GoenecoPdéo sur Ja modelsdlion chs saglémeschynos DP ba meetin’, TP’ Xe meebo! des aus ayes comndle 2 & dered) agpe ches cbt” forchss weeks andre Deo exclad” ch Ceo cepeenses . Dons . —— te D Bicrcrwiansar ope WU leqgies de xp sont ene(okenres) Congerenes par da modebuict” a Sys wweromigue ~ BS Béchtque - Sys as ce a =. “Freronigoe, . Se corppe? Blak exicle cle be metre 2 peo od eneraies . ~ Emeraie diss pclsve (LramsParmvce an cobinie) | ~ Emerge Conserveibive (decker accamutie ds ett Pysere) ~ Emeceye Ginelique an incudive (caacdanm tle dinedic \ aL. Nah moggthine ) Le ntingate quiet Rae cxsotugend, toules Re Parepes cle om Som poe gylemastace me a hie Rese que coms Susne de cos 3 pe ce casngolemens) dsc Kt de Pebewed eo Permaesene , fi cond) EO disnpolf -b cssases oath (@ PaksoverResaeak, Ett saponk ) = EW Sochoct:P (ef! cee 4 mananeelisee . cose No iernons amoces & 4 De Ya mriome mmamidse , on peat ae =e Paypepe an Q satigoucs = NenwalRs roversontes CG iF, ey, -) ~ Noniollls medals amccies amelewité ax mensts der dl. (e217) a a ee eA A AeDe. TL Sunpectamc som Jridiome chamois ? 7 Ms ; Ses ast cefonte es eke 2 et -L 2k Oo 4 Ze a ve 5 ' Zn ¥A ; a MORE ON MECHANICAL OHM'S LAW Pesca Pek fa Kel ke. { (ois: eee | SPRING F E Q GrkyX & Kgs F pee ee k ~, but x2 Dx F “ee ‘ 25. 5 re. so 25° % $3 ok sa : DAMPER FBX cae - / $8,2B2 BLO 3. tee ° x iT Sev a IerTiIA F Fue mk =mD& OMASS) | fa as ~ ee . gor kev ‘ -HOW TO FIND THE SYSTEM DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS MECHANICAL SYSTEMS 1, NEWTON'S LAW @ Tronslotional & Fru? Sim) | @ Rototional E Tyres" HLTB) avruco Se X is ace. WRT © WS is ongular ace. seks inertiol frome Gai WRT inertial Frame Bw Mf m= constont ( If J: constant Ss xt Le EFemk 8 ET: Ta * a Mots Boellxs BY us 38 [etd Cee , |{do%r Speiloe ks (Sv@ordx: 2 ies i en Pawn! Bane sts fe eee es oe she form 2. MECHANICAL OHMS LAW / er , [fezys | ( 26 *SYSTEM DIFFERENTIAL EQNS. — ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS I. KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS @ The olgsbraic sum of all the currents directed toward a junction point is eero. sho te. inet te » is rigt,ry-tsso Seig ig. ® The algebraic sum of all the voltage (tc v*+ Reo +i} eos(ReDJe rises token ina specified direction = 2 eround a closed circuit is equal to the Lor ta? * ‘Ye. = Ctolet algebraic sum of all the voltage drops = Te: in that direction. = as. at : 70. Foes roe Be- Sri +eLfidt +zre MIPEDANCE : aae=e ZelO=jlo = lw Lao" = tne HY x 4 L200” Ze Coy Iew * to ZetR =-Re 2, OHMS LAW vag Compare, with ssSYSTEM DIFFERENTIAL EQNS. THERMAL SYSTEMS |. Conservation of Eneray Eneray In - Energy Out = Eneray Accum. 2+ Equations of Stote 3. Thermal Ohm's Law 4T= % Z. 4. Thereial Resistances + Conouerios CONVECTION RADIATION == thesm, conductivity, oe Rm eel = eB asng, wares Smet ST (Fourier’s Law) q* bAST yr CGT) nonlineor a . x Expand in Toulor’s Series ORS A “aces @% 4 Taree (TTD rd ae often in series, so Re.o* RtR te Rne + SF Renao® Oe Cee . 1 gt . Kabs.teni 5. Thermal Copacitance, AT = G, fxs > ce? there. fp. athe se G. NO THERMAL INDVCTANCE = femp.rise "mehMORE FLUID SYS. EQNS, 4. Fluid Ohm's Law: (AP)"= QZ 5. IF 22 Ryo Fluid resistance - then Nel if @ is laminar flow (small long passages) N=% if @ is turbulent flow ( orifices) For long, small dic. tubes: _ Bp psi . bb RY eae REY “Bifsee ” Whee” V For orifices + Qn Cake p/ te > Reece” Se 6, Laminar er turbulent Lat Cg he a Tener en Regneld's No. ¢ . 5B ‘ & evil _ inertia force . € 2000 «laminar Hee -F Whe force ? Ne > go00 = turbulent 7. Fluid Compliance + 2X wy cpt IQ interme of Rew P Cc; : FP pst wae 8. Fluid Inertomce; Ty Se 2 apt yg + 9. Bulk Modulus Bt Ss S By PS > Ber includes other effectsNUMERATOR DYNAMICS ASSUMPTIONS + in Cemmnutea ” Be Re &, Conservation of Mass: (Mass in) dt -0 = Mass accum, eadt * dW)alogct—o- NEP) fod Be Perfect Gos Law: PVs MRT Bk fe Le # constant 2. T= constani 3. Ve® small Cnegl- fluid storage) 4 Laminar Flow (Ng < 2000) = “Mar se dM = BF sub ©) into @ and Q=F(R,R, R25 B-R) pe ¥ e ( 7" are or Me -22-% 98 Ri = ee ~ £8: [Ho +g se a+ [ YBo+ie = (r 1+ BR 0NUMERATOR DYNAMICS Previous result. p.=(t,0+1) p » where 234 » Sec Desire GO) , so get py= fr, pi, Rp ,RR) From 0: A-R, BR * Ree +tDe! aoa ®, Q) again Ae R Pi- Be * Be RR [cst +1 3 Je = DH bet Re (DFR, a 2) : g where tT? (& Ret or Re poe ad Pree Ble zp : Orit > (Soa) -Reoa Re pee +ileHydromechanical System Po® Pe & SI copillary, ‘ ube HYDROSTATIC BRG evens cam Cprevious low eS mer -ROp-Buo+ Jad {Fea Ee) so Qp= ea? re : t Dp. Otte ae st Pond predgatan -¥ 7 po. ‘| but Q@p=Dp® so R= DpO Rea 8g e+ or w= Deka ond © DeReo then - DER ae ok tet) - ‘irae ® DeReq Dea Ree i= Bi aN tL , afomilior|| 7 DFTP gs ee Dy Xi Kee 23 PDNice inci, inch-1b; sep 3 Ke Seo aSYSTEM . WITH SEVERAL INPUTS 7 Tank Wal Has Negligible EXAMPLE ‘Se ‘Sticrer to ide uniform temp.,To Cohuming assumed neglighley” Environment (Wneontrolied) (Elec., Steam) Energy ws Te. ag Btu/sec. Heater I.-Gonservation of energy Energy in - Energy out = Energy stored + + during, shot time, d+ qidt ~UA (ToT: dt = MC dT. Qi-UA(To-Te) = MCT 2 US, see M® moss of liquid in tank, lb, (McD + OAIT = UAT: + qi ThtpD* + (tet, + acd yO «i Clearly, the sustem is “overdamped” ($710)! Whu? So the standard second order form, B+ Boe, does net apply. S should be factored to get a product of +wo first order factors: &= (0+) (t.0+10 In this case , using the quadratic formula, the roots arex p= hte tins BE) + (Ct eths Masel t,t) ‘ 2CHeE~~~ ‘ , . 3 and vy, uses the same terms with a negative sign here’ 1 1 wend 2a-k CF and Te % ~ e This should always be done!ae THERMAL SECOND ORDER © Mechanical, Fluid , and Electrical eastems have two types of eneray, Storage elements, therefore, oscillations are pos‘ ible. (Whot are the energy storage devices for each of these systems?) Tank Wall Has Negligible ‘Thermal Capacitance Ky(ry0+1) 3 ACTUALLY 4 Te CEOF NTO ® In this case, assume the energy, storage of the heater ikself connat be neglected: ive. (MC) care, 1S Same order of magnitude as (HC) pup. ’ . . ¢ ° What basic equation is used in deriving the sustem D.E. of the above Cand every other) thermal system? © Cotoatiitins of treet e Whot ore the eneray storage elements for thermo\ sustems?@®) MIXED SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS * ia constant constant current source Ty (Disturbonce) ° Re & back emf are irrelavent We "__Kirchhoft's law for the field. circuits — Gece Reig tly Y 1B Armatuce — Field-Controlled DC Motor and Load No armature circuit eqn. reg. Newton's law for mech. sus~ @ Te tTr Borda, + Ty eKgle - Based dn io 2 b whore ues and Ky? &" MIXED SECOKD-ORDER SYSTEMS =~ Repeoting egns (1) ond @ (qpeig + Colo = 1 on These eqns could be easily solved eliminating bi, {- a) ig + (Teor = Ky a2 since w. fs the variable of interest; however let's use Cramer’s rule. (yor) 0 b*| = CU PHD Coe) BS Mom : (t+) Re Ke Narn. @. = = (DANK + ope > < Kyte : BR The differential eqn. for we is CA) wes fy (0, 7), or (Ce, D+ Dror} Wee Ky: (TeOH Te + Se °__MIXED SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS, age ' Frew the DB [(t,041)Ct.0+0) wos kg CGO T +e Bor ot eto “RapENtipin® TORE ate hgh where Ke= oe ina? @ Ke © pin Kee : So = eck eh tay CPHNOHD = . Note. cancéllotion f Block Diogrom One should always: look for the physical meaning of any mathematical results! 5 * Why is S(O) second order ? . Wh, is Fl). only First order ? ™ ovarg “equotions \@) and (2) @ pair of simultaneous equotions® ° What was significant obeut moking iasconstont ?@ND ORDER REVISITED * Second order sustems arise from second order D.E.’s att + bgt tox= fC 4, constants) * The system choracteristic equation is: @0+bD+c) =O * The roots of the characteristic eqn, of course are found by the guodrotic formula. | -btybhenc faa® ton CASEI: bi <4ac, then 4,2 -%2]8 Co poir of complex roots? img S<1.0 and plttina the +p roots in the complex plane gives ...... reel Ht turns out thats wei. won A= Xion ond B= Waa/-St Pg | ¢ so the distonce from the origin . of the complex plane to a complex root is oF Wheat is cos? = Shia =@ND ORDER REVISITED CASEZ: b= 4ac, then 1,.>-2,-% Co pairof real, equal roote) and 321-0 so the choracteristic equation factors inte the product of two identical first orders: [Gqprn@or)] <0 =(tiD.z%o +i] FO or ae 3 and the roots plotted in the comp'ex plane are: look ! Low - CASE 3; b>40oc, then 4,2 oa 5 “%, (a pair of feel unedial roots) SPO so [Cud+DCHDHD] =O | and “ (tO +(t4%Dt] x0; : ORIGINAL EQN. on -298 axse* and Xq_- Attet The follawina, toble will illustrate. ae Fram original ; OUTS Xen 1 iCattet) 4\C-23 xp, =! -7P abet patte®y t 1 vleret +zatetszatets atte’y _ ae sum of the obeve terms = FCH= €* SUM + Attet(i-z+l] +Ate’Cee2t@) +Aet2] ae = al aret=e > {Ae “ . ry@ND ORDER REVISITED 2 4e What about cascading two First order sustems tomake o - “second order ? iy Gn Ky. | Gop &, Ky | for . a ae? . 4a [_k, | Go % Kike ea , *D+T 11D? +(7, ++ b Connected Systems Isolated Systems a Ficure 8-1 Second-Order System from Cascaded First-Order « Ans. tt depends on “loading or impedance motch between the two sustems; i.e. does the second sustem wittdrow "much" power from the first 7 ¢ .@NO ORDER REVISITED * Recoll thot the second order sustem , AD*+ BO 4C, can be cast in the standard form: aise K Bi K Re oS qe B.+Bor Beer © Thot the transient response ond frequency, re s € character- Teed2bg the Hea peramalers » Woits lc; S tdaieing rato), ond : : w,, (nefural Freq,, rod/sec.) i z it g sue i 3 e ae s g L o a “f tee a ss Second-Order Sep Respome Cores a2ND ORDER REVISITED 2? 9 What about cascading two first order sustems tomeke a - fin second order ? an [Ki | So a x kK; |4a RDFT ADT DFT 2 a a a . 4% kK, | ox cn KK, or HDFT 10? +r, +nDel Isolated Systems Connected Systems Figure 8-1 Second-Order System from Cascaded First-Order * Ans, |t depends on “loading or impedance match between the two Systems; i.e. does the second system withdraw trauch” power from the First ? + .Meteuc (Récinicpe. ) . SB de kts Set QR Hatin 2,2 Re. 3Q eee Se % = (%e0-4)-5 dg: ewWeNnr ensles) » Vet i Cen Tal — Boy Gh, DT sk, ig-Bag a Ja, at 5 (D+) & =. Oe a bye (G044).04, oh Ta Mtg. (GDra)r a+ oxw, = a ® “HE Sg Qdatog= KT = Daa 9 = _ soap POCO) eos BdsS S - on i ako Lda) + \7 8 ne COD (D+) CGQD~0) (OA) og 2 GSPAMK, er sy Oy ye eo LRDsA) «. Be - BM —______. » Ee Ex Fede O(Ad ea) 1 TE “HPANGoA) eiPERTORBATION THEORY Perturbation is a linearization approximation widely used to “linearize” nonlinear relationships among physical variables, * Many physical systems involve nonlinearities. ¢ Writing differential equations that include the nonlinearities, in general, makes them very difficult to solve. * If the nonlinearities are smooth functions > Perturbation’ is @ very useful tool. Steps: Expand the nonlinear function obout a selected ‘operating point’ using o Taylor series expansion. 2. Truncate the series beyond the firat order terms.. ./3. Define the equilibrium solution to the function ot the operoting point, Subtract this from the . ° truncoted series : s 4. The remaining equation is linear with constant coeffs. 62 tet.ee PERTURBATION * Intuitive dustification ~ A linear approximotion toa smoath curve its tangent line drawn through the does not differ mach from i opercting, pant ond is quite reasonable for small departures (perturbations) from Yoo operoting or equilibrium point. “To be stable for large departures , the sustem must be stable for small departures. tf Oe 6 The: whale range of system operation can be examined by Finding, Solutions to perturbed equations defined ot different operating, points. tangent line smooth Function 42 Fd OPERATING POINT ee ce Slope at Xe 3 2m mKePERTORBATIONS 1, One independent varioble . Suppose u=fGO ando perturbation is desired about Ye opercting point X- By Taylor series ' gf a ew, ge fo + El xd + | SR ee RG oR lag > LINEAR, apencniamrisw Ffangent line @X#%e , becouse Gre" In Orme? Let 24st and x= XotXp sana oF operat pt value a ee . p* pero value alse 4+ Fu ay ‘ ¥ om eFh. $0. Bde Rea OO ea 2 Pegiey, f . - oF Re ~ a constant, the slope ot XoPERTURBATIONS . ee Exomple: Given Q»=f(P) = KP te Pick an operating pt. ‘0 E Let Q=Q.+Qe and Ps + ; where subscript “o": oper. pt -@ Qisigge PCR) de CP) "p*s perturbation x kee , aah Pe Ke t+qe Ket + im” Xn CONST. FOR LINEAR ANALYSIS 2. Mere than one independent variable. Suppese wt £C«, 4,2) Then aps BE xe + Blan + Sle CR text ~— fial derivs. all eval. @ Xo,4 2MIXED SECOND - ORDER SYSTEMS Repeating eqn (5a) (5a) Jed, +B lora,) + BEHigo if eoe +2ig we igs) Te Tey ee (&, tig) © The equilibrium operating pt. occurs offer ip, and TG have been ' applied and a, reaches the eteady-state volue oe, For the 5-5 operating condition: é pO Wor Wo, CHr%—#O no perturbation yet “M tee Se, ‘ TeeTe thenthe corresponding, 3-s egy ts 4 Knee: (Sb) Bade, + Sates igi, 2 Ti, + AES be Subtracting (56) from (Se) leaves the perturbation equations 6. Jers + (8 + Bakes) oop ee oy & Amtemran | Linear with constant coefficients -MIXED SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS Outs Equation (S<) can be reduced to a standard operational form. CTD!) wops Ky Tip + Ke igo eet Kuk€ar 2Kre Danis, " BRL + Ky Keele where t JRo R, t Si tans “BRatKakide, i" BRISK, . * How good is the small perturbotions approximation ? 4 Wee k See ZO" Wo. - U2 ee. y ‘ ~ te = Ke , ve Zdxd .Pootene Raaicre. “ ofa de MeccBRell ds @ alot, 22 Re dea le lie : ere Rags, Dig = RDU 5p oat #)% oop We le a * C=C BH D)nrig - Gite RiccOGelp, AQ rcn « Qa = Ry da. +eg Weg sek Lune. Resca cle @ om (comet So conphoe i5-miee) 2a7 ke “tg 20d, - =dDe, = 3 E . oe Radar bye Set aosad (64 lye 0a). a 7 SE Os de Neuttin = WT Bw eget, Kr deta FTIx2(F-D4 85.0, \, Se 4 (eo Wp, gw HT = (GO 6B) 05, | Vase a — Kye ky, 0 a AT, =UGP4 RB). ayy i Ry Becca. che nen _ Lavcresanite. -.D Qe cam sume peslucbotin : Wee Wey te” Sas Ager dee 7. G sp —— ay GAS atonal Ble Q(ag,ery= 38% eR Laswe) * Sw. {an J3 > ag wa Jae + Big wy pope te DE Ye Bloor vay) + Be WM Mor (Faoa,e¥e, oir Digs qe) 6 Docu bree d= 0 0 Dw so 2 Mu S(gsig Tete © & Didar faq eth eat Bas Mayes ae Tas ate a, Si Om pompbe Qestesrnes au Cerfvee pemmanensd ¢ ~ Py : . D => JOu,+2 0.5% tM (ae, Wp ig. Sep e a = 2B Tp Ye, Kebe kenga ® (fo ta ke Tip + Sse — 2 Be tes ). &, om C= £ = = —_ a Ce ve KY + O-Re = Ra (Heer BR 2 Kinga = Ske Ke tg Me, (ita thy is OReoro i feo = Beas S869 Gans) SHPO Gad) a FAQ +axe 4 awa -- a ew mmole Demteice (Lg. Osco aughag) ; a Dawns Mespace 2 am tewve sn ghen tym amedeQ cus + Be H P(x ds 284 bm ot at gee | Geox Dar 4 Sal. C Gy, - te ng “y-yyr> |x oof e Vy -Yol Ce aDIZe abuso) + eqduan plan.) ran a Porc Demdosine Re sayslemne en dit porlic ce Matas cla edejome parewomend ech swne ‘ela cle ceferenee : Cran ph mien Raped: ThetRacke cle SE & we earn is, cI . \e eo at a 9s pte by rea @ i Bh le a Suby 2 Peto one 2 3M Anoike Roce! ene Poe JR on ‘Pimirramk Wel de: Vouwhe exdhshiwms g-8 ron i - 22 & Pome sn omebone ERcdcque >a \is coe \eeracanese Dencencnien® elu lererbac alymomicjue Avo cééPen (Gebjmerme de or cegrtes Licsmpesabh on 2 pebymeome ce A dead) Ee onesie da vilesde ome deposi gress de voRur mermnimalh Leomp cagjme ribaleus cor SR pag elon Apassement) “a Sta daw So? , an aiveon la emplage ae a as Xa | Pap cael? woe fine cowie aidan be fm Sepa hae Cae Frome ep RS. -olt Penacge sb tregee on affel jo ox ated goa kwon (oc +@e-A o> ae UR FSS eRe beeen, PON s6-G5 conicobion moe onetbed hs Gaya = a P = ft aefe-*) Vs 9(Ste)e-2) 9 ar Pp R, F oe Pour Reomebeuc oft tan 4 ah 76 % \ \ ; Bes | —— bal, Pa, } oN if t ~ do i js = Moot oe pertocbabisan 2g ep +e, — > aw : 6 v ar he,°26 STABILITY While the question of dynamic instability is a topic of central importance in systems intentionally designed for the automatic contro! of, some physical variable, it also arises in a number of engineering applications nor directly telated to control. Some examples of this latter type are: machine tool chatter associated with cutting and grinding processes, hydrostatic bearing oscillations, flutter of aircraft components, safety-valve pulsations, and vehicle handling48 ansform solution of differential equations instabilities. When linearized models of such systems are adequate, stability analysis is relatively straightlorward since it depends entirely on the location in the complex plane of the roots of the sysiem’s characteristic equation. Roots in the right half-plane give solutions that all involve a multiplying factor of form e* (a positive), which causes the system response to tend toward infinity for the slightest initial disvarbance, Roots exactly on the imeginary axis give rise to oscillations of constant amplitude, neither building up nor dying down. Roots in the left half-plane contribute terms that die out. Let us analyze the classroom demonstration apparatus of Fig. 2.9, which illustrates stability concepts. This simple model could represent several practical devices such as 2 hydrostatic gas bearing or an air cushion vehicle, It should be intuitively clear that if the air vaive is opened to some fixed position, preasure will build up until its force equals the steady load force fy plus the weight of mass M, which will then rise to an equilibrium height hy at which the air inflow rate fora p, to p just balances the outflow rate through the gap hy With the system in equilibrivm at p= p, and Am hg, we Wish to predict the response of ‘height perturbation A, to small perturbations f, in load force. ‘Our linearized dynamic analysis will deat strictly with small changes away trom steady operating points for all the variaifes. We must express a conserva- tion of mass equation for the volume V and also a Newton's law for the moving mass M. For a fixed inlet-valve opening the mass inflow rate depends on only Figure 29 Stability demonstration model,26 stability 49 one variable, the pressure p. This dependency is nonlinear, but for smull perturbations can be linearly approximated as "2.1483 me — Kye, : ‘The positive coefficient K,, can be estimated by linearizing a theoretical relawon from steady-flow fluid: mechanics or can be more accurately determined sin steady-flow pressure /Slow-rate experiments on the actual valve if this piece uf hardware is available. One may similarly linearize the outflow relation as Fitg = Kya, + Krohy Quy For the volume V the perfect gas law gives . &, _ RT, omy, . : SOO a Fer Gm) Since temperature changes as great as +30C* cause only +10% changes in T(K*), we have assumed T constant in 2.102. Similarly, since the volume change due to A, is assumed small compared with the equilibrium volume, we take V as constant. For the modest pressure and temperature changes expected, R should be nearly constant. (If experiments reveal some or all of these assumptions to be of insufficient accuracy, & more complicated, though still linear, improved mode! would be: - (2.103) Now, however, additional modeling would be nesded to define d&,/dt and AT, [dt (dV, / di is easily related to h,), This complicates the analysis consides- ably and a significan accuracy increase would have to result to justify this complication). Conservation of mass combines the above equations to produce Kulp ~ Kole ~ Keohy] 104) Turning now to Newton's law and assuming any frictional effects associated with the mass’s vertical motion to be linear (“viscous”), we get —4,~ Bh, + Ap, = Mh,which, when combined with (2.104), leads to . ors MRT Sint Be) * BY Bye Jove [aes Jor}s ov] (2.105) al RT AK AK) While algebraic formulas exist for obtaining the roots of the cubic char- acteristic equation of this system in letter form, they are extremely cumbersome and rarely used for stability studies. Fortunately a method, the Routh stability criterion! exists for discovering the presence of unstable roots without the need 10 actually get their values, We now present this eriterion without proof. Assume the system characteristic equation from which any zero roots have already been removed is GSO, S94 baysbaged (2.108) We are to form a “triangular” array, the first two sows of which are written down, [rom felt to right, at sight: % 2 iw 4 Bat n-3 Gos . @.107) continuing these two rows until we “run out” of coefficients. We now form a third row ob, by from the first two using the following rule: (2.108) and continuing in this established pattera vatil the b's become zero, thus completing the third row. The fourth row is formed from the second and third in exactly the same way as the third was formed from the first and second. We proceed in this fashion unti! all zeros are obtained, thus completing the array. *Dewhelin, FO. Dynanile Analyrie end Feedback Control, McGraw-Hill, N. ¥., 1962, p. 175,$2 transform solution of differential equations clearly impossible in a real-world system. What usually happens is that, as the amplitude builds up, one or more nonlinear effects in the real system (which were approximated or ignored in the linear model) became significant and cause the amplitude to level off. This eteady oscillation is called a limit cycle; estimation of its amplitude requires a nonlinear model. Forwnately the linear stability analysis is usually sufficient for design purposes since it does accurately predict those combinations of parameters that will allow oscillations to start, a condition the designer must avoid. Actually, inequalities such as (2.110) must not only be satisfied, they must be satisfied with some “safety margin,” since left plane Toots clase to the imaginary axis, while not unstable, do exhibit undesirable slowly decaying oscillations. Also, roots close to instability can actually “drift over” into instabil- ity due 10 aging, wear, temperature change, and other “environmental” effects that cause changes in numerical valves of parameters in real systems. Incquality (2.110) clearly reveals the trends of stability with each of the nine design parameters characterizing this system. Increasing A, Kyo, nd M will de- ereas¢ the stability while increasing R,, T,, K,,. K,.» and B enbances stability. In the author’s classroom demonstration, wiping the oil from the bearings just prior to test reduces B sufficiently to cause violent oscillations; oiling the bearings gives a stable system. Since this is not a text on control systems, we earlier made the point that stability questions arise in noncontro! applications, such as the example just discussed. For those readers with some background in feedback control, how- ever, it may be useful to show how noncontrol applications can be cast in feedback forma, making applicable the large body of analysis and design methods developed for that area. By implementing the basic system equations in block diagram form, we can easily get the diagram of Fig. 2.10. (This figurevuses operational transfer functions; the next section will develop the transfer function concept for those readers unfumiliar with it.) Once a system is cast in the Figure 2.10 Block diagram showing (cedback nature of air-cusbion device.2.7 Laplace transfer functions $3. feedback form, analytical tools such as Nyquist stability criterion’ (an alterna live to Routh criterion) and describing function* (an approximate method for calculating nonlinear effects, such as limit cycle amplitudes) may becume applicable. Knwy — The “more correct” model for the air bearing is obtained by replacing the linearized flow equations (2.100) and (2.101) by the standard isentropic flow relations’ for compressible flow through a flow restriction, using discharge coefficients (as for orifice flow) to correct for deviations from theoretical conditions: (63) Byt_[pyery , ect fel ING Are deo oy : . ne oe lt Wie y= Pa (2)""" } ane livin Via wae 1) (# (Sa) In the perfect gas law our nonlinear model can now let temperature and volume vary: RTSo/p) "| é (ele (iy — nt) (55) while in Newton's law we now include the gravity force (weight) since total forces (not perturbations away from equilibrium) are needed: (56) Definitions, and numerical values corresponding to the author’s physical ap- paratus are: A, inlet valve area, 0.00285 in? Pp, — * supply pressure, 27.0 psia Cy —-Sinlet value discharge coefficient, 0.7 T, & supply temperature, 530°R Vandersan, BW, The Analyste aml Design of Freeman Spies, Jus Wiley wos Sous, N.Y. 1967. p18! 23142 digital simulation methods instability by replacing the inequality sign with an equal sign. Substituting numbers: (4.48)(8.98 x 19°) = ( 2862696599) oo125x 10-2 1.61 1079) + BGR )c.62x 10° )2 13.9687+14.858-4.02—0, B= 0.222 For this value of B the characteristic equation should have twp, pure imaginary roots; use of # digital computer root finder gives the roots — 1108, — 1.27 + 1418. The ~1.27 should really be zero but is not exact since we carried only three digits in our earlier calculations. 1f one “plots™ —1.27+ i418 oa, say BEX 11 paper, it is clear that one can not tell it from 0.00 i418 “by eye,” to our result is certainly usable. We thus predict an oscillation frequency of 418 rad/sec~ 66.7 Hz fr this marginally stable case. 23TeadP:ctiien oe fg a8, BT BN 34 a, 1 Pack ees RC, 2) © of (P&B) @ PN -TIRT Ze He ir @® Ve Viet Sh @) Doms wom Saysleine (Rate esq st hs app eye Saki de comearvel de Yo emote t Og = OME Mace wove ts Do Der do corserval Bore s100 “8 WReronaaque, ern agri 4 Do Orr de corners a enee aie , EE xe Face, mM, =p = Moca =D (sa as ak = NO-The Oy, — Seat =A) ® Eq clu smut s EPL om eS -Q-RiA ThgsPA-BR LR © of Noshicalicn de FS fom cece pesemomend : Ganctiiion V ertsternca aby = ct ss 2 Waimea Au. 347°m=. 62 Vem - [ : RCa.B) = te, BB, Patna) an a At i® Aco. e ~ BR he ea) Re babe kag (fob tnt oe y a 2 oe : ee : sk F =D oe eA Ne oa Cee perenne) Rg. Ss ial com oR P esk(—) ow x ext “asm pee Gene 3? om eoaste poe Don cegume, pemmanesd Chuck do ptallle Mone peitacbaloon est {oat pope. wnegonchie par cure Vanictkison ce g (& cme Qe vend ROK exer oR (vaiat” Eteclymeves Gye) eRe © oa GO) ~ Phe-8) oa % : P getadat® 29 Desnearisin, Pp ° c a ® = (8) Bel 22.2 a G. =e) [Fae ke eB or be, Re | sn StnsEA tay Woo Ko. Gy BRA om 74 =o Kp ay ol - 2 Oat = ve ae Heth ; Pe Pak Vay= Vintie® +Sh i art. |e d® - ttt a a alt At © + (rato) -Cahro sa Smog )= ~ Ke. ~ ke Fake. Re =) © oo dah conve bles 2m Fencknwn Beas pectucks bs) ~ RA Mig + (Ro %) 0-0 46,) < KE) & pontor te Leta fequilll cor Oude CEA)(BD a Keke )% Ae Re. Pp, . -Kee Re wo buk Kp Bh cement (9 .,D ed sets) &, - Ci Dy >) : e Boy. PePebe €p Dy a Weel pay %DiyDraDroy <0 Gancbitsen ce tela Qe x, od, ae Oy Teal: | [%>4 oor de dkee ie Gsleenen'ack Meal ape Js Jes cacimes cla Dememimeles pot Hos & gadne col wégalive oy af aC Aan oy Dink Da ks (RO densité de fluide K,1= Coefficient de la résistance de fuite de fluide a l’interface du piston, pmilsee 4 L’équation (1) devient : Ke = mz Qo. oo 9 (Qu dd) p~ [Kyi (Pes~ Pep) dt] p=dMd QI, Be Bee Senet 0‘D’autre part on a: M=pV = dM= pd¥+Vdp @) et V=Vy +A, Xp AV =A, aX 4 ou: Vo= Le volume initial a 1’état de référence (Point d’équilibre, régime permanent) X= le déplacement en perturbation de la position de le charge. A,= surface effective du piston. neqfrzenlde coc %p Rul (ReRarom edde pid (4+ GB) => dM=p Ay dX + (Vo + Ay Xp dp © 20 Ve ad be argpesieme &. Ap Hp Si on suppose Xipsuffisamment petit, on peut négliger le terme A, Xp par rapport & Vo ot Péquation (5) devient : dM~AQUX,, . Yodo 6) Le 1 “ terme indique le changement de la masse du au mouvement du piston. Le 2“ terme indique le chargement de la masse du au changement de la densité Par ailleurs, le changement de la densité peut étre relié au changement de la pression dP, dans la chambre a aide de la propriété de compressibilité du fluide, Celui-ei est définit par : BEUPMAV) (1) (8) Mais on a aussi : p= 2 Pod, yo“ \ Associant les équations (7) et (8), on obtient : d= 0% (9) Cesmmresi k Maintenant I’équation de conservation de masse pour la chambre & gauche du piston peut étre présentée en fonction des équations (2), (5) et (9) : é ae, PQudt - Ky (Pei~ Poo) dt = pApdXip + Vop = (10) Divisant par (p dé), on obtient I’équation différentielle qui gouverne 1a dynamique de la chambre . d V, dP, gauche : Qui Kyi Pei Por) dt = Ay = (Kip) * ) at ql) Maintenant on cherche a exprimer le débit Q,y en fonction de la chute de pression a travers la valve et les parameétres de la valve. On référe ici aux résultats expérimentaux qui suggérent que la grandeur du débit & travers une orifice est directement proportionnelle au produit de la surface affective d’écoulement et le racine carrée de la chute de pression a travers le port. (Comportement non lingaires des orifices), Dans les servovalves les ports sont généralement congus d’une manidre que la surface effective et directement proportionnelle au déplacement de la bobine de Ia valve. @)—— a \ TANS ee “lhenenace paeat Uodestopped valve, vested valve we Sais soe ingest amet __ ai ap 7 feu Bee ve Done on peut écrire PECL a sun On darthé Biswsda, pos vests Q, =k (X, +X YP ~P, ~ BK, dt. Pa (2) Ici, on assume que la valve est sous- enveloppee * unde lapped) et la position d'équilibre du systéme correspond 8 450, Puisgue Ia pression de retour 2)=0; 1" équilibee de faite & travers les ports de la valve (Qy=0) donne: Pa=P.=Pof, Cela représente [’état d’équilibre au voisinage de le quel on désire étudier Se comportement dynamique ct 1a réponse du systéme soumis 4 des perturbations de faible amplitude dans les variables d'entrée (d"excitation) X, et ¥}, on suppose que le mouvement de la charge reste faible, Puisque l’équation (12) est non linéaire, on peut fa lingariser par rapport a J2 variable Pg autour On obtient (en présence de perturbation) : Qu) = débit d’équilibre + débit de perturbation = Gyo + Qyp=O+ Oy, (13) D’ot ona: Ou = = 0).¥, +28 (2g = BX =O) Py Quo + Qop = 9+ Quy = ZX 3p, 2 2 + Syl e, & "x, OQ, = (2k, YE Fn, =CX,-C,Py avec: aay : ; 5 ° Qa . ¢ oP. t Les constantes C, et C, peuvent étre exprimées théoriquement en utilisant l’équation (12), comme elles peuvent étre précisément déterminges expérimentalement 4 l'aide des essais expérimentaux. Avant de combiner les deux équations (L1) et (14), ont doit premnigrement exprimer toutes les variables en fonction de leurs composantes de perturbation ; P, Py Py Pa =[B4 Py) -[ Beg) = PL ©