Article
Analysis of Soil–Water Characteristics and Stability Evolution
of Rainfall-Induced Landslide: A Case of the Siwan
Village Landslide
Haijia Wen 1 , Jiafeng Xiao 1 , Xiongfeng Wang 1 , Xuekun Xiang 1,2, * and Xinzhi Zhou 3
Citation: Wen, H.; Xiao, J.; Wang, X.;
Xiang, X.; Zhou, X. Analysis of
Soil–Water Characteristics and
Stability Evolution of Rainfall-
Induced Landslide: A Case of the
Siwan Village Landslide. Forests 2023,
14, 808. https://doi.org/
10.3390/f14040808
Academic Editor: Filippo
Giadrossich
Received: 12 March 2023
Revised: 6 April 2023
Accepted: 12 April 2023
Published: 14 April 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Forests 2023, 14, 808. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14040808
1 Key Laboratory of New Technology for Construction of Cities in Mountain Area of the Ministry of Education,
National Joint Engineering Research Center for Prevention and Control of Environmental GeoHazards in the
TGR Area, School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China
2 Chongqing Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources, Chongqing 400042, China
3 State Key Laboratory of Hydroscience and Engineering, Department of Hydraulic Engineering,
Tsinghua University, Beijing 100190, China
* Correspondence: 20131602001t@cqu.edu.cn
Abstract: This paper aimed to study the soil–water characteristics and stability evolution law of
rainfall-induced landslide. Taking the two landslide events in Siwan village as an example, the
formation conditions of the disaster and landslide characteristics were analyzed. Additionally, the
deformation characteristics and destruction mechanisms of landslides were discussed in-depth. The
soil–water characteristics and hydraulic conductivity of the landslides were analyzed based on TRIM
experiment results. Geo-Studio numerical software was further used for typical sections to analyze
the stability of the evolution of the landslide events under rainfall conditions. The results showed
that (1) The soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC) inversely varies with water content volume, and
the sliding body has lower saturated water content and matrix suction than the sliding zone. The
hydraulic conductivity function (HCF) increases with water content volume, and the sliding body has
higher hydraulic conductivity (0.43 m/d) than the sliding zone (0.03 m/d). (2) Rainfall is the primary
cause of landslides, and there is a hysteretic effect. Heavy rainfall will inevitably accelerate the
formation of landslides in the analysis of the deformation characteristics and destruction mechanisms
of rainfall-induced landslides. (3) Compared with the engineering analogy of the Fredlund and Xing
(FX) model, the Van Genuchten–Mualem (VGM) model of the soil–water characteristics test based on
the TRIM experimental system can better reflect the actual field situation. The numerical simulation
method based on the TRIM experiments of the soil–water characteristics test is scientifically sound
and reliable for the stability evolution of overburden rainfall-induced landslides.
Keywords: SWCC; HCF; rainfall-induced landslide; Geo-Studio; stability evolution
1. Introduction
The geological conditions of mountain regions are complicated, often accompanied
by changes in meteorological and hydrological conditions. These lead to frequent geolog-
ical disasters. Northeast Chongqing and the Three Gorges Reservoir area, in China, are
typical areas with frequent landslide events [1,2]. The forest coverage is extensive, and
the mountain features are remarkable in these areas. Small and shallow soil landslides
occur widely in the rainy season [3]. The stability of these landslides is closely related to
the rainfall-induced change of soil–water characteristics.
Soil–water characteristic curves and hydraulic conductivity functions are significant
in the research of unsaturated soil seepage [4,5]. The normal method used for analyzing
slope stability is confronted with some problems when analyzing natural slope problems.
Many factors such as time and climate affect the stability of natural slopes. To predict and
prevent geological disasters, such as landslides caused by heavy rainfall, soil–water content
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/forests
Forests 2023, 14, 808 2 of 20

change is significant [6,7]. In actual engineering, it is necessary to conduct experimental

research on saturated soil to understand the variability of its soil–water characteristics.
However, using a soil–water characteristic curve can be very convenient to understand the
characteristics of unsaturated soil without the need for tedious experimental research [8,9].
Due to the complex geological structure and climatic conditions of the Sichuan–Chongqing
area, China, precipitation infiltration often leads to excessive deformation or landslide
events of unsaturated mixed soil in the area. The engineering properties of unsaturated
soil are closely related to the matrix suction value [10]. Soil–water characteristic curves
play a vital role in the study of the hydraulic and mechanical properties of unsaturated
soil. Due to the structural nature of undisturbed loess, the matrix suction of undisturbed
loess does not increase infinitely with the increase of load [11]. A strong relationship
exists between slope instability and rainfall infiltration, and parameter analysis provides a
deeper understanding of this relationship. The transient seepage field caused by rainwater
infiltration can be simulated by the finite element method, and also the transient pore
water pressure distribution can be used for limit equilibrium analysis of slopes [6]. A
series of one-dimensional seepage tests were conducted to study the variation of wetting
front, hydraulic conductivity, and vertical deformation under water stress coupling [12].
However, based on the soil–water characteristics test, no numerical simulation is combined,
a seepage numerical simulation is not used, and no analysis is verified with field examples.
It is only the deformation mechanisms that are analyzed.
Numerical simulation technology has been widely used in the study of conventional
geological disasters, and significant progress has been made in the calculation methods,
calculation models, and determination of rock and soil parameters [13]. Numerical sim-
ulation can easily consider all possible working conditions on site, which is helpful for
quick analysis and making decisions during emergencies or for the prevention of disas-
ters [14,15]. In particular, Geo-Studio can better solve the slope finite element simulation
problem of the coupled numerical test [16]. FEM, BEM, DEM, and FDM are commonly
used for numerical slope simulation, and the available software includes MIDAS-GTS /NX,
Mein-Larson, UDEC discrete element, FLAC3D, ABAQUS, and Geo-Studio [17–23]. After
comparing the advantages of each software and method, it was found that Geo-Studio
can be meaningfully combined with transient tests and numerical stability. Geo-slope/W
software is used dynamically to analyze the stability of slopes and has the advantage of
providing feedback on emergency monitoring information [24]. The SEEP/W module of
the Geo-Studio software was used to simulate the seepage rate [25].
Moreover, the numerical simulation method in which SIGMA/W and SLOPE/W
modules are combined was adopted to study slope stability from the stability coefficient [26].
Geo-Studio numerical software was used to establish an engineering model to predict
the stability coefficient and potential slip surface of the east slope [27]. In combination
with geotechnical test data, the SEEP/W module of the Geo-Studio software and the
SLOPE/W module were used to perform seepage stability simulations of landslides under
various precipitation periods [28]. The soil–water characteristic parameters used in the
abovementioned study were obtained using the engineering analogy SEEP/W module
transient dynamic analysis, which may differ from the actual soil–water characteristics
of the landslide [29]. Therefore, it is of scientific significance and necessary to use soil
and water characteristics data of the TRIM Dehumidification and Hygroscopic experiment
system to replace the Geotechnical data of the engineering analogy method.
In this paper, the research methodology and presented findings are highly innovative.
By combining remote sensing images, drone images, meteorological data, and on-site
investigation data, this paper provides a detailed analysis of two landslide events in Siwan
Village. The stability of the landslides was analyzed using a combination of the Van
Genuchten–Mualem (VGM) model parameters and numerical simulation methods, as well
as the Fredlund and Xing (FX) model parameters and engineering analogy methods. The
evolution of stability verified the accuracy and effectiveness of the prediction methods.
Additionally, this paper proposed a detailed survey of surface tension cracks during heavy
 Siwan Village. The stability of the landslides was analyzed using a combination of the Van
Genuchten–Mualem (VGM) model parameters and numerical simulation methods, as
well as the Fredlund and Xing (FX) model parameters and engineering analogy methods.
Forests 2023, 14, 808 The evolution of stability verified the accuracy and effectiveness of the prediction meth- 3 of 20
ods. Additionally, this paper proposed a detailed survey of surface tension cracks during
heavy rain, offering new insights for considering rainfall as a special delayed phenome-
non
rain,inoffering
landslides.
newNotably,
insights this paper integrated
for considering rainfalltheasTRIM moisture
a special absorption
delayed and de-
phenomenon in
sorption test system with numerical simulation, introducing a new method
landslides. Notably, this paper integrated the TRIM moisture absorption and desorption that provides
fresh ideas and
test system withinsights
numericalfor simulation,
analyzing the stability of
introducing rainfall-induced
a new method that landslides.
provides fresh ideas
and insights for analyzing the stability of rainfall-induced landslides.
2. Materials
2. Materials
2.1. Landslide Events and Disaster-Causing Conditions
2.1. Landslide Events and Disaster-Causing Conditions
2.1.1. Overview of the Landslide Events
2.1.1. Overview of the Landslide Events
A landslide occurred on the right bank of Longtan River, a tributary of Renhe River,
A landslide occurred on the right bank of Longtan River, a tributary of Renhe River,
in Siwan Village, Longtian Township, Chengkou County, on 31 July 2019. Two weeks
in Siwan Village, Longtian Township, Chengkou County, on 31 July 2019. Two weeks
later, another landslide occurred around 3 am on 14 August. The landslides occurred on
later, another landslide occurred around 3 am on 14 August. The landslides occurred
31°58’38 “N and 108°38’35” E (Figure 1). Using DEM with 0.5 m spatial resolution, com-
on 31◦ 58’38 “N and 108◦ 38’35” E (Figure 1). Using DEM with 0.5 m spatial resolution,
bined with Google Earth 3D images, UAV images, and site survey data, this study found
combined with Google Earth 3D images, UAV images, and site survey data, this study
that the landslide caused damage to 3 houses and a brick factory, resulting in 7 people
found that the landslide caused damage to 3 houses and a brick factory, resulting in 7 people
missing. After 39 h of searching, 7 people were confirmed dead. The remote sensing image
missing. After 39 h of searching, 7 people were confirmed dead. The remote sensing image
(Figure
(Figure 2)2) shows
shows the
thelandslide’s
landslide’sgeneral
generalsituation
situation andand damage
damage to the
to the surrounding
surrounding area.area.
The
The event occurred in a mountainous forest with favorable conditions
event occurred in a mountainous forest with favorable conditions for vegetation due for vegetation dueto
to temperature, humidity, and precipitation. The soft soil rich in organic
temperature, humidity, and precipitation. The soft soil rich in organic matter also makes it matter also
makes
prone to it prone to rainfall-induced
rainfall-induced shallow landslides.
shallow landslides.

Figure 1. Location of Siwan village’s landslide events.

Figure 1. Location of Siwan village’s landslide events.
Forests 2023,14,
2023,
Forests 14,808
x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of2120
4 of

Figure 2. Remote sensing image of the landslide and surrounding damage (a UAV image is shown
Figure 2. Remote sensing image of the landslide and surrounding damage (a UAV image is shown at
at the top-left).
the top-left).
2.1.2. Conditioning
2.1.2. Conditioning and
and Triggering
Triggering Factors
Factors
1.1. Topography
Topography and
and Landform
Landform
The landslide area belongs to the deep-cutting erosion landform of moderate moun-
The landslide area belongs to the deep-cutting erosion landform of moderate mountain
tain valleys; it has high mountains and deep valleys, intense landform cutting, and com-
valleys; it has high mountains and deep valleys, intense landform cutting, and complex
plex rock, soil, and geological structures. At the bottom of the valley, the intense erosion
rock, soil, and geological structures. At the bottom of the valley, the intense erosion of
of water cuts into snake-like valleys and narrow valleys, and the valley slopes on both
water cuts into snake-like valleys and narrow valleys, and the valley slopes on both sides
sides are mostly “V” shaped. The landform is generally high in the northwest and low in
are mostly “V” shaped. The landform is generally high in the northwest and low in the
the southeast, and the overall landform is a single steep slope. The top (watershed) eleva-
southeast, and the overall landform is a single steep slope. The top (watershed) elevation
tion is about 1335 m, and the Longtan Riverbed at the foot of the slope is about 725 m,
is about 1335 m, and the Longtan Riverbed at the foot of the slope is about 725 m, 2with a
with a relative elevation difference of about 610 m; the catchment area is 0.2 km . The
relative elevation difference of about 610 m; the catchment area is 0.2 km2 . The original
original topography of the landslide area is a “saucer” type of negative landform, which
topography of the landslide area is a “saucer” type of negative landform, which is the
is the primary channel for runoff and the discharge of the upper slope catchment. The
primary channel for runoff and the discharge of the upper slope catchment. The upper part
upper part of the slope is relatively steep with a slope angle of 30–60°, while the lower
of the slope is relatively steep with a slope angle of 30–60◦ , while the lower part is relatively
part is relatively gentle with a slope angle of 10–20°. The rock–soil interface is the trans-
gentle with a slope angle of 10–20◦ . The rock–soil interface is the transfixion structural
fixion structural surface controlling the stability of the steep slope. Regarding space, it has
surface controlling the stability of the steep slope. Regarding space, it has good space
good space conditions and gravity potential energy reserves, which provide a favorable
conditions and gravity potential energy reserves, which provide a favorable landform and
landform and slip space for the formation and development of landslides.
slip space for the formation and development of landslides.
2. Geological conditions
2. Geological conditions
The study area is located in the southwest wing of the secondary minor syncline,
whichThe study area
is situated is located
at the northeast inwing
the southwest wing
of the paraxial of of
part the
thesecondary minor syncline,
Chengkou–Gaoyan com-
which is situated at the northeast wing of the paraxial part of the Chengkou–Gaoyan
pound syncline in the Southern Daba mountain brush structural belt. The slight syncline
compound
extends in thesyncline in the
direction Southern
of 29° Dabathe
NW. Under mountain
influencebrush
of thestructural belt. the
fracture zone, The slight
stratig-
syncline extends in the direction of 29 ◦ NW. Under the influence of the fracture zone,
raphy of the slope’s southwest flank is reversed, the northeast flank of the Doushantuo
the stratigraphy
Formation of the
is covered slope’s
over southwest
the Dengying flank is reversed,
Formation, the northeast
and the strata flankaxis
of the syncline of the
is
Doushantuo Formation
the Shuijingtuo Formation. is covered over the Dengying Formation, and the strata of the
syncline axis is the Shuijingtuo Formation.
Forests 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21
Forests 2023, 14, 808 5 of 20

Cheng’s deep and large fault zone passes from the left side of the landslide, and the
torsion actiondeep
Cheng’s results
andinlarge
the formation
fault zone of the whole
passes arc left
from the structure.
side of Under stress, the
the landslide, androck
the
mass near
torsion theresults
action fault zone
in theisformation
transformed bywhole
of the tectonic
arc action andUnder
structure. shallow epigenetic
stress, the rockaction
mass
near
(suchtheasfault zone is weathering,
unloading, transformed by andtectonic action and
groundwater). shallow
This leadsepigenetic
to fractureaction (such as
development
unloading,
and makes weathering,
the rock mass and groundwater).
structure This leads
and its surface to fracture
complex. development
According and makes
to the observation
the rock
of the mass structure
bedrock outcrop,and theits surface
strata are complex. According
50–72°∠54–80°. to the observation
According of the
to the regional bedrock
geological
outcrop, the strata are 50–72 ◦ ∠54–80◦ . According to the regional geological data, two
data, two reverse faults are distributed near the collapse area, which intersects the north-
reverse faults
west ridge ofare
thedistributed
collapse area nearatthe collapse
a slight area,
angle. which intersects
Because the northwest
a quaternary ridgethe
system covers of
the collapse
landslide areathe
area, at afault-related
slight angle. signs
Becauseanda quaternary
features aresystem
covered.covers
Thethe
arealandslide area, the
of subsidence is
fault-related
between twosigns and
faults, andfeatures are soil
the thick covered.
layerThe area of
between subsidence
the is between
faults provides two condi-
material faults,
and
tionsthe
forthick soil layer between the faults provides material conditions for the landslide.
the landslide.
3.
3. Meteorology and hydrology
Siwan Village’s
Siwan Village’slandslide
landslideresearch
researcharea area belongs
belongs to to
thethe Northern
Northern subtropical
subtropical moun-
mountain
tain climate
climate of theof Sichuan
the Sichuan Basin.
Basin. TheThe climate
climate of of the
the regionisismild,
region mild,with
withabundant
abundant rainfall,
sufficient sunshine,
sufficient sunshine, and
and four
four distinct
distinct seasons.
seasons. The
The annual
annual average
average temperature
temperature is is about
about
13.8 ◦°C.
13.8 C. The
Theannual
annualmaximum
maximumtemperature
temperature was
was14.9 °C ◦in
14.9 C 2006, andand
in 2006, the annual minimum
the annual mini-
temperature
mum was 13.0
temperature was°C13.0 ◦ C inThe
in 1974. highest
1974. extreme
The highest temperature
extreme was 40.0
temperature was on 28◦ CJune
°C 40.0 on
2006,
28 and
June theand
2006, lowest
the extreme temperature
lowest extreme was −7.3
temperature °C −
was 31◦December
on7.3 2012. 2012.
C on 31 December
Meteorological
Meteorological data show show that the the average
average annual
annual rainfall is 1261.40
1261.40 mm and and isis for
for
166
166 days;
days; the
the maximum
maximum annualannual rainfall
rainfall was
was 1629.30
1629.30 mm mm in in 2003
2003 and
and the
the lowest
lowest annual
annual
rainfall
rainfallwaswas890.10
890.10mmmminin 2006.
2006.The maximum
The maximum daily rainfall
daily was was
rainfall 285.80 mm on
285.80 mm 10on
July
102009.
July
The
2009.precipitation is mainly
The precipitation concentrated
is mainly in the flood
concentrated in theseason from May
flood season fromtoMay
September, which
to September,
is 857.10
which is mm,
857.10andmm,accounts for 68%for
and accounts of 68%
the total annual
of the precipitation.
total annual precipitation.
Siwan
Siwan Village experiences typical rainfall-induced landslides. Generally speaking,
Village experiences typical rainfall-induced landslides.
rainfall
rainfall has
has aa significant
significant role
role in
in inducing
inducing landslides.
landslides. In addition to immediate
immediate rainfall,
early
early rainfall
rainfall also
also has
has aa hysteretic
hysteretic effect
effect onon landslides.
landslides. When
When the the hysteretic
hysteretic effect
effect of
of early
early
rainfall
rainfall is
is considered,
considered, itit is
is called
called early
early effective
effective rainfall
rainfall [30].
[30]. The
The recent
recent precipitation
precipitation in in the
the
landslide
landslide area
area was
was analyzed
analyzed using
usingChina’s
China’smeteorological
meteorologicalinformation
informationdata data(Figure
(Figure3).3).

Figure 3. Relationship between rainfall and accumulated rainfall and landslide occurrence.
Figure 3. Relationship between rainfall and accumulated rainfall and landslide occurrence.
Forests 2023, 14, 808 6 of 20

2.2. Characteristics and Failure Mechanism of Landslide Events

2.2.1. Characteristics of Landslide Deformation and Failure
According to the 205 geological teams of the Chongqing Bureau of Geology and
Mineral Exploration and Development that visited residents nearby in 2001, obvious
deformation occurred in the LF4 position of the existing slump area, and a tension fracture
roughly parallel to the landform contour line appeared (about 50 m and 1 m long) under
the lateral slope body. No new significant changes were observed before 14 August 2019.
According to the field investigation, multiple tension cracks were found at ZK6 after
14 August 2019 (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Topography plan and local features of the landslide event.

At about 9:30 am, on 31 July 2019, the soil mass above the water channel at the foot
of the slope (with an elevation of about 735 m) and the landslide front slowly bulged;
radiating cracks appeared and gradually intensified. Blocks started to fall and collapse,
there were prominent shear outlets and dislocation, mud and muddy water seepage, and
the landslide tongue was extended. The whole landslide moved slowly, and the trees on
the slope became a “drunk forest”. The lower fault of the landslide formed a graben-type
sinkhole zone, and the back wall of the landslide was about 6 m high, with water seeping
out via the bottom. The flow rate was about 0.8–1.2 L/s. The landslide perimeter was
obvious. The body length of the landslide is about 180 m, the average width is about 30 m,
the thickness is 2–7 m, the average thickness is about 5 m, and the square volume is about
2.7 × 104 m3 . The sliding body is tongue-shaped, the sliding direction is the same as the
slope direction, about 150◦ , the sliding distance is about 20 m, and the sliding surface is
the soft surface inside the soil layer. The sliding zone is still unstable, the creep process is
continuing, and the trailing edge slope of the sliding zone is potentially sliding.
At about 3:00 in the morning of 14 August, the trailing edge slope of the “7.31 landslide”
suddenly slipped again. The elevation of the landslide start-up area is about 790–865 m;
its length is 100 m and width is 60 m. It has an average thickness of about 15 m and a
volume of about 9.0 × 104 m3 . The sliding direction is 125◦ , which is consistent with the
slope direction of the original landform. The landslide slides along the soil–rock contact
surface, and the angles of the slide surface area are between 30 ◦ and 50◦ . Under gravity,
Forests 2023, 14, 808 7 of 20

many high-sliding bodies slide at high speed, and the overburden of the lower slope body
and the “7.31” landslide accumulated body slide along the rock–soil interface together.
The topography controls the sliding direction; the sliding direction changes from 125◦ to
150–170◦ (the original slope direction), pushing the leading-edge soil to slide continuously.
A fan-shaped accumulated body was formed at the foot of the slope, and a small amount
of sliding body crossed the channel and blocked the front channel, forming a barrier lake
locally. The total volume of the Siwan village landslide is about 11.7 × 104 m3 . It is about
1.0 × 104 m3 at the trailing edge and both sides of the landslide. The loose soil is in an
under-unstable state.
Combining the regional geological data (slide elevation information and site inves-
tigation data), we made the landslide lot plan and three-dimensional topographic map
(Figure 2) and analyzed the section along the sliding direction to obtain the landslide profile
(Figure 5). According to the analysis of the landslide’s surface and profile, the landslide
sliding direction is the same as the original landform slope direction (deflection occurs),
the landslide sliding damage occurs along the soil–rock contact surface and the slip surface
undulates along the soil–rock interface in a folded development.

Figure 5. The 2-2 profile and trailing edge tension crack of the landslide event.

From the top to the bottom of the landslide, the glide direction of the plan ranges from
120◦ to 145◦ . Regarding the profile morphology of the landslide, the slope is between 20◦
and 35◦ , and the upper part of the slope body is steeper than the lower part, especially the
upper part, which forms a convex profile slope. The field investigation found that the tension
fracture at the trailing edge (ZK6 drill hole) is developed, and the gap width was 6–10 cm.

2.2.2. Analysis of Deformation and Failure Mechanism

The fracture of the landslide area in the geological structure of the complex Daba
Mountain arc-like folded belt is well developed. Under the action of tectonic spin–torsional
1 stress, the rock near the fault zone is modified by tectonic and shallow epigenetic action,
Forests 2023, 14, 808 8 of 20

resulting in the complex rock structure, structural surface, fissure development, weathering,
groundwater, and other kinds of external camp force that is active. The mechanical strength
of the rock and soil is relatively weak. The landslide area is in the lower part of the “V” type
river valley steep slope landform in Zhongshan, and the remote landform which is a “dish”-
type negative geomorphology is the main channel of the upper slope drainage. The overall
landform is steep, and the landform slope angle is above 30◦ –60◦ , overlying the fourth
system collapse. The residual slope accumulation of the loose soil layer is about 20 m thick.
The rock and soil interface controls the steep slope stability through the structural surface.
The relative height difference between the landslide’s trailing edge and the slope’s foot
is 125 m, with reasonable spatial proximity, slip space, and gravitational potential energy
reserves. Under gravity conditions and tectonic stress field conditions dominated by
horizontal stress, the maximum principal stress is parallel to the critical surface, causing a
stress concentration zone (shear stress elevation zone) near the critical surface.
In July 2019, Chengkou County had a total rainfall amount of 193.7 mm for 20 days,
including 12 consecutive days of rain from 15 July to 26 (Figure 3). The rainwater flowed
over the Geomorphic negative slope, infiltrated the slope body, increased the slope body
weight, and saturated and softened the soil. After sufficient rainwater infiltration through
the pores of gravel soil, runoff is formed in the soil (the silty clay layer is a relatively
waterproof layer), and some particles in the soil are carried and transported by osmotic
water flow. Latent erosion earth–rock structure becomes loose, and its mechanical properties
and intensity are reduced. There is the formation of dynamic water pressure and weak
external agents in the active belt of groundwater. The stability of the slope is reduced.
The shear creep of the slope soil occurred towards the sloping front, and the tension
fracture developed from the slope to deep in the trailing edge. During the development of
deformation, the powder clay layer (aquiclude) is the potential slip surface. With the further
development of shear deformation, the lower part of the slope gradually rises, the trailing
edge sinks significantly, the deformation enters the stage of progressive damage, and the
potential slip surface is gradually sheared through. The first landslide event occurred at
9:00 am on 31 July; a thrust load caused the landslide.
Due to mass slippage in the middle and lower part of the slope, the upper rock mass
has a large area of caving (the caving distance is about 20 m, with sufficient slip space),
which destroys the original equilibrium state of the slope mass. The original stress state
in the rock mass changes as the process progresses. It results in stress redistribution
and stress concentration effects. When opening the overlying soil in the direction of the
force that exceeds the shear resistance of the actual slip surface, the trailing edge cracking
surface appeared to drop quickly. The creep process is concise; it is extremely sudden and
concealed. On 14 August 2019, at 3:00, the upper slope in the starting zone soil slid along
the geotechnical sliding interface; it belongs to the loose (retrogressive) type of landslide.
The formation process of the landslide can be divided into four stages, which are the
first “7.31” sliding (front part of landslide area) + the second “8.14” loosening sliding (rear
starting area of landslide) + mid–front pushing sliding + potential sliding area loosening
sliding. The formation mechanism is complex.

3. Methodology
This paper mainly consists of three major modules, namely deformation and evolution
analysis, soil–water characteristic tests, and numerical model comparative experiments.
Figure 6 shows the flowchart of the entire article.
Forests 14, 808
2023,2023,
Forests 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21 9 of 20

Figure 6.
Figure 6. The
The flowchart
flowchartofofthe entire
the article.
entire article.

3.1.
3.1.SWCC andHCF
SWCC and HCF
The
The TRIM systemintegrates
TRIM system integrates physical
physical teststests and numerical
and numerical calculations,
calculations, enablingenabling
real- real-
time and
time and accurate
accurate measurement
measurement of the volume
of the volumeof gas
of escaping from pore
gas escaping fromwater.
pore It is an It is an
water.
optimal method
optimal method for
for obtaining
obtaining SWCC
SWCCand andHCF.
HCF.The TheVan
VanGenuchten–Mualem
Genuchten–Mualem model
model is is used
used in this system, and the calculation formula is as follows
in this system, and the calculation formula is as follows [31–34]: [31–34]:
θ − θr
Θ= θ − θr (1)
Θ =s − θr
θ (1)
θ s − θr
 i
m
 1
Θ= h  m 
Θ = 1 + {α p}1  n 
n
1+{αp} 

1/ n i
(2) (2)
1  11  1/n 
h
= α1  1/1/m
pp = − 1− 1 
α Θ Θ m
 
2 2
Θ dΘ
R R )
q 12 dΘ

Kr ( Θ ) = Θ
2
q  d Θ   /1 d Θ0
Θ
K r ( Θ ) = Θ   0 p /    p (3)
 ) =p Ks Kr (Θ
K (Θ 0 0 p
)   (3)

K (Θ ) = K s K r (Θ ) 
q 2 2
Kr ( Θ ) = Θ Θ
)
f ( ) / f ( 1 )
K (Θ) = Θ q f (Θ) 2 / f (1) 2  (4)
n  om
f (Θr) = α 1 − 1 − Θ1/m 
m (4)
{
f (Θ) = α 1 − (1 − Θ1/ m )  }

where, θ is the volumetric water content, θ s is the saturated water content, and θ r is the
residual
where, θwater content. Θ
is the volumetric is the
water adequate
content, saturation,
θs is the α is the
saturated water reciprocal
content, and θr of the intake
is the
pressure, and content.
residual water n is theΘaperture distribution
is the adequate parameter,
saturation, m = 1−1/n.
α is the reciprocal of theK s is the
intake saturated
pres-
water conductivity,
sure, and Kr is the
n is the aperture relative hydraulic
distribution parameter, conductivity
m = 1−1/n. Kfunction, K is thewater
s is the saturated unsaturated
conductivity,
hydraulic Kr is the relative
conductivity functionhydraulic Θ, and q is the
about conductivity function, K is the
empirical unsaturated
parameter hy- connec-
of pore
draulicusually
tivity, conductivity
assumedfunction
to beabout
0.5. Θ, andfunction
The q is the empirical
F specified parameter of pore function
is a nonlinear connec- of soil
tivity, usually
moisture contentassumed
(θ) usedto to
bedescribe
0.5. The function
the flow Fcharacteristics
specified is a nonlinear function
of water within ofpores
the soil of soil.
moisture content (θ) used to describe the flow characteristics of water within the pores of
soil.Seepage
3.2.
The SEEP/W module calculates soil moisture content using the soil–water characteris-
tic curve, which estimates soil matrix suction since matrix suction is hard to measure (such
as Equations (5) and (6). The soil–water characteristic curve and conductivity may be used
to determine the permeability function curve of unsaturated soil. The fitting formula for
the conductivity was developed by Fredlund et al. (such as Equation (7)) [35–37].

θw 1
= C (ψ) n m (5)
θs {ln[e + ( ψ ) ]} a
Forests 2023, 14, 808 10 of 20

ψ
ln(1 + Cr )
C (ψ) = 1 − (6)
106
ln(1 + Cr )

N θ (ey )−θ (ψ)

∑ w
eyi
w
θ 0 (eyi )
i= j
kw = ks (7)
N
θw (ey )−θs 0 yi
∑ eyi
θ (e )
i= j

where, a—soil parameters of air entry value function, n—soil parameters controlling the
slope of inflection point of volumetric water content function, m—soil parameters of
residual water content function, ψ—matrix suction, Cr —constants related to matrix suction
corresponding to residual water content, θ w —volumetric water content, θ s —saturated
volumetric water content, kw —Conductivity, ks —saturated conductivity, y—virtual integral
variable, θ 0 —the first derivative of volumetric water content.

3.3. Stability
The SLOPE/W module is used for stability calculation, using the fully designated sliding
surface method to determine the sliding surface position for landslides. Morgensten—Price
method is used to calculate the stability coefficient under rainfall. The corresponding
calculation formula is as follows [38,39]:

X = Eλ f ( x ) (8)

θw − θr
  
s = c0 + (σn − uz ) tan φ0 + (ua − uw ) tan φ0 (9)
θs − θr

sβ
Sm = (10)
F

∑(c0 βR + ( N − uw β) R tan φ0 )
Fm = (11)
∑ Wx − ∑ N f ± ∑ Dd

∑ (c0 β cos α + ( N − uw β) tan φ0 cos α)

Ff = (12)
∑ N sin α − ∑ D cos ω
c0 β sin α+uw β sin α tan φ0
W + ( XR − XL ) − F
N= sin α tan φ0
(13)
cos α + F
where, X is the interstrip shear force, E is the interstrip axial force, XL and XR refer to the
left and right regular forces of the strip respectively, and f ( x ) is the interstrip force function;
λ is the weight of interbar force function, c0 is the effective cohesive force, φ0 is the effective
friction angle, uw is the pore water pressure; ua is pore gas pressure, θw is volumetric water
content, θs is the saturated volumetric water content, θr is the residual volumetric water
content, Sm is the sliding shear force acting on the bottom of each block, N is the normal
force at the bottom of inter-strip soil, σn is the everyday stress on the shear surface, W is
the dead weight of soil strip, D is the load at the concentration point, and F is equal to
the stability coefficient Fm of the moment equilibrium or Ff of force equilibrium, β is the
length of the bottom surface of the strip, R is the radius of the arc sliding surface, x is the
horizontal distance from the center line of each block to the center of rotation or torque,
F is the distance from the normal force to the center of rotation, D is the vertical distance
between the point load and the center of rotation or torque, α is the angle between the
center tangent of the bottom surface of the strip and the horizontal surface, and ω is the
angle between point load and horizontal surface.
Forests 2023, 14, 808 11 of 20

4. Results
4.1. Soil–Water Characteristics
4.1.1. TRIM Experiment
The TRIM equipment includes a pressure chamber for loading soil and controlling
suction, a control panel with air pressure control and a water tank, a collecting bottle and
electronic balance for measuring water flow, and computer software for graphic display
and data recording. The main technical parameters are shown in Table 1 and Figure 7.

Table 1. Main technical parameters.

Clay plate 130 mm diameter The thickness of 7.14 mm Air intake value 500 kPa
Balance Measuring range ± 200 g Precision is 0.01 g
Forests 2023,of14,
The size thex FOR PEER
cutting REVIEW
ring R = 5 cm and h = 2 cm 12 of 21

Figure7.7.TRIM
Figure TRIMSystem
System(a)(a)Equipment,
Equipment,(b)control
(b)controlpanels,
panels, and
and (c)(c) pressure
pressure chambers.
chambers.

The
Thesoil samples
saturated of samples
soil the sliding body
were put and
into sliding zonechamber
a pressure were taken from
(Figure 8) the site of
for exhaus-
the Siwan village landslide to carry out a laboratory test on the soil–water characteristics.
tion, and dehumidification and hygroscopy were carried out after the exhaustion. Table 3
Soil samples
shows were taken
the process from the slip body
of dehumidification and and slip zone at profile 2-2 of ZK10. Firstly,
hygroscopy.
the soil is dried for 24 h to ensure complete evaporation of water from it. The physical
properties of the soil samples in their natural state are shown in Table 2. According to water
content = (wet weight − soil particle weight)/soil particle weight × 100%, the dried soil
was taken to restore the natural state by adding water according to the calculated amount;
the water content was 23.92% after adding water.

Figure 8. Saturated soil sample.

Forests 2023, 14, 808 12 of 20

Table 2. Physical properties of the natural sliding zone and sliding body soil samples.

Natura Moisture Natural Saturated Liquid Limit Plastic Limit

Porosity %
Content % Density kN/m3 Density kN/m3 % %
Sliding zone 23.92 19.3 19.6 42.85 32.15 18.93
Sliding body 15.1 20.00 20.50 27.66 25.5 18.2
Figure 7. TRIM System (a) Equipment, (b)control panels, and (c) pressure chambers.

The
Thesaturated
saturatedsoil
soilsamples
sampleswere
wereput into
put a pressure
into chamber
a pressure chamber(Figure 8) for
(Figure 8) exhaustion,
for exhaus-
and
tion, and dehumidification and hygroscopy were carried out after the exhaustion.3 Table
dehumidification and hygroscopy were carried out after the exhaustion. Table shows3
the process of dehumidification and hygroscopy.
shows the process of dehumidification and hygroscopy.

Figure8.8. Saturated
Figure Saturatedsoil
soilsample.
sample.

Table 3. The operation flow of unsaturated soil transient in dehumidification and hygroscopic sys-
Table 3. The operation flow of unsaturated soil transient in dehumidification and hygroscopic systems.
tems.
Thewater
The clay plate, clay plate, water
storage storage
area under area
theunder
clay the claygas
plate, plate, gas collection
collection cylinder,
cylinder, pipeline,
pipeline, and
The system of saturated and attached rubber hose should be saturated. Apply a certain amount of pressure and
The system of saturated attached rubber hose should be saturated. Apply a certain amount of pressure and wait for
wait for the water to drain slowly into the collection bottle.
the water to drain slowly into the collection bottle.
Open the two valves of the pressure chamber; the water level of the liquid collecting
Water filling
Open the twobottle
valves of the pressure chamber; the water level of the liquid collecting bottle is
is higher than that of the gas collecting bottle, adjust the flushing valve to fill with
Water filling higher than that of the gas and
water, collecting bottle,
close the adjust
vent and the flushing
flushing valve
valve after towith
filling fill with water, and
water.
close the vent and flushing valve after filling with water.
Place the specimen directly into the pressure chamber. Applying a vacuum at the top of
Sample saturatedPlace the specimen directly into the pressure chamber. Applying a vacuum at the top of the
the pressure chamber allows the water flow to enter the specimen through the clay plate.
Sample saturated
pressure chamber
The pressureallows the (3
of 2 kPa water
h) is flow to enterand
first applied, thethe
specimen through at
water discharged the clay
this plate.
stage is not
counted. An additional pressure of 15 kPa (24 h) is applied, and the phase changes from
Take off the wet
saturated to unsaturated. Finally, 290 kPa pressure was applied to reach a stable state,
and the Dehumidification process was completed.
After the line is saturated, the pressure is set to 0. Under a particular head of water, it
Hygroscopic
flows into the pressure chamber through the clay plate and gradually wets the soil.

4.1.2. Analysis of SWCC and HCF

After the physical experiment on the soil samples at the Siwan village landslide site, the
time series data of water outflow or inflow was obtained in the experiment. It can be used
as the objective function of numerical simulation of inversion to obtain the unsaturated soil
characteristics. For this purpose, SWR, LLC post-processing software Hydrus—TRIM was
used. In the dehumidification state, the inversion of numerical simulation thus obtained
data used to draw the soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC) and hydraulic conductivity
function (HCF). As shown in Figure 8 below, α is the suction value related to the intake
value, a = 1/α; n is a parameter related to aperture distribution, m = 1−1/n; θr is the
residual water content, θs is the saturated water content, Ksat is the saturation hydraulic
conductivity, and Mv is the volume compressibility coefficient, which is 1e−51 kpa.
Herbal plants have a reinforcement effect on slopes [40,41]. We conducted a study on
the soil–water characteristics of soils with this property. Through the statistical analysis of
the test results (Figure 9), the following results were obtained:
Forests 2023, 14, 808 13 of 20

(1) The matrix suction changes nonlinearly and reversely with the change of volumetric
water content, and the change amplitude decreases with the increase of volumetric
water content. The higher the water content is, the lesser the matrix suction, which
leads to the decline of shear performance. In the case of the same volume of water
content (for example, the water content of the natural state section marked 0.24 in the
figure), the matric suction of the sliding zone is large, so the shear resistance of the
sliding zone is vital. This is why the sliding body slides first with rainfall infiltration;
(2) The hydraulic conductivity has a nonlinear positive change with the change of the
volumetric water content, and it decreases with the increase of the volumetric water
content. The change of the middle section (natural water content) is rapid. The
hydraulic conductivity of both the sliding zone and the sliding body is the maximum
in the dehumidification process, but the sliding body has a significant hydraulic
conductivity. The extreme value is 0.43 m/d, while the extreme value of the sliding
zone is 0.03 m/d. Therefore, the slip body has good permeability, which is caused by
the rapid infiltration and seepage of rainwater;
(3) The residual volumetric water content of dehumidification and hygroscopic sliding
soil is 0.15, while the extreme value of saturated volumetric water content is 0.42. The
residual volumetric water content of dehumidification and hygroscopic sliding soil
is 0.098, while the extreme value of saturated volumetric water content is 0.39. The
Forests 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW results indicate that the sliding body is saturated before the sliding zone, the14shearof 21
resistance decreases first, and a landslide quickly occurs.

Drying Wetting k drying Drying Wetting k drying

k wetting ksat drying ksat wetting 1×106 k wetting ksat drying ksat wetting9×10-5
6
1E+6 9E-5
2×10
2E+6 1E-3-3
1×10
Wetting Drying Wetting Drying
n = 1.9 n = 1.95 8×10-5
8E-5
n=3 n=3.5 9E-4-4
9×10 1×105
1E+5
2×10
2E+55 Θr =0.098 Θr =0.098 Θr = 0.15 Θr = 0.15
Θs=0.29 Θs=0.39 Θs = 0.39 Θs = 0.42 7×10-5
7E-5
8E-4-4
8×10
α=0.31kPa-1 α=0.18kPa-1 1×104 α = 0.15 kPa -1
α = 0.08 kPa-1
1E+4

Conductivity k (cm/s)
-5
ksat = 2.6×10 cm/s ksat = 3.85×10-5 cm/s
Matric suction (kPa)

2E+44
2×10 ksat=2.2×10-4 cm/s ksat=5.0×10-4cm/s 7E-4-4
7×10 6×10-5
6E-5
Matric suction (kPa)

Conductivity k (cm/s)

1×103
6×10
6E-4-4 1E+3 5×10-5
5E-5
2×10
2E+3
3

5E-4-4
5×10
1×102
1E+2 4×10-5
4E-5
2E+22
2×10 4×10-4
4E-4
3×10-5
3E-5
2×10 1 1×101
1E+1
2E+1 3E-4-4
3×10
2×10-5
2E-5
2E-4-4
2×10
2×10 2×100
1E+0 1×10-5
2E+00 1E-5
1E-4-4
1×10
1E-1 -1
1×10 0
0E+0
2E-1-1
2×10 00E+0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Volumetric water content Volumetric water content
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Soil–water characteristic curve and hydraulic conductivity function: (a) sliding body, (b)
Figure 9. Soil–water characteristic curve and hydraulic conductivity function: (a) sliding body,
sliding zone.
(b) sliding zone.

4.2. Landslide
Landslide Stability Evolution
In this
this section,
section,the
theparameters
parameters of of
thethe
VanVan Genuchten—Mualem
Genuchten—Mualem (VGM)(VGM)
modelmodel ob-
obtained
tained from the soil–water characteristics test were input into the hydraulic
from the soil–water characteristics test were input into the hydraulic function parameter function pa-
rameter
module of module
GEO to of calculate
GEO to calculate
the SEEPthe SEEP seepage
seepage flow.
flow. Then, theThen, the Geo-Studio
Geo-Studio (SLOPE
(SLOPE module)
module)
was adoptedwasforadopted foranalysis.
stability stabilityAt
analysis.
the same Attime,
the same time, the engineering
the engineering analogies of analogies
Fredlund
of
andFredlund
Xing (FX) and Xingparameters
model (FX) modelwereparameters
also usedwere also usedthe
to calculate to calculate
stability. the stability.

4.2.1. Parameters
4.2.1. Parameters and and Numerical
Numerical Model
Model
The selection
The selection ofof the
the hydraulic
hydraulic function
function parameters
parameters (hydraulic
(hydraulic boundary)
boundary) shows
shows that
that
Siwan Village
Siwan Village is
is aa typical
typical landslide
landslide induced
induced by
by rainfall.
rainfall. The
The hydraulic
hydraulic boundary
boundary condition
condition
of rainfall is based on the daily precipitation data from 18 July to 14 August 2019; it is
obtained from the China Meteorological Data Network (Figure 3).
Hydraulic function parameters (hydraulic conductivity and volumetric water con-
tent) are selected. The Van Genuchten—Mualem (VGM) model parameters were deter-
mined by testing the soil water characteristics of Siwan Village under the TRIM coefficient,
as shown in Table 4. By engineering analogy [42–45], the parameters of the Fredlund and
Forests 2023, 14, 808 14 of 20

of rainfall is based on the daily precipitation data from 18 July to 14 August 2019; it is
obtained from the China Meteorological Data Network (Figure 3).
Hydraulic function parameters (hydraulic conductivity and volumetric water content)
are selected. The Van Genuchten—Mualem (VGM) model parameters were determined
by testing the soil water characteristics of Siwan Village under the TRIM coefficient, as
shown in Table 4. By engineering analogy [42–45], the parameters of the Fredlund and
Xing (FX) model of the Siwan village landslide were determined as shown in Table 4. The
model parameters obtained by these two methods were input and used, respectively, for
numerical seepage flow calculation of the SEEP module and the stability evolution model
are shown in Figure 10.

Table 4. Fredlund and Xing and Van Genuchten—Mualem model parameters of the Siwan Village
landslide.

Part a (kPa) n m Mv (kPa) Ksat (m/d) Sat.WC (%)

Sliding body 8 6.6 0.8 1 × 10−51 0.43 38.6
FX model
Sliding zone 800 0.3 0.5 1 × 10−51 0.03 41.6
Sliding body 5.6 3.5 0.7 1 × 10−51 0.43 39
VGM model
Sliding zone 12.5 1.95 0.5 1 × 10−51 0.03 42
Forests 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 21
(a, n, m —FX and VGM model fitting parameters, Mv- Volume compressibility, Ksat—Saturated hydraulic
conductivity, Sat.WC—saturated volumetric water content).

Figure 10. Grid model of two landslide events of the 2-2 profile.
Figure 10. Grid model of two landslide events of the 2-2 profile.

AA typical
typical 2-2
2-2 profile
profile is
is taken
taken as
as an
an example
example for for verification.
verification. The
The 2-2
2-2 profile
profile in
in CAD
CAD
was imported into Geo-Studio to establish the finite element calculation
was imported into Geo-Studio to establish the finite element calculation model, and the model, and the
slip surface
slip surfacewas wasspecified
specifiedtotooverlap
overlapthe
theslip
slipzone
zone(Figure
(Figure 10).
10). The
The physical
physical and
and mechani-
mechanical
cal parameters
parameters of landslide
of landslide rockrockandand
soil soil
mass mass in Siwan
in Siwan Village
Village are taken
are taken fromfrom the inves-
the investiga-
tigation
tion reportreport
(Table(Table 5). According
5). According to thistosection,
this section,
a grid anumerical
grid numerical model
model was was con-
constructed
structed (Figure 10). X direction coordinates were set at 0–500 m,
(Figure 10). X direction coordinates were set at 0–500 m, and Y direction coordinates and Y direction coordi-
were
nates were set at 685–985 m. After grid division, the model
set at 685–985 m. After grid division, the model had 902 nodes and 846 cells. had 902 nodes and 846 cells.

Table 5. Physical and mechanical parameters of rock and soil mass in the Siwan village landslide of
Profile 2-2.

Bulk Density Gamma Effective Cohesive Force of c’ Internal Friction Angle φ

Landslide Area
Forests 2023, 14, 808 15 of 20

Table 5. Physical and mechanical parameters of rock and soil mass in the Siwan village landslide of
Profile 2-2.

Bulk Density Effective Cohesive Internal Friction

Landslide Area
Gamma (kN/m3 ) Force of c’ (kPa) Angle ϕ (◦ )
Sliding body (gravel soil) 20.0 18.40 25.80
Sliding zone (silty clay) 19.3 23.01 13.60
Sliding bed (sandstone) 27.1 2949.00 41.84
Sliding bed (carbonaceous shale) 26.3 1143.00 37.17

4.2.2. Evolution Laws of Landslide Stability

Based on the abovementioned parameters, the VGM and FX model parameters in
the SEEP module were used to calculate the seepage flow, respectively. The calculated
results of rainwater infiltration are shown in Figure 11. It is indicated that the landslide
evolution stability process simulated by the two methods is consistent with the actual
landslide instability process (Figure 12).
The first slide: From 18 July to 31 July, rainwater infiltration and pore water pressure
in the landslide area of Siwan village increased with accumulated rainfall. On 30 July, the
rainfall reached 25.6 mm, which was the maximum rainfall of the month. However, there
was no rainfall on days 27, 28, and 29, and the pore water seeped into the front edge of the
landslide. The heavy rainfall at day 30 saturated the front soil, the front weight increased,
Forests 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the stability coefficient suddenly decreased, and the landslide slid. 16 of 21

The second slide: From 1 August to 4 August, rainwater infiltration and pore water
pressure in the landslide area of Siwan village reached saturation with accumulated rainfall.
During the continuous
the landslide. The heavyrainfall
rainfallfrom 5 August
at day to 9 August,
30 saturated the frontthe
soil,maximum
the front value
weightwasin-
33.9 mm. The soil was saturated, and the continuous rainfall increased
creased, the stability coefficient suddenly decreased, and the landslide slid. the rain buoyancy
and the
Thelandslide stability
second slide: From coefficient.
1 August to 4 August, rainwater infiltration and pore water
Fromin10
pressure theAugust to 14
landslide areaAugust, rainwater
of Siwan seepage saturation
village reached led to the rapid reduction of rain-
with accumulated pore
pressure in the
fall. During the rear wall of rainfall
continuous the second
fromlandslide.
5 August toThe weight of
9 August, thethe soil in front
maximum valueofwas
the
landslide was significant, and the rear wall was pulled apart. This resulted
33.9 mm. The soil was saturated, and the continuous rainfall increased the rain buoyancy in tension
cracks,
and thewhich belonged
landslide to the
stability loose (retrogressive) sliding.
coefficient.

Figure 11. Nephogram showing the evolution of pore water pressure accompanied by rainfall. (a)
Figure 11. Nephogram showing the evolution of pore water pressure accompanied by rainfall.
2019-7-18 (b)2019-7-24 (c) 2019-7-30 (d)2019-7-5 (e)2019-7-11 (f)2019-7-18.
(a) 2019-7-18 (b) 2019-7-24 (c) 2019-7-30 (d) 2019-8-5 (e) 2019-8-11 (f) 2019-8-14.
From 10 August to 14 August, rainwater seepage led to the rapid reduction of pore
pressure in the rear wall of the second landslide. The weight of the soil in front of the
landslide was significant, and the rear wall was pulled apart. This resulted in tension
cracks, which belonged to the loose (retrogressive) sliding.
With regards to soil landslides and under the condition of a single rainfall-induced
model, further comprehensive analysis results (Figures 3 and 12) show the following:
 trailing edge was in a less stable state, and the shear strength and sliding resistance
were reduced. When there was heavy rainfall in the later period, the weight of the
soil front increased, and the sliding force increased under the limit equilibrium; how-
Forests 2023, 14, 808 ever, the anti-sliding force decreased, the soil could not be balanced, and there was16aof 20
mutation of shear displacement.

(a)

(b)
Figure 12. Landslide
Figure stability
12. Landslide evolution
stability curve
evolution of the
curve of 2-2
the profile under
2-2 profile rainfall
under conditions:
rainfall (a) the
conditions: (a) first
the first
slide, (b) the second slide.
slide, (b) the second slide.

5. Discussion
With regards to soil landslides and under the condition of a single rainfall-induced
model, further
From the comprehensive
above results, it cananalysis
be seen results (Figures
generally 3 andfor
consistent 12)the
show the following:
landslide stability
evolution of soil–water characteristics test (VGM model) and engineering analogy method
(1) At the early stage of rainfall, the unsaturated degree of soil on the shallow surface of the
(FX model) after the
landslide wascalculation
high, and theof the seepagecapacity
infiltration flow. Under the condition
and water of rainfall,
retention capacity thesoil
of the
are strong. The rainfall intensity was less than the infiltration capacity of the landslide
soil, and all the rainwater was infiltrated. As the rainfall continued, the water content of
the soil gradually increased, and the infiltration capacity and water retention capacity of
the soil gradually decreased. This reduced the water content and pore water pressure.
Therefore, the stability coefficient of the soil body decreased to a small extent;
Forests 2023, 14, 808 17 of 20

(2) At the mid-period of the rainfall, the stability coefficient rose temporarily due to the
release of sliding stress in the early stage, but with the continuous rainfall, the front,
middle, and trailing edge of the soil were saturated; the pore pressure increased, and
the soil bubble in the water led to a downward trend of stability coefficient again.
When the rain stopped, the soil water in the front edge penetrated the river channel,
the pore water in the trailing edge penetrated the soil, and the pore pressure and shear
strength of the trailing edge decreased, resulting in shear creep. When rainfall causes
soil supersaturation, slope erosion increases, and soil is most prone to landslides;
(3) In the late rainfall period, the soil’s pore water was distributed at the front edge, the
trailing edge was in a less stable state, and the shear strength and sliding resistance
were reduced. When there was heavy rainfall in the later period, the weight of the soil
front increased, and the sliding force increased under the limit equilibrium; however,
the anti-sliding force decreased, the soil could not be balanced, and there was a
mutation of shear displacement.

5. Discussion
From the above results, it can be seen generally consistent for the landslide stability
evolution of soil–water characteristics test (VGM model) and engineering analogy method
(FX model) after the calculation of the seepage flow. Under the condition of rainfall,
the stability coefficient of 2-2 section slump accumulated body is 1.008, and the whole
accumulated body is in an understandable state. This is consistent with the situation in
which the landslide has two large-scale slippages, and the overall status of the accumulated
body tends to stop at present. However, the stability of the FX model calculated by
engineering analogy is sensitive to rainfall. Soil–water characteristics test (VGM model)
can better reflect the fundamental hydraulic changes in the field. Compared with the actual
site, the FX model’s hysteretic effect is small, and the instability time is 1–2 days earlier
than the actual site. The soil–water characteristic test (VGM model) is reasonable both in
whole and part.
From the analysis of stability coefficients, daily rainfall, accumulated rainfall, and
the occurrence time of the landslide, the landslide did not happen immediately after the
rainfall. The first landslide occurred one day after the rainfall, and the second landslide
occurred five days after the rainfall.
Previous studies have found that each landslide has different characteristic parameters.
Therefore, this study found that in order to perform accurate and large-scale numerical
simulations, it is necessary to determine the characteristic parameters and mechanical
parameters based on experiments, rather than relying on engineering category acquisition
methods. Using remote sensing images, field surveys, GIS, and drone images are the most
intuitive methods for determining landslide forms, and cross-technology applications are
necessary means to improve early warning. We compared our current research findings
with those of previous studies and concluded that utilizing characteristic parameters
obtained from soil–water characteristic tests for numerical simulations is a more precise
method for early warning compared to relying on parameters obtained through direct
engineering analogies. When we apply numerical models to a larger range, we face many
technical challenges, but there are already many methods proposed to overcome these
challenges. Some common methods include scaling models, statistical modeling, GIS-based
modeling, and integrated modeling. This research belongs to a comprehensive model,
which can generate more accurate and comprehensive prediction results and be used to
guide decision-making in practice. We can evaluate it based on actual situations and apply
it to specific landslides.
It is worth noting that the lag effect is a common issue with rainfall-induced landslides.
To enhance early warning effectiveness, future research should consider the lag effect as a
type of load and incorporate it into the boundary conditions by converting it into influence
coefficients, for instance. In future research, we can also consider the effect of vegetation
reinforcement and rainfall equivalence using a qualitative equivalence approach.
Forests 2023, 14, 808 18 of 20

6. Conclusions
In this study, we combined the parameters of the Van Genuchten–Mualem (VGM) model
obtained from soil–water characteristic tests with a numerical simulation method to analyze
the stability of a landslide evolution. Our findings suggest the following conclusions:
1. Siwan village landslide is in an understandable state under natural conditions, with its
deformation primarily concentrated in the front part of the sliding body, and closely
tied to the intensity of rainfall. The deformation of the first initial tension-cracks
landslide exacerbates the subsequent loose landslide;
2. During heavy rainfall, the stability of a landslide can suddenly decreases as the soil
in the sliding zone becomes soaked and softened continuously. The infiltration of
heavy rainfall through the cracks can also further damage the stability of the landslide.
Therefore, it is essential to conduct a thorough investigation of the surface tension
cracks of the landslide and implement appropriate sealing measures;
3. There is an inherent hysteretic relationship between rainfall and stability coefficients,
as demonstrated by experiments which show that the reduction in landslide stability
coefficients is most significant after rainfall. Studying the hysteretic phenomenon of
landslides is thus crucial and plays a vital role in the early warning systems for landslides;
4. Numerical simulation based on the soil–water characteristics test results shows better
agreement with the stability of the actual rainfall-induced landslide evolution than
empirical soil–water characteristics obtained by the FX model. This highlights the
importance of accurately reflecting the hysteretic effect on stability, which cannot be
achieved through empirical soil–water characteristics alone.
The research results demonstrate a novel approach for the rapid analysis of the char-
acteristics and causes, which can be referenced for the early identification, warning, and
stability evaluation of landslides. It can help to minimize the damage caused by landslides
and protect lives and property.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.X.; data curation, X.W.; formal analysis, J.X.; investigation,
X.W. and X.X.; methodology, X.X.; project administration, H.W.; resources, X.X.; supervision, H.W.;
validation, J.X. and X.Z.; visualization, J.X. and X.Z.; writing—original draft, H.W.; writing—review and
editing, H.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of Chongqing (Grant number:
CSTB2022NSCQ-MSX0594).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article. The corresponding author can
provide the necessary model upon request.
Acknowledgments: Special thanks to the Chongqing Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources for
invaluable help.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Sun, D.; Xu, J.; Wen, H.; Wang, Y. An Optimized Random Forest Model and its Generalization Ability in Landslide Susceptibility
Mapping: Application in Two Areas of Three Gorges Reservoir, China. J. Earth Sci. 2020, 31, 1068–1086. [CrossRef]
2. Zou, Z.; Tang, H.; Criss, R.E.; Hu, X.; Xiong, C.; Wu, Q.; Yuan, Y. A model for interpreting the deformation mechanism of reservoir
landslides in the Three Gorges Reservoir area, China. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2021, 21, 517–532. [CrossRef]
3. Buma, B.; Pawlik, Ł. Post-landslide soil and vegetation recovery in a dry, montane system is slow and patchy. Ecosphere 2021, 12, e03346.
[CrossRef]
4. Wen, H.; Li, W.; Xu, C.; Daimaru, H. Landslides in Forests around the World: Causes and Mitigation. Forests 2023, 14, 629.
[CrossRef]
5. Jabro, J.D.; Stevens, W.B. Pore Size Distribution Derived from Soil–Water Retention Characteristic Curve as Affected by Tillage
Intensity. Water 2022, 14, 3517. [CrossRef]
Forests 2023, 14, 808 19 of 20

6. Chen, L.; Zhang, K.; Zhang, Z.; Cao, Z.; Ke, Q. Response of soil water movement to rainfall under different land uses in karst
regions. Environ. Earth Sci. 2023, 82, 50. [CrossRef]
7. Wu, H.; Chen, S.; Pang, Y. Parametric Study of Effects of Rain Infiltration on Unsaturated Slopes. Rock Soil Mech. 1999, 1, 2–15.
8. Wang, L.; Liu, F.; Zhang, Z. Research on Characteristics of Unsaturated Soil Water Characteristic Curve. Adhesion 2021, 46, 147–150.
9. Bencheikh, K.; Messast, S. The Influence of Particle Separation Distance on the Behavior of Unsaturated Soils. Geotech. Geol. Eng.
2023, 41, 1353–1370. [CrossRef]
10. Cui, K.; Lin, W. Research on Soil-water Characteristic Curve of Unsaturated Mixed-soil in Western Sichuan. China J. Highw. Transp.
2017, 30, 44–50.
11. Yuan, K.F. Research on Soil-water Characteristic Curve of Unsaturated Soil in Jinnan. Shanxi Sci. Technol. Commun. 2021, 3, 13–15.
12. Cai, G.; Liu, Q.; Yang, Y. Experimental study on seepage characteristics of dry and wet sandy loess under hydro-mechanical
coupling. China Civ. Eng. J. 2022, 55, 74–82.
13. Lu, H.D.; Chen, J.X.; Han, W.X.; Wu, Y.; Li, D.D. Centrifuge Model Tests and Numerical Simulations of the Landslide Evolution
Process. KSCE J Civ Eng 2022, 26, 2588–2599. [CrossRef]
14. Gatto, M.P.A.; Montrasio, L. X-SLIP: A SLIP-based multi-approach algorithm to predict the spatial–temporal triggering of
rainfall-induced shallow landslides over large areas. Comput. Geotech. 2023, 154, 105175. [CrossRef]
15. Salvatici, T.; Tofani, V.; Rossi, G.; D’Ambrosio, M.; Tacconi Stefanelli, C.; Masi, E.B.; Rosi, A.; Pazzi, V.; Vannocci, P.; Petrolo, M.;
et al. Application of a Physically Based Model to Forecast Shallow Landslides at a Regional Scale. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci.
2018, 18, 1919–1935. [CrossRef]
16. Zhang, X.; Chen, J.; Huang, R.Q. A study of deformation features of gapa landslide using FLAC-3D. Rock Soil Mech. 2005, 1, 131–134.
17. Dai, C.; Feng, J.; Bu, C. Study on the influence of earthquake on slope stability based on Geo-Studio and stereographic projection
method-A Case study of Mozhugongka Landslide. Henan Sci. Technol. 2022, 41, 127–130.
18. Li, B.; Tang, H.; Gong, W. Numerical study of the runout behavior of the Kamenziwan landslide in the Three Gorges Reservoir
region, China. Landslide 2022, 19, 963–976. [CrossRef]
19. Hu, Q.; Wu, Y.; Miao, F. Stability analysis of concave slope based on Mein-Larson Infiltration Model. Chin. J. Geol. Hazards Prev.
2021, 32, 26–35.
20. Che, T.; Gong, H.; Jian, B. Numerical Simulation analysis of bridge foundation bedding slope stability based on UDEC. Sichuan
Archit. 2022, 42, 142–145.
21. Mohanty, M.; Sarkar, R.; Das, S.K. Probabilistic assessment of effects of heterogeneity on the stability of coal mine overburden
dump slopes through discrete element framework. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 2022, 81, 228. [CrossRef]
22. Zhou, L. Numerical simulation analysis of post-construction stability of high vertical slope based on FLAC3D. Inn. Mong. Coal
Econ. 2021, 18, 1–4. [CrossRef]
23. Wang, X.; Wu, Y.; Huang, Y. Slope stability analysis based on ABAQUS. Constr. Saf. 2022, 37, 50–53.
24. Cheng, Y. Numerical simulation and monitoring analysis of bedding landslide. Chin. J. Rock Mech. Eng. 2008, 2, 3746–3752.
25. Barkhordari, S.; Hashemy Shahdany, S.M. A systematic approach for estimating water losses in irrigation canals. Water Sci. Eng.
2022, 15, 161–169. [CrossRef]
26. Zhou, Z.; Chen, H. Analysis stability of slope based on Geo-Studio. Henan Sci. Technol. 2022, 41, 63–66.
27. Liu, H.C.; Huang, H.; Shuai, B.W.; Feng, Y. Study on Stability of East Slope of Shengli East No. 2 Mine Based on Geo-Studio
Numerical Software. Front. Earth Sci. 2020, 10, 622–628. [CrossRef]
28. Xiang, X.; Wen, H.; Xie, P. Study on the Multi-Field Characteristic Coupling of Single Landslide Caused by Heavy Rainfall. In
Proceedings of 2015 National Engineering Geology Annual Conference, Changchun, China, 8–16 August 2015; Science Press:
Beijing, China, 2015; pp. 428–436.
29. Bračko, T.; Žlender, B.; Jelušič, P. Implementation of Climate Change Effects on Slope Stability Analysis. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8171.
[CrossRef]
30. Sun, D.; Gu, Q.; Wen, H.; Shi, S.; Mi, C.; Zhang, F. A hybrid landslide warning model coupling susceptibility zoning and
precipitation. Forests 2022, 13, 827. [CrossRef]
31. Mualem, Y. A new model for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous media. Water Resour. Res. 1976, 12, 513–522.
[CrossRef]
32. Van Genuchten, M.T. A Closed-form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.
1980, 44, 892–898. [CrossRef]
33. Fredlund, D.G.; Xing, A.; Huang, S. Predicting the permeability function for unsaturated soils using the soil-water characteristic
curve. Can. Geotech. J. 1994, 31, 533–546. [CrossRef]
34. Oh, S.; Kim, Y.; Kim, J.W. A Modified van Genuchten-Mualem Model of Hydraulic Conductivity in Korean Residual Soils. MDPI
AG 2015, 10, 5487–5502. [CrossRef]
35. Vanapalli, S.K.; Fredlund, D.G.; Pufahl, D.E. A model for the prediction of shear strength with respect to soil suction. Can. Sci.
Publ. 1996, 33, 379–392. [CrossRef]
36. Fredlund, D.G.; Morgenstern, N.R.; Widger, R. Shear Strength of Unsaturated Soils. Can. Geotech. J. 1978, 15, 313321. [CrossRef]
37. Belew, A.Z.; Belay, S.K.; Wosenie, M.D.; Alebachew, D.H. A Comparative Evaluation of Seepage and Stability of Embankment Dams
Using GeoStudio and Plaxis Models: The Case of Gomit Dam in Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Water Conserv. Sci. Eng. 2022, 7, 429–441.
[CrossRef]
Forests 2023, 14, 808 20 of 20

38. Hassan, W.; Alshameri, B.; Nawaz, M.N.; Al-Tameemi, A.H.; Hussain, M. Experimental Study on Shear Strength Behavior and
Numerical Study on Geo-Synthetic-Reinforced Cohesive Soil Slope. Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. 2022, 7, 349. [CrossRef]
39. Soranzo, E.; Guardiani, C.; Saif, A.; Wu, W. A Reinforcement Learning Approach to the Location of the Non-Circular Critical Slip
Surface of Slopes. Comput. Geosci. 2022, 166, 105182. [CrossRef]
40. Tai, P.; Wu, F.; Chen, R.; Zhu, J.; Wang, X.; Zhang, M. Effect of herbaceous plants on the response of loose silty sand slope under
rainfall. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 2023, 82, 42. [CrossRef]
41. Montrasio, L.; Gatto, M.P.A.; Miodini, C. The role of plants in the prevention of soil-slip: The G-SLIP model and its application on
territorial scale through G-XSLIP platform. Landslides 2023, 9, 02031. [CrossRef]
42. Li, Y.; Yang, Y.; Ye, Z. Treatment and stability analysis of collapse slope based on MIDAS-GTS /NX. Ind. Saf. Environ. Prot.
2022, 48, 15–19.
43. Li, C.; Fu, Z.; Wang, Y. Susceptibility of reservoir-induced landslides and strategies for increasing the slope stability in the three
gorges reservoir area: Zigui Basin as an example. Eng. Geol. 2019, 261, 105279. [CrossRef]
44. Li, L. Simulation and stability analysis of Rainfall Infiltration in Soil landslide based on Geo-studio. Huabei Nat. Resour.
2021, 2, 100–101.
45. Tozato, K.; Dolojan, N.L.J.; Touge, Y.; Kure, S.; Moriguchi, S.; Kawagoe, S.; Kazama, S.; Terada, K. Limit Equilibrium Method-Based
3D Slope Stability Analysis for Wide Area Considering Influence of Rainfall. Eng. Geol. 2022, 308, 106808. [CrossRef]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.