Essential English Grammar – A Friendly Approach

By Thomas Delany
This English grammar book is dedicated to Gemma Marco Gual.
 Essential English Grammar - A friendly Approach

Welcome!
Thank you for purchasing this e-course brought to you by English Reservoir,
English language experts. This course will last between 4-12 hours and is
specifically designed to help you with the absolute ''essentials'' of English
grammar while using a friendly and inductive approach, that is, a method
with explanations, contextual dialogue, and analysis. This is not a typical,
boring ‘’grammar-index''. Throughout this course, divided up into chapters,
we're going to learn about the essentials of English grammar which are
the six parts of speech (nouns/pronouns, adjectives, verbs (passive & active),
adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions + interjections. Try not to get scared
of the grammar. Rather, learn it in a fun, contextual and easily-
comprehensive manner! Correct usage of grammar is essential to speak
perfectly, so that's why we have prepared this fun course for you to get you
motivated and learning quickly. Very simple terms are used to explain the
grammar and everything is taught in an incredibly understandable manner
with lots of context.

Course layout/how-to-guide:
This course is divided up into chapters and sub-sections. You should take it
slowly and only do a maximum of thirty minutes per day. Watch the tutorial
videos with your complete concentration and make sure you understand
everything before moving on to the next section. This course does not cover
all essential English grammar, but covers the most important aspects, which
includes the six parts of speech + interjections.

Who should do this course?

If you have a medium/high level or you know a lot of English all ready, but
you want to ''refresh'' your current knowledge and maybe even learn a few
things then this is the right course for you.
What are the ''six parts of speech'' and why is this course focused on it?
The ''six parts of speech'' are what constitute the whole English language. The
''six parts of speech'' are: nouns/pronouns, verbs (active & passive),
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions + interjections.

So, is this just a boring ‘’grammar-index''?

No! Absolutely not! The sole purpose of this fun e-learning course is to
teach you all the essential English grammar, that is, the ''six parts of speech'',
which are necessary to speak and understand English properly. By learning in
a fun, inductive and contextual manner, you'll stay motivated, entertained and
most importantly, learn how to speak and understand English.

Is this an entire grammar index covering all the English grammar?

No. This course covers the absolute ‘’essentials’’ or ‘’basics’’ of English
grammar so that you can understand and speak properly. If
you're satisfied with this course, there will be another, more advanced course
made available to you that will cover more difficult aspects of the English
language for advanced learners.

Do I need to start the course from the beginning?

No! Absolutely not! You can also use this course to ''refresh'' parts
of your grammar knowledge. It Is recommended though, if you're a complete
beginner to start the course from the very beginning.

What’s the “method” of this course?

1. Explanation - A quick
explanation on the
new grammar point.
2. Context - A short dialogue
or text putting into
 practice the new
concept or grammar
point.
3. Analysis - Here, superscripts
(1234) in the
‘’context’’ are used
to label difficult
grammar points,
idioms and
expressions that
need extra
explanations.
4. Section Review - A complete review
after every section,
using context, either
dialogue or text. No
superscripts (123)
included in this part.

What are the small numbers (1, 2, 3) (or superscripts) at the top of some
of the words for?
These small numbers 1,2,3,4 etc. or superscripts are inserted above certain
words or phrases which need to be elaborated on further in the notes’ sections
after every excerpt/dialogue. Take note of the number and make sure you
understand all the explanations numbered accordingly.

What are the ‘’section reviews’’ after every section?

The ‘section reviews’ are basically just a follow-up on the previously learnt
sections. The reviews will consist of an excerpt or dialogue incorporating all
the elements learnt, thus using a friendly and contextual means to properly
learn and put into practice the new concepts.
 Contents

Chapter l

1. Pronouns: subject, object and possessive pronouns

2. Section Review
3. Main auxiliaries: be, have, and do
4. Section Review
5. Articles: indefinite (a/an), definite (the) and zero article (-)
6. Section Review

Chapter II

1. Verbs: active and passive

Active

Present simple
Present continuous
Present perfect
Past simple
Future simple
Section Review

Passive

Present simple
 Present continuous
Present perfect
Past simple
Future simple
Section Review

Chapter III

1. Modal auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, will/shall, must, would,

ought to, should, need to, and dare to
2. Section Review
Chapter IV

1. Adjectives: demonstrative, interrogative, possessive, and

qualifying adjectives
2. Section Review
3. Adverbs: frequency, place, time, manner, degree, sentence,
relative and interrogative adverbs
4. Section Review
5. Nouns: countable/uncountable, proper, common, concrete,
abstract, collective and compound nouns
6. Section Review

Chapter V

1. Prepositions: simple
2. Section Review
3. Conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions
4. Section Review
5. Interjections
6. Section Review

__________________________________________________________
Chapter I

1. Pronouns: subject, object and possessive pronouns

2. Section Review
3. Main auxiliaries: be, have, do
4. Section Review
5. Articles: indefinite (a/an), definite (the) and zero article (-)
6. Section Review

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that we use to replace nouns. In English, we have

subject, object and possessive pronouns.

Subject pronouns

What are subject pronouns exactly? Pronouns are words we use in English to
substitute nouns. So, instead of using a noun, we replace it with a pronoun to
avoid redundancy and have less repetitiveness. Subject pronouns are the
subject of the sentence, not the object. I.e., I like sports. I is the subject, and
the subject pronoun. Sports is the object of the sentence. We can replace
sports with the object pronoun, them.

I We
You You (plural)
He/she/it They

Hi, how are you?

 I am1 fine, thanks.
Is it a nice day today?
Yes, it2 certainly is.
Do you have any friends?
Yes, two friends. They are called Jessica and David.
Do they both study English?
No, David3 is studying Chinese and he really likes it. Jessica is
studying French and she doesn’t really like it.
Do you guys4 want to go back home?
Sure, let’s go.

Analysis:

1. Note, all the subject pronouns are underlined.

2. The subject pronouns replace or substitute the nouns in the
sentences/questions, but only as the subject of the sentence or
question.
3. David: is the subject of the sentence. David can be replaced with
the subject pronoun, he.
4. Guys: is common in English when we want to use the plural
‘’you’’ form. We do this so that we can distinguish between
singular and plural.

Object pronouns

What are object pronouns exactly? Object pronouns are the object of the
sentence. I.e., She likes me. Me is the object, and object pronoun of the
sentence. The subject, and subject pronoun is, she.
 Me Us
You You (plural)
Him/her/it Them

Good morning sir! Do you remember me1?

Yes, you’re James! I remember you well.
What are you doing today?
I am studying English with my friends. Have you met them2
before?
No, I haven’t. Tell me about them.
Ok, I sit next to them in my class. Maria and Sam are their names.
Maria is one year older than me and I really like talking to her.
Sam is two years younger than me and I speak a lot with him also.
I would like you guys to start a new English course with English
Reservoir, I think you would like it. What do you reckon?
Sure, let’s3 try it!

Analysis

1. Note, the object pronouns are underlined.

2. Pronouns always substitute the noun, and here the object pronouns
are the object of the sentence.
3. let’s: is a common English expression. Here, let’s works as an
imperative form, i.e., ‘let’s go to the mall’, or ‘let’s eat sushi’.
Remember, let’s is the contracted form of let us. Us is the object
pronoun. The subject pronoun of us is we.

Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns are words that we use in English to show
ownership/possession of a thing or a person. Sometimes we can use
possessive pronouns to not only show ownership but also emphasise our
ownership.

Mine Ours
This is
Yours Yours (plural)
my car
His/hers/its Theirs and it is
mine.
The jacket over there, is it yours?
Yes, it’s mine. Thank you so much.
That meal is his1, please don’t touch it!
Wow! Such a nice house. Is it hers?
Yes, it’s hers (hers refers to the women in the context who owns
the house).
Our belongings are ours.
Sorry guys, are these jackets yours2 (plural)?
No, they’re theirs3 (the other people’s).

Analysis

1. His: is both a possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun.

Here, his is being used as a possessive pronoun because it replaces
the noun.
2. Yours: is both the singular and the plural possessive pronoun. You
cannot use guys here. It doesn’t work.
3. Remember, possessive pronouns replace the noun and are used to
show ownership or possession of a person or thing.
Section Review

Pronouns: subject and object pronouns

Hi there! How are you guys? Are you guys going well?
Hi, yes, we’re going well. Thank you. How about you?
I’ve already started a Spanish course. It’s going great for me.
Ah, nice. Have you made any friends in the course?
Yes, well, only two.
Great, tell me about them?
One man named Manuel. He’s so nice and I have a lot in common
with him. Then there’s a lady called Sarah. She’s about five years
older than me. We both love the Spanish language. I love speaking
to her.
That sounds fantastic. I’m going for a drink now with my wife,
would you like to join us?
Sure, let’s go for a drink. Where shall we go?
I was thinking the cafeteria down the road, it’s nice and quiet and
you guys will like it. Would you like to ring your friends and see if
they’re interested in coming too?
I’ll call them, and I’ll let you know.

Pronouns: possessive pronouns

Hello Max, what are you up to today?

I’m saving (my money) for that new game that’s coming out. I
can’t wait for it to be finally mine.
You don’t have to save all that money. You can just borrow my
friend’s game, even though it’s his I’m sure he wouldn’t mind at
 all.
Thanks, but please don’t tell my parents, because they expect me
to save all my money. Can it be our secret?
Sure, our secret is ours, and no one else’s. Those parents of yours
may not be so happy because I know them quite well.
How’s that new puppy I always see at Sam and David’s house, is
it theirs?
Yes, well, it’s all of theirs. They found the puppy on the street and
now they all take good care of it.

Main auxiliaries: be, have, and do

Auxiliary verb: to be
Base form: be
Present form: am/is/are
Past form: was/were
Present participle/gerund: being
Past participle: been

To be
1. We use the auxiliary verb to be to make a sentence attributable,
that is, we use the verb to be with adjectives. Adjectives modify or
describe nouns/pronouns by qualifying or expressing them. All the
various types of the auxiliary verb, to be from above are in the
following dialogue. To be is used with adjectives to describe
people or things.

Sam, what do you like most about what you’re studying?

Well, I’m studying education and for me it’s very insightful1, fun,
and hard.
 Why did you decide to study education?
Because it’s2 required for the teaching sector. I also find it to be
very practical and useful.
So, why would you like be a teacher?
I think being a teacher would be difficult but also fulfilling. Some
of my friends are also studying education and they are very
excited to be following that path.
How long have your friends been interested in education for?
They’ve been interested in education for over three years now.

Dialogue (2)

Hey Lucy, how’s your new job?

It’s great, thanks. The job is very demanding but also exciting.
I’m happy for you. How’s the boss anyhow?
The boss is nice, but also strict. He’s also very busy.

Analysis

1. Adjectives are underlined and always take the auxiliary verb to be.
2. Remember, it’s is the contracted form of it is. Is stems from the
verb to be in third person singular.

To be
2. We use to be to talk about age, height, weight, size and colours of
people and things.

Hi Susie, how’s1 the baby these days?

 She’s doing fine. Currently, she’s2 around fifteen kilos which is
normal for her age.
Oh, how old is she then?
She is two years old.
What’s her hair colour?
She’s got light brown hair and has dark brown eyes.

Analysis

1. Remember, how’s is the contracted form of how is. We’re using

the verb to be because we’re talking about the baby’s qualities.
2. She’s: is the contracted form of she is and we’re using the verb to
be to talk about the baby’s weight.

To be
3. We use the auxiliary verb to be to form the present
continuous/present progressive verb tense. We use this tense
primarily to talk about actions happening in the moment and
actions happening in the short-term future. We will elaborate
further on this in chapter II where we talk about the main verbs in
English.

To be + verb + -ing
Are you living in Washington now?
Yes, I moved here with my family about three years ago. How are
you? What are you doing these days?
I’m studying a master’s degree in Los Angeles, California. I’m
really enjoying it also.
What are you doing this summer?
I am leaving the state of California to go to New York to see my
 parents. What about you?
I am going1 to take a trip to Europe and see Italy and Spain. Can’t
wait!
Great to hear. How are your children, Jane and David?
They are well, thanks. David is doing a gap year and Jane’s
studying History.
Great to hear, anyhow, we’ll catch up2 again.
See you later.
Bye.3

Analysis

1. Going to: is also a form and means literally ‘to have the intention’.
2. Catch up: is a phrasal verb meaning ‘to meet and see each other if
there had already been a time without seeing that person.
3. Remember, we’re going to elaborate further on the present
continuous in the second chapter.

To be
4. We use the auxiliary verb to be to form the passive in English. In
English, there are two ways to use a verb: active or passive. We
will elaborate much further on the passive in the second chapter.

Rule: to be + past participle (verb + ed) or irregular verb

I am supposed2 to work every day.

He wasn’t allowed to come to school today.
Madrid is visited by many tourists each year.
 The football world championships are held in Russia this year.
You aren’t allowed to cycle here.
He isn’t used to travelling.
He was born1 in Munich.
The car was cleaned by him.
We weren’t spoken to yesterday by anyone.
The book was read in two weeks.3

Analysis

1. Be born: always takes the verb to be. It is always in the passive.

2. Remember, the passive is: to be + past participle. So, in this case it
is the first person of to be + am + supposed.
3. There are many reasons as to why we use the passive In English.
In chapter II we’re going to elaborate much further on the passive.

Auxiliary verb: to have

Base form: have
Present form: have/has
Past form: had
Present participle/gerund: having
Past participle: had

Have
1. We use the auxiliary verb to have to show possession of objects,
relationships and people.

Rule: have/has + object, relationship or person

 Good evening, how’s1 your day2 been today?
Very good, thanks.
Do you have a moment to see me about our meeting yesterday?
Sure, what seems to be the issue?
Well, I don’t have a lot of time, but I have the contract and there
were a few mistakes. Mind if we correct them?
No problem let me know.
You wrote that we have two building projects, although I think
you meant that we have three3, am I right?
Yes, sorry. You’re right. We have three building projects.
Do you have any idea what we might call the project?
Sorry, no clue.
Never mind, have a great day! See you tomorrow.
You too, see you tomorrow.

Analysis

1. Remember that how’s is the contracted form, which means how

has. So, we use the verb to have + object, relationship or people to
show possession.
2. We can always put objects between the verb to have and the thing
being possessed.
3. In this case the thing in the middle is your (possessive adjective).
Three refers to the three building projects. Functions as a pronoun
here.

Have
 2. We use the auxiliary verb to have to talk about experiences and
actions.

I’m sick of having such a boring time at school. I would prefer to

go on a foreign exchange and have a fun time abroad. I couldn’t
even imagine the experiences I’d1 have. Having to spend so much
time at school is never really that fun or exciting. I wish I could
just hang out2 with foreign students, even though I would have a
lot more work to do abroad I just know I’d3 have such a fantastic
time.

Analysis

1. I’d: is the contacted form of I would. It can also mean I had.

2. Hang out: is a phrasal verb meaning to be with or spend time with.
3. I’d: is the contacted form here of I would.

Have

3. We use the auxiliary verb to have + to + infinitive to express

obligation.

Hi Katie, what are you doing1 this weekend?

Well, not a lot of fun things to be honest. I have to clean2 my
room and help my parents out.
Do you have to do a lot of chores?
Yes, and I am not looking forward3 to them either. What will
you be doing anyhow?
I have to see the doctor for an appointment, then I really need
to/have to/must4 book my flights to Germany for the weekend.
Analysis

1. What are you doing: is a present continuous tense being used to

show an action that is happening in the future.
2. Remember the construction: have/has + to + infinitive as we see
here.
3. Look forward to: is a phrasal verb meaning, waiting with anxiety
or want to see someone or something.
4. There are other modal auxiliary verbs that have the equivalent
meaning to have/has + to + infinitive, for example: need to and
must.

Auxiliary verb: to do
Base form: do
Present form: do/does
Past form: did
Present participle/gerund: doing
Past participle: done

To do

1. We use the auxiliary and ordinary verb to do to make questions in

English. We use do with normal verbs NOT auxiliary verbs to
make questions. Do is the main verb for making questions in
English.

Hello Matt, what are you doing1 today?

Hi, I’m about to2 leave to go to the supermarket.
 Oh, nice. What do you normally buy3?
I usually just get the basics for the week, oats, bananas, apples etc.
How’s your friend by the way? What’s she doing these days?
She’s great. She’s working in a pharmacy. She’s quite enjoying it.
Did she do4 some sort of course?
Yes, she went to the polytechnic for two years.
Wow, nice. Does she have to work a lot?
Well, only the standard eight-hour shift.
Did she go the polytechnic in Boston?
Yes, she did.

Analysis
1. ‘’What are you doing today’’: notice that this is a present
continuous tense that refers to the actions in the short-term future.
2. About to: is a very common structure in English. It means, to do
something within the next few moments.
3. Remember, the typical structure for asking a question in the
present simple is do + subject + normal verb.
4. Do: is both an auxiliary and a normal verb in English. For
example, what did you do? The second do is the normal verb.

To do

2. We use the auxiliary verb to do to add extra emphasis to our

sentences or answers.

What did you do1 last summer?

I went to Madrid, Spain.
 Did you enjoy it?
I did2 enjoy it. The place is amazing, especially the Prado and
Sofia museums.
What about you wife, did she accompany you?
Yes, she certainly did3. She did not4, however, enjoy the summer
heat. We do not5 cope very well with the heat.
So, you guys6 liked Spain then?
Yes, we did! We’ll certainly return next July.

Analysis

1. Remember, do, in this example functions as a normal verb, not an

auxiliary verb.
2. ‘’I did enjoy it’’: is a way of adding emphasis. Without emphasis,
it would be, ‘’I enjoyed it’’.
3. She certainly did: is short for, she certainly enjoyed it.
4. When using negatives, we can apply emphasis by not using the
contraction as you can see here.
5. Once again, emphasis in the negative by not using a contraction.
6. We use guys to show that we’re speaking in the plural form.

To do

3. We use the auxiliary verb to do to negate or make

sentences/questions negative. We only use do to negate ordinary
verbs, not auxiliary verbs (can, could, shall, be, may, might, shall).

Do you like going out at night?

No, I don’t1. It’s just not my thing. I prefer to stay home at night
 with a good book and a hot meal. What about you, do you go out
at night and what do you like about it?
Well, yes, I like going out at night, but I don’t2 really like being in
closed spaces with too many people. I also don’t enjoy drinking
beer that much either.
Yeah, I am not3 really a fan of closed spaces either. Most people
don’t enjoy closed spaces either. It’s normal. So, do you not really
like beer then?
Basically, I just don’t like the standard beer, but I do4 like quality
beer if it’s being sold.

Analysis

1. ‘’No, I don’t’’: is short for ‘’no, I don’t like going out at night’’.
Form of ellipsis.
2. Don’t: is the contracted form of do not.
3. Notice how with auxiliary verbs that aren’t to do we only use the
adverb not to negate. This is the case with all auxiliary verbs apart
from to do.
4. Here, do is putting emphasis on the sentence. Instead of saying ‘’I
like’’, we’re saying ‘’I do like’’ which is more emphatic.

To do

4. We use the auxiliary verb to do to form question tags in English.

We only use to do to form question tags with normal verbs, NOT
other auxiliary verbs (can, be, have, may, might). We use question
tags when we assume the answer and need clarification.

You enjoy sailing, don’t you?

 Yes, I enjoy sailing.
He went1 on vacation to Australia, didn’t he?
Yes, he did.
James and Mary left for lunch, didn’t they2?
Yes, I think they did.
Gemma has an Apple phone, doesn’t she/hasn’t she3?
Yes, she does/has.
You bought me a coffee yesterday, didn’t you?
I did, yes.
He works as an engineer, doesn’t he?
Um, I think he is, yes.
They sold us a smartphone, didn’t they?
Yes, I think it’s an apple smartphone.
I don’t think he likes me, does he4?

Analysis

1. Went: is the past simple of to go, which is a normal verb. That’s

why we use to do in the question tag.
2. James and Mary: are the subjects of the sentence, that’s why in
the question tag we refer to the subject(s) with the adequate
pronoun. In this case it is they.
3. When we use the verb to have (an auxiliary verb), we can use
either to do or to have in the question tag.
4. With question tags, it’s always positive to negative or negative to
positive.

Section Review
Dialogue (1) auxiliary verb to be

My name is David and I’m an engineer. I’m a relaxed and nice

person. I’m thirty-two years old and I’m 1.84 cm tall. I also have
two colleagues who are also engineers. They’re such nice people
and are happy with their jobs. James, who is one of my friends is
twenty-six years old and is currently living in California. I’m
planning on meeting him this weekend for a beer. My other friend,
Henry, is thirty-five years old and lives near me. He’s fun, caring
and very smart. Henry is working on a project right now and is
also studying part-time a degree in history.

Dialogue (2) auxiliary verb to have

Hello, nice to meet you. What’s your name?

My name’s Daniel, and yours?
Jake. So, tell me a little about yourself, Daniel.
Well, I come from Northern America, a state called Washington. I
have two daughters and a wife. We all have a nice time together
living up north near the border of Canada. We also have a house in
the countryside.
Nice to hear, so, what do you do during the day?
Well, I have a large farm where I live and have to take care of the
cows that we have on the property. It’s a lot of work…
What sort of work do you have to do then?
I have to wake up early every morning, and I have to do all the
duties, working throughout the day. It’s a lifestyle choice though.
I’m having a great time and I fully enjoy my job.

Dialogue (3) auxiliary verb to do

 (Job interview)
Hello sir, my name’s Mr. Ford. What kind of work experience do
you have?
I’ve been working as an analyst for the last five years in a big
consultancy firm.
How did you find the experience there?
Well, I really liked it despite it being very hard with lots of
working hours.
Did you take any breaks or vacation while you were working
there?
Yes, I did take one break for around three weeks in July last year,
although I didn’t have a very easy time when I got back because I
had a lot of work to catch up on/recuperate.
That’s good to hear. So, you worked very hard last semester,
didn’t you?
Yes, I did.
You worked at that consultancy firm for five years, didn’t you?
Yes.
Very well, it’s nice to meet you. We shall keep in touch. Thank
you for your time.
Thanks.

Articles: a/an, the and zero article

Indefinite articles: a/an

We use indefinite articles (a/an) to introduce the subject or object, and
generally for the first time. An goes before vowels; a, e, i, o, u, and a goes
before consonants (any letter that’s NOT a vowel (a, e, i, o, u).
 My name is Maria and I work as a nurse1 in a hospital. When I
was a child I always wanted to be a lawyer, but I became bored of
all the legal work. What about you? What do you do for a living?
Well, I’m a full-time chef. I work in a restaurant near the main
square in the city centre. I’ve got a great deal of passion for
cooking, and ever since I was younger I always wanted to be a
chef.
That’s so amazing, what sort of meals do you generally cook?
I cook Spanish cuisine, meals like paella, bocadillos, etc. My
clients say I’m an excellent2 chef!
So glad to hear. Anyhow, I’ll catch you later3.
Bye.

Analysis

1. A nurse: because nurse begins with n and n is a consonant. An

goes before vowels.
2. An excellent…: because excellent begins with a vowel, a, and
vowels always take an.
3. Catch (someone) later: just means to see that person in the near
future.

Definite article: the

1. We use the definite article (the) when the subject/object of the
sentence has already been introduced or we assume the listener
knows what we’re talking about.

So, tell me, how’s the1 project that you’re working on going?
Oh, the project, it’s going great thanks. What about you? What are
you doing these days?
 Well, I’m working in a2 software company. The3 company is
based close to my home. I really enjoy the4 work. What about you,
what’s the project about?
Well, the project is an5 English tutorial series, helping people with
the main parts of grammar, but teaching them in a fun, dynamic
and effective manner.
Wow! Sounds amazing. What’s the project called then?
It’s called ‘English grammar – a friendly approach’.
I really like the6 name. Anyway, we’ll catch up again.
Catch you later, bye.

Analysis

1. We use the here because the person asking the question already
knew about a project.
2. A software company: we use the indefinite article a because we’re
introducing software company, which is the object here for the
first time.
3. Company: was already introduced, so now the definite article can
be used.
4. It’s already assumed that one must work, so we use the definite
article the here.
5. English tutorial series: is being introduced for the first time, so we
use the indefinite article an. Also note, English starts with a vowel
(e), so we must use an and not a.

Zero article: (-)

In English, we don’t use an article when we’re talking about things in a
general sense. For example, habitual actions or general truths. Moreover, we
generally omit articles when talking about people, days, months, places,
streets, languages, academic subjects, sports and meals.

My name is Thomas1 and I’m from New Zealand2. I was born in

July3 and I speak two languages, English and Spanish4. I’m
currently living in Madrid, Spain. I really love the Spanish cuisine
and culture. My favourite meal is Paella5 and bocadillos filled
with chorizo. Tell me about yourself?
I’m Sarah and I’m from London, England. I speak English and
Korean. My parents are originally from South Korea and I grew
up here in England. I love Football6 and hockey, as well as cricket
even though some people say it’s a little boring. Obviously, my
favourite meal is chicken roast, a very typical dish from the United
Kingdom.

Analysis

1. Thomas: is a name and doesn’t require any article, thus zero

article.
2. Countries: don’t usually require an article beforehand.
3. Months: don’t usually require an article beforehand.
4. Languages: don’t usually require an article beforehand.
5. Famous meals such as paella or chicken roast, or just meals in
general, usually don’t take an article.
6. Most sports don’t take articles, just like most things, when a
general sense is applied, no need for any articles.

Section Review

Articles: Indefinite articles (a/an), definite article (the) and zero article (-)
Hey Dale, how’s everything going?
Fine, thanks. I’m just walking to campus.
So, what are you studying these days?
Well, um, I’m currently doing my undergrad. I’m studying
literature and contemporary history. I really like it. What about
you?
I’m doing my master thesis right now. It’s a lot of work, but I
really like the work a lot.
Tell me about your master thesis.
I only just started, I really enjoy the research. How’s the undergrad
in literature and history, do you like it?
Yes, quite a lot. I have two professors per subject and they know
their subjects very extensively. The professors have been at the
university, and have been teaching for over twenty years, so they
have a tonne of experience.
Yes, I understand, teaching experience is so important for
students.
Chapter II

1. Verbs: active and passive

Active:

Present simple
Present continuous
Present perfect
Past simple
Future simple
Section Review

Passive:

Present simple
Present continuous
Present perfect
Past simple
Future simple
Section Review

Verbs: active and passive

In English, there are only two types of verbs that we can use: active and
passive. Both verb forms (active and passive) are vitally important for
speaking English fluently. There are twelve verb forms in English in total
(both active and passive), but in this tutorial we’ll focus on five of the most
common verbal tenses from both the active and passive so that you can get a
really good idea. These tenses are the most widely used in English: present
simple, present continuous, present perfect, past simple and future simple.
Let’s get started.

Active verb forms

Active verb forms are active when the subject of the sentence is performing
the action, and not having the action done to them. I.e., I love to ride my bike.
This sentence is in the present simple, and it’s active, because the subject, I is
performing the action, to ride my bike.

Present simple
Rule: verb (auxiliary verb or ordinary verb) in present tense.
1. We use the present simple to talk about facts (things that are true
in the moment)
2. The present simple is used for habits.
3. The present simple is used for things/actions that are fixed for the
future (things that will happen, especially when the thing/action
has a fixed date and time).

Hi Martin, what are you up to1?

Hey, Daniel. Very well, thanks. I’m2 on vacation now. Very
pleased though, because I needed the break. My daughter, Marta
is3 eleven years old and I drive4 her to school every day. It is hard
work you know.
Sorry about that, sounds like it is hard work, you’re right.
So, Martin, what about you, what are your plans for the vacation?
I’m going to Rome, Italy and my flight leaves5 this Saturday at
09:00. I’m really excited because I rarely travel 6you know.
That sounds super fun indeed. Do you plan to visit any other cities
in Italy?
 Yes, we also plan to visit Milan. The train leaves two days after
our arrival on Monday at 12:00. Milan is supposed to be a
remarkable city. I hear it has many ancient buildings and it sits in
the mountains.
I’m very excited for you. Enjoy.
Thank you. Enjoy the rest of your holidays.

Analysis

1. ‘’What are you up to’’: is a more colloquial way of saying ‘’how

are you?’’.
2. ‘’I’m on’’: is the current state hence the present simple.
3. Someone’s age is a factual piece of information.
4. ‘’I drive her’’: is a habitual action.
5. ‘’Flight leaves…at 09:00’’: we can use the present simple to talk
about the future when there’s a fixed date.
6. ‘’I rarely travel you know’’: this is a habitual action, which is even
further applied with the adverb of frequency, rarely.

Present continuous

Rule: be + verb + ing

1. There’s more than one reason as to why we use the present

continuous, but the main reason is, we use the present continuous
to talk about actions that are happening in the moment of
speaking.
2. We use the present continuous to talk about the near future,
actions that are developing or changing.
3. The present continuous is used for permanent or temporary
 situations.

Hi Sally, what are you doing1 this Saturday?

I’m taking2 a train to Manchester. I’m really excited as well. What
about you, have you got any plans?
Yes, my husband and I are travelling to Bath, south west England.
So, anyway, how’s the job in London treating3 you?
Thanks for asking. It’s going well. I’m really enjoying it. We’re
currently working4 on building and development projects. The
work is getting5 to be more interesting every day. And you?
How’s the work at the insurance firm?
Very well. I’m working5 in the claims department and I’m
honestly finding the work meaningful, but also intensive.
Nice to hear, catch you later.
See you next time. Bye.
Analysis

1. ‘’What are you doing this Saturday?’’: this is the present

continuous being used to talk about the near future.
2. Present continuous used to talk about the near future.
3. To treat + subject: is a colloquial way of saying how
something/someone is with you.
4. Here, the present continuous is being used to describe a situation
that’s developing over time.
5. ‘’I’m working in the…’’: describes a permanent situation.
Remember, we can also use the present continuous to talk about
permanent or temporary situations.

Present perfect
Rule: have/has + past participle

As a general rule, we use the present perfect to talk about an action that
happened in the past (at any point in time), and due to the nature of the
action/situation in the past, its nature or experience still continues until the
present moment. We can also use the present perfect to talk about something
or a situation that changes itself over time.

Mark and I have studied1 English extensively over the past five
years. English has slowly but surely asserted2 itself as the
universal lingua franca in the world we live in today. The
importance of English has been its usage in world trade,
international commerce and international law. I’m from France
and my husband, mark is from Spain. He has always been3 very
interested in the language, even though he hasn’t yet lived4 in an
Anglo country. I myself, have lived for three years in New York,
and have thoroughly enjoyed my time in the United States.

Analysis

(1) ‘’Have studied’’: the nature of this continues until the present
moment.
(2) ‘’English has…. asserted itself’’’: means the action started in
the past and continues until the present moment due to its nature.
(3) ‘’Has been’’: the experience of being interested starts in the
past and continues until the present moment.
(4) ‘’Hasn’t lived’’: meaning from the past until this moment the
person still hasn’t lived in an Anglo country, hence the present
perfect tense is used.

Past simple
Rule: verb (auxiliary verb or ordinary verb) in past tense

1. We use the past simple to describe a completed action in the past.

2. The past simple is used to talk about past habits/customs that we
had in the past and have now finished.
3. We use the past simple to talk about facts and generalisations in
the past (could still be true till today).
4. We use the past simple to talk about duration in the past if the
action started and finished at a specific time in the past, i.e., two
months, one year etc.

Welcome back Louis! How was your year abroad in Canada?

Hi! Thanks! So glad to be back, honestly. I had1 a great time
though. I met2 loads of3 young people, I travelled4 quite a bit
throughout the country, and I passed the year with enough credits
in the final exam.
That sounds so positive. So, what do you think of Canada?
It’s a very cold country. At times, the temperature exceeded5 -20
degrees in the winter. I worked a lot though, I mean, I studied6 at
least fifteen hours per week for my exams. I was very occupied
with the exams and university you know.
So, please, tell me more about your exams and how they went?
I studied hard for over seven months, contemporary history and
English literature. Both subjects provided me with a great deal of
knowledge and I learnt a lot. Moreover, I also developed7 good
working habits.
I’m really pleased you enjoyed yourself so much.
Thanks.
Analysis

1. ‘’had a…’’: is an action in the past that started and finished.

2. ‘’I met’’: is an action that happened over a duration of time.
3. ‘’Loads of’’: is a more colloquial way of saying, many.
4. Past simple tense that describes a duration of time in the past.
5. ‘’The temperature exceeded’’: is an action/situation that started in
the past and finished in the past.
6. A duration in the past.
7. ‘’I developed…’’: describes a custom/habit in the past that had a
development and then stopped in the past.

Future simple

Rule: will/shall + infinitive

1. The future simple is used to describe an action or situation in the

future.
2. We use the future simple (will/shall) to express a promise or
prediction.
3. The future simple is used to express a voluntary action, usually a
spontaneous decision right at the moment as we’re making it.

(At the office)

Hi mark, sorry to interrupt you, but how are you getting on1 with
the updates?
Good, thanks. I will/shall2 probably need a bit more time. Will3 I
be able to hand them back to you on Tuesday?
It shouldn’t be a problem, but I’ll4 talk to my boss just to make
 sure.
Ok, great. Thanks.
You’re welcome. Anyhow, what will you be up to5 this weekend?
I think I’ll take it easy this weekend. Perhaps, we’ll go to the city
centre and go see a movie or something, although I’m not sure.
Sounds nice. It’ll be good for you to just relax. No point going out
every single weekend. That’ll definitely get tiring.
Yeah, for sure.
Have a good one!
Cheers.

Analysis

1. ‘’Getting on’’: means ‘’how’s the progress with…’’

2. Will/shall: used to make a prediction. Remember, will/shall are
basically interchangeable, although will is more popular.
3. Will: being used as a future simple tense, expressing the future.
4. ‘’I’ll talk to my boss’’: here, the will form is being used as an
instant reaction or a spontaneous decision. We use the future
simple form will/shall for instant and positive reactions. I’ll is the
contracted form of I will.
5. Be up to: is a phrasal verb meaning, what will you/someone be
doing?

Section Review

Active verb forms: present simple, present continuous, present perfect, past
simple, and future simple.
 So, how are we going to get to Barcelona from Madrid?
I reckon the best way is by catching the Renfe (the high-speed rail
system).
Have you ever been on the Renfe then?
Yes, I have taken it once before. It was a great experience. My
friends though, took it every single weekend back when they were
studying.
Do you enjoy taking high-speed trains?
Yes, I certainly do. I really love it. I find I get a good thrill
because these trains travel at around 300 kilometres per hour,
which is very impressive.
Ok, then, how will we go about with booking? Shall we book
online?
I think we’ll need to book the tickets online, yeah.
Sounds like a great plan. I just saw the website and there’s a train
leaving on Saturday at 19:00h. How does that sound to you?
That’ll be perfect. Let’s book it!
Sure.

Active verb forms: (dialogue 2): present simple, present continuous, present
perfect, past simple, and future simple.

How are you travelling to London this weekend?

I’m taking my car. I’ll take the car through the English Channel
from Calais, France.
Wow! That sounds exciting. Are you looking forward to it?
Well, I guess so, although I think I’ll get a little scared being under
water for such a long time though.
Yeah, I get that. It can be quite scary. Are you going with anyone?
Any friends?
 Yeah, I’ll go with my best friend, Jose. He’s from Madrid, Spain.
Has he ever travelled across the English Channel before?
No, I don’t think he has.
Well, anyhow, you guys have a nice time.
Thanks.

Passive verb forms

There are several reasons as to why we use the passive voice in English. In
the following notes we’re going to focus on the present simple, present
continuous, present perfect, past simple, and future simple (five of the most
used tenses, both active and passive in English). Generally, we use the
passive voice in English when the subject of the sentence has the action done
to it or performed on it. Besides the above main rule, these are the following
rules for correct passive usage in English:

1. The subject is unknown. We don’t know who or what is the

subject.
2. We use the passive to put emphasis on the subject.

3. We use the passive to talk about general truths.

4. We use the passive if want to be unclear or vague about the
subject.

5. We use the passive when the subject is irrelevant. (We don’t care
who or what has caused the action to be).

6. We use the passive in a more formal or official atmosphere like a

thesis or an important piece of writing, especially scientific-
related.
Present simple – passive

Rule: am/is/are + past participle (worked, needed)

Madrid is a city visited1 by many tourists each year. It’s said2 that
Madrid is a fantastic city with loads of great museums and
picturesque monuments. Lots of fantastic things are said about
Madrid, the capital of Spain. Madrid is a city with great history
going back more than a thousand years and due to archaeological
finds and history books, a lot of historical fact is known3 about
this great, capital city.

Analysis

1. ‘’Madrid is a city visited…’’: The passive construction here is, is

+ visited (past participle). The passive voice is being used here to
put emphasis on the subject, Madrid.
2. ‘’It’s said that…’’: Is + said (past participle). The passive is used
to be unclear about WHO is the person talking about Madrid. It’s
irrelevant WHO he/she is so therefore, the passive is used.
3. ‘’A lot of historical fact is known…’’: is + known is the passive
construction being used. Emphasis is being put on ‘historical fact’.

Present continuous – passive

Rule: am/is/are + being + past participle (told, received etc.)

Today, I am being led1 on an excursion around London as part of

a tour guide. Do you think I’ll enjoy it?
 Yeah, absolutely! London is a beautiful city. It’s being
continuously visited2 by thousands of tourists every year, so that
must mean it’s a very popular place to see.
I agree. How long though, has it been inhabited for?
Well, historians estimate that it has been inhabited for over two-
thousand years. The Romans named it ‘’londinium’’. It had a great
port with lots of trade. Even to this very day London is being
inhabited and visited by millions of people.

Analysis

1. ‘’I am being led’’: is an action happening in the future, but the

present continuous (passive) is used because it’s an action in the
near future.
2. ‘’It’s being continuously visited’’: we can use the present
continuous (here in the passive) to talk about permanent or
temporary states.

Present perfect – passive

Rule: have/has + been + past participle (worked, needed)

Hi David, how’s your studying going for the final thesis?

Hey Gemma, it’s going great thanks, although1 many hours have
been spent2 on this thesis. It’s been super tiresome all the more.
Yeah, I wouldn’t doubt that for a second. How many hours would
you say have been put into3 your studies this year?
At least fifteen hours per week have been put into it.
That’s quite a lot.
Yes, definitely. Many students have been told4 that if they want to
 get a good result in the final thesis, then it’s necessary to put in the
hours.
I agree. Do you think any of the students have been overworked
though5?
I do6 think so yes.
Anyhow, let me know how it goes.
Shall do7, thanks.

Analysis

1. Although: is a very popular conjunction to show a contrast

between two clauses, usually one clause being negative and the
other clause being positive.
2. Spent: is the past participle of spend.
3. Put into: is a phrasal verb literally meaning insert or exert.
4. Have been told: is the passive construction and told is the past
participle.
5. Though: can be inserted/put into the ends of questions to add a
subtle change in nuance.
6. ‘’I do think so…’’: here, do is used as way of adding emphasis.
Instead of saying I think so, emphasis is added my adding the
auxiliary and ordinary verb do.
7. Shall do: is a form of ellipsis. It’s a short way of saying I shall let
you know how it goes.

Past simple – passive

Rule: was/were + past participle (found, heard)

 Hey James, how was your appointment yesterday?
Hey, good thanks. Things were said and done1, although2 I don’t
really know if much progress was made3.
So, what do you reckon4 then?
Well, we really want to get this loan for our new house, but we’re
not sure if the amount of money that was proposed for the
mortgage was enough.
I’m sorry to hear that. So, when will you know for certain?
He said he’d get back5 to me today, so I’ll hope for the best. The
meeting was long though.
Ok, best of luck.
Thanks.

Analysis

1. ‘’Things were said and done’’: we don’t know exactly what

happened so in this case it’s all pretty vague, that’s why the
passive was used.
2. ‘’Although’’: is a conjunction. We primarily use although to show
a contrast between a negative and positive clause.
3. ‘’Progress was made’’: the passive is used to emphasise the
subject, progress.
4. Reckon: an informal, chiefly British way to say think. What do you
think?
5. ‘’Get back’’: a phrasal verb meaning return.

Future simple – passive

Rule: will/shall + be + past participle (greeted, sung, spoken)

 Next week, I’ll be set1 to leave for New York for a week. I’m so
excited.
I bet2 you are! So what shall3 be scheduled for your trip? And how
long are you going for?
Well, a lot of things will be scheduled for our trip, such as visiting
the various neighbourhoods, and of course, Manhattan as well.
Sounds like you’ll be met with loads of excitement4.
Yes, well, I hope everything goes well.
Have a great trip!
Cheers5.

Analysis

1. ‘’To be set’’: simply means that you’re ready to do something.

2. ‘’To bet’’: is an informal way of agreeing or disagreeing.
3. Shall: is interchangeable with will
4. Ment: this a noun/nominal suffix (ending part) to make nouns.
Other such suffixes include: amazement, enjoyment, betterment
etc.
5. Cheers: Mainly British and Australasian. Uses to mean, thanks.

Section Review

Passive verb forms: present simple, present continuous, present perfect, past
simple and future simple.

A lot is known about language acquisition, that is, learning a

new language. In my opinion, it’s really important to learn
the mechanics of a language, such as all the grammar and
phonetics so that you can build a good base before learning
how to speak. What do you reckon?
You’re right. A lot of research has been done on the topic
and is still being done by many universities today. I think
though, that it has always been important to learn a language
via speaking, although the person’s age is an important
factor.
Yes, interesting. I’ll say though, research was done at a
university in New York state and it’s been noted that
children learn best without grammar and a new language is
easily learnt just by speaking to a native speaker.
I agree with the research and I find it’s all very interesting.
A lot more research will be done in the future and we shall
know what exactly the best learning methods for effective
language acquisition are.
Chapter III

1. Modal auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, will/shall, must, would,

ought to, should, need to and dare to
2. Section Review

Modal auxiliary verbs

Can, could, may, might, will, shall, must, would, ought to, should, need to,
and dare to.

We use modals auxiliary verbs as ‘’helping’’ verbs. These modals don’t need
the main auxiliary verb, do, to negate. They negate themselves with the
adverb, not. Although some of the modal auxiliaries are similar (that’s why
some of them are grouped together), each modal verb has its own meaning or
expression. Modal auxiliary verbs are always followed by an ordinary verb
(not another modal or main auxiliary verb: be, have and do). Moreover, we
don’t use to with modal auxiliaries, apart from, need to, dare to and ought to.

Can and could

Both these modal auxiliaries are very similar with only a couple of slight
differences, could also being a little more formal and polite.

1. Can and could are used to talk about ability.

2. We use could to talk about the past when something happened on
only one occasion.
3. We use can and could to express probability and possibility.
4. We use can and could for interpersonal uses, such as asking
 questions, permission etc.

Hi there, how can1 I help you?

Hi, could2 you please tell me where I can find the laptop
department?
Yes, of course. Just follow me please sir.
Ok.
So, what are you looking for?
I’m looking for a good laptop that can3 meet my needs. Ideally, it
could last the next three years.
Ok, let’s see if there’s one here with a good hard-drive. What do
you use your computer for?
Well, when I was younger I could4 get by5 with limited memory,
but now I need something with much more memory.
I’ll see if I can find you something.
Thanks.

Analysis

1. Can: used for interpersonal use.

2. Could: interpersonal use with more formality.
3. Can: here, referring to an ability.
4. Could: referring to something he/she did on only one occasion.
5. Get by: phrasal verb meaning, manage or cope.

May and Might

1. Generally, we use may and might to ask for permission, although

 it’s considered extremely polite. Can and could express less
politeness and formality.
2. We use may to send out our hopes, wishes and desires.
3. May and might are used to criticise, request and make suggestions.
4. We use may and might to express possibility or chance.

So, Richard, do you think my boss may1 lend me his car this
weekend?
He might lend it to you, although I’m really not sure if he will to
be honest.
Should I just take it without his permission?
You might2 want to consider the consequences of that… It may
not be the best idea you’ve had today…
Yeah, you’re right.
If you do take his car without asking though, may3 God be with
you.
Gee4, thanks (sarcastically).

Analysis

1. May: used to talk about permission.

2. Might: being used to express a suggestion or a criticism.
3. May: expressing a hope or desire.
4. Gee: this word is an interjection. Interjections are words like, ah,
yeah, nah, hmmm, grr, that don’t have any grammatical meaning,
but we use them in speech to fill in the gaps.

Will/Shall
 1. We use will and shall to make predictions, promises and requests.
2. Will and shall are used as a simple future tense in English to talk
about the future.
3. We use will and shall in instant or immediate reactions when we
want to express willingness positively. We can use both will and
shall interchangeably but will is more popular and mainstream
among most speakers.

(Phone conversation)
Phone ringing…
Hello, who am I speaking with please?
Hi, this is Patrick. How’s things going Bill?
Oh, hi Patrick! Great, thanks.
What’s up?1
I was just wondering if you´ll2 come with us to visit London this
weekend?
Well, how long do you think the drive shall3 be then?
It’ll take us two hours to get there from Eastbourne, no longer.
Look, I’m not sure about whether I’d4 be interested. I’ll let you
know by5 tonight, ok?
Not a problem at all. I’ll6 wait for your call. Have a good day.
Thanks, you too. I’ll probably see you tomorrow then.
I hope so, it’ll be fun!
Bye.

Analysis

1. ‘’What’s up?’’: contracted form of ‘’what is up?’’ This is a

 colloquial way to ask how someone is.
2. You’ll: contracted form of you will. A request is being made.
3. Shall: a prediction is being made.
4. I’d: is the contracted from of I would. It can also mean I had.
5. By: this preposition takes the sense of ‘no later than’ in this case.
6. I’ll: contracted from of I will. This is an instant/immediate action
being made in the moment of speaking, that’s why will is used.
We use will/shall to make willing decisions in the moment.

Must

1. Must is used to express obligation.

2. We use must to express what we believe to be certainty.
3. Must is used to give strong advice, suggestions or
recommendations.

What language do you think is the most popular second language

for language learners in general?
Well, it must1 be English because that’s the main language used
for finance and companies and for people to communicate with.
Yes, well, English is very popular, but what about the second most
popular language?
Well, I’m from Holland and in my school system every student
must2 learn English and the second most popular language was
generally French or Spanish.
Yes, Spanish is one of my favourite languages. It’s very beautiful,
especially speakers from Colombia. They must love their language
so much.
I have no doubt3 about that.
Analysis

1. Must: being used to express strong certainty.

2. Must: in this context, must implies obligation.
3. ‘’No doubt…’’: is a very typical expression in English.

Would

1. Would is used to express desire, intent or a wish.

2. Would is used to make conditionals in English. There are four
conditionals (0, 1, 2, 3). We’ll list the conditionals rules below.
Remember, when you use the conditionals you can reverse the
order of the two clauses. Examples below.

1. Zero conditional. Used to express facts or real situations (if +

present simple + present simple).
If you boil water, it reaches 100 degrees Celsius1.
If I light a match it burns.
If you disturb animals, they get angry2.

2. First conditional. Used to present facts or real situations in the

present or future. (if + present simple + will + infinitive).
If he doesn’t buy me a present for my birthday, I’ll get annoyed.
I won’t go to the city centre if my big brother doesn’t join me.
They’ll learn a new language3 if they get a good teacher.

3. Second conditional. Used for unrealistic/unlikely situations or

actions in the past or future (If + past simple + would +
 infinitive).
If you were happier, you’d4 live better you know.
Jeremy would spend more time with his girlfriend if he didn’t
work so much.
They would earn much more money if they knew how to invest
properly.

4. Third conditional. Used for hypothetical or imaginary

situations or actions in the present, past and future (if + past
perfect + would + have + past participle).
If Jose had been born in Belgium, he’d have spoken Flemish,
French or German.
My friend would have gone to university5 if she had been able to
afford the high fees. It’s way too expensive in her country.
If Carl had worked more, he’d6 have saved a lot more money.

Analysis

1. ‘’If you boil water, it reaches…’’: if + present simple + present

simple. Zero conditional used to express a fact.
2. ‘’Get angry’’: get + adjective means to become. In the following
course we’ll elaborate extensively on the word get.
3. The rule can work both ways, that is, we can change the order of
the clauses.
4. You’d: this is the contracted form of you would.
5. Reverse order with the clauses. The clauses can be in reverse
order.
6. He’d: contracted form of he would.
Ought to

1. Ought to is used in the present, future and past. We use ought to,
to express correctness.
2. Ought to is used for advice or recommendations.
3. We use ought to, to express what we would like to see happen.

You know what I ought to do bill?

What?
I ought to buy myself a motorbike. They just look so cool and I
think I’d be able to flirt with more women if I had a motorbike.
You wish… I don’t think most women would be interested in you
just because you have a motorbike, well, they ought not1 to be
anyway.
Well, I think they ought to be2. I mean, look how cool motorbikes
are.
Yeah, they’re also very dangerous you know, especially in a big
city. My advice is you ought not to buy one3. I think they’re too
dangerous.
Well, you’re entitled to your opinion.

Analysis

1. Ought not: can be contracted as oughtn’t.

2. Ought not to be: is used to express what he would like to see
happen.
3. ‘’Ought not to buy one’’: strong advice is offered.

Should
 1. We use should to express obligation (obligation of a lesser degree
than must or need to)
2. Should is used to express duty.
3. We use should to deduct (when something is probable).

What’s your opinion on sugar consumption Jenny?

I think sugar is the biggest problem and threat to most people’s
lives1. People really shouldn’t2 consume sugar, or at least not the
amount of sugar that most people normally consume.
So, you’re quite against the consumption of sugar then?
Yes, it seems every single product that we consume is loaded3
with sugar these days. We should4 be more conscious of what
we’re consuming because parents should not allow their children
to eat so much of it.
Yes, I agree. It should5 be the parent’s job to educate their
children and take more care with what they’re eating.
Agreed.

Analysis

1. Lives: the plural of life. Live is the verb.

2. Shouldn’t: being used to express obligation, but not of a high
degree.
3. Loaded: means full of or to the limit.
4. Should: used to express obligation, but not of a high degree.
5. Here, should is used to express a duty.

Need to
 1. Need to, is both a modal auxiliary verb and an ordinary verb.
2. We use need to, to express necessity or requirements, things or
people that we need. In the dialogue below, both the auxiliary
form and the ordinary form will be used.

Which subjects do you think are the most important to get a job in
this market?
Well, the job market is really tough out there for millennials. In
my opinion though, young students need to be applying
themselves regardless of the field of study. Students needn’t1 all
study the sciences because that’s not what everyone likes.
Interesting, because I honestly think most science institutions have
all the applicants they need2 for now.
That’s right, there doesn’t appear to be a lot on offer, so it really
just comes down to working hard.
I agree, one3 needs to work hard. It doesn’t matter what they
study. Hard workers will always find work.

Analysis

1. Needn’t: is used to express the necessity of the students.

2. ‘’Institutions have all the applicants they need’’: the main
auxiliary verb in the sentence is have, and need doesn’t function as
a modal auxiliary verb, but an ordinary verb instead.
3. ‘’One needs’’: One is used to denote third person in English and
takes a very general, indirect sense. i.e.., one needs to work hard.

Dare to
 1. Dare to is a modal auxiliary verb and an ordinary verb.
2. We use dare to, to encourage someone to be courageous (good or
bad).

Hey Jake, how are you going today?

I’m not too bad, thanks.
What time do you have to be back home today?
Well, my mum said I need to be back by1 four o’clock at the
latest.
I dare you to ride your bicycle without a helmet.
You shouldn’t dare2 people to do things. My mum said it’s not
very nice.
I dare you to!
Ok, but, it’s not safe to ride a bicycle without a helmet you know.

Analysis

1. By: this preposition has more than one meaning, but in this case, it
means no later than.
2. ‘’You shouldn’t dare’’: The modal auxiliary verb in this sentence
is should, and dare is being used as an ordinary verb here.

Section Review
Modal auxiliary verbs: can, could, may, might, will/shall, must, would, ought
to, should, need to and dare to

You know what I ought to do Bill?

What?
I need to learn a second language.
Do you honestly think that you could? I mean, there’s a lot of hard
work and motivation needed to learn a second language.
Well, I’ve been thinking about it for a while now, and I should be
able to learn a new language if I focus and stay motivated.
I dare you to learn Chinese.
Woah, Chinese! Are you kidding me! I’ll never learn it. I think it
may be a little too hard for me.
You could at least give it a go.
Well, to be honest I would learn Chinese if I had a friend from
China. That would motivate me more.
Maybe, you would have learnt Chinese if you had been born in
China. That’s the only reason I can see you learning Chinese. So,
anyway, what language shall you learn then?
I would like to learn Spanish.
Spanish?
Yes, Spanish. I love the Spanish people and I’ve always dreamt of
going to South America and Spain.
How much money must you spend to learn Spanish then?
I won’t spend a lot, probably around three hundred for the
semester.
That doesn’t sound too bad.
I’ll give it a shot, I should be able to learn fast if I stay motivated.
Chapter IV

1. Adjectives: demonstrative, interrogative, possessive, and

qualifying adjectives
2. Section Review
3. Adverbs: frequency, place, time, manner, degree, sentence,
relative and interrogative adverbs
4. Section Review
5. Nouns: countable/uncountable, proper, common, concrete,
abstract, collective and compound nouns
6. Section Review

Adjectives

Adjectives are describing words. Adjectives describe or modify nouns.

Adjectives can limit, qualify or specify the nouns that they modify.

Demonstrative adjectives

Demonstrative adjectives are: this, these, that and those. We use

demonstrative adjectives to signal or point out to people or thing(s). We must
be careful whether we use singular or plural nouns because this and that
modify singular nouns (people or things), while these and those modify plural
nouns. That and those usually imply that something or someone is further
away from the speaker than this and these.

Hey Thomas, how’s that1 Spanish course coming along2?

It’s going great. This is the first time I’ve tried learning a language
using online tutorials.
So, what do you think of these3 tutorials then? Effective? Worth
 your time4?
Well, remember that5 Spanish professor we had in university? Her
name was Elena.
Yes, I faintly remember her.
Well, it was her who recommended to me to start taking a Spanish
course online, so I can keep up6 my level.
How is the course structured?
Well, can you see these7 animations and text on the screen?
Yes.
It’s just that, text with narration and some animations to go with it.
Oh, I like those ones (animations). They look super cool!
Yeah, it’s pretty cool and you learn heaps8 as well.
I’m going to buy this course for myself9.

Analysis

1. ‘’How’s that Spanish course’’: that is used because the person is

talking about the Spanish course as being something distant.
2. Coming along: phrasal verb that means how the progress of
something or someone is going.
3. ‘’These tutorials then’’: these is used because tutorials is plural
here and the tutorials are now closer in context. That’s why it’s not
those tutorials.
4. ‘’Worth your time’’? this is short for Are the tutorials worth your
time? This is a form of ellipsis where we can omit certain words in
English that are already assumed in order to make the sentence
shorter.
5. ‘’Remember that Spanish teacher’’: that is used because the
Spanish teacher is seen as someone distant from the past. We can’t
 use this in this context.
6. Keep up: a phrasal verb meaning maintain (usually a level or
skillset).
7. ‘’These animations’’: the animations are right on the screen, so we
can use the demonstrative adjective these to show something that
is plural and close to the speakers.
8. Heaps: means a lot.
9. Myself: a reflexive pronoun. Reflexive pronouns are: myself,
yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

Interrogative adjectives

Interrogative adjectives are: whose, what, which, where, why and how.
Interrogative adjectives are used for interrogating, that is, asking questions
about someone or something.

1. Whose - indicates possession.

2. What - is a general question word for general information relating
to anything.
3. Which - used for specifying.
4. Where - indicates direction.
5. Why – general question word that seeks an explanation to
something.
6. How – indicates manner as to how something or someone was
done.

What are you up to1 Maria?

I’m writing an email to someone.
Who are you writing to? Is it someone special? A secret lover?
 Nope2, none of those crazy ideas. I’m writing an email to a
company called, English Reservoir over3 some doubts I’m having
with an English learning course that I bought from them a few
days ago.
What is English Reservoir?
Oh4, English Reservoir is the company I use to learn English with.
Wow5! Sounds so exciting. How6 do you like the course?
I love it. Their courses are so wonderful. They make it fun to learn
English grammar.
How do they do that?
Their courses teach English grammar, but with fun, animated
tutorials that you can either7 stream online or download them onto
your computer.
So, why do you like them so much then?
Their courses are so interactive, fun and they teach English
grammar with proper context and explanations. It’s basically the
opposite of a boring grammar book.
I love how it sounds! Where did you discover them anyway8?
A friend recommended them to me, and now I follow their
Facebook page also.
Awesome9, I’ll check them out10.

Analysis

1. Be up to: what someone or something is doing. Remember, be

needs to be conjugated.
2. Nope: is a more informal way of saying no, a more informal way
to negate in English.
3. ‘’An email to English Reservoir over’’: over is very similar to
about and indicates the subject or thing.
 4. Oh: this word is an interjection. Interjections don’t really have any
meaning. It’s a way to express oneself, sort of like a reaction.
5. Wow!: this is another interjection. The word itself has no real
meaning, only in this case to express excitement.
6. How: an interrogative adjective indicating manner as to how
something was done.
7. Either: this word lets you choose between two options. I’ll have
either the Apple phone or the Android phone. Two options with
either.
8. Anyway: this is an adverb that native English speakers use very
frequently. In the example above it just means in any case.
9. Awesome: Something or someone can be awesome. A very
popular word among most people.
10. Check out: phrasal verb meaning examine. This phrasal verb can
also be separated with the object going in between check and the
preposition out.

Possessive adjectives

We use possessive adjectives to show possession of something or someone.

Possessive adjectives are: my, your, his, her, its, our, your (plural) and their.
It’s not important if the thing or person being possessed is singular or plural,
the possessive adjective stays the same, i.e., my cars, my car. Car can be
singular or plural, yet the possessive adjective keeps its form.

Morning Jake, is that your car?

Yep1, it sure is.
God2, she’s a beauty3. It looks like an electric one.
Yes, it is. It’s the new Tesla model, fully electric.
I wish it were4 my car…
 Doesn’t your nephew own a Tesla?
Well, I’m not sure if it’s his5 Tesla, because I only saw him in the
passenger seat. What do you think of electric cars anyway?
They’re very expensive cars and their6 auto-driving isn’t the most
trustworthy, but in general they’re fantastic for the environment.
I agree. Your one7 though is the most expensive model though. Do
you know if they sell cheaper ones?
Yes, I’m pretty sure they do because our neighbour, Phil, his car
which is a Tesla is the model below our one8. So, that must mean
that there are other models below and less expensive, and its9
battery lasts a long time.
I’ll look in to10 it then.
Great chatting to you. Catch you later11.
See you.

Analysis

1. Yep: an informal way to say yes.

2. God: even though this is a religious word it is used frequently as
an interjection.
3. Something is a beauty: this is an expression in English to signal
that something is beautiful.
4. ‘’I wish it were’’: even though it’s third person (it), the plural form
is used were because we’re talking hypothetically, something that
isn’t true.
5. ‘’His Tesla’’: his is the possessive adjective and Tesla is the thing
being possessed.
6. Their: refers to the Tesla cars, that’s why it’s in plural and not
singular his or her.
7. Your one: one is a pronoun that can refer to anything singular. In
 this case, it refers to the Tesla car.
8. Our one: one is the singular pronoun referring to the Tesla and our
is used to show that it’s third person plural.
9. Its battery: the thing being possessed is the battery. It’s a thing so
we need to use the possessive adjective its.
10. Look in to: a phrasal verb meaning to examine or look further.
11. Catch: (someone, i.e., him you, her) later – is a phrasal verb
meaning to see someone at another time.

Qualifying adjectives

Qualifying adjectives are the most common type of adjectives in English.

Qualifying adjectives are used to describe living beings or things. Qualifying
adjectives are non-countable, but are gradable, which means they can be
graded with comparatives (more than, as…adjective…as) or superlatives (the
most) etc. Qualifying adjectives form the largest list of adjectives.

What a beautiful1 day! Normally, England has such bad2 weather

during winter time, but today has been an exceptional day.
Wouldn’t you agree, David?
Yes, but on Sunday, last week, the weather was better3 than today,
although it wasn’t as sunny as4 today, I have to admit.
Yes, I agree. You should have seen it in January. It was wetter5
than anything I have ever seen.
What’s the worst6 weather you’ve seen in the U.K?
Well, it really depends on where you are in the U.K. because there
are sunnier and nicer7 parts. For example, southern8 England tends
to have the best weather if you don’t mind me saying.
That’s interesting. I would also say though, that the weather in
northern England is as bad as9 the weather in other countries in
 northern Europe, such as Denmark or Norway. It really is cold in
those10 countries.
I much prefer the hotter11 temperatures in southern Europe.
Countries like Spain, Portugal or Italy12 are just so much sunnier
and friendlier13 also.

Analysis

1. Beautiful: is the qualifying adjective, and the noun it is modifying

is day. All adjectives modify or describe nouns.
2. Bad: is the qualifying adjective. Its comparative form is worse
(irregular comparative in the negative or better, which is the
positive and irregular form), and its superlative form is the best
(irregular superlative form) (superlatives usually take the article
the).
3. Better: is the irregular and positive comparative form of good.
4. As sunny as: a construction widely used with qualifying adjectives
to equalise two things or people in English is: as + adjective + as.
5. Wetter: qualifying adjective and comparative form of wet.
6. The worst: is the irregular and superlative for the qualifying
adjective good. Not that the comparatives and superlative forms of
qualifying adjectives are also adjectives.
7. Nicer: comparative form of the qualifying adjective nice.
8. Southern: is a qualifying adjective that is modifying the noun,
England.
9. As bad as: the comparative or equaliser construction to equalise
two things or people. In this case, it’s referring to the weather in
England and northern Europe.
10. Those countries: remember the demonstrative adjectives from the
lesson before? (this, these and that, those). Those is used because
the speaker is referring to countries which is plural, and they are
 far away, hence those.
11. Hotter: is the qualifying adjective in the comparative form.
Without a comparative it’s simple hot, and the superlative form is
the hottest.
12. Spain, Portugal and Italy: are all places and thus, proper nouns, so
they are therefore in capital letters.
13. Sunnier and friendlier: are the comparative forms of the
qualifying adjectives sunny and friendly. The y changes to an -ier
to form the comparative form. The superlative forms of the
adjectives are; the sunniest, and the friendliest.

Section Review

Adjectives: demonstrative, interrogative, possessive and qualifying

adjectives.

Hi Marta, how are you today?

Hi, I’m good, never been better. I’m working on this project for
the university.
Oh, it sounds cool. What’s it about then?
Well, do you know about those new smartphones that are selling
in stores?
Yes, I’m pretty sure. Do you mean the smartphones?
Yes, those ones. I’m studying the implications they have on
society and their technology.
Can you elaborate?
Sure. These smartphones, I think they’re really useful and
innovative, but on the downside, they really distract you.
How so?
Well, I was talking to my brother yesterday and he didn’t even
 look at me. He was too concentrated with his smartphone.
What do you mean by ‘he was too concentrated with his
smartphones’?
While I was talking to him, he didn’t even look at me. His eyes
were basically glued to his screen. Our technology is important,
but we need to remember not to lose our social skills either.
I agree. I know this person from work, a colleague of mine, who
never pays attention to anyone because she’s so addicted to her
phone. I think these new smartphones are amazing, but on the
other hand we lose sight of what’s important.
How can we find a solution to these problems then?
Well, my main concern is maintaining a minimum level of human
interaction when we’re talking to others while they’re on their
phones. Things like that are vital so that we don’t lose our social
skills.
Yeah, people these days are not as social as they used to be.
Moreover, It’s just common sense because it’s really not the best
thing to do, that is, not give the kind person you’re talking to your
full attention.

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that modify or describe adjectives, verbs and other
adverbs. There are eight different categories of adverbs in English, which are:
adverbs of frequency, place, time, manner, degree, sentence, relative and
interrogative adverbs.

Adverbs of frequency

We use adverbs of frequency to express how frequently we, or objects do

something. The adverb always goes after the subject and before the ordinary
verb. When using auxiliary or modal auxiliary verbs (be, do, can, may,
should, etc.), the adverb goes after the auxiliary verb, not before it.

Do you often1 go cycling?

Yes, I always2 go cycling. I love cycling, and it’s scientifically
proven to be beneficial to your personal wellbeing and fitness.
Interesting, I don’t normally3 cycle,4 but my wife, Susan,
frequently5 takes her bike to the mountains to go cycling. She
never wears a helmet though, which I think is very dangerous.
Yeah, that’s a pity. She should really wear a helmet because it’s
very unsafe6, especially when cars are constantly7 passing you.
I agree. I guess for some people, wearing a helmet is just a pain.
Anyway, I’ll catch8 you later.
Ok, then. Bye.

Analysis

1. ‘’Do you often go’’: the adverb is often, so it goes after the
auxiliary verb do, and before the ordinary verb go.
2. ‘’I always go’’: go is an ordinary verb so the adverb of frequency
always goes before it.
3. ‘’I don’t normally cycle’’: normally is the adverb of frequency so
it goes after the auxiliary verb do and before the ordinary verb
cycle.
4. The comma (,) is used before the conjunction, but to represent the
pause when speaking.
5. Frequently: this adverb goes before the ordinary verb takes.
6. Unsafe: the negative prefix un makes the adjective safe negative.
7. Are constantly passing: the adverb of frequency constantly goes
before the ordinary verb passing and after the auxiliary verb are
 (from be).
8. To catch someone later: simply means to see someone at another
time.

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of place tell us WHERE an action has happened. There are many,
many adverbs of place, and they can also function as prepositions.
Remember, adverbs modify adjectives, verbs and other adverbs.

Hey, have you seen my brother, Jacob?

Yes, I think he’s below1 in the basement.
Ok, thanks. I’ll2 go take a look now.
Hello? Jacob?
Hi! I’m here3, can you see me?
Oh, yes, now I see you. I just4 wanted to see if you were indoors5.
Don’t worry, I haven’t gone far. What’s the problem?
Well, now that I see you’re indoors, would you be able to come
upstairs and help me for a second?
Sure, no problem.
Thanks, don’t worry, afterwards you can go back downstairs6.
Catch you later.

Analysis

1. ‘’He’s below’’: adverb below modifies the verb (‘s/is) to express

where he is.
2. I’ll: contracted form of the modal auxiliary verb will. Remember,
 we use will when we want to express an immediate, positive
reaction (something that you’re going to do in the moment of
speaking).
3. Here: adverb of place to express where the speaker is.
4. I just wanted: we use just in English to as a way of being polite or
to justify our actions.
5. Indoors: adverb of place to show where the speaker is.
6. Downstairs: adverb of place to express where the speaker is.

Adverbs of time

Adverbs of time tell us WHEN something happens. Adverbs of time are a

reference to time. We usually insert adverbs of time at the end or before the
sentence. There are many, many adverbs of time.

Hey Susana, are you going out tonight1?

I don’t think so, I’m still hungover2 from last night. What about
tomorrow3 or Saturday4?
OK, it’s definitely possible. I’m sorry you’re so hungover. You
really shouldn’t party so hard.
I know, I’m a sucker5 for the partying6. I wish I could be more
responsible. It’s also very expensive. The other night I spent over
eighty dollars.
Eighty dollars? On what exactly?
I had to catch a taxi7, drinks, everything…
Goodness. I haven’t partied as hard as8 you since I was twenty-
five.
I guess you’re just getting too old for it these days, aren’t you9?
I guess I am. I’ll10 catch you later.
 Bye.

Analysis

1. Tonight: an adverb of time.

2. Hungover: an adjective meaning still a little drunk or worn out for
the previous night’s drinking.
3. Tomorrow: an adverb of time.
4. Saturday: an adverb of time. Days of the week are always
capitalised in English. Monday, Tuesday etc.
5. To be a sucker: a colloquial way of saying that someone always
end up in the same situation (good or bad).
6. For the partying: partying functions as a noun/nominal object
because it’s the object in the sentence. We can use gerund forms
(verb + -ing) as nouns, either as subjects or objects in English.
7. Catch a taxi: this is the general expression we use when catching a
taxi.
8. As hard as: the construction ‘as + adjective (hard) + as’ is a
comparative used in English to make two things equal. I.e., Sarah
is as nice as me.
9. I guess you’re… aren’t you: this is construction in English called
question tags.
10. I’ll catch you later: remember, we use the future simple (will) for
instant/immediate, positive reactions. I.e., things that we’re going
to do right in the moment.

Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of manner contain the largest list of adverbs in English. Adverbs of

manner tell us HOW something happened. Many adverbs of manner can be
constructed by adding -ly to the corresponding adjective, although there may
be some variations in the exact spelling.

Yesterday1, I was happily2 going about my work when a

colleague of mine3 had clearly4 interrupted me by speaking
loudly5 on his phone. I honestly6 find this type of behaviour quite
rude.
I’m terribly7 sorry to hear that, Katie. Perhaps next time you
could politely8 ask your colleague to speak a little more quietly9.
Surely, there are other people in the office that get annoyed by it
also?
There certainly is, and it’s hardly10 appropriate to speak so
loudly11 on the phone, and especially in the office. I’ve already
talked to a couple of the girls next to me, and they’re also
regularly12 getting annoyed at the excessive noise.
I think you’re going to have to talk to him and just ask him to
politely13 be a little quieter14 when speaking on the phone.
I’ll be sure to ask him, so we’ll see what happens.
Good luck.
Thanks.

Analysis

1. Yesterday: an adverb of time. Yesterday, is an expression of time.

Expressions of time can go either at the beginning of the sentence
or at the end, depending on where you want to put the emphasis.
(at the beginning is more emphatic).
2. Happily: an adverb of manner. The adjective is happy, so the y
changes to -ily to form the adverb of manner.
3. Mine: a possessive pronoun. That house is mine. My phone is
 mine.
4. Clearly: an adverb of manner. The adjective is clear. The adverb
of manner is formed by just adding -ly to the infinitive.
5. Loudly: an adverb of manner. The adjective is loud. The adverb of
manner is formed by adding -ly to the infinitive.
6. Honestly: is an adverb of manner. The adjective is honest. -ly is
added to the infinitive to form the adverb of manner.
7. Terribly: is the adverb of manner. The adjective is terrible. -ly is
added after the b to form the adverb of manner.
8. Politely: is the adverb of manner, it tells us how the action
occurred.
9. Quietly: is the adverb of manner. Remember, adverbs modify
adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs. So quietly is modifying the
verb; speak.
10. Hardly: an adverb of manner. This is what we call in English a
‘’false friend’’ in English, because even though the adjective is
hard, hardly does not come from, hard. They are completely
different and have no relation with each other.
11. Loudly: an adverb of manner. The adjective is loud. Add -ly to
form the adverb of manner, which tells us HOW the action
happened.
12. Regularly: an adverb of manner.
13. Politely: -ly is added to the adjective polite to form the adverb of
manner; politely.
14. Quieter: is the comparative form of the adjective quiet. The
superlative form is: the quietest.

Adverb of degree

Adverbs of degree grade adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs, that is, they tell
us to what extent something happens. There are many, many adverbs of
degree. The list is abundant.

So, Lisa, what do you think should be the minimum age before
obtaining1 a driver license?
Well, I think it should be twenty-one2. In my country, New
Zealand, the age in which one3 can receive a driver’s license4 is
too5 young in my opinion.
What age is it in New Zealand?
The age is sixteen, which is extremely6 young.
You’re completely7 right, sixteen is incredibly8 young. Teenagers
at that age are barely9 even adults, and it’s hardly right for them to
be driving a car at that very young age.
I fully agree. I’m somewhat10 opposed to this very11 young age,
and I think the government really needs to raise the age to a
minimum of twenty-one years old12.

Analysis

1. Before obtaining: remember, when a preposition is followed by a

verb, the verb always takes the gerund (verb + ing). The
preposition here being, before, and the gerund being obtaining.
I.e., I’m interested in studying. She’s all for living the life. The
prepositions in and for are followed by the gerund versions
studying and living.
2. Twenty-one: numbers in English from twenty-one until ninety-
nine, need a hyphen (-). I.e., thirty-three, eighty-nine, sixty-four,
seventy-eight etc.
3. One: pronoun being used to speak about people in a general sense.
I.e., one should drive safely.
4. Driver’s license: notice the possessive here (‘s) after driver.
 That’s because license is being possessed by driver, therefore,
driver must have the possessive (‘s). I.e., Sam’s house. My
brother’s phone. House and phone are being possessed by Sam
and brother, hence the possessive.
5. Too: adverb of degree. Too is always an adverb.
6. Extremely: adverb of degree. The adjective is extreme, so you just
add -ly to make the adverb.
7. Completely: adverb of degree. Remember, adverbs modify
adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs. Completely, in this case, is
modifying the adjective, right.
8. Incredibly: adverb of degree. -ly I added to the adjective
incredible to form the adverb (also omitting the -e on the
infinitive).
9. Barely: adverb of degree.
10. Somewhat: adverb of degree meaning ‘’to a moderate extent’’.
11. Very: adverb of degree.
12. Twenty-one years old: In English, it’s common to insert years old
afterwards when you’re talking about your age. I.e., I am fifty
years old. Jeremy is thirty-three years old.

Adverbs of sentence

Adverbs of sentence are adverbs that modify entire sentences. Adverbs of

sentence can also function as adverbs of degree, manner, or other adverbs.
When an adverb of sentence is used, the adverb usually goes at the beginning
of the sentence, which means more emphasis is put on the adverb itself while
also modifying the whole sentence.

Thankfully1, we were able to get a table last night. The restaurant

had us waiting2 for over thirty-five minutes.
I know. I’m not a fan of waiting3 outside restaurants. Curiously4,
 the restaurant didn’t appear to be that full. Maybe they were just
low on staff.
Indeed5, I noticed that as well.
Frankly6, the food was exceptionally7 good. That’s probably the
reason as to8 why they’re9 just so popular.
Yes, they’ve also had a reputation for their extraordinary quality.
Interestingly10, most restaurants these days11 are becoming more
popular. Perhaps it’s because people just don’t have time to cook.
Perhaps you’re right, although it can get quite costly you know,
frequently going out to restaurants.

Analysis

1. Thankfully: adverb of sentence. Thankfully is modifying the whole

sentence, we were able to get a table last night. It’s important to
place a comma (,) after the adverb of sentence.
2. Had us waiting: the verb have is used to talk about experiences
and actions.
3. Of waiting: remember, prepositions are always followed by the
gerund (verb + ing). The preposition of is followed by the gerund
waiting.
4. Curiously: adverb of sentence. This adverb is modifying the whole
sentence.
5. Indeed: adverb of sentence.
6. Frankly: adverb of sentence meaning honestly, sincerely.
7. Exceptionally: adverb of degree that’s modifying the adjective
good.
8. As to: an important prepositional phrase in English meaning, with
respect to, regarding. I.e., I’m meaning as to how David got lost
yesterday in the carpark.
 9. They’re: don’t forget to pronounce the contractions, and also
remember the verbs being contracted. In this case, it’s they are.
10. Interestingly: adverb of sentence. The adjective is interesting, so -
ly is added to the adjective to form the adverb.
11. These days: remember, demonstrative adjectives (this, these, that,
and those). Days is plural, and the speaker is referring to days with
close proximity, therefore, these is used rather than those.

Relative adverbs

We use relative adverbs as ‘’joiners’’ or ‘’connectors’’ to connect phrases

together. The main relative adverbs in English are: when, where and why.
Each relative adverb has its own purpose or meaning. When: refers to time.
Where: refers to a place or destination. Why: refers to the reason as to WHY
something has happened.

Which university did you go to, Lisa?

Well, it was a long time ago when1 I was at university.
Come on, let’s hear it.
Ok, well, I was lucky I had the opportunity to go to an Ivy league
university called Brown University2 where3 I studied mathematics.
Mathematics? I didn’t know you studied math.
Yes, ah, well, I don’t know exactly why4 I chose math. I guess
when5 I was younger I always liked the subject, and just decided it
was the sciences6 where I longed7 to go.
Math is not an easy subject, so It should have been hard to finish
the degree, shouldn’t it8?
Yes, it took me five years to complete the degree, although, if you
have9 a genuine interest when you’re young it’s not hard to be
good at your subject matter.
 Still, though, mathematics is not known to be easy.

Analysis

1. When: relative adverb that refers to time. In this particular case,

the relative adverb, when is referring to the time when Lisa was at
university.
2. Brown University: Both Brown and University are capitalised
because they form part of the proper noun, Brown University.
When university is alone, it isn’t capitalised.
3. Where: relative adverb that refers to place or destination. In this
case, the place being, Brown University.
4. Why: relative adverb that refers to reason (the reason as to WHY
something happened). The phrase being, ‘’I don’t know exactly’’.
5. When: relative adverb that refers to time. In this case the time
being, ‘’when I was younger’’.
6. The sciences: in general, there’s two main categories of study at
university; the sciences, and the humanities.
7. To long (verb): means to ‘’have a strong desire or craving for
something or someone’’.
8. It should – shouldn’t it?: example of a question tag. Remember,
positive to negative and vice versa.
9. Have a genuine interest: remember, the auxiliary verb to have is
used to show possession. In this case, an interest is what is being
possessed.

Interrogative adverbs

Interrogative adverbs in English are: why, where, when, and how. We use
interrogative adverbs to ask questions. When we use interrogative adverbs to
ask a question we must apply the following rule: interrogative adverb +
auxiliary/modal auxiliary verb + subject. I.e., when do you start work? (when
+ do + you).

Good morning Steve1. How2 was your weekend?

Morning Susan, it was great thanks. I had a nice weekend outside
of the U.K.
Ah, fantastic. Where3 did you go then?
Well, I went with my friend to Belgium4 via the English Channel.
It was very interesting because it’s the first time we have been to
Belgium.
So, why5 did you guys6 decide to go to Belgium?
We heard that several cities in the northern region of Flanders7 are
particularly beautiful8. Cities such as, Ghent, Bruges, Liege and
also Brussels.
How did you manage do cover9 all those cities10 in just two days?
We just had day trips, going to two cities per day and staying the
night in the last city we had visited. It was good fun.
I bet it was! Where will you go next time?
Well, I’d11 like to go to Northern France, but the drive is too far so
I’ll have to wait until my vacations. When12 will I have
vacations… I just don’t know.
Well, good luck.
Thanks.

Analysis

1. Steve: is a name of a person and thus a proper noun. Proper nouns

are always capitalised.
2. How: interrogative adverb that is used to talk about the manner,
 degree, time, amount, or quantity in which something is done. In
this case, it refers to the weekend.
3. Where: interrogative adverb that refers to place or destination. In
this case, the speaker was wanting to know the destination of
where he went.
4. Belgium: is a country and therefore a proper noun. Remember to
always capitalise proper nouns.
5. Why: interrogative adverb that we use to acquire a reason for
something.
6. You guys: in English the second person singular and the second
person plural are both formed with the subject and object pronoun,
you, therefore we usually insert guys after you to distinguish
between singular and plural. For example, when will you guys buy
the tickets? Guys is referring to more than one person.
7. Flanders: is in the northern province of Belgium, and therefore a
place. Places are proper nouns, so they must be capitalised.
8. Particularly beautiful: the adverb, particularly is modifying the
adjective, beautiful. Adverbs modify adjectives, verbs, and other
adverbs.
9. Cover: verb meaning to reach all the places (Ghent, Brussels etc.),
in this particular context.
10. Those cities: the demonstrative adjective, those is used because
here, cities are plural, and the speaker is talking about the cities
being distant. The demonstrative adjective, these, wouldn’t work
in this particular context because the cities are far away.
11. I’d: contraction of I would. This contraction can also mean I had,
so you can work it out from context whether it’s would or had.
12. When: an interrogative adverb of time. There’s no question mark
(?) because the speaker is asking a rhetorical question. A question
that doesn’t require an answer.

Section Review
Adverbs: adverbs of frequency, place, time, manner, degree, sentence,
relative, and interrogative adverbs.

So, Jake, how often do you travel?

I don’t usually get to travel unfortunately.
Why is that?
Well, here in the United States most people only get two weeks of
vacation per year, which isn’t a lot in my opinion.
So, when was the last time you went abroad (to another country)?
I haven’t been abroad since 2015.
Where did you go?
I headed south to Latin America.
Wow! Did you enjoy it?
I certainly did enjoy it. I loved it so much, and really enjoyed
practising my Spanish.
Can you speak Spanish?
Yes, a little, but I rarely get the chance to practice because all my
friends only speak English.
I heard that, if you go around California you can find plenty of
people who speak Spanish.
Yes, I know. My goal for next year is to find more Spanish
speaking people so that I can speak more frequently.

Nouns

Nouns are words that we use to refer to people, places, or things. Generally
speaking, adjectives and adverbs modify nouns. We’re going to focus on:
countable, uncountable, proper, common, concrete, abstract, collective and
compound nouns.

Countable and uncountable nouns

Countable nouns are nouns of things that you can count, things that can be
either singular or plural. All countable nouns have a singular and plural form.
I.e., friend/friends, star/stars, eye/eyes, phone/phones, (singular and plural
form).

Uncountable nouns are nouns that cannot be counted. They don’t have a
plural form. I.e., milk, electricity, power, rice, water, money are all
uncountable nouns, and they have no plural form.

Good evening, Steve. What are you cooking?

I’m cooking some rice1 with curry.
Hmmm,2 sounds delicious. You have a lot of rice in the pan, are
you having friends3 over?
Well, I only have enough knives4 and forks for three people, so I
just invited my parents over.
What about me?
You’re going to be left out I’m afraid.
That’s not very nice. You really need to get some5 more cutlery6
you know…
I agree. First in, first serve7 I guess.
I’ll be seeing8 you tomorrow.
Good day.

Analysis
 1. Rice: Rice is an uncountable noun, so there is no plural form. You
cannot say, rices. This would be incorrect.
2. Hmm: this is what we call an interjection in English. They have no
grammatical value and basically represent sounds. Others include,
grr, ow! Ah etc.
3. Friends: is a countable noun. You can say friend or friends
(adding an s to make the plural form).
4. The noun knives: is the plural form of knife. Nouns ending in -f or
-fe are pluralised with -ves. For example: calf – calves, wife –
wives.
5. The determiner, some: is being used because it’s followed by an
uncountable noun, cutlery. Determiners are normally used with
uncountable nouns in English.
6. Cutlery: is an uncountable noun. We cannot say a cutlery, but we
can say, the cutlery, some cutlery or much cutlery.
7. ‘’First in, first serve’’: Is an expression basically meaning,
whoever comes first, can have the first serving.
8. ‘’I’ll be seeing’’: the future continuous form which is will + be +
verb + ing. We use the future continuous to talk about an action or
situation in the future that will be happening.

Proper nouns

Proper nouns are the commonest type of noun in English. Proper nouns are
the names given to people, pets, places, businesses, days, months, significant
dates, and art pieces. As a general rule, proper nouns are always capitalised
(we must use capital letters for the first letter of a proper noun).

What’s the plan for this weekend?

We’re on vacation in Madrid1, Spain2. So, we only have two days
to get everything done, Saturday3 and Sunday, so we’re going to
 be a little rushed.
How wonderful! I agree, two days isn’t a lot of time, but surely
you can go to some museums? I heard that The Prado4 is an
excellent museum with art and sculptures from artists such as
Goya and Picasso5.
Yes, you’re right. We will not miss out on the Prado, that’s for
sure. My husband, David6, is very keen on ancient art rather than7
contemporary artwork.
Just out of interest, which museum has contemporary art in
Madrid?
That would be the Reina Sofia museum in the south part of the
city. I don’t think we’ll go there, because during August8 it’s
typically very full of people, although I would love to see the
Guernica by Picasso.
I bet you’d love to see that panting, I hear it’s a marvel.

Analysis

1. Madrid: cities are proper nouns hence the capital letter M.

2. Spain: countries are always capitalised. I.e., France, Sweden,
Belgium etc.
3. Days of the week are always capitalised because they are proper
nouns.
4. The Prado: is a museum with significant importance so it’s
capitalised.
5. Picasso and Goya: – these were artists and also people, so they
must be capitalised.
6. Names are always capitalised.
7. Than: is used to make comparatives in English. For example,
she’s bigger than me, I’m taller than her.
 8. August: months are proper nouns, so they must be capitalised.

Common nouns

Common nouns are the names we designate to general things. Anything

that’s not specific such as, for example, proper nouns, that are specific and
require capital letters. Common nouns do not require capital letters because
they are not specific things, rather, they are general things like, for example,
cat, sock, steak, city, television, computer etc. Most nouns are either common
nouns or proper nouns.

Do you prefer to live in a city1 or town, Rob2?

I much prefer the inner-city life2. It’s so much more vibrant and
interesting.
So, do you not mind all the noise and the hustle and bustle3 that
goes with living in a city?
Absolutely not! I really believe that cities are the future. It’s in the
cities that one4 can find diversity, selection, employment, and
many, many more things.
What about the countryside? Not your cup of tea5 then?
No, not really. I mean, for a weekend escape6, the countryside is
great, but in regard to living, I would always choose to live in a
big city where7 I can remain anonymous.
Do you like having your anonymity then?
Yes, I certainly do. What about you, do you prefer the countryside
or the city?
Personally8, I much prefer the countryside, although, I think I
probably wouldn’t like it so much after about a couple of weeks.
I bet!
Analysis

1. City: is a common noun, so it is therefore not capitalised.

2. Life: is a common noun. It’s a common noun because it doesn’t
refer to anything specific.
3. Hustle and bustle: a very common phrase to refer to lots of
excitement and busy activity.
4. One: a gender neutral pronoun that we can use to refer to people
when talking about anything in a general sense. I.e., one needs to
dress well when going to a job interview.
5. Cup of tea: a chiefly British idiomatic expression in English
meaning, ‘’what someone likes’’. I.e., ‘’would you like to play
football with us this Saturday? Not really, football is just not my
cup of tea’’. Saying that football isn’t your cup of tea, just means
that you don’t like football.
6. Escape: verb and noun, and this case, escape is a common noun.
7. Where: in this case, where functions as a relative adverb in
reference to place. The place or destination being; a big city.
8. Personally: a sentence adverb. We use sentence adverbs to modify
whole sentences. Sentence adverbs also require a comma. I.e.,
honestly, I don’t know what he looks like. Thankfully, our rescuers
were able to reach us in time. Honestly and thankfully act as
sentence adverbs, and also require a comma.

Concrete nouns

Concrete nouns are nouns that represent things that we can experience with
any of our five senses (vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch). Nouns such
as, dog, computer, pen, job etc., are all concrete nouns.

What’s your favourite subject1 to study Maria?

 I really the sciences2 to be honest.
So, do you not like humanities3 then?
Not really, I prefer the sciences because the information4 is very
pure, and very truthful.
Do you fancy yourself5 working in a scientific field one day then?
To be honest, no. I enjoy studying the sciences, but I would prefer
to work with computers. I think computing6 is far more
interesting.
Would you like to work with code?
Yes, I enjoy coding7. Coding languages like HTML and Java
script are so cool and interesting.
Glad to hear that!
I’ll catch you later.
Bye.

Analysis

1. Subject: is concrete noun. It’s something that we can touch or

hear.
2. Sciences: this is the general, concrete noun. A scientist is the
proper noun because it’s a person.
3. Humanities: is the concrete nouns. Remember, the singular form is
humanity, so the -y changes to -ies in the plural form. For
example, cry-cries, felony-felonies etc.
4. Information: is a concrete noun. Also, take note of the noun suffix
-tion. Other examples are, collection, notion, appreciation,
notation etc.
5. Fancy oneself: this a common expression in English. You can say,
fancy oneself, yourself, himself etc. It means, what you would like
to be or do.
 6. Computing: a concrete noun. Nouns can also be gerunds (verb +
ing) used as objects or subject of a sentence. I.e., swimming is fun,
I love your painting, running isn’t easy.
7. Enjoy coding: another example of a noun ending in -ing and being
used as an object of the sentence.

Abstract nouns

Abstract nouns represent things, feelings or emotions that we cannot

represent with our five senses (vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch), so to
speak. Such abstract nouns are for example: love, hate, fare, consciousness,
feelings etc.

What are you reading, Mike?

I’m reading a fiction novel about a girl’s dramatic experiences
back in eighteenth-century France.
What sort of dramatic experiences does she have then?
Well, she falls in love1 with a boy and then goes to a boarding
school where she’s in constant fear2 because of all the bullying
that goes on. She also misses her boyfriend, which fills her up
with emptiness3.
Does she suffer a lot of anger and hate?
Yes, but she also receives a lot of compassion from her boyfriend
and his family, so luckily, she manages to overcome all the stress
and misery4 of living in a boarding school.
This book sounds like a good read.
It certainly is5.

Analysis
 1. Love: is a very common abstract noun.
2. Fear: another example of an abstract noun not represented by our
five senses.
3. Emptiness: very clear example of an abstract noun.
4. Misery: we can feel misery, but it’s abstract.
5. It certainly is: this is a form of ellipsis, which is short for; the book
certainly is a good read. Ellipsis is very common in English, and
we use it to make sentences shorter because we already assume the
remainder of the sentence.

Collective nouns

Collective nouns are used to refer to groups of people, animals, or objects.

Collective nouns can be singular or plural. Generally, collective nouns are
specific to certain things or people. I.e., a bar of soap, pride of lions, or a
pack of hounds. For example, you wouldn’t use the collective noun, pack to
refer to some people. Pack refers to a group of dogs/hounds.

Oh crikey1!
What’s the matter, Dave?
I’ve got a heap2 of work to do. I hate working, and I’m so tired
today.
Why are you so tired then?
Yesterday3, I hiked up a range4 of mountains. I probably spent5 at
least four hours hiking. It’s very beautiful, but today I feel
exhausted.
So what do you think of the nature then?
Well, there were swarms5 of insects, a huge flock6 of birds flying
above, and packs7 of wolves!
I see you weren’t short of8 wildlife then.
 Absolutely not. I love the wildlife, and everything is has to offer. I
believe it’s one of the best ways to escape the hustle and bustle of
the city.

Analysis

1. Crikey: an expression of surprise.

2. Heap: a collective noun that can refer to something being large,
especially a workload of some sort.
3. Yesterday: an adverb of time.
4. Range: a collective noun that refers to the grouping of mountains.
5. Swarm: a collective noun that is used to refer to flying insects.
Swarm without (s) is singular and refers to one group of insects.
Swarms with (s) is plural, and refers to several groups of flying
insects.
6. Flock: a collective noun that refers a groups of birds.
7. Pack: a collective noun that refers to a group of people, animals,
or objects, especially if we consider the group to be unwelcoming
or unpleasant. I.e., a pack of liars. Packs of wolves were about to
attack us.
8. Short of (something): is an expression used to mean ‘’not enough
of’’ or ‘’inferior to’’. I.e., we’re short of bread, could you get me
some please?

Compound nouns

Compound nouns are nouns formed together with two or more words,
thereby making the noun a compound noun (two parts). Compound nouns
can either be written as a single word (highway, pullover, horseshoe), with a
hyphen (-) (well-being, fire-engine, rib-eye, six-wheeler), or written as two
(or more) separate words (small talk, city centre, hound dog).
 What’s your opinion on the public transportation1 system in
London?
Well, the underground2 system works fantastically well, as do3
most cities in Europe, although, the system is very expensive. My
girlfriend,4 who has to catch the subway every day5, has to pay
over one hundred6 pounds per month, which I think is a tad7 too
pricey.
Maybe you ought to get8 your driver license9 then, eh?
No way! Driving a car in London is even more expensive.
What about getting a motorcycle?10
Well, motorcycles are fairly11 dangerous you know. I was on the
lookout12 for a cheap scooter though. I don’t think a scooter or
moped would be too expensive to maintain.
The passers-by13 always have it the best. That’s why you need to
just walk to work.
Are you kidding me!?
Who on earth14 in London gets to walk15 to work!
I was just joking.

Analysis

1. Public transportation: is a very common compound noun. It

doesn’t need a hyphen (-). Generally, when a compound noun has
a hyphen, it is because the compound noun itself is very new or
just being introduced in to society for the first time. When the
compound noun becomes more well-known it’s common to get rid
of the hyphen.
2. Underground: a compound noun that refers to the metro system
underground. In American English, subway is more commonly
 used.
3. As do: the plural do is used because cities is plural.
4. Girlfriend: a compound noun, as is boyfriend.
5. Every day: careful not confuse everyday with every day. The
former being the adjective, i.e., I like your everyday clothes
(everyday is an adjective and it is modifying the noun, clothes).
And the latter being two separate words, every, the adjective,
modifies the noun, day. I.e., I go to school every day.
6. One hundred: is a compound noun. Numbers from twenty-one to
ninety-nine always require a hyphen/dash (-).
7. Tad: a noun meaning, a small amount.
8. To get your driver license: ‘get + noun’ = ‘obtain’ or ‘receive’.
The noun being, driver license. To get your driver license would
be the same as saying, to receive/obtain your driver license.
9. Driver license: a compound noun.
10. Motorcycle: compound noun. You can see that it’s a compound
noun due to the formation of two separate words, motor and cycle.
11. Fairly: is a very common adverb that English speakers use to
express the degree to which something happens. Rather, quite, and
little are also very common, but with higher or lower levels of
degree.
12. Lookout: a compound noun that refers to a place where one can
see the panorama.
13. Passer-by: is a compound noun in the singular. The plural form is
as above, passers-by. This compound noun just refers to the
pedestrians or people walking on the street.
14. What/who/where/how etc, on earth: is a popular expression to
express shock, surprise, or anger.
15. Gets to walk: ‘get + to + infinitive’ literally means, ‘to have the
opportunity’. I.e., They get to travel to South America every year. I
get to learn English with English Reservoir.
Section Review

Nouns: countable, uncountable, proper, common, concrete, abstract,

collective, and compound nouns.

Hey Jessica, do you fancy going for a drive this coming Saturday?
Sure, but where would we go? Seeing friends?
I was thinking that it would be nice if we left London for the day
and go driving around south east England. It’s just so beautiful
and green.
That’s a fantastic idea! I agree, It’s really beautiful driving around
that part of the U.K. Do you think we should take the children?
Absolutely not! I’m looking for an escape. Let’s leave them with
the grandparents!
Excellent idea! Do you know of any particular places of interest
that we could go see in the countryside?
Well, I was thinking that we head to Hever castle in the county of
Kent.
Isn’t that the castle where Anne Boleyn lived with Henry VIII?
Yes, it certainly is. The castle has great significance because it was
the residence of Anne Boleyn, the second wife of the former king
of England, Henry VIII.
The Hever castle is supposed to be very beautiful with a Roman
styled garden and lots of greenery. I can’t wait to go!
Me too.
Chapter V

1. Prepositions: simple
2. Section Review
3. Conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions
4. Section Review
5. Interjections
6. Section Review

Prepositions

Prepositions are short words such as, but, in, at, on, that come in different
categories and indicate or express the relationship of a noun/pronoun with the
rest of the sentence. There are simple, compound, double, participial, and
double prepositions. The most common type of prepositions are simple
prepositions, so we will focus only on simple prepositions.

Simple prepositions

Simple prepositions are short words that we use before a noun/pronoun to

indicate the relationship of the noun to the verb, adjective, or another noun.
Simple prepositions are composed mainly of two types; time and place.

Hi, my name’s Henry. Nice to meet you.

Hello, good to meet you Henry. I’m Jane.
What do you do for a living, Jane?
Well, I’m a software engineer. I work at1 a software company in
London.
That sounds like a very technical type of job. For how long have
 you been at2 the company?
I’ve been working there since 2009, but by3 next year I plan on
moving and working for another company in4 south-east London.
Why did you decide to change your job?
It’s mainly because the commute5 to6 and from7 work is a real
pain8. It takes me about two hours, and I have to commute through
a lot of tunnels. It’s hard work.
That’s a pity, but at least you managed to find another job that’s
closer to your home now.
That’s right, and I only have to wait until9 next year before I can
finally change jobs.
Best of luck to you.
Thanks.

Analysis:

1. At: a preposition of place to describe a place (position at a point)

where you are. ‘’I’m at Burger King’’. ‘’I work at home’’.
2. At: a company is a place that’s located at a point somewhere, so
we use the preposition, at.
3. By: to denote time, that is, by can mean ‘no later than’.
4. In: preposition of place and time. In is being used as a preposition
of place meaning ‘in a large area’, such as a city or country. I.e.,
‘’He lives in Paris’’.
5. Commute: we use this word in English exclusively for the trip to
and from work. ‘’He commutes every day to work, and it takes him
twenty-five minutes’’.
6. To: a preposition of place meaning ‘from one place to another
place’, and time, for telling the time. I.e., ‘’I work from 21:00 to
23:00 every night’’.
 7. From: preposition of place meaning origin. I.e., ‘’I come from
Nigeria’’. Also, it’s a preposition of time, I.e., ‘’He works from
morning to dusk’’.
8. A real pain: an expression denoting that something or someone is
a bother.
9. Until: preposition of time marking the beginning of something
until it ends. I.e., ‘’I worked in the centre until 2010’’.

Section Review

Prepositions: simple

I need to have my homework assignment done by next Tuesday,

and I’m not sure If I’m able to finish it on time.
Sure, you can! Stop moaning about it and make time rather than
complain.
What do you suggest I do then?
You need to do it at night, in the morning and on weekdays and
weekends. If you do this, you’ll definitely finish your assignment
by next Tuesday.
You’re right, but I can only really concentrate for about two hours
at a time before I get demotivated and tired.
Well, If I were you I would study in parts, that is, from 09:00 to
11:00, 12:00 to 14:00 etc.
Good idea. I guess I’m just not looking forward to doing so much
work.
That’s school you know. You’ve got to do what they ask of you.
When you complete it, we’ll go for a drink on Sunday.
Great, I’ll look forward to it.
Conjunctions

Conjunctions are short words that connect words or sentences together,

basically like ‘’joiner’’ words. Without conjunctions, we would have to
constantly make extra phrases which would mean a lot of redundancy. The
three types of conjunctions in English are: coordinating, subordinating, and
correlative conjunctions. The most common type of conjunction is the
‘’coordinating conjunction’’, which will be the main focus of this lesson.

Coordinating conjunctions
Conjunctions are words like, because, and, or, but, not, either, yet. They are
‘’joiner’’ or ‘’connecter’’ words that connect sentences and words together
and show the relationship between them. We need to use conjunctions in
English to avoid using full stops after every sentence, which adds flow to the
sentence, and less redundancy.

So, you’re heading1 to university next year. Have you decided

which one you want to go to?
Well2, I would like to go to either3 one4 in London or Oxford5, but
It’s very hard to get in to Oxford University.
I bet it is6. Have you done all your research and7 understood the
entrance requisites for both universities?
Yes, I’ve spent a good deal of8 time researching both universities
and I also understand the requisites for both of them.
How much does it cost to go to university in the U.K. these days?
It’s so expensive… It’s nor expensive or9 easy.
Have you thought about getting a student loan then?
Yes, that crossed my mind, and I’ll definitely consider that If need
be.
I wish you all the best then!
 Thanks.

Analysis

1. Head to: to go to a place, or head in a direction either as part of a

career choice or metaphorically speaking.
2. Well: this is a popular word to use in English to begin a sentence.
It usually takes a comma (,) after, before the next word.
3. Either: this conjunction is used to give two options. ‘’Either
apples or pears, you decide’’.
4. One: Remember, this word is also a pronoun that, in this case, is
referring to the university.
5. London and Oxford: are both capitalised (have capital letters)
because they are places and thus, proper nouns. Proper nouns are
always capitalised.
6. To bet: an idiom used in everyday language to express certainty
that we’re even willing to bet over it (idiomatically of course).
7. And: conjunction being used to connect two things, research and
research requisites.
8. A good/great deal of: an expression to express a high quantity of
something.
9. Or: conjunction being used to connect two things together; the
university is not expensive or easy.

Section Review

My friend and I want to do some travelling around Europe next

year in July. We were thinking of going by train or hitchhiking.
What do you reckon?
I reckon the train would be a better option. You can get cheap
 tickets off Interrail and travel throughout Europe. It should be
good fun for you guys.
Yeah, I bet!
Which countries are you planning on seeing?
Well, I really want to see a lot of countries in central and eastern
Europe, yet I don’t think I’ll have enough time to see them all.
How long will you be travelling for?
Roughly two weeks, then I have to head back to Australia because
my visa will expire.
You can always come back and do it next year. Which countries
were you wanting to see?
Lots. Hungry, Austria, Bulgaria, Germany, Slovenia, and many
more.
You’ve got plenty of time, don’t sweat it.

Interjections

Interjections are short words or phrases that act independently. Interjections

aren’t grammatically related to any other parts of speech, and they all have
their own meaning or expression. Usually, an exclamation mark (!), question
mark (?), full-stop (.) or a comma (,) are used with interjections. Such
interjections are for example; phew! Ouch! Woah. Ah. Hmm. Gee. Ugh!
Interjections are very common in English, and they are usually small words
that express emotions, either negative or positive. Interjections are not
important words (grammatically speaking), but they are very frequently used
in English.

Woah!1 Look! It’s a snake. I don’t like snakes at all. Can we call
someone to remove it please?
Ah2, Look, I think it’s better that we just wait until it decides to go
away. Here in Australia it’s normal for the occasional snake to
 crawl around in the city.
Ugh3, I’m not a fan4 of snakes at all. I don’t like the way they
slither around.
Neither do I to be honest.
Huh?5
I said, neither do I to be honest. I’m also not a big fan of snakes or
any types of insects.
Oh, OK.
Alas!6 The snake is finally moving! I was getting worried we’d7
be here for a while.
Phew!8 It’s about time. Let’s take precautions to make sure this
doesn’t ever happen again.
Yes, absolutely.

Analysis

1. Woah: an interjection that expresses sudden emotion or

fascination. Usually it will take the exclamation mark (!).
2. Ah: interjection that expresses various emotions or any sort.
3. Ugh: interjection that expresses disgust or fear.
4. To be a fan: one can say that he/she is a fan of something or
someone even though they might not be, it’s a way of speech, an
idiom.
5. Huh: interjection that usually takes the question mark (?). It’s a
more informal way of saying pardon or I don’t understand.
6. Alas: interjection used to express grief or compassion.
7. We’d: contracted form of we would. It could also be we had.
You’ve got to take care with the context and make sure you
understand which the correct contraction is.
 8. Phew: interjection that usually takes the exclamation mark (!) or
comma (,) and is a way of expressing relief.

Section Review

Interjections:

Ay, I’m really not feeling like going to work tomorrow.

Err, I hear you. Mondays are everyone’s worst day of the week.
I wish we had three-day weekends, gee whiz.
Well, ah, I think we have a three-day weekend coming up next
week. It’s, um, a bank holiday I believe.
Hmm, that gives me an idea.
Huh?
An idea.
So, what’s your idea then?
Well, since we have a three-day weekend coming up, I’ll go for a
drive around New York state. I’ve always wanted to do that. What
about you, Jim, what will you do?
Umm, I haven’t really thought about it. Maybe I’ll take my wife
and kids out to go bowling. They love it.
I’m sure you’ll have a good time. Anyhow, we’ll catch. Have a
good one!
You too. Catch you later, George.
End of course!
 About the author

Thomas Delany is the author of “Essential English Grammar – A Friendly

Approach”, and the founder of English Reservoir.

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