ORC – Module 3:

Misleading graph: biểu đồ sai lệch

Source:
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misleading_graph) acessed at 23-9-2016

Contents

I-Introduction

II-Misleading graph methods

A-Methods -General
1-Excessive usage: Sử dụng quá mức
2-Biased labeling: Ghi nhãn thiên vị
B-Methods related to design: Các phương pháp liên quan đến thiết
kế
1-Poor construction
2-Complexity: Độ phức tạp
3-Pie chart
4-three D
C-Methods related to scale: Các phương pháp liên quan đến tỉ lệ
1-No scale
2-Truncated graph: Biểu đồ rút gọn
3-Axis changes: Thay đổi trục
4-Improper intervals or units: Khoảng hoặc đơn vị không đúng
5-Improper scaling
D-Methods related to data extraction: Các phương pháp liên quan
đến trích xuất dữ liệu
1-Improper extraction
2-Omitting data: Bỏ sót dữ liệu
III-Measuring distortion: Đo biến dạng
1-Lie factor: yếu tố nói dối
2-Graph discrepancy index: Chỉ số chênh lệch đồ thị
3-Data density: Mật độ dữ liệu
4-Data-ink ratio
IV-Usage in finance and corporate reports: Sử dụng trong báo
cáo tài chính và doanh nghiệp

V-Academia

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 I-Introduction
-a misleading graph, =a distorted graph: biểu đồ sai lệch = đồ thị bị biến dạng
is a graph that misrepresents data, trình bày sai dữ liệu
constituting a misuse of statistics :cấu thành việc lạm dụng số liệu thống
kê
and with the result that an incorrect conclusion may be derived from it.
-Graphs may be misleading through being
excessively complex : quá phức tạp
or poorly constructed.
-Even when constructed to accurately display the characteristics of their data,
graphs can be subject to different interpretation. diễn giải
-Misleading graphs may be created
Intentionally: Cố ý
to hinder the proper interpretation of data: cản trở việc giải thích
hợp lý dữ liệu
or accidentally due to
unfamiliarity with graphing software, sự xa lạ
misinterpretation of data,
or because data cannot be accurately conveyed. chuyển tải
-Misleading graphs are often used in false advertising.
-One of the first authors to write about misleading graphs was Darrell Huff,
publisher of the 1954 book How to Lie with Statistics.
-The field of data visualization: trực quan hóa dữ liệu
describes ways to present information that avoids creating misleading
graphs.

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 II-Misleading graph methods
It [a misleading graph] is vastly more effective, however, because it contains no
adjectives or adverbs to spoil the illusion of objectivity, there's nothing anyone
can pin on you.
--How to Lie with Statistics (1954)
nó không chứa tính từ hoặc trạng từ để làm hỏng ảo tưởng về tính khách quan,
nên không ai có thể gán cho bạn điều gì cả
A-General Methods
1-Excessive usage
The use of graphs where they are not needed
can lead to unnecessary confusion/interpretation.nhầm lẫn/giải thích.
Generally, the more explanation a graph needs,
the less the graph itself is needed.
Graphs do not always convey information better than tables.
2-Biased labeling thiên vị
The use of biased or loaded words in the graph's title, axis labels, or caption
may inappropriately prime the reader.tiêu đề của biểu đồ, nhãn trục
dẫn dắt người đọc một cách không thích hợp
B-Methods related to design
1-Poor construction
Poorly constructed graphs can make data difficult to discern and thus
interpret. phân biệt và do đó diễn giải
2-Complexity Độ phức tạp
Graphs are designed to allow easier interpretation of statistical data.
However, graphs with excessive complexity can obfuscate the data and make
interpretation difficult.làm xáo trộn
3-Pie chart
 Comparing pie charts of different sizes
could be misleading as people cannot accurately read the comparative
area of circles.
 The usage of thin slices,lát
which are hard to discern,
may be difficult to interpret.
 The usage of percentages as labels on a pie chart
can be misleading when the sample size is small. cỡ mẫu
 Making a pie chart 3D or adding a slant thêm một góc nghiêng
will make interpretation difficult due to distorted effect of
perspective.góc nhìn
 height of the slices is varied chiều cao của các lát cắt rất đa dạng

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 Bar-charted pie graphs in which the height of the slices is varied may
confuse the reader.[9]
Biểu đồ hình tròn dạng thanh trong đó chiều cao của các lát cắt thay đổi
có thể khiến người đọc bối rối.
 3D Pie chart slice perspective
A perspective (3D) pie chart is used to
give the chart a 3D look.
Often used for aesthetic reasons,lý do thẩm mỹ
chiều thứ ba the third dimension does not improve the reading of the
data;
trái ngược on the contrary, these plots are difficult to interpret
because of the distorted effect of perspective associated with
the third dimension.
thừa thãi The use of superfluous dimensions not used to display the data
of interest is discouraged for charts in general, not only for pie charts.
In a 3D pie chart, the slices that are closer to the reader appear to be
larger than those in the back
due to the angle at which they're presented.góc
Comparison of pie charts

Edward Tufte, a prominent American statistician noted why tables may be

preferred to pie charts in The Visual Display of Quantitative Information:
Tables are preferable to graphics for many small data sets.Bảng được ưa
chuộng hơn đồ họa cho nhiều tập dữ liệu nhỏ.
A table is nearly always better than a dumb pie chart; biểu đồ hình tròn ngu
ngốc
the only thing worse than a pie chart is several of them,
for then the viewer is asked to compare quantities located in spatial
disarray both within and between pies
Điều duy nhất tệ hơn biểu đồ hình tròn là một vài biểu đồ hình tròn, khi
đó người xem được yêu cầu so sánh các đại lượng nằm ở vị trí lộn xộn về
không gian cả bên trong và giữa các hình tròn.

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 – Given their low data-density and failure to order numbers along a
visual dimension, pie charts should never be used.

4-three D
The use of a superfluous third dimension, which does not contain information,
is strongly discouraged, as it may confuse the reader.

C-Methods related to scale

1-No scale không chia tỷ lệ

The scales of a graph are often used to exaggerate or minimize differences.
phóng đại hoặc giảm thiểu sự khác biệt.

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Volatility: sự biến động
Steady: vững chắc
Slope: dốc
Plot: phác họa

2-Truncated graph Biểu đồ rút gọn

-A truncated graph (also known as a torn graph) has a y axis that does not
start at 0. đồ thị bị rách
-These graphs can create the impression of important change
where there is relatively little change.
-Truncated graphs are useful in illustrating small differences.
-Graphs may also be truncated to save space.
- Commercial software such as MS Excel will tend to truncate graphs by
default mặc định
if the values are all within a narrow range, as in this example.phạm vi
hẹp

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biểu thị sự ngắt trục y

3-Axis changes

thay đổi tỷ lệ kích thước đồ thị

4-Improper intervals or units Khoảng hoặc đơn vị không đúng
The intervals and units used in a graph may be manipulated thao túng
to create or mitigate the expression of change. giảm thiểu biểu hiện của
sự thay đổi
5-Improper scaling
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When using pictograms in bar graphs, they should not be scaled
uniformly,thống nhất
as this creates a perceptually misleading comparison.
The area of the pictogram is interpreted instead of only its height or width.
This causes the scaling to make the difference appear to be squared.

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 Exaggerated: phóng đại
destructive capacity: khả năng hủy diệt
proportional: tỷ lệ thuận

The effect of improper scaling of pictograms is further exemplified when the

pictogram has 3 dimensions, in which case the effect is cubed khối lập phương

Additionally, an improperly scaled pictogram may leave the reader with the
sense that the item itself has actually changed in size.

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Logarithmic scaling
Logarithmic (often referred to as log) scales can be a very valid( có hiệu
lực) means of representing data, biểu thị dữ liệu
however if used without clearly being labelled as so,
or displayed to a reader who is unfamiliar with the concept of log
scales,
a graph using a log scale can be misleading.
Log scales put the data values in terms of a chosen number (the base of
the log) to a particular power,lũy thừa cụ thể
the base is often e (2.71828...) or 10.
For example, log scales may give a height of 1 "unit" for a value of
10 in the data and a height of 6 "units" for a value of 1000000
(1x10^6) in the data.
Log scales have common usage in some fields,
including the VEI (volcanic explosivity index) scale
or the richter scale for earthquakes,
magnitudes of stars in astronomy: độ lớn của các ngôi sao trong
thiên văn học
and the pH of acidic and alkaline solutions are also based on a form
of log scale,
but can have the effect of making data less immediately apparent to the
eye. làm cho dữ liệu ít được nhìn thấy ngay lập tức bằng mắt.
A graph with a log scale which was not clearly labelled as such,
or a graph with a log scale presented to a viewer who did not have
knowledge of logarithmic scales,
would generally result in a representation which made data values
look of similar size whilst in fact being of widely differing
magnitudes.
Misuse of a log scale
-can make vastly different values (such as 10 and 10 thousand)
appear close together (on a log scale they would be only "1" and
"4" ),
- or it can make small values appear to be negative due to the way
in which logarithmic scales represent numbers smaller than the
chosen value used as their base.

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 -may also cause relationships between quantities to appear to be
linear whilst those relationships are in fact exponentials số mũ
or power laws which rise very rapidly towards higher values.
It has been stated, although mainly in a humorous way, that
"anything looks linear on a log-log plot with thick marker pen"
.

D-Methods related to data extraction: Các phương pháp liên

quan đến trích xuất dữ liệu
1-Improper extraction
Graphs based on other graphs should be representative in their
presentation.đại diện trong cách trình bày của chúng.
Extraction has valid uses when searching for anomalies.sự bất thường

2-Omitting data
Graphs created with omitted data
remove information from which to base a conclusion.

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In financial reports, negative returns or data that do not correlate a positive
outlook lợi nhuận âm hoặc dữ liệu không tương quan với triển vọng tích cực
may be excluded to create a more favorable visual impression.
có thể được loại trừ để tạo ấn tượng thị giác thuận lợi hơn

III-Measuring distortion

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Several methods have been developed to determine whether graphs are distorted
and to quantify this distortion.

1-Lie factor

where

A graph with a high lie factor (>1)

would exaggerate change in the data it represents,
while one with a small lie factor (>0, <1)
would obscure change in the data.
A perfectly accurate graph
would exhibit a lie factor of 1.
2-Graph discrepancy index

where

-The graph discrepancy index, also known as the graph distortion index (GDI),
was originally proposed by Paul John Steinbart in 1998.
- GDI is calculated as a percentage ranging from −100% to positive infinity,
with zero percent
indicating that the graph has been properly constructed and anything
outside the ±5% margin is considered to be distorted.
-Research into the usage of GDI as a measure of graphics distortion has found
it to be inconsistent and discontinuous,
making the usage of GDI as a measurement for comparisons difficult.
3-Data density

The data density should be relatively high, otherwise a table may be better
suited for displaying the data.
4-Data-ink ratio

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 The data-ink ratio should be relatively high,
otherwise the chart may have unnecessary graphics.

IV-Usage in finance and corporate reports

-Graphs are useful in the summary and interpretation of financial data.
-Graphs allow trends in large data sets to be seen
while also allowing the data to be interpreted by non-specialists.
-Graphs are often used in corporate annual reports as a form of impression
management.
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- In the United States, graphs do not have to be audited, as they fall under AU
Section 550 Other Information in Documents Containing Audited Financial
Statements.
-Several published studies have looked at the usage of graphs in corporate reports
for different corporations in different countries and have found frequent usage of
improper design, selectivity, and measurement distortion within these reports.
-The presence of misleading graphs in annual reports have led to requests for
standards to be set.
-Research has found that while readers with poor levels of financial understanding
have a greater chance of being misinformed by misleading graphs, even those with
financial understanding, such as loan officers, may be misled.

V-Academia
The perception of graphs is studied in
psychophysics,
cognitive psychology,
and computational visions.

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