INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR

CHEMISTRY

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 Nuclear chemistry
• deals with the nuclei of atoms breaking apart. Atoms are continually undergoing decay.

• dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes, such as nuclear transmutation, and nuclear properties.

• is the study of the chemical and physical properties of elements as influenced by changes in the
structure of the atomic nucleus.

• that is concerned with changes in the nucleus of elements. These changes are the source of
radioactivity and nuclear power.

• study of nuclear reaction and their uses

• involves radioactive isotopes of the elements.

(ISOTOPES = same element, same number of protons but differ in
number of neutrons and atomic mass.)
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Lecture outline:
Composition of the Atom.
Nuclear Symbol
Radioactive Isotope
Radiation
Radioactive Particles (nuclear radiation)
Nuclear reaction and its Equation
Nuclear Decay
Application

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Nucleus of the atom
(NUCLEI OF THE ATOM)
Composition of the atom:
(structure of the atom)

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Recall: Properties of the composition of the atom
PARTICLE SYMBOL CHARGE OF LOCATION IN THE ELECTRICAL RELATIVE MASS ACTUAL MASS 0F
THE PARTICLE ATOM CHARGE OF THE OF THE THE PARTICLE,
PARTICLE PARTICLE, amu grams

proton p+ positively Inside the nucleus +1.602 x 10 – 19 C 1.0072765 1.673 x 10 – 24

charge, +

neutron n0 no charge, 0 Inside the nucleus 0 1.0086650 1.675 x 10 – 24

electron e– negatively Outside the – 1.602 x 10 – 19 C 0.00054858 9.109 x 10 – 28

charge, – nucleus in the
electron cloud in
energy level

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https://socratic.org/questions/what‐are‐the‐subatomic‐particles‐in‐an‐atom‐including‐the‐charge‐location‐and‐ma
Nuclear symbol: recall
A
X
Where:
A = is the mass number/atomic mass/atomic weight
Z = is the atomic number or no. of protons

Z X = is the chemical symbol of the element

Relationship: A= n+p
where: A = mass number/atomic mass/atomic weight
n = number of neutrons
p = Z = atomic number/number of protons
(note: no. of protons = no. of electrons)

ISOTOPES = same element, same number of protons but differ in number of neutrons
and atomic mass.
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 Isotopes of hydrogen
1H , 2H , 3H
1 1 1
hydrogen, deuterium, tritium
Isotope= same element but different in atomic
mass; different in number of neutron but the
same number of protons.
Example:
1H : 2H 3H
1 1 1
A=n+p A=n+p A=n+p
n=A–p n= A–p n=A–p
Note that some of the ice is at n=1–1 n =2–1 n=3–1
the bottom of the glass – this n= 0 n=1 n=2
is 2H2O
 Example :
1. Find the number of p, n, ē, Z and A for a given B) 22Ti
atom: p = 22 (atomic number is given
114 Cd
A) and also it is found in the
p = 48 (from the periodic table) periodic table)
A=n+P A=n+P
n=A+p n=A–p
n = 48 – 22
n = 114 – 48
n = 26
n = 66
(note: since atomic mass is not given, then use
(note: use atomic number that is given not the the atomic mass in the periodic table)
atomic number from the periodic table because ē = p = 22
this is the isotope of Cd)
Z = p = 22
ē = p = 48
A = 48
Z = p = 48
A = 114
Example:
2. An isotope of cobalt (Co, Z = 27) is used in radiation therapy for
cancer. This isotope has 33 neutrons in its nucleus. What is its nuclear
symbol?

3. One of the most harmful components of nuclear waste is a

radioactive isotope of strontium, 90Sr38 , it can be deposited in your
bones, where it replaces calcium. How many protons are in the nucleus
of Sr‐90.

4. Write the nuclear symbol for the element used in diagnostic bone
scans. It has 31 protons and 38 neutrons.
Radioactive isotope
• emit or capture radiation particle/s and unstable

• emit various types of radiation in order to become stable.

• the process is called radioactivity…..

Radioactivity can be measured using a Geiger counter, a cylinder

containing a low‐pressure gas and two (2) electrodes.
Radiation ionizes the atoms in the cylinder and allows current to
flow between the electrodes.
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 Radiation
– is energy that travels in the form of waves (electromagnetic radiation) or high‐
speed particles (particulate radiation).

• Particulate radiation happens when an unstable

(or radioactive) atom disintegrates (break up)

• Electromagnetic (EM) radiation

has no mass and travels in waves.
range from very low energy to very high energy, called electromagnetic
spectrum.

**********
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 Radiation
Types of radiation :

IONIZING and

NON‐IONIZING

Equipment used to detect radiation:

Geiger counter

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 Ionizing radiation
• carries enough energy to detach electrons from atoms or molecules,
thereby ionizing them.

• made up of energetic subatomic particles, ions or atoms moving at high

speeds (usually greater than 1% of the speed of light), and electromagnetic
waves on the high‐energy end of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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 Non ionizing radiation

any type of electromagnetic Instead of producing charged ions

radiation that does not carry
enough energy per quantum(photon
energy) to ionize atoms or
molecules—that is, to completely
remove an electron from
an atom or molecule.
when passing through matter, non‐
ionizing
electromagnetic radiation has
sufficient energy only for excitation,
the movement of an electron to a
higher energy state.

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Radiation

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 Natural radioactivity

• the spontaneous emission of the various

types of natural radiation occurring unstable
isotopes in order to become stable.
Types of ex.: radioactive elements (naturally
occurring elements)
Radioactivity
Artificial or synthetic radioactivity
• the decay or emission of nuclear radiation by
the artificially produced radioactive isotopes

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Video
• The Geiger Counter Where did it come from Stuff of Genius.mp4

• The Most Radioactive Places on Earth.mp4

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 Types of nuclear radiation (radioactive particles)
• Alpha particle, 2 4 or 2He 4 • Positron, +1 e 0

• Beta particle, –1 e 0 • Neutron, 0 n 1

• Gamma ray, 0 0 • Proton, 1 p 1 or 1 H 1

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Alpha particle, 2He 4 or 2 4

• identical to a helium nucleus which has a mass number of 4 and an

atomic number of 2 ;
A=n+p
• a particle with 2 protons and 2 neutrons and has a charge of + 2
Mass number

• its symbol is : 2
4 4
2He or
Number of protons
or atomic number

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Alpha particle, 2He 4 or 2 4

• has a rather low velocity, only one‐tenth the speed of light (299 792 458 m / s)

• does not have a very high penetrating power and can be stopped by a thin sheet of
paper

• it does NOT penetrate in the body because the He atoms capture electrons before
traveling very far.

• if emitted by a radioactive substance that gets into the body, it injures normal cells in the
body and is more harmful than beta and gamma

• when inhaled or ingested, usually in the form of radon gas; can be very dangerous and
lead to lung cancer in the absence of radiation sickness.

• it is very damaging because the alpha particles can knock atoms off of molecules.
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Beta particle, – 1e 0
• identical to an electron

• it has a charge of – 1 and a negligible mass

• its symbol is: – 1e

0

• Believed to be produced when a neutron is transformed into a proton :

1  1p1 0
0n + – 1e
(neutron) (proton) (beta)
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Beta particle, – 1e 0
• emitted from the nucleus at a much greater velocity which is nine‐tenths of the
speed of light;

• has greater penetrating power than the alpha particle because the particles are
10 times smaller, but less penetrating than gamma decay.

• it can penetrate through about one (1) cm of flesh before they are brought to a
halt because of electrostatic force.

• also harmful when it gets into the body

• it is most common in elements with a high neutron to proton ratio.

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Gamma ray, 0 0
• has a very short wavelength

• charge is 0 and a mass of 0

• its symbol is: 0

0

• has a velocity equal to the speed of light

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Gamma ray, 0 0
• has a very high penetrating power and most penetrating of all

• penetrates to the body and is harmful to the body; it affects the

genes causing mutation

• These photons can pass through the body and cause damage by
ionizing all the molecules in their way.

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Positron, + 1e 0
• found to be positive electron

• it is a particle with negligible mass and has charge of positive 1

• its symbol is : + 1e 0

• similar to a beta particle in velocity which nine‐tenths of the speed of

light;

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Positron, + 1e 0
• low penetrating power

• believed to be produced in the nucleus of certain radioactive

substance when a proton is converted to a neutron according to the
equation:

p 1  n 1 + e 0
1 0 +1
(proton) (neutron) (positron)

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Neutron, 0 n 1
• a particle with a relative mass of 1 amu and has a charge of 0.

• its symbol is: 0 n1

• has a velocity varies from about 10 – 5 to 10 – 1 times the speed of light

• has a relatively high penetrating power that varies with the velocity

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Proton, 1 p 1 or 1 H 1

• a particle which has a relative mass of 1 amu and a relative charge of

+1

• Its symbol is: 1 p 1 or 1 H1

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Types of nuclear radiation: summary
PARTICLES SYMBOLS
Alpha particle He 4
2
Beta particle 0
– 1e
Gamma ray 0  0

Positron 0
+ 1e
Neutron n 1
0
Proton p 1 or H 1
1 1

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 Nuclear
Reactions
and
its
Equations
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 Nuclear reactions
• the changes in matter originating in the nucleus of an atom

• a change into either an atom of a different element, or to a different

isotope of the same element, or radioactive isotope.

(note: there are 118 elements in the Periodic

Table of the Elements: 91 elements that
are naturally occurring and the 27 are
artificially produced: using nuclear reactions)

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Types of nuclear reactions:
• Nuclear fission

Nuclear transmutation = conversion/change of

one element into
another element by nuclear
reaction
• Nuclear fusion

• Nuclear decay
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Types of nuclear (radioactive) particles:
• Alpha decay (decay or radiates or emission by alpha emission)
• Beta decay (decay or radiates by beta emission)
• Gamma decay (decay or radiates by gamma rays)
• Positron emission (beta positive decay)
• Electron capture or K capture (first energy level)
• Neutron bombardment with a radioactive particle produced

Wherein: nuclear particles location

decay, radiates or emit = produce in product side
capture, bombardment = reactant side
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 In nuclear reaction and equations:
GENERAL FORM:
A = parent isotope, radioactive element (reactant side)
B = daughter isotope, radioactive element (product form) ; nuclear radiation/particles
• decay, radiates or emit of radioactive particles:
A  nuclear radiation + B
or A (nuclear particle) B ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ abbreviated form
• capture, bombardment of radioactive particle
A + nuclear radiation  B
or A (nuclear particle) B ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ abbreviated form
• capture, bombardment of radioactive particle and decay, radiates or emit of radioactive particles:
A + nuclear radiation  nuclear radiation + B
or A (nuclear particle, nuclear particle) B ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ abbreviated form
General rule: Balancing Nuclear Reaction
• The sum of the mass number in the reactants side is equal to the sum of the mass number in the products
side
• The sum of the atomic number in the reactants side is equal to the sum of the atomic number in the products
side. 34
Summary of some nuclear reactions and its equations
https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/21‐3‐radioactive‐decay/

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Nuclear reaction and equations:
ALPHA RADIATION/PARTICLE: 2He
4
, 2 4

Alpha decay (decay or radiates or emission by alpha emission),

• Where A is the parent isotope (the atom being broken apart) B is the daughter isotope or the
isotope formed.

• When an element, A is broken down in alpha decay it looses two neutrons and two (2) protons.

• the name of the element will change forming element B, moving back two (2) places on the
periodic table.

• Alpha decay is the most common in elements with an atomic number greater than 83.
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Nuclear reaction and equations:
Alpha decay (decay or radiates or emission by alpha emission), 2He 4
General equation:

Example :
Write the nuclear equation for the reaction in which : Fr 221 decays by alpha
emission or Fr 221 () B
Fr 221  2 He 4 + ? B ?
From the periodic table atomic number of Fr is 87
221  4 + 217 (221 – 4 = 217 )
87 Fr 2 He 87 ‐2 = 85 B
From the periodic table atomic number 85 is astatine, At; therefore B = As
final answer: 221  4 + 217
87 Fr 2 He 85 At
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Nuclear reaction and equations:

Beta radiation/particles: – 1e 0
Beta decay (decay or radiates or emits by beta emission),

• the beta emission increases the atomic number by one (1) by adding
one (1) proton.

• at the same time, one (1) neutron is lost; the atomic mass of the
daughter isotope is the same as the parent isotope.
General equation:

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Nuclear reaction and equations:
Beta decay (decay or radiates by beta emission), e 0
–1

Example:
Write the nuclear equation in which C 14 decays by beta emission:
or C 14 ( ) B
C 14  e 0 + B?
6 –1 ?
14  0 + B 14
6C – 1e 7 atomic number represents to boron
Final answer: 6 C 14  – 1e 0 + 7 N 14
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Nuclear reaction and equations:
Gamma radiation/particles:0 0

Gamma ray decay (decay or radiates or emitted by gamma rays),

• neither the atomic number or the mass number is changed.

• a high energy gamma ray is given off when the parent isotope falls into a lower
energy state.

• results from a difference in energy between the reactants and products in a

nuclear reaction;
* when a nuclide in the excited state revert to the ground state by
the emission of excess energy (gamma ray)

• does not have changes in the mass number and atomic number of the nucleus.
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Nuclear reaction and equations:
Gamma decay (decay or radiates or emitted by gamma rays), 0 0
General equation:

Example:
Write the nuclear equation in which Te – 125 radiates gamma rays.
or Te 125 ( ) B
Te 125  0 0 + ? B ?
52 Te
125  0 0 + 52 B 125 ……. ( using periodic table)
Final answer: 52 Te 125  0 0 + 52 Te 125
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Nuclear reaction and equations:
Positron radiation/particles:+ 1e 0
Positron emission (beta positive decay),

• a positron is exactly like an electron in mass and charge force except

with a positive charge.

• positron emission is most common in lighter elements with a low

neutron to proton ratio.

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Nuclear reaction and equations:
Positron emission (beta positive decay), + 1e 0
General equation:

Example:
Write the nuclear equation in which Te 125 radiates positron emission.
or Te 125 (e) B
Te 125  1e 0 + ? B ?
52 Te
125  1e 0 + 51 B 125 ……. ( using periodic table)
Final answer: 52 Te 125  1e 0 + 51 Sb 125

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Nuclear reaction and equations:

Electron capture or K ‐ capture (electrons from the first energy level), – 1e 0

• in this reaction a nucleus captures one (1) of its own atom's inner shell
electrons (first energy level) which reduces the atomic number by one.

• this captured electron joins with a proton in the nucleus to form a neutron.

• electron capture is common in larger elements with a low neutron to

proton ratio.

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Nuclear reaction and equations:

Electron capture or K ‐ capture (from the first energy level), – 1e 0

Example:
Ar 37 react by capturing an electron from K shell (first energy level)
or Ar 37(ē) B
37 0  B? ……. ( using periodic table)
18 Ar +– 1e ?
37 0  37
18 Ar +– 1e 17B
Final answer: 18 Ar 37+– 1e 0  17Cl37

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 Nuclear reaction and equations:
Neutron bombardment producing a new element and a radioactive particle , 0 n 1

Example:
O16 is bombarded with a neutron to form a new element plus an alpha particle.
or 8O16 (n, ) B
16 + n 1  4 + B?
8O 0 2 He ?
16 + n 1  4 + B 13 …. ( using periodic table)
8O 0 2 He 6
Final answer: 8O16 + 0 n 1  2 He 4 + 6 C 13

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 Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission = a nuclear reaction in which a nucleus splits
into two or more smaller nuclei resulting for a lighter
nuclei and a large amount of energy is release and a chain
reaction will occur.
Example: (Isotopes of U are: 233 to 239)

1. 92 U 235 +0 n 1  38 Sr 95 + 54 Xe 139 + 0 n1

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 Nuclear fission
Example: (Isotopes of U are: 233 to 239)
2. Fission of uranium – 236 in neutron results in the formation
two elements with mass number X – 96 and atomic number
of 35 and mass number of X – 137 plus 3 neutrons
236 (n, 3n) 96 + X 137
92 U 35 X ?

92 U 236 + 0n1  35 X 96 + ? X 137+ 3 0 n 1 (using periodic table)

236 + 1  96 + 137+ 3 n 1
92 U 0n 35 X 57 X 0

Final answer: 92 U 236 + 0 n1  35 Br 96 + 57 La 137+ 3 0 n 1

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 Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion = a nuclear reaction in which two or more nuclei combine
to form a heavier nucleus and a large amount of energy is
released.

Example:
1. 1 H 2 + 1 H3  2 He 4 + 0 n1

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 Nuclear fusion
Example:
2. Fusion of nitrogen – 15 with hydrogen – 1 resulting
an element and alpha particles.
N15 + H 1() B
15 + H1  He4 + B?
7N 1 2 ?
15 + H1  He4 + 12
7N 1 2 6B (using periodic table)

Final answer: 7N
15 + 1H1  2He4 + 6 C12

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Video
• Nuclear Fission Reaction.mp4

• Why is nuclear fusion not used to generate electricity #aumsum #kids

#education #science #learn.mp4

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52
 Exercises:
Write the complete nuclear equations and its abbreviation equation from the following nuclear reactions.
1. Krypton – 87 decays by beta emission.
2. Uranium – 232 decays by alpha emission.
3. Praseodymium – 140 decays by positron emission.
4. Oxygen – 16 plus a neutron results in the formation of another element by the release of alpha particle.
5. Beryllium – 9 plus a proton results in the formation of another element and the release of an alpha particle.
6.Lutetium – 176 plus a bombarding particle results in the formation of lutetium – 177 and gamma rays.
7. Gold – 197 plus a bombarding particle results in the formation of mercury – 197 and a neutron
8. K capture of a beryllium – 7.
9. B 10 (n, 2) X (nuclear transmutation) shorthand method of writing a nuclear equation
10. Write the complete nuclear equations for the successive decay of lead – 211 by beta, alpha and beta
emission.
11. Fission of uranium – 236 forming bromine – 87 and lanthanum – 146 plus neutron.
12. Fusion of carbon ‐12 plus + helium – 4 results in the formation of oxygen – 16 and a decaying particles
13. Technetium‐99 is prepared from 98Mo. Molybdenum‐98 combines with a neutron to give molybdenum‐99, an unstable isotope
that emits a β particle to yield an excited form of technetium‐99, represented as 99Tc*. This excited nucleus relaxes to the ground
state, represented as 99Tc, by emitting a γ ray. The ground state of 99Tc then emits a β particle. Write the equations for each of these
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nuclear reactions.
Uses and applications of nuclear reactions:
• Preparations of new elements,

• In cancer therapy, diagnosis and research,

• Radioactive tracers for a chemical reactions,

• Use of nuclear reactions to produce power like electricity,

• To determine the age of materials and its origin.

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Biological effect of radiation
Man is continually bombarded by radiation from both natural and
artificial resources; such as exposure to
• infrared, ultraviolet, and visible radiation from the sun,
• radio waves from radio and television stations,
• microwaves from microwave ovens,
• radioactivity from the soil and other natural resources.
• x‐rays, CT Scan and MRI from various medical procedures.

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Quantitative aspects of Nuclear chemistry : Nuclear decay
• All radioactive elements disintegrate according to their specific half – life.

• The half life of a radioactive substance is the time required for half of the initial number
of nuclei to disintegrate.

• It measures the time it takes for a given amount of the substance to become reduced
by half as a consequence of decay, due to the emission of radiation.

• The time that it takes for half of a given amount of a radioactive isotope to disintegrate
or decay.

• The constant decay rate, k ; expresses the speed at which a substance disintegrates.

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Example of specific half –life
Time (years) Amount of Sr – 90 (in g)
left after each half life
Strontium 90 0 100
Half‐life: 28.8 50

28.8 years 57.6 25

86.4 12.5
115.2 6.25
144 3.125
172.8 1.5625
201.6 0.78125
230.4 0.390625

https://www.nuclear‐power.net/nuclear‐power/reactor‐physics/atomic‐nuclear‐physics/radioactive‐decay/radioactive‐decay‐law/
http://www.tpub.com/doemathematics/mathematics60.htm
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Example of specific half –life

https://www.nuclear‐power.net/nuclear‐power/reactor‐physics/atomic‐nuclear‐physics/radioactive‐decay/radioactive‐decay‐law/
http://www.tpub.com/doemathematics/mathematics60.htm 58
Example:
Using radioactive technetium, Tc‐99m :
• a radioactive tracer for brain tumor, kidney (determine the
flow of urine and also for the thyroid)
• It is injected into the blood system
• It emit gamma radiation
• It has a half – life of 6 hours

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 Application: Nuclear decay
Medical Aspects:
99Tc (Technetium, Tc‐99m) – used to detedt brain tumors, nodular goiter, urine flowrate.
24Na – allows doctors to follow the movement of Na ions in the kidneys.
15O – used in PET (positron emission tomography) to monitor blood flow.
Radiotherapy uses gamma emitters like:
60Co – to kill cancer cells.
Radioactive labelling for indirect gamma emitters (assignment)
C‐14
F‐18
H‐3
I‐131
Na‐24
Sr‐89
Industrial Aspects:
242Am – alpha emitter used in smoke detectors.
Gamma sources use to sterilize food and medical kits
Gamma sources used to detect leaks in pipes
Beta sources can be used in automatic filling machines
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 Disintegration of nuclei and half – life
Mathematical equation:
ln [N] t = – k t + ln [N] 0
Where:

[N] t = amount/concentration or number of nuclei remaining at

anytime, t
[N] 0 = amount/concentration or number of nuclei initially present
or concentration or amount
k = rate of decay, /s (or ‐s) 61
t = amount of time, s
Disintegration of nuclei and half – life
Mathematical equation:
Half life, t ½
ln  12  0 .693
t 12  
k k

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Disintegration of nuclei and half – life
By using these two equations:
ln  12  0 .693
ln [N] t = – k t + ln [N] o t 12  
k k
• it is possible to calculate how much of a nuclear substance will be left after
a certain time, [N] t

• how much of a substance originally existed, [N] o

• The age of an ancient material, t

A common example is isotopic dating or carbon dating in which the ages of

archeological artifacts are determined by measuring the activity of the
isotopes.
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Problems:
1. The half life of a specific element was calculated to be 5200 yr.
Calculate the decay constant (k).
t ½ = 0.693/k
k = 0.693/ t ½
k = 0.693/ 5200 yr = 1.333 x 10 ‐4 / yr.

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Problems:
2. If a watch contains a radioactive substance with a decay rate of 1.40x10‐2 /year and after
50 years only 25 mg remain, calculate the amount originally present.
Given: k= 1.40 x 10 – 2/yr t = 50 years [N]t = 25 mg.
Rqd: [N]0
Solution: ln[N]t = ‐k t + ln[N]o
ln[N]o = ln[N]t + k t
= ln[25 mg] + 1.40 x 10 ‐2 /yr (50yr)
ln[N]o = 3.9189 mg
[N]o = shift ln 3.9189 mg
[N]o = 50.34 mg

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Problems:
3. Uranium‐235 has a half‐life of 7.04 x 108 years. How many years will it take for 99.9%
of a U‐235 sample to decay?
Given t1/2 = 7.04x10 8 years [N]t = 100‐99.9 = 0.1% [N]o = 100%
Rqd: t
Solution: ln [N]t = ‐kt + ln [N]o
t = ln [N]t –ln [N]o / ‐ k
solve first decay rate constant k using t1/2 = 0.693/k
k = 0.693/t ½ = 0.693/7.04 x 10 8 yrs.
k = 9.844 x 10 ‐10 /yr
t = ln(0.1) – ln (100) / ‐9.844 x10 – 10/ yr
t = ‐2.303 – 4.605 / ‐9.844 x10 – 10/ yr
t = 7,017 yrs.

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 Problems:
1. Thallium – 201 has a half – life of 73 hours. If 14.0 mg of Thallium – 201 disintegrates over a period of 6.00
days and 2.00 hours, how many milligrams will remains?

2. The half – life of radioactive isotope X is 2.00 years. How many years would it take a 4.00 gram sample of X
to decay and have only 0.500 g of X remain?

3. Calculate the half – life if 1.20 mg of a radioactive isotope decays to 0.30 mg in 40 minutes.

4. Zinc – 65 accounts for 50% or more of the total radioactivity in fish exposed to a nuclear fission explosion.
Zinc – 65 decays by positron emission and has a half – life of 245 days.
A) Write the nuclear equation for this reaction.
B) If 1.0 µg of zinc ‐65 is formed in a fish, how many days will it take to have just 0.250 µg of zinc – 65.
NOTE: The 0.25 µg of zinc – 65 remains in the fish whether the fish lives or dies; but if it is caught
and eaten by people, the zinc – 65 residues will remain in people who ate the fish.

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 Problems:
5. The half‐life of tritium is 12.3 years. If 48.0 mg of tritium is released from a nuclear power plant during the course of an accident, calculate the mass
(in mg) of the nuclide that will remain after 5.0 years.

6. Strontium‐90 is one of the harmful nuclides resulting from nuclear fission explosions. Strontium‐90 decays by beta particle emission with a half‐life
of 28.0 years. How long (in years) would it take for 99.0% of a sample of strontium‐90 released in an atmospheric test of an atomic bomb to decay?

7. The first orange "Fiestaware" dishes contained salts of uranium as pigments. If one of these "Fiestaware" dishes initially contained 0.50 g of uranium‐
238, calculate how long it would take (in years) for the uranium‐238 to decay to 0.25 g. For uranium‐238, t1/2 = 4.5 x 109 years.

8. An archeologist unearths a bone sample and wants to know the age of the bone. Her chemist friend determines that 45.3% of the initial amount of
carbon‐14 is present in the bone sample. If the half‐life of carbon‐14 is 5730 years, calculate the age (in years) of the bone.

9. The carbon‐14 activity of some ancient Peruvian corn was found to be 10 disintegrations per minute per gram. If present‐day plant life shows 15
disintegrations per minute gram, how old is the Peruvian corn? The half‐life of carbon‐14 is 5,730 years.
10. An archeologist unearths a bone sample and wants to know the age of the bone. Her chemist friend determines that 41.7% of the initial amount of
carbon‐14 in the bone sample has decayed. If the half‐life of carbon‐14 is 5730 years, the age of the bone is.

11. An ancient wood sculpture was determined to be 2380 years old. Calculate the percentage of the carbon‐14 originally present in the wood that
remains today. For carbon‐14: t1/2 = 5730 years.
12. What is the half‐life of a 100.0 g sample of nitrogen‐16 that decays to 12.5 g of nitrogen‐16 in 21.6 s?
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