an enterprise.

McClelland's theory of motivation is quite extensive. He developed achievement motive for

motivation. His assertion that achievement motive can be developed among the employees is
important. This is possible through well-conceived and deliberate learning process. This he
(McClelland) proved in an experiment carried out in a large U.S. Corporation.

According to McClelland, every person has an achievement motive to some extent. However, some
are constantly more achievement-oriented than others. Most people will put more efforts into their
work if they are challenged to do better. However, the achievement-motivated person is likely to
outstrip all others in his zeal to improve performance when he is challenged. He makes more efforts
and accomplishes more. This background can be used for motivation of employees. In fact,
McClelland's achievement motivation theory is based on this experience which he gained while
working with Harvard University.
Achievement motivation is very essential for the success of an entrepreneur or enterprise. Every
employee should have some objective which he desires to achieve. Such desire for achievement acts
as a motivating factor. According to McClelland, the need for achievement is the most important
need. It can be used as motivating factor for economic progress of a nation and even for the success
of an enterprise or entrepreneur. An entrepreneur or a manager has to put forward some objective
before every employee and encourage the employee to achieve the same. To create the desire for
achievement of objective is a way to motivate employee. In this way, achievement motivation is
useful for the success of an enterprise/entrepreneur.

MURRAY’S THEORY

Henry Murray (1893 - 1988) was active in developing a theory of motivation throughout the 1930s,
40s, 50s and 60s. He believed that a need is a potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way
under certain given circumstances.

Murray's definition of the concept of need:

"A need is a construct (a convenient fiction or hypothetical concept) which stands for a force . . . in
the brain region, a force which organizes perception, apperception, intellection, conation and action
in such a way as to transform in a certain direction an existing, unsatisfying situation. A need is
sometimes provoked directly by internal processes of a certain kind . . . but, more frequently (when
in a state of readiness) by the occurrence of one of a few commonly effective press [environmental
forces]. . . . Thus, it manifests itself by leading the organism to search for or to avoid encountering
or, when encountered, to attend and respond to certain kinds of press. . . . Each need is
characteristically accompanied by a particular feeling or emotion and tends to use certain modes . . .
to further its trend. It may be weak or intense, momentary or enduring. But usually it persists and
gives rise to a certain course of overt behavior (or fantasy), which . . . changes the initiating
circumstance in such a way as to bring about an end situation which stills (appeases or satisfies) the
organism (Murray, 1938, pp. 123-124)" (Hall & Lindzey, pp. 173-74).
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A major assumption of Murray’s theory was that behaviour is driven by an internal state of
disequilibrium. In other words we have a LACK of something and this drives us. We are dissatisfied
and we desire something.

Needs can be inferred.

Murray (1938) states that the existence of a need can be inferred on the basis of: (1) the effect or end
result of the behavior, (2) the particular pattern or mode of behavior involved, (3) the selective
attention and response to a particular class of stimulus objects, (4) the expression of a particular
emotion or affect, and (5) the expression of satisfaction when a particular effect is achieved or
disappointment when the effect is not achieved. Subjective reports regarding feelings, intentions, and
goals provide additional criteria.

Murray classified needs as being either:

 Primary needs (which are biologically based): food, water, air, sex, avoidance of pain

 Secondary needs (which either derive from our biological needs or are inherent in our
psychological nature):

o achievement, recognition, acquisition

o dominance, aggression, autonomy

o affiliation, rejection

o nurturance, play, cognizance (asking questions of others)

Murray believed that stronger needs are expressed more often over time and lead to more intense
behaviour.

Murray's original twenty needs

ILLUSTRATIVE LIST OF MURRAY'S NEEDS

Need Brief Definition

n Abasement To submit passively to external force. To accept injury, blame, criticism,

punishment. To surrender. To become resigned to fate. To admit inferiority, error,
wrongdoing, or defeat. To confess and atone. To blame, belittle, or mutilate the
self. To seek and enjoy pain, punishment, illness, and misfortune.

n Achievement To accomplish something difficult. To master, manipulate, or organize physical

objects, human beings, or ideas. To do this as rapidly and as independently as
possible. To overcome obstacles and attain a high standard. To excel oneself. To
rival and surpass others. To increase self-regard by the successful exercise of talent.

n Affiliation To draw near and enjoyably co-operate or reciprocate with an allied other (an other
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who resembles the subject or who likes the subject). To please and win affection of
a cathected object. To adhere and remain loyal to a friend.

n Aggression To overcome opposition forcefully. To fight. To revenge an injury. To attack,

injure, or kill another. To oppose forcefully or punish another.

n Autonomy To get free, shake off restraint, break out of confinement. To resist coercion and
restriction. To avoid or quit activities prescribed by domineering authorities. To be
independent and free to act according to impulse. To be unattached, irresponsible.
To defy convention.

n Counteraction To master or make up for a failure by restriving. To obliterate a humiliation by

resumed action. To overcome weaknesses, to repress fear. To efface a dishonor by
action. To search for obstacles and difficulties to overcome. To maintain self-
respect and pride on a high level.

n Defendence To defend the self against assault, criticism, and blame. To conceal or justify a
misdeed, failure, or humiliation. To vindicate the ego.

n Deference To admire and support a superior. To praise, honor, or eulogize. To yield eagerly to
the influence of an allied other. To emulate an exemplar. To conform to custom.

n Dominance To control one's human environment. To influence or direct the behavior of others
by suggestion, seduction, persuasion, or command. To dissuade, restrain or
prohibit.

n Exhibition To make an impression. To be seen and heard. To excite, amaze, fascinate,

entertain, shock, intrigue, amuse, or entice others.

n Harm avoidance To avoid pain, physical injury, illness, and death. To escape from a dangerous
situation. To take precautionary measures.

n Infa avoidance To avoid humiliation. To quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions which
may lead to belittlement: the scorn, derision, or indifference of others. To refrain
from action because of the fear of failure.

n Nurturance To give sympathy and gratify the needs of a helpless object: an infant or any object
that is weak, disabled, tired, inexperienced, infirm, defeated, humiliated, lonely,
dejected, sick, mentally confused. To assist an object in danger. To feed, help,
support, console, protect, comfort, nurse, heal.

n Order To put things in order. Top achieve cleanliness, arrangement, organization,

balance, neatness, tidiness, and precision.

n Play To act for "fun" without further purpose. To like to laugh and make jokes. To seek
enjoyable relaxation of stress. To participate in games, sports, dancing, drinking
parties, cards.

n Rejection To separate oneself from a negatively cathected object. To exclude, abandon,

expel, or remain indifferent to an inferior object. To snub or jilt an object.

n Sentience To seek and enjoy sensuous impressions.

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n Sex To form and further an erotic relationship. To have sexual intercourse.

n Succorance To have one's needs gratified by the sympathetic aid of an allied object. To be
nursed, supported, sustained, surrounded, protected, loved, advised, guided,
indulged, forgiven, consoled. To remain close to a devoted protector. To always
have a supporter.

n Understanding To ask or answer general questions. To be interested in theory. To speculate,

formulate, analyze, and generalize.

The main contribution of Murray's theory was that he stated personality as being driven by the
secondary needs: Achievement, Dominance, Affiliation and Nurturance. The extent to which each of
these needs was felt by an individual shaped their personality and behavior.

Press

Murray applied the term press to the external factors of man’s life. The term Press, used in reference
to an object or a person, means that attribute which either hinders or aids him. It presses him into
one form of action or another. The press itself is of no value in understanding the personality of the
subject. The subject’s subjective view and impression of the press makes it significant in further
understanding the human personality. There are two ways for considering the press quality of
persons or objects.
 Alpha press is the objective and real characteristic of the press. There is no distortion or
subjective interpretation.
 Beta press is the subjective personal interpretation the individual makes of the objects that
influence him.
There may be a wide disparity between alpha and beta aspects of the same press concept. Some
examples of press are – absence of parent, poverty, unsettled home etc.
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