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Park, New Deli 110 017, Inia, ted in india by Saurbh Printers, shortcontents Prefice Acknowledgments chapter multimedia communications Ad eduction "712 Mulia information representation JAS Mulimedia neworks 714 Mulimmedia applications 15 Application and networking terminology 16 Summary chapter 2. multimedia information representation 221 Introduction 1/22 Digiaon principles Za Ten AB Audio conpresion “48 Video compresion et Summary 5 2s 2 Bn 25 4 53 n 7” 9 96 no us ry 138 138 139 146 ee 190 195 195 195 215 255 chapter5 standards for mattimedia communications 5. Introduction 5. Reference models 5.8 Standards relating to interpersonal 154 Standards relating to interactive applications ‘over the Internet. 5:5 Standard for entertainment applications 56 Summary chapter 6 digital communication basics 61 Introduction 62 Tranamison media, 63 Sources of signal impalement 644 Agmehronous wanamisson 65 Sychronous wansmision 66 Error detecon methods {67 Protocol basis 68 The HDLC protocol 6.9 Summary chapter circuit-switched networks 7 Inoducton 72 Transmission ateme 173 Switching stems 74 Signaling stems 73 Summary chapter 8 enterprise networks 81 tnoduction 82 LAN 3 Ethemney/EEESO2S 8.4 Token ring 261 261 262 268 200 275 283 309 309 313 sat 333 340 49 358 385 398 400 400 408 479 am a4 415 6 485‘eantets eed LAN rotocols te LAN interconnection Aogies ay the internet, grams entation and seassemby Trees snd RARP 1g algorithms support "PP ink ayer protocol ‘Pet imteroperabiliy sary © broadband ATM networks duction format and avitching principles charehltecures col architecture (LANs (MANS ‘caren ATM networks mary 11 entertainment networks ‘and high-speed modems duction te TV neworks Alte television networks restial televsion ners Inspeed PSTN access technologies mary 500 516 sa a3 49 559 6 68 sn 518 57 583 25, 620 637 655 660 668 60 os 679 69 703 m4 a ra a1 a2 139 ™ 78 785 chapter 12 transport protocols 7121 Introduction (A22 TCP/IP protocol suite ‘avs teP “124 Up (A2S RTP and RICP “126 Sunmary chapter 13 application support functions 13:1 Invodvetion 152 ASNI 133 Seeuriy 124 Data encryption 185 Nonrepudiation 135 Authentication 187 Public key cerification auhorides 138 Sommary chapter 14 Internet applications 141 Tawrodueton 142 Domain name sytem 143 Electronic ait M44 FIP M45 Tre 1146 Internet telephony 147 SNMP 148 Summary chapter 15 the We 181 Inodveton 152 URLeand HTTP 153 HTML 15a Audio and video 158 Java and JavaScript 156 Secarity 15.7 Web operation 15.8 Summary Appendix A ‘Appendix B Bibliography Index td Wide Web CRC implementation Forward eror control ‘a. fp contents 8 chapter 1 ry 352 aie est 67 ‘7 883 85 14 890, aot 15. 296 oT 908 925 sat a 16 chapter 2 an os. 22 23 24 ‘multimedia communications Introduction ‘Multimedia information representation ‘Multimedia networks 1.3.1 Telephone nevworks 132 Data networks 113.3 Broadcast television newworks 134 Integrated services digial nevworks 11355 Broadband multiservice networks ‘Multimedia applications 14.1 Interpertonal communications 1:42 Interactive applications over the Internet 143 Entertainment applications “Application and neworking terminclogy 15.1 Media ypes 15.2 Communication modes 1.53 Network ypes 154 Mulépoint conferencing, 1.55 Network QoS 1.56 Application QoS Summary Exercises ‘multimedia information representation Introduction Digitization principles 2.3.1 Analog signals 2.2.2 Encoder design 22.3 Decoder design Text 23.1 Unformatted text 23.2 Formatted text 2.3.3 Hypertext Images 2.4.1 Graphics 2.4. Dightzed documents 2 om 2 26 2 2 38 M 46 5 53 36 st 63 6 n 8 ” » 80 89 oo 8 9625 26 27 chapter 3 a 32 33 a chapter 4 ay 42 2.4.3 Digitized pictures Audio 25.1 PCM speech 25.2 CD-quality aio 25.3 Synthesized audio Video 26.1 Broadeast television 2.62 Digital video 263 PC video 2.8.4 Video content Summary Exercises text and image compression Tetroduetion Compression principles 32.1 Source encoders and destination decoders 32.2 Losses and losy compression 323 Enuropy encoding 324 Source encoding ‘Text compresion 331 State Huffman coding 33.2 Dynamic Huffman coding 333 Arithmetic coding 3.34 Lempel-Ziv coding 3.3.5 Lempel-ZivWelsh coding Image eomprenion 3.41 Craphies interchange format 3.42 Tagged image fle format 8.43 Digitized documents 8.4.4 Digitized pictures 3445 JPEG Sumary Exercises audio and feo compression Introduction ‘Audio compression 421 Differential pulse code modulation 422 Adaptive differential PCM 423 Adaptive predictive coding 100 ne ue us us us uo na 13 138 14 135 138 138 139 139 139 40 M3 146 16 182 156 158 159 162 163 164 166 1m mm . 190 19 195 195, 195 196 199 201 4a 44 chapter 5 5a 52 58 54 424 Linear predictive coding 425 Codecxcited LPC 42.6 Perceptual coding 42.7 MPEG audio coders 4.2.8 Dolby audio coders ‘Video compression 43:1 Video compression principles 432 H261 433 269 43.4 MPEG 435 MPEG1 436 MPEG2 437 MPECA Summary Exercises standards for multimedia communications Inwrodscon | Reference model 5.21 TCP/IP reference model 5.2.2 Protocol basics oe Standards relating to interpersonal comm 53.1 Circuitmode networks 5.32 Packerovitched networks 5.8 Elecuonic mail ser een Suajdards relating to interactive applications over the ls 5.4.1 Information browsing 342 Elecironic commerce 543 Intermediate mens SAA Java and JavaScript Standards for entertainment applications 5.5.1 Movie/videoonsiemand 555. Interactive slevision Summary Exercises igital communication basics Introduction ‘Transmission media 6.2.1 Tworwice open lines 82.2 Twisted airlines cons | 9 201 203, 24 207 212 215 216 25 29 237 238 242 246 255, 237 261 261 262 365 281 268 270 278 286 200 29 203 295 207 298 3, 207 309 309) 313, au aie63. 64 65 68 67 6s, 69 chapter 7 623 Coaxial cable 6.24 Optical fiber 6.25 Satellites 6.2.6 Terrestrial microwave 6.2.7 Radio 6.28 Signal propagation deby Sources of signal impairment 63.1 Auenvation 6.3.2 Limited bandwidth 63.3 Delay distortion 63.4 Noise Asynchronous transmission 64.1 Bitmnchronization 6.42 Character smichronization 6.43 Frame synchronization Synchronous transmission 65.1 Bit smchronization 65.2 Characteroriented 853 Bicoriented Error detection methods 6.6.1 Parity 6.6.2 Block sum check 6.6.8 Cyclic redundancy check Protocol basics 62.1 Error control 6.2.2 Idle RQ 6.23 Continous RQ 6.2.4 Flow control 6.7.5 Séquence numbers 6.76 Layered architecture 6.2.7 Protocol specification 8.78 User service primitives ‘The HDLC protocol Summary Exercises circuit-switched networks Introduction Transinision systems 7.2.1 Analog subscriber lines 72.2 PSIN modems 72.8 Digital subscriber fines 72.4 Plesiochronous digital hierarchy an an a sie set 35 396 23. 14 15 chapter 8 88. 89 810 chapter 9 on 92 93 725 Synchronous digital hierarchy Switching systems 732 Time switching TR2 Space switching, 7.33 Digital switching units Signaling systems TALL Access network signaling 742 Trunk network signaling Summary Exercises networks. Introduction LANs Exherniet/IEEE8023 Token ring Bridges 85.1 Transparent bridges 85.2 Source routing bridges FDpI igh speed LANS 87:1 Fast Ethernet 87.2 Switched Fast Ethernet 8.7.8 Gigabit Ethernet LAN protocols 88.1 Physical layer 88.2 MAC sublayer 883 LLC cublayer 884 Network Iner : -Mullisite LAN interconnection technologies 89.1 Intersive gateways 8.9.2 ISDN switched connections 89.3 Frame relay 8.9.4 High bitrate leased tines ‘Summary Exercises ‘the Internet Introduction IP datagraras Fragmentation and reassembly ry 40 “a 46 a8 “9 461 a0 a am 45 476 485, 500 sor si 516 a1 sa 539 sar sis a8 545 580 551 54 587 564 568 smContents 4 95. 96 97 98 99 910 aan oe ‘chapter 10 ya 104 103 104 addresses 841 Subnets AARP and RARP 95.1 ARP 952 BARP 9353 ARP/RARP message formats 0 tans Routing algorithms 961 Satie routing 962 Flooding 9163 Distance vector routing 964 Linkstateshortentpathiiet rowing 9.65 Hierarchical routing 9656 Clasessinterdomain routing 96.7 Tunneling 868. Broadcast routing 9.69. Mulicas routing 96.10 IGMP 96.1 Mebone loMP 9.3.1 ICMP message formas and wansmision QoS support 9B. Invegrated services 28.2 Differentiated sersices The PPP link layer protocol 16 910. Datagram format 9810.2 Address structure 2.10.3 Extension headers 9.104 Autotontiguration 1146 /1Pv4 interoperability 9:1. Dual peotocots 9.112 Dual sacks and eneling 9.113 Translators Summary Exercises broatband ATM networks Introduction, Call format and switching principles Switch architectures Protocol architecture 104.1 ATM adaptation layer 30.42 ATM layer a ros ATM LANs ss 105.1 Cal procesing me 106 KEMMANS o so THD Subnet archi 262 Protocol arhiectre = 1083 Queved arbitrate aces protocol a 10.6.4 Bandwidth balancing oe 10.65 Peioritized distributed queuing oon 10.6.6 Sot and segmem Sorsats al 10.6.7 SMDS oo 10.7 Wide area ATM networks oes 108 Sumeary Exerelien sos 600 = yedems oa chopter 11 entertainment networks and highspeed os 111 Insodction ea 112 Cable TV networks e 11.2.1 HFC networks Ca 11.3. Satellite television networks oe 11.3.1 Broadcast television principles So 11132 Digital television na 11.33 Interactive services “a 114 Terrestrias television newworks ls os LAT Broadcast television prineipl ois 1142 Dig television a 11.43 Interactive services ies ee ALS Highapeed PSTN access technolog! oe 115.1 ADSL ea 11.5.2 VDSL_ = 11.6 Summary a Exercises 662 chapter 12 _ transport protocols ] 12.1 Introduction te 122 TCP/IP protocol suite a 123 TCP on 1281 User services om 1282 Protec operation oe 12.3.3 Additional features bald < 1284 Protocol specification Contents B x9 65 Ww 705 07 no m ns 78 720 ™ mm m8 a a 732 736 159 761 766 m0 ™ m ms TH 78 79 1 728 181 co 01 2 704 705 500 as 833,124 125 126 chapter 13 11 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 chapter 14 4a M42 M3 upp 124.1 User services 12.42 Protocol operation RIP and RCP 1251 RIP application support functions Introduction ASN. 1821 Type definitions 132.2 Transfer syntax Security Data encryption 1841 Terminology 13.42 Basic techniques 13.43 The data eneryption standard 1344 IDEA 13.45 The RSA algorithm Nonrepuciation Authentication 136.1 Using a public key system 13.62 Using a private key stern Public key certification authorities Summary Exercises internet applications Introduction Domain name system 142.1 Name structure and administration 14.22 DNS resource records 142.3 DNS query messages 1424 Name servers 1425 Service requests Elecronie mail 14.3.1 Structure of email messages 14.8.2 Message content 143.3 Message wansfer 144 7 48 chapter 15, 151 152 153 4 155 156 187 FIP 14.41 Overview 14.42 File content representation 14.43 FIP operation 1444 Command and reply message format 1445 Example 1446 Anonymous FTP ‘TFIP 145.1 Protocol Internet telephony 1461 SP 1462 SDP 1463 GLP ‘SNMP 14.71 Structure of management information 14.72 Prowocol Summary Exercises ‘The World Wide Web Introduction URLsand HTTP 1521 URLs 1522 HTTP HTML 159.1 Text format directives 15.82 Lists 1533 Color 15.34 Images and lines 1535 Tables 153.6 Forms and OGI scripts 1537 Webmail 15.38 Frames ‘Audio and video 15.41 Streaming using a Web server 1542 Streaming servers and RTSP Java and JavaScript 155. Java 1552 JavaScript Security 156.1 SSL 1562 SET Web operation 5 925, 925 926 927 9 3st 931 932 935 937 939 ont 48 947 951 955, 956 987 960 966 967 970 73 7 78 985 98 987 990 995 997 1000 1000 1008, 1006ae REN” 15.21 Seach Engines 106 1e12 Porat _ ss preface Bowne us ‘endix A CRC implementation 1015 endixB Forward error control 1019 graphy 1030 Index 108 Objectives ‘Multimedia communications embraces a range of applications and network: ing infrastuctures, The term multimedia is used to indicate that the information/data relating to an application may be composed of a number of different types of media which are integrated together in some way. The different media types are tex, images, speech, audio and video and some example applications are video telephony (speech and video), multimedia electronic mail (tex, images and audi for example), interactive television (text, audio and video), electronic commerce (text, images, audio and video), Web TV (text, audio and video) and many others In practice, there are a number of different types of network that are used to provide the networking infrastructure, These include not only net ‘works that were designed from the outset to provide multimedia communication services ~ normally referred to as broadband multiservice networks ~ but also nensorks that were designed initially to provide just 2 single type of service and its asa result of advances in various technologies that these can now support a range of other (multimedia) services. For exam- ple, public (and private) switched telephone networks (PSTNs) were ‘designed initially to provide a basic telephony service but they are now used to support a range of more advanced multimedia applications involving all of the different media types. Similarly, computer networks such as the Interne, ‘which were designed inially to provide generat data communication serrces such as electronic mail and file transfers, can now support a much richer set ‘of multimedia applications, In terms ofthe different types of media, text and images are generated, and represented in a digital form, Speech, audio and video, kowever, are gen ‘erated in the form of continuously varying ~ normally referred to a8 analog ~ signal. Hence in order to integrate al of the different media types together, itis necessary to fist convert the various analog signals into a digital form. ‘The integrated digital information stream can then be stored within a com- puter and transmitted over a network in a unified way. In addition, unlike {ext and images which are created in the form of a single block of digital information, since speech, audio and vileo are continuously varying signals, digizaton process can produce lage volumes of information which car Yies on increasing with time. Hence in most multimedia applications, in MT TE ETE MRS TS SA NR ILSChabter mura cima 1.2 ‘The applications may involve either person-to-person communications or Persondosystem communications. In general, two people communicate with cach other through suitable terminal equipment (TE) while a person inter- acts with a system using either a multimedia personal computer (PC) or ‘workstation. Typically, dese are located either in the home of on a desktop nan office and the ystem isa server containing a collection of files or doct- ‘ments each comprising digitized text, images, audio, and video information either singly or integrated together in some wi. Alternatively, the server may contain a library of digitized movies/videos and the user interacts with the server by means ofa suitable selection device that is connected to the settop. box (STB) associated with a television, In practice, there are a numberof diferent types of network that are used to provide the networking infrastructure, These include not only networks {hat were designed from the outset to provide multimedia communication ser vies butalso networks that were designed initalyto provide just a single ype of service andit isasa result of advances in various technologies that these can "ow provide a range of other services. For example, public switched telephone ‘networks (PSTN) also known as general switched telephone networks (GSTNs) ~ were designed intially to provide a basic switched telephone ser vice but, as a result of advances in digital signal processing hardware and associated software, they now provide a range of more advanced services involving text, images, and video. Similarly, data networks that were designed Initially o support basic data applications such as electronic mail and file \wansfers, now support a much richer set of applications that involve images, audio, and video, In this chapter we shall present an overview of, firstly, how the different media types ae represented, secondly, the different types of network that are Used to provide multimedia communication services, and thirdly, a selection ofthe applications that these networks support. Finally, we describe the mean- ‘ng ofa range of terms tha are associated with multimedia communications. Multimedia information representation Appliationsinvoing ext and images comprise blocs of digi. data. tn de case of text for example a piel unt ira block of characters wir ec chara? ter presented bya fixed numberof binary dig (its) own a codeword. Similar dined image comprises ewodimensional Black of what are called pictre elements with each element represented bya fked number of bits Aso, since pial pplication ivohing text and images comprises short ‘eyes for sme afrmaton = efor example and le contents beng returned he dation ofthe overall ansaction seal shore Jn applicators involving audio and video, however, the audio and vidéo signals ry continuo ith time as the amplitade ofthe speech, abo or video signal Yares This ype of signal i known san alg signal and, yp cally the duration of applications that involve audio and/or ideo ean be 23 matimedla eters {25 relatively long. A typical tel one conversation, for example, can last for se * eral minutes while a movie (comprising audio and video) ean last for @ tuber of bour In applications tat ino usta ingle ype of mei the bas form of representation ofthe paral media pes ened Siar nape Sone tat nave eer tetandsnages or audhoandidco thr form is often wed since the wo media ypes in thee applications have the eae form of representation. However, it appicton tat involve he diferent tmeia ypes tegrated together in sme way, comes neces to pre sata four media pest digital frm Inte case of tet and age th is their standard form of representation. For audio and video, however, beast ther aie forms ct epresenation ae analog gal these mst be converted into a coresponing digital form before they can be negra wih de to other media pes ‘swe shal dexribe ir he next chapter, the dgization ofan dio signal produces egal sgl which, becaute the amplitude ofthe sig tales cominuoty ith nei ofa rlavey high bt rte This mesure in bits per second (ope) ad, in the cat of speech saga for example, a pia birt tps Noreover, becasesppicaionsinvling ae can be of long drain, his bic ate must be sstained over amex tong tine period The same applet the dghizaton of» ido signal excep tat tnuc highcr bit ates ane longer time duration are invobe. In genera, Romever swe shall xpand upon inthe next section, the commoncaon retorts that are wed t port appieton hat invole audio and ie Canmot suppor the very hgh bit estat are required for representing these media pes ina dgal form. Ava rl a techngue lon as com preston ise appied vo the dighied signals m order to reduce the Feraing bitrate to level which the various nebrorke ean support Gompresion iso applied to text and images in order to reduce the tne dei nemeen x req being made fr some information an the informa ton becoming aasle on ay the screen ofa computer We all esi ‘Secon ofthe compres agora tat are ued vil ext and ages in Ghapier and those wed vith audio and video in Chapter 4 Multimedia networks ‘There are five basic ypes of communication network that are used to provide ‘multimedia communication services: telephone networks, data nesworks, broadcast television nesworks, integrated services digital networks, ‘Ym broadband muldservice networks.1-1 Muttinsia communications 131 [As the names imply, the first three network types were initially designe to provide justa single type of service: telephony, data communications, and broadcast television respectively. The last two network types, however, were designed from the outset to provide multiple services. We shall describe the essential features of each wype of network separately and, inthe case ofthe first three network types, the technological developments that have enabled them to provide additional services Telephone networks Public sviched telephone neoworks have been in existence for many years fh hove gone through many changes daring thie ime, They were designed to provide a tac sutched telephone service which, with the advent ofthe ‘ther network ypes has become known a plain ad telephone service or POTS. The term “iced” ned eo indicate data sbseiber can make a call t any other telephone thats connected tothe ‘oral network. nial, Soch networks spanned jus single county but ater the telephone neworks of deren counties were interconnected so thst they now provide an inter ‘anal oitched service The main components of the netrork are shown ia Gigrammati form in Figure 11(). ‘swe canst, telephones loested i the home orin a small busines are connected direct their nearest local exchange/end offic, Those located sn'a medium ole olfce/site are connected to agate siching office frown as private branch exchange or PBX, The PBX provides (re) Switched sevice between any two telephones that are connected tit Io Addon, the PBX s connected to is nearest local (publi) exchange which ables the telephones that are connected tothe PBX also to make calls through a PSTN. More recent, cellar phone networks have been into- duced which provide a similar service to mobile sunecribers by means of handsets tate linked to the celular phone network inrastrvctre by Tati The svitches used ina celular phone network are known 2s moi ‘itching centers (MSCs) and these, ike a PBX, ae alto connected 10 & Srthing office in'a PSTN which enables both set of sublerbers to make fall to one another Final, international als are rote to nd shed by {aternationalgteway exchanges (IGE), ‘swe indented cari, speech sgoal s analog sig sie it wares continuously with time according to the amplitde ard Feuency variations ofthe sound reuting from the speech, A lerophone rset conver this Sito an analog electra ina, Besse of thi, telephone networks operate inhatsaled a cet mode which means that, foreach ll separate cir tuts setup through the network ~ of the necesiry capacity ~ fr the Guration of the call The access cet that ink Ue telephone handsets fo a PSTN or PBX were designed, therefore, to carry the tworay analog sigals tssociated wth al Hence, although within a PSTN all the sitches and the transmission circuits that interconnect them now operate in a digital mode, fedigoxces’ —Peiog axes Hone/seal 13 Mutimeda eters | 7 Nee PSTN 7 oar sn Coa shoe a now Se ‘eeshone roo — slog aces ew XE = be echonge/ond lice sth "= bi sec lepers a elaredaternh Fix pine tionsechonge EGSe © evap mle eiing coer Ge Bowartnd gsewoy echoes dor steers —— Andon cca Hightawe —>]Chapter 1 ultieslaconmuriatons 13.2 to carry digital signal~a stream of binary Is and Ox ~ over the analog access circuits requires device known asa modem. The general scheme isshown in Figure 1.1(). Essentially, at the ending side, the modem converts the digital signal ‘output by the source cigital device into an analog signal that is compatible ‘with a normal speech signal. This is routed through the network in the sume way asa speech signal and, at the receiving side, the modem converts the analog signal back again into its digital form before relaying this othe dest- nation digital device. Modems also have the necessary circuits to set up and. terminate a call, Hence by using a pair of modems ~ one at each subseriber access point ~ a PSIN can also be used to provide a switched digital service. The early modems supported only avery low bit rate service of 30bps but a result of advances in digital signal processing cireuite, modems are now available that support bit rates of up to 56Rbps. As we shall expand upon in Chapter 4, this is sufficient to support, not only applications that comprise ‘ext and images integrated together, but also services that comprise speech, and low-resolution video, In addition, continuing advances in digital signal processing techniques ‘mean that modems are now available for use with the same access circuits ‘that provide a high bitrate channel which is in addition tothe speech chan nel used for telephony. Typically the bitrate of this second channel is such {dt it can support high-resolution audio and videa and hence they are used. to provide access to servers that support a range of entertainmentzelated. applications. The general scheme is shown in Figure 1.1(¢) and, a we shall, see in Chapter 4, such applications require bitrates in excess of 1.5 Mbps, ‘This illustrates the technological advances that have been made inthis area since the early modems were introduced in the early 1960s and, as we can deduce ffom this, a PSTN can now support not only speech applications but lso'a wide range of other multimedia communication applications Data networks Data networks were deigned to provide basic data Zommunication services such as eleéGaic tail (email) and general file ransfers. The user euip meni Yonfetted to thee networks, thefefore, iia computer such as a PC,a \woitsston, or an email/fle cetver. The two most widely deployed networks ‘of this ype are the X95 network andthe Internet. Because ofits operational mode, however, the X.25 network is restricted to relatively low bitrate data applications and hence is unsuitable for most multimedia applications. ‘The nent a up ofa vast collection of interconnected networs all of which operate using the me set of communication protooos, A communi cation protocol is an agreed set of rules that ate adhered to by all communicating parties for the exchange of information. The cules define noc only the sequence of messages that are exchanged between the communicating Parties but alo the syntox of these messages. Hence by using the same set of 1.2 A butettidn ofthe network types connected tothe Internet. 1.3 Multimedia networks | 29 ‘communication protocols, all the computers that are connected tothe Internet «can communicate freely with each other irrespective oftheir ype or manus: ‘turer. This also the origin of the term “open systems interconnection”. Figure es of inlerconnected network 1.2 shows selection ofthe different Das FC oan i Sever compar Gb brat bocion eh Des FC/wain Sacompus pi BS ack LAN = bel ona reat G/W= goxwoy IBDN = eg series dil ntverk‘swe can se, nthe ease of 2 usr at home or in smal busines acces th the Internets through an intermediate Internet service provider (ISP) net ‘work. Normally, since this type of ser wants access to the Internet intermittently, the user devices are connected to the ISP network either through a PSTN with modems or through an lacograted services tgital network (ISDN} ‘hich, as we shall explain in Section 1.3.4, provides aces ata higher bitrate. ‘Aternaely busines users obtain aces ether trough ate /eampat network ifthe business comprises only a single site of, if i comprises maliple ates, !hroogh an enterprisewide private network. The sre approach used by most colleges and unierstes. In the case ofa single sit/campus, the network ‘nom asa (priate) lea area network or LAN. Foran enteprsevide network comprising muliple tes He sts are interconnected together wing an inker- site backbone network to provide a set of enterprise wide communication Services. In aon, providing the eambnicaton protocols Used by all he computes connected io the network ae the same as those defined for ie with the tre, then ll the users alo have acess othe range of series provided. ty the faternet The enterprise network's then known as an intranet since all internal services are provided using the same set of eommunicaon protools a8 those defined for the lnternet. The diferent types of neovork are ll connected to the Internet backbone network through an interworking ni called 2 gat ‘7a which, because its responsible for routing and relaying all sages to and from the connected network, i also Rov as rottr. All data neworks operate in what called packet mode, Eset, a padet isa container fora Block of data and, ats hadi dhe adres ofthe Jntended recipient computer which i wed to roe the packet through the network, Tht mode of operation was chosen since the forat ofthe data associated with data applications is normally i the form of dicrete blocks of text or binary data with varying time inervatebecween each block. More recently, however, mnulimedia PCs have become available that soppott a range of other applications. For example, with the addiion ofa microphone nd a par of speakers together with & sound card and asiodated software digitize the speech ~ PCr are now weed to support telephony and other speech-elated applications. Similarly, withthe addition of a video'caméra and asocsted hardvare and software a range of other appliajons aok video ean be supported. Also ince thei introdiction, higher tre an zission ciecvits ad rowing odes have become avalsble and eb] ‘expand upon in Chapters 3 and 4, more efficient algorthins to reprexent speech, audio, and vdeo ina digital form. Collective therelor; th means that packet mode networks ~ and the Internet in partculat~ now support ‘noc only generat data communication applications but aly. range-sE other rmulimedis communication applications Involving speech, ai, and video. Broadcast television networks Broadcast television neiworks were designed to support the diffusion of analog television (and radio) programs throughout wide geographical areas In the case ofa large town or tity the broadcast medium is normally a cable 1.3 Multimedia netoris | 30 sepvorkoometines tasvwion network wile for larger ares, 2 satite “ care atadoat newrk sted Since ther nvoducton, gt ev rr egtn ecme avn with ese nto nih togetier wh Seiten urn channel for nrectonpurpoe,proide ge of caer tere such games paying and home sopping. The gee wasn ble amaution meter nd 2 stellt trent Broa se srrk re dow in Figure 1) and (0 respecte . pcm ein Fare St) he vip toad heal i wri Sat ross not oy contol ofthe teenon hate cra fp secs to oer evs or exunple hen abe modem @ sty o Soni rata S18 = sep box wih ite aden 5: (8) cable networks; Figure 1.3 Broadcast television networks: (a) cal () satelite/terrestrial broadcast networks.Chapter 1 Multimedia communion: 13.4 is integrated into the STB this provides both a low bitrate channel and high bit ate channel from the subscriber back tothe cable head-end, Typically, the low bit rate channel is used to connect the subscriber to a PSTN and the high bit ate channel ta connect the subscriber tothe Internet. Hence in addition to providing basic broadcast radio and television services, cable distribution net ‘works azo provide acces to the range of multimedia communication services that are avilable with both a PSTN and the Internet. Similarly, as we can seein Figure 13(b), in the case of satellite and terrestrial broadcast neovorks, when a highspeed PSTN modem isintegrated into the STB this provides the subscriber vith an interaction channel so enhancing the range of services these networks "support. This is the origin ofthe term “interactive television”. Integrated services digital networks Integrated services dg neworks stated 0 be deployed in the ety 1960 dere cial designed to provide FSTW users wih te capably of Roving anal sce Thi was achieved ry hy converting he aces (rea tateonncet ter equipmen tothe network" tlephoge for exe Sie ino an adigial en aad secondly, by pronding wo separate imnican shanels over thee chet These Allow we ether hare two diferent ‘lephne cals in progres siallncou oro diferent ls tuck ars tepoe cl and a dtl, Wah an ISDN, eer, he aces Seis trove ss ight sbscribe lin (DSL) "The nlbrberclephone canbe ihe a digi phone or conenona analog one Inthe cao» gal phone te eeconk hat re needed oats analy vole sad Sal ep ignas int ig frm arene tated ito he plone hanact Wih analog phone, te une tons Siogued is he econ cmingon equipment co making the digi de Bi operation ofthe network wansparent othe subscriber phone. ‘awe hal duce nSeson 251 the dizaion oa clephone VCH fk Packet-mode ‘As we seein Figure 1,30, there are two ypes of packetmode network ounecionoriented (CO) aid connecdonkss (CL). The principe of pet = Gon of connecton-rinted aetwork i shown in Figure 1.20(8) and a P3 ae wcodt + WOH an se, it comprises an interconnected st of packstewiching exchanges : eee cn {PSts)."This ype of network is Known as packetovitched network and as witha Grcuiteytched network, each termi /compater tats connected to the peoyork has a unigue neworkode number addres asocaed with Wit a connection oriented network, asthe name implies, prior o sending Zn information, a connection i fs set up trough the network using the falesses of the source and destination terminals. However, in a pack Sriched newor, the conmecion/ereut Uats set opie only a arable portion ofthe bandwidth of each link and Bence the connection i known 3, eee {virta connection ox more usual, a vista cent (VC), Epon cere “To set up 2 VG, the source terminal/companer sends cll eit control packet oi local PSE which contains, in addition tothe adress ofthe Source and destination erminal/computer a short denier known a is tial crit identifier (VCI) Each PSE maintains a table that speciis the Chredatontig outgoing link that should be wed to reach each network adress and, on ec tecept ofthe call quest packet, the PSE. ss the destination address within the packet to determine the outgoing lin o be used The next fre ident fee (VCD for this ik is then selected and vo ene are made in routing tale The frst species the incoming ink’VCL and the coresponding owt going ink/VCl and the second, in order to route packets in the reverse directo, the inverse ofthese, a we showin the example in the Sigur. The call ropest packet is then forwarded on the selected outgoing link ard the Sine procedures ollowed at each PSEslng he route ul the despaion terminal compute i reached allecively, the VC hat areiused on the varius links for he cai an athe destination suming teal accepted al ele ‘it. The’ 02 ‘ug ole: VU/tnk) > VCs vend — voi fucket is requrned tothe source over the sme route/vrtal ire FRrormation tansfer phase ean ten start it, since a VCs now place, ly the VOI is needed in the packet heater insicad ofthe fll network-wide hres. Each PSE fst uses the incoming link/VCL wo determine the Out suing link/VCl rom the routing table. The exiting Vt inthe packet header Tent cre int replaced with that obtained fom the routing able andthe packets owe forwarded on the identified outgoing link. The same procedure is followed: mination odchest te return information in the reverse irecton and, when al information has bccn tanalerred exchanged, the VC is cleared and the appropriate VCIsare feleased by pasing a alr packet song the VC (b) connectionless,Chanter Multimedia communications Im contrast, with a connectionless network, the establishment of ac rection is not required and the to communicating terminals/compu fan communicate and exchange information as and when they wish. In ord to do this, however, as we show in Figure 120(b), each packet must cary full source and destination addresses in its header in order for each Pf to route the packet onto the appropriate outgoing ink. In a connection\ network, therefore, the term router is normally used rather than pact switching exchange. Tn both network types; as each packet is received by a PSE/router on: incoming link, iti stored in its entiety in a memory buffer. A check is th made to determine if any transmission/bit errors are present in the pacl hheader ~that isthe signal that is used to represent binary 0is corrupted af js interpreted by the receiver asa binary 1 and vice versa ~ and, if an error detected, the packet is simply discarded. The service offered by a pad svitched network is std, therefore, to bea besteffort service. IFno errors detected then the addresses/VCls carried in the packet header are read| determine the outgoing link that should be wsed and the packet is placed “queue ready for or warding on the selected outgoing link. All packets are t ‘ited at che maximum link bitrate, However, with this mode of operation, i possible for a sequence of packets to be received on a number of incom Finks all of which need forwarding on the same outgoing link. Hence a pac ‘may experience an additional delay while itis in the output queue for i siting tobe transmitted, Cleary, this delay wil be variable since it depends q the number of packets that are currently present in the quewe when an packet arrives for forwarding, This mode of operation is known as (pack Moreand-forward and, as we can see, there isa packet storeand forward del in each PSE/router, The sum of the storeand-forward delays in 1 * PSE/router contributes (o the overall transfer delay of the packet across network. The mean of this dela is known asthe mean packet transfer d tnd the variation about the mean the dlay variation ote. ‘An example of a packet-switched network that operates inthe conn tionless mode isthe Internet, which je shall describe in some detail Chapter 9. Two examples of networks that operate in the connect tented mode are the international X25 padkevsvitchingiebworkand A reworks. As we explained in Secod 1.8.2, X.25 network use iy for the wansfer of files containing text dhd binary dita betwegn lad “Computers. Because of the packet format that i used, the routing of pal is relatively slow with the effet tat the X25 network is unsuitable form tmullimedia applications. Ip comras, as we desried in Secipn 1.3.5, reworks have been designed from the outset © suppor all types of ml dia applications. This is achieved by using high bitrate interconnecting li Sd, once avrwal circuit has been setup, a very small fixedsized packet 53 bytes is used to transfer the information associated with the cal. E Small packet is known as a cell snd includes a short Sbyte header whi tables ells tobe suche atthe very high lnk bitrates that are use. I 1.9 Applicaton and metering termiology for this reaton that ATM necworks are also known as fast pack 3s Fast packet sitchin ‘works or sometimes cellswitching networks. We shall desente tie wen ‘Of ATM networks in Chapter 10 pera Multi ‘swe deeribedin Seton 1.4.1, malipoint conferencing fees inteipesonal applications including audio: and videorenferencng 1 sharing, and computer-supported cooperative working. Essentially h imvtve be exchange of information between thes oe a furs pace’ beemse of he diferent modes eae Sewresk per crutvitched and pachcrantched en a, ings implemented in ove of wo way convalzed snd oe ea Tis ceemeetd ea Wel yall ear aneger ee PSTN or an ISDN and, as we show in Figure 1.21 (a), with this mode z tcrminal/computer to be invaled in the confereneé nas Ren a eas nection to the server. Each terminal/computer then sends its ow = stream ~ comprising, say, audio, video, and data integrated together in g ways wer Sing ieesablahed connection eg er Toutes eter te media Sucamreeched froma ese oa ter or mix of the media seams recived from sever! term : computers back to all the other terminals/computers that Nes “Te dcenralzed mode i sed with packetaviched network hat portman communion Eras cel wera intraness, and the Internet. In this mode, as we show in Fi 1 ‘ win Figure 1210) culpa ofeach verminal/computcr i eccived bya he ener ese theconferene/mulean group. Hence conerae se used and Insicad it ix he reeponsibilty of each tercnralfec ne manage the information scams that reches ftom we ge ese trie nnn we yin shown Figure Ll (0 ands wwe cansee ts tnehene meee nali/computers that make up the conference are attached to diffe : sitet pes in dare dvd; ib confines ee ial bopuiehs; woeguached to a cicultawitthee sear pecketontched netk that oppor ulate ea ‘mode, a conference server is used and the o ve mpi euch ternal per iseno the sere either ve indidsl Creag eee centralized mode, it is the server that determines the output st a sent toeach terminal. ee {Asoc expand ln Seton 141 there re for ype of conferencing joint conferencing ‘= dar conferencing: this involves data only and ‘ ‘examples include data sharing and computeraupported coopertve woopESSE SE SE “ey 2 | on si cmon 15 pmtatnwdnenteo weit | to} With dat conferencing the information ow betnen he arious partes is rlaively nfvequent: Normal, Hrerefore, the conference server a general purpose computer with the conference fonction implemented in Sitar. ith te oer thee ype of conferencing, howe the itor Gon flows demand the use of special popore Unio, Inthe case of tdloconfesencing, the init alld an aud edge and piel nis supe port fom sn through to 43 conference paricpanis. With video and fnutedia conferencing, he unit called a mulpent contol ni (MCU) tnd bea of the vohune and rate ofthe infortaton being exchanged, normaly te centred mode of working ted wih both network ees “At MU consists of vo parte the fat ow a the slp cow teller (MC) prt and is concerned vith the exablnhment of contections tach ofthe convene paripans an wi he negoaon ofan aged se Of operational parameters ren teshuon,effesh rat and soon The Second part Known 5 the mpi proce (MP) and is concerned wth Peseta the dtaon ofthe information ste generated ring the conference es : “Tele incade such ncn 2 the ming o the ris mea seas Leet intoan ograted seam witeacoteaithing and continuous presence ‘When aking an audio bridge call scheduled for a particu date tim, and draion and everyone whois to ake pain the el signed 9 UserID and paswont Ac the appropriate ime al prspans call nad, afer they ate been vriied ten he conference, ey ean hear and speak tothe caer paicipaa In sna yen wing an MC, eal che tied afr an sudo ridge and, once the contents sats, och poreipant tan hee sce and Sore data wth the ctr porn Wi an MCU, how tye in sion tothe poiipantealing I own athe latin mode insome instances, the MU eal the parcpants~ he afout mode = which in general provides beter eur. In te vokeatated siching mode, the face of he parcipants die played in a window on the sercem ofthe prteipaserinal/ computer End ins second window the face ofthe (ems) patipant wh cu ees : tent talking, When anode print stars ofl the face of te new Q - ema omic or : speaker replaces the lage of the current remote payilpant. In the event of tho. (or more) panicipant satng alk mete he MCU nor Inlysnect the feaon who spent the lowe, Inthe conto presence tnede, hover he femote window is ded ito 9 munte of aller wi Gown each of which pay the ae of the st ve of partion who spoke cr nh are erent seating, With bch modes the Speceh fom al pace: ants normaly mined ine 8 single dem an hens each Patipa can Hvashea what irs by al the ther portipnt Crean or PINION ered 'W- audioconferencing: this involves ado (speech) only: , 1 videaconerencing: thie involves speech and video spichronivediand integrated together: |X multimedia conferencing: this involves speech, video, and data 15.5. Network QoS integrated together. F ‘The operational parameters associated with a communications channel through a network are known as the network Quality of Service (QoS) paranceters and collectively they determine the suitability of the channel“ Chapter Multimedia communications in relation to its use for a particular application. In practice, the QoS par meters associated with a circuitswitched network are different fron those associated with a packet-switched network and hence we shall discus cach separately Gircuit-switched network “The QoS parameters associated with a constant bitrate channel that is set uf through a ciruitswitched network include: wm thebit rate, the mean bit error rate, ‘© the transmission delay “The mean bit error rate (BER) of a channel isthe probability ofa bi being corrupted during its transmission across the channel in a defined time interval Hence, fora constant bitrate channel, this equates tothe probabi ff a bit being corrupted in a defined number of bits. A mean BER of 10°} therefore, means that, on average, for every 1000 bits cha are transmitted, these bit il be corrupted. In some applications, providing the occurrence off bit errors i relatively infrequent, their presence is acceptable while in other applications itis Imperative that no residual bit errors are present in the eecived information. For example, ifthe application involves speech, then an ‘ceasional bit error will go unnoticed but in an application involving the tran fer of, ay, financial information, it is essential thatthe received informatio contains no errors. Hence with such applications prior to transmission t Source information is normally died ito blocks the maximum sizeof whic js determined by the mean BER of the communications channel For example, if the mean BER is 10%, then the number of bits in a blo must be considerably less thar! 1000 otherwise, on average, every block wi ‘Contain an error and will be discarded. Normally, however, bit errors ocet fandomly and hence, even with a block size of say, 100 bits, blocks may stil “Conti an error but the probably of this occurring is considerably less. i seer if he BER piobability is Pan the nusnber of bis ina block ‘ied alsuming random effors, the probability of 4 block containing a bi ertor, Py is gen By: ry a7" which approximates to NX Pif Nx Pis less than 1 ‘in practice, most networks ~ both circuitshitched and packevewitched provide an unreliable service which is also known asa besttry or beste Reyvice. This means that any blocks containing bit errors will be discarded tiiher within the network ~ packetawitched networks ~ or in the network {interface at the destination ~ both packetawitched and cicuitswitched ne svorks. Hence if the application dictates that only errorree blocks are 15 npteiranbttemionr | acceptable, it is necessary forthe sending terminal /compoter.o vide 2 ation into blogs ofa defined maximum sxe and forthe dest aan acct ae block is msg. When this ocus th destination x vo eG the source send ance copy of te ising block. The sr sera hen sid tobe a reliable service. Cleary, hs wil itroduce ad Cer rnsion procedure should be invoked relatively inten ene sacs nama lock sive Tis, however, leads to high overheads rei eget contin the aiionl information thas sociated wih can esha procedure, Noval therefore the choice of lock te ae pchoeen the increased dela resulting from a lage block carer aamanisions andthe los of transmission bandwidth rent ‘te high overheads of using a smaller block se ron rton delay sociated with a channel is determined not by nbsreu thats ured but also delays that occur inthe tersinal/+ Pier neon nerfs non a code dela, pls the propegaon: Pat al sigels they ps from the source othe desnation actos cao ernie determined bythe physica separation ofthe to com weeettsarices and the velocity of propagation of signal aco on ssn medium, In fee space, for example the Eater i equal eee ety (9x 10! ms whe tis ation ofthis in physical me ‘jpn vale being 210 ms Stace the propagation delay in each case is independent oft rate wfahe communieations channel and assuming de codee delay re cist same whether the bitrates 1s, Mbps or 1Chps Packet-switched network “The Qos parameters associated with a packetswitched network include 1m the maxiqum packet size, 1m the mean packet transfer rate,Example 1.2 86 | ener) uted cmon 1 the mean packet error rate, w= the mean packet transfer delay, the worst-case jitter, the transmission delay Ina packetitched neoork, although the rate at which pekis vranaered acon the neerrk i intuenced song by the Wi ate of imcreonnecing links, beeaie ofthe apa sopean formar dls i cach PSR, rou, the actual 1c o ance of Ethics tere the Hark also variable, Hence the mean packet transfer rale is a thedsuie of ‘he ei homer of pacies at ore enue se ee serworh pr lp aad Coupled wi the paket se eng we, defetmines he equalen mean foo the anne ‘The mean pact ror ato PERisthe probly of ected pad conainag one ot more bers sth te eer ab the lth ee fatcauocued wih screuictched network wich we dered in the pre Cus secon, Hence iis elated to both the maxima packet sean te trortave BER of he tanamison insta inerconnedt the PSE fut hme up te network 1.5 Agliationand networking teinoloay | 65 ‘We defined the meaning of the term "wean packet transfer delay” in Section 1.5.3 when we described the operation of packet mode networks. Is, the summation of the mean storeand-forward delay that a packet experi- fences in each PSE/router that it encounters along a route and the term sitter” is the worstease variation in this delay. As we ust explained, the trans- Inission delay isthe same whether the network operates in a packet mode or a {Greuit mode and includes the coder delay in each of the two communicating, ‘computes and the signal propagation delay. Application QoS “The network QoS parameters define what the particular network being used provides rather than what the application requires. The application itself, Fowever, also has QoS parameters astociated with it. Tn an application invol~ ing images, for example, the parameters may include a minimum image resolution and size, while in an application involving video, the digitization format and refresh rate may be defined. The application QoS parameters that relate to the network include: the required bitrate oF mean packet transfer rate, the maximum startup delay the maximum ené-toend delay, the maximum delay varition/jiter, roundtrip delay. For aplicaons involving the santero conwant Bitrate stream, the important parameters af te equied bit at/imean packet transfer rae, treendto-ead del and, equaly important, the delay valaton/jcr since Misco cesprbleasin the deinaon decoder i the rate of ara of Ue tnsets sai. For interact aplcaons, however, he startup delay tefnes the amount of time that elapecsbeteen an application making & junta srt tesion and he confirmation being reed rom the appr “Shomat hedesintion a serve for example = (hats prepase to accept She seat Hene ths aude in addto o the me require to establish jcmbnk contin si equi deiay introduced in both the dource and the Jeyingion computes while negoating Wat the sesion an ke pce, Ate lw eae n Scion 15, de roundtrip delay is impor tan ince, for humane computer imeracton to be successful, the delay Fitscens eques for some information teing made and the start ofthe information being seceved displayed shoud bea short as posible an, ide fisould be es hana ew second. ‘Altea sce from the above for aplctons hat insoe the ane ofa consant it te steam, a etettoniehed rework woul apeart be mos Spproprate ince, fad, the eal setup dey is often not important and srercly the channel provides a constant bit ate service ofa hnown rae.