Indian Social Structure

Dr. Radhika Kapur

Department of Adult Education and Continuing Extension

Faculty of Social Sciences
University of Delhi
Delhi – 110007
India
October 2019

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 Table of Contents
Preface…………………………………………………………………………………5
1. Indian Society and Culture……………………………………………………..10

1.1 Understanding Urban Society

1.2 Understanding Rural Society
1.3 Understanding Tribal Society
1.4 Forms of Diversity in India
1.5 The Bonds of Unity in India
1.6 Conclusion
2. Family, Marriage and Kinship…………………………………………………56

2.1 Meaning and Significance of Family

2.2 Functions of the Family
2.3 Changes taken place in the Family System
2.4 Types of Family
2.5 Developmental Process of the Family
2.6 Understanding the Institution of Marriage
2.7 Significance of Kinship
2.8 Conclusion
3. Religion and Caste……………………………………………………………104

3.1 Religions of India

3.2 Role of Religion in Indian Societies
3.3 Characteristics of Religion in Urban, Rural and Tribal Communities
3.4 Sources of Indian Religion
3.5 Distribution of Population by Religion
3.6 Communalism, Secularism and Regionalism
3.7 Caste System in India
3.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Caste System
3.9 Castes in India
3.10 Changes in the Caste System
3.11 Conclusion
4. Culture and Social Classes in India…………………………………………146

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 4.1 Indian Culture and Heritage
4.2 Culture in Urban Communities
4.3 Culture in Rural Communities
4.4 Culture in Tribal Communities
4.5 Social Classes in Urban India
4.6 Social Classes in Rural India
4.7 Social Classes in Tribal Communities
4.8 Conclusion
5. Significance and Developments in the System of Education………………195

5.1 Features of Education

5.2 Significance of Values in Education
5.3 Education in Urban Communities
5.4 Features of Education in Urban Areas
5.5 Higher Education in India
5.6 Education in Rural Communities
5.7 Measures to Improve Rural Education
5.8 Education in Tribal Communities
5.9 Schemes for Education for Tribal Children
5.10 Conclusion
6. Economy of India……………………………………………………………246
6.1 Concept of Economic Development
6.2 New Economic Policies – Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization
6.3 Urban Economy
6.4 Rural Economy
6.5 Tribal Economy
6.6 Conclusion
7. Status of Women in India……………………………………………………287
7.1 Status of Women in Ancient India
7.2 Status of Women in Medieval India
7.3 Status of Women in Modern India
7.4 Girl Child
7.5 Crime against Women
7.6 Empowerment Opportunities

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 7.7 Role of Women in Promoting Well-being of Families and Communities
7.8 Women in Rural and Tribal Communities
7.9 Measures for Improvement in the Status of Women
7.10 Conclusion
8. Status of Dalits and Untouchables in India…………………………………340
8.1 Historical Background of Dalits
8.2 Dalit Movements and Organizations in India
8.3 Factors Contributing to Difficult Situations of Dalits
8.4 Recognition of Dalits as Exploited Class
8.5 Measures to Promote Up-gradation of Dalit Women
8.6 Meaning and Significance of Untouchability
8.7 Factors Responsible for Untouchability
8.8 Victims of Untouchability
8.9 Recommendations to Eradicate Untouchability
8.10 Access to Education by Dalits and Untouchables
8.11 Welfare Measures for Dalits and Untouchables
8.12 Conclusion

Bibliography………………………………………………………………………389

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 Preface

Indian social structure refers to the pattern of social relationships that exist within the
society. Social structure regulates the interactions among members within the society,
provides guidelines within the cultural norms for the achievement of goals, which are defined
by cultural values. Social structure renders a significant contribution in the maintenance of
societal stability. However, when the social structure and the societal values become
incompatible, the structure needs to accept the transformations that have been taking place
within the society. The transformations are related to social, cultural, economic and political
spheres. The changes that are taking place within the society should promote healthy
development. Social changes are referred to the changes that take place within the social
structure. Within the Indian social structure, there are number of changes that are taking
place. These include, changes in social values, institutions, property relations, economic
pursuits, and distribution of roles within the modern society. When changes are taking place
within the society, it needs to be ensured that they should lead to developments in various
spheres. Furthermore, factors such as, efficiency, productivity, complexity, comprehension,
creativity, mastery and accomplishment should be promoted.

In India, there are individuals, belonging to diverse backgrounds and categories. They
are different from each other in terms of number of aspects, including, caste, class, religion,
ethnicity, culture, race, education, occupation and socio-economic background. In India, the
individuals acquire multiple identities, based on the region. The identities of the individuals
are corresponding to a distinct set of social relations, i.e. a distinct social structure. The
individuals, different from each other on the basis of number of factors are required to
establish mutual terms and relationships with each other and work in harmony. It has been
observed that in educational institutions, organizations, communities and other places, the
individuals are different from each other in terms of number of factors. Still, they need to
work in co-ordination and integration with other. Furthermore, it needs to be understood that
there should be provision of equal rights and opportunities and not any type of discrimination
on the basis of any factors. Therefore, it is necessary to acquire an efficient understanding of
the Indian social structure, as it provides explanation in terms of the relationships with each
other within the society.

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 When acquiring an understanding of the Indian social structure, it is vital to
understand the changes that have taken place. The main components that have taken into
consideration in the case of Indian social structure are, Indian society and culture, family and
kinship, religion, caste and class, culture and social classes, education, economy, women and
dalits and untouchables. The three types of societies that are taken into consideration are,
urban, rural and tribal. With advancements taking place and with the advent of technologies,
modernization and globalization, changes are being brought about in the Indian societies.
Though there are differences among societies on the basis of number of factors. In some
cases, differences are apparent, but it is vital for the individuals to ensure that changes are
proving to be advantageous and leading to well-being of the individuals and communities.
Family is regarded as the foundation from where growth and development of the individuals
takes place. It is indispensable for the individuals to recognize the significance of family and
maintain effective terms and relationships with family members. Kinship is referred to the
relationships between the individuals and individuals within the community. The behaviour
of any two persons in any of these relationships, being regulated in some manner, and to a
greater or lesser extent by social usage.

India is a secular country, in which all the individuals have the right to practice the
religion of his or her own choice. The religious that are practiced within the country are,
Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and
Bahai. The individuals, belonging to all religions need to be given equal rights and
opportunities. The caste system is elaborate and varies in its structure from different areas
that it does not constitute one system, but connects the diversity of different beliefs and
practices. The caste system is closely associated with the belief of rebirth. Caste is the system
of stratification, in which the mobility of the individuals may not take place to other castes.
The four castes within the country are, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The
caste system in its attempts has to adjust itself to the transformations that have been taking
place in the lives of the individuals. Each caste has its own occupation. The belonging to that
caste is required to continue with the same occupations. On the other hand, no caste gives
permission to its members to take up any profession, which is considered to be degrading.

The influence of the British rule in India has brought about far-reaching changes
within the Indian society. The class structure within the country has been interpreted by
employing different theoretical orientations by the Indian sociologists. The class structure
within the country has been analysed with regards to urban, rural and tribal communities.

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There are differences between these communities on the basis of factors, such as, education,
employment opportunities, norms, values, cultures, traditions, and overall living conditions.
Attributes, such as, income, occupation, living standards, and non-agricultural modes of
earning are used to the studies on caste, and class are however regarded as not substantial.
The reason is partly based on historical facts and more important, it is because of the
overlapping on a continuous basis between the caste and class status situations or the
interactions that takes place between individuals in Indian social stratification. In most cases,
it is difficult to identify the differences, where the caste principle of stratification concludes
and the class principle initiates. Caste and class are the two principles of stratification, which
age persisted in the Indian social systems in a dialectical relationship.

The sociology of the Indian class stratification not only takes into account the present
day processes among the various class strata, but also conducts an analysis within the
historical frameworks of change. In the present existence, changes are taking place due to
various factors. The individuals, belonging to minorities groups and economically weaker
sections of the society are also recognising the significance of education and getting enrolled
in higher educational institutions. Apart from acquisition of education, they are acquiring
good and reputed employment opportunities. In addition, they are making use of modern,
scientific and innovative methods and approaches to sustain their living conditions
satisfactorily. Wealth and economic factors rendered an important contribution in
determining one’s class position. The establishment of various economic and political
institutions by the British led to improvement in the mobility of these groups that they could
mobilize economic surpluses from rural to urban areas. The individuals, belonging to
deprived and economically weaker sections of the society are rendering a significant
contribution in making use of facilities and resources to bring about improvements in their
overall quality of lives.

In India, since the ancient times, it is comprehensively believed that one can acquire
an efficient understanding of social structure, family and kinship, religion and caste and
culture and social classes through the acquisition of education. Through education, one not
only attains the basic literacy skills of reading, writing and numeracy, and academic concepts,
but also various other factors that are needed for the individuals to develop into moral and
ethical human beings. Within the course of time, there have been changes taking place in the
system of education. The main objectives of education are, to enable the individuals to
implement self-control, develop one’s personality, generation of sociability and social

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awareness, integral development of oneself within the family as well as community,
propagation of purity and preservation of knowledge and culture. The system of education in
the present, particularly in urban communities are making use of modern, and innovative
methods and technologies to augment knowledge and competencies among the individuals to
cope with the needs and requirements. Educated individuals are able to make wise decisions
and make use of their knowledge and skills to promote well-being of their family and
community.

The level of education is regarded as the major indicator of promoting welfare,

prosperity and security of the individuals within society. Education is regarded as the process,
through which the individuals acquire knowledge, information and develop the skills and
competencies, through which they can enhance their livelihoods opportunities. Education
leads to the maintenance of the society. When the individuals are educated, they can bring
about changes that may lead to productivity and profitability. Furthermore, the individuals are
able to inculcate the traits of morality, ethics and righteousness. It is regarded as the powerful
instrument, for shaping and modernising the individuals and society. It is a mechanism,
through which human resources are able to augment skills and competencies and leading to
enhancements not only within their tasks and functions and living standards, but overall
community as well. The individuals, belonging to various communities have recognized the
significance of education and are getting enrolled in higher educational institutions. There
have been formulation of measures and programs that are leading to developments in the
system of education in urban, rural and tribal communities.

In leading to economic development, there are number of aspects that need to be

taken into consideration. These include, science and technology, management and
administration, engineering, infrastructure, telecommunications, power supplies, water
supplies, transportation, organizations, agriculture, industries, environmental conditions and
alleviating the problems of poverty, illiteracy and unemployment. The status of women
within the Indian society have changed within the period of time. The social, cultural,
economic, political and religious factors are the ones that are having an impact upon the
status of women. In the present existence, improvements are taking place in the status of
women. They are getting enrolled in educational institutions to acquire professional degrees,
which are facilitating in acquiring employment opportunities and empowerment. Women are
employed in various fields, such as, law, medical, education, management, administration,
engineering, science, technology and so forth. Throughout the country, there are dalits and

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untouchables. It is essential to formulate laws and measures, focused upon bringing about
improvements in their status and promoting their well-being. Finally, it can be stated,
bringing about improvements in the system of education, employment opportunities, status of
women and conditions of dalits and untouchables will lead to progression of the Indian social
structure.

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 1
Indian Society and Culture
When acquiring an understanding of Indian society and culture, it is essential to
understand the social structure. Social structure refers to the way in which the society is
formed and organized. It is primarily concerned in terms of the ways in which the Indian
society fits together and works together. In the Indian society, there are some norms, i.e.
ideals and values, which facilitate in the formation of social structure. In India, throughout
the country, the individuals attach significance to these norms and values. The individuals,
belonging to various categories and backgrounds form the viewpoint that they need to
implement norms, values and principles in the implementation of various tasks and activities
as well as in dealing with others. The individuals carry out their roles and responsibilities in
accordance to the norms, values, principles and cultures. The proper functioning of the social
structure depends upon the adequate implementation of tasks and functions. In addition, the
individuals need to be well-aware of their duties and responsibilities (Sharma, & Kaur, 2017).

In every society, there is an approved system regarding the implementation of norms

and principles in an appropriate manner. The integration and co-ordination of the different
parts of the social structure depend on conformity of social norms. The stability of the social
structure is dependent upon the efficiency of the approved system. The anticipated response
system calls upon the individuals to participate in the social system. The successful
functioning of the social structure is dependent upon the realisation of the duties and the
efforts made in terms of fulfilment of these duties. The action is referred to the root cause,
which leads to functioning of the social structure. The social structure is regarded as an
abstract entity, whose parts are undergoing transformations on a continuous basis. They are
spatially comprehensive and it is difficult to identify them as a whole. Social structure
denotes the patterns of changes, which need to focus upon promoting well-being of the
individuals and communities (Sharma, & Kaur, 2017).

In India, the three main societies are, urban, rural and tribal. In these societies, there
are number of factors, which need to be taken into consideration. These include, castes,
creeds, races, ethnicities, religions, communities, norms, principles, standards, traditions,
education, sports, cultures, festivals, Hindu Mythology, music, dance, leisure and recreational
activities, arts and crafts and the environmental conditions. In India, the individuals are
different from each other in terms of above stated aspects. In addition, there are also

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variations among individuals on the basis of educational qualifications, employment
opportunities, fields, careers, natures and personality traits. In spite of the differences on the
basis of these factors, it is vital for the individuals to accept each other and develop
constructive viewpoints. Furthermore, there should be provision of equal rights and
opportunities and not any type of discrimination. The major factors, which prove to be
barriers within the course of progression of Indian society are, poverty, illiteracy,
unemployment, homelessness and crime and violence. Therefore, it is essential to formulate
measures and programs, which would lead to alleviation of these problems and bring about
developments within the social structure.

1.1 Understanding Urban Society

In India, there has been an increase in the urban population from 222 million, i.e. 26

percent of the population in 1990 to 410 million, i.e. 32 percent in 2014. By the year 2050, it
is expected to reach 814 million. Three states within the country are regarded as most
populous, i.e. Delhi (25 million), Mumbai (21 million) and Kolkata (15 million). The increase
in population and emergence of cities are two important factors that are giving rise to
urbanization. When urbanization has been augmenting, focus is put upon various aspects.
These include, urban infrastructure, modes of transportation, traffic support, street lighting,
water supply, waste management and conservation of the environment. Living standards and
business operations have been influenced in a negative manner by the India’s ability to make
provision of universal access and continuity of basic urban services (Almeida, & Charles,
2015).

When one is acquiring an understanding of urban society, one normally refers to the

group of individuals, characterised by a certain way of life or urban culture. As such, the
concept would include a certain system of norms, values, cultures, social practices and
relationships that in their totality define a social organization or society. Urban society is also
regarded as the type of social organization, which is associated with the industrial society. To
complete the concept of urban society, it is essential to associate the concept of urban culture,
which is the concept of city. The city is the physical expression of the urban culture. The
culture and the spatial form are so indistinguishably connected that both contribute in shaping
of the other. The cities of antiquity represent an urban culture that is qualitatively different
from the urban culture of the industrial or even the medieval city. The differences in the

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urban culture of various cities are reflected in their various forms as well as in the social
practices of the individuals, residing there (Chapter 3. Urban Society, n.d.).

The conceptualizations of urban society at a later stage defined the specific content of
the urban society. The content was found to be connected with the historical evolution of the
capitalist society, more specifically, capitalist industrialization. Leadership, power, authority
and social relations were seem to be associated with the ways that have been put into
operation by the society to organize the factors of production under industrial capitalism. Due
to these attributes, in urban societies, there have been prevalence of factors, such as, societal
problems, social conflicts, disagreements and social divisions. These are dominating the
character of the urban societies in the industrial and post-industrial era. Therefore, the
concept of urban society cannot be separated from the historical, and physical dimensions of
the city. At the same time, when one talks of urban society as a historical reality, one
visualizes the more dynamic notion of urban society, shaping and being shaped by historical
forces and social movements (Chapter 3. Urban Society, n.d.).

The twentieth century has seen the predominance of the contribution of cities as an
indication of growth and development. In other words, with the development of cities, the
individuals form the perspective that growth and progression of communities and nation is
taking place. Within the urban areas, the vitality and diversity are the aspects that are
observed in terms of the individuals residing in them. Urban societies are normally regarded
as the melting pots of culturally, and socio-economically diverse social groups. The reason
being, cities are also regarded as the centres of capital accumulation. They tend to attract the
individuals, not only those with financial and human capital, but also those without them and
those who aspire to acquire them. Sustainable urban societies are those that not only manage
to distribute the economic opportunities on a comprehensive basis, but they also promote
interactions among individuals, belonging to various categories and backgrounds. It is
ensured that not any groups are excluded from participating in the benefits of urban living.
Differences and inequalities are inevitable in any social group. These need to be managed, so
that the gaps are not widened and their effects reinforced. The individuals, belonging to
disadvantaged groups are empowered to make improvements in the situation (Chapter 3.
Urban Society, n.d.).

The nature and features of the urban society is characterised by developments in

various fields. These include, industrial development, developments in science and

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technology, system of education, financial institutions, organizations, and so forth. In urban
areas, the population should be minimum of 5000 individuals, at least 75 percent of the males
are engaged in non-agricultural pursuits and a density of the population of at least 400
persons per square km. The growth of large cities that contain a bulk of the society’s
population is a recent development. Urbanization is an integral part of the development
process (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011). The individuals have recognized the
significance of education and are even migrating to international countries to pursue
education. The individuals are engaged in reputed employment opportunities and are engaged
in professions, such as, law, medical, education, engineering, science and technology,
management and administration, and so forth. An urban area is characterized by a higher
population density and comprehensive features in comparison to the areas, surrounding them.
Urban areas are created and developed by the process of urbanization.

As a result of developments in science and technologies, there has been industrial

development. Due to industrial development, there have been creation of urbanization, as a
result of which urban societies are created. In every country, the urban societies are different.
In urban societies in India, the natural environmental conditions are not given much
significance. The individuals make use of modern, and scientific methods in the
implementation of household responsibilities as well as in carrying out other tasks and
activities. In urban societies, there are provision of infrastructure, civic amenities and other
facilities in various localities. On the other hand, there are localities, where individuals may
obtain water just once a week. This is one of the major problems, which individuals
experience, but they somehow manage to sustain their living. But there are formulation of
measures, which are attempting to make provision of solutions to problems experienced by
the individuals. Whereas, research has indicated that in urban communities, the individuals
normally do not experience scarcity of amenities and facilities and are able to sustain their
living conditions satisfactorily.

In urban societies, individuals live a dynamic lifestyle. They are engaged in various
tasks and activities in accordance to their competencies and aptitude. For instance, both men
and women are treated equally and provided with equal rights and opportunities. Women are
getting enrolled in higher educational institutions and are acquiring professional degrees in
various fields, such as, law, medical, education, engineering, arts, science, technology,
management, administration, architecture, and so forth. After pursuing education in these
fields, they are acquiring good employment opportunities. Apart from pursuing employment

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opportunities, they are also rendering a significant contribution in the management of
household responsibilities and upbringing of their family. Though, in urban slums, the
women and girls, belonging to deprived, marginalized and economically weaker sections of
the society are normally engaged in minority jobs. They either possess low literacy skills or
no literacy skills at all. These women and girls are subjected to criminal and violent acts. But
through generation of awareness, they are able to realize that they need to acquire
empowerment opportunities and alleviate criminal and violent acts. The process of
socialization and interaction with the other individuals and organizations help them to
alleviate criminal and violent acts and sustain their living conditions in a better way.

Characteristics of Urban Society

The characteristics of urban society have been stated as follows:

Social Heterogeneity

Social heterogeneity refers to the differences in the social identity that is related to
factors such as, class, caste, race, ethnicity, culture, religion, occupation, education and socio-
economic background. In some cases, the individuals, who are different from each other on
the basis of these factors feel comfortable in communicating, whereas, in other cases, they do
not feel comfortable in communicating with others and normally socialize with individuals
within their community. Social heterogeneity and the conflicting situations between social
groups are regarded as one of the most influential social phenomena, providing explanation
for preference for redistribution at the individual level and cross-country variation in welfare
state policies (Duell, 2015). It is vital for the individuals, belonging to various categories and
backgrounds to acknowledge that in order to bring about improvements in their overall living
conditions and quality of standards, it is essential to form effective communication terms with
others. In urban societies, the differences between individuals in terms of the above stated
factors are apparent. Therefore, they need to form good terms with each other.

Ways of Work

In urban areas, the work of the individuals is described as industrial. It does not mean
that the individuals need to work only in factories or industries, but the individuals are
employed in various fields, such as, education, health care and medical, law, management,
administration, engineering, architecture, communications, science and technology,
commerce and trade and so forth. Emphasis is put upon the utilization of machines and other

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equipment (Chapter – I. Urbanisation, n.d.). In other words, the individuals are making use of
modern and innovative methods in the implementation of job duties and in the achievement
of professional objectives. The individuals employed in various occupations in urban areas
require them to possess adequate educational qualifications and competencies. When they are
recruited in various organizations and institutions, they are required to undergo the training
programs. In these training programs, they are provided with information regarding the
organization, goals and objectives, personnel, departments, and job duties.

Social Mobility

The urban way of life has not been based on fixed and enduring relationships. It is
vital for the individuals to bring about improvements in not only the implementation of
various tasks and activities, but also the structure. The individuals are vested with the number
of responsibilities, which they need to focus upon. These include, household, family, job and
so forth. In order to carry out ones job duties and other responsibilities in an appropriate
manner, it is vital for the individuals to possess sufficient time management skills. From
outside as well, the individuals are compelled by certain factors, which put pressure on them
to make changes. Social mobility is the mobility, which enables one to move to a higher
occupation with more income or lower occupation with less income. Social mobility leads to
changes in the social status of the individuals. Apart from changes in the social status, the
individuals are able to experience changes in their overall quality of lives and form new
contacts (Chapter – I. Urbanisation, n.d.).

Man-made Environment

Urban environment is regarded as mechanical. The plants, and trees can be observed
in urban societies, only when the individuals plant them. Research has indicated that in urban
environment, there are buildings, houses, and marketplaces, streets and roads are crowded.
The lines of transportation may be under the surface or overhead. Transit through the streets
is regulated through the system of lights. The modes of transportation has been expanding in
urban areas, these include, cabs, metro, buses, and autos. In most cases, individuals possess
their own personal vehicles and are able to transfer conveniently from one place to another.
In addition, there are far-reaching systems of communication. When one is residing in urban
communities, one is normally independent and are able to make their own decisions (Chapter
– I. Urbanisation, n.d.). One of the important aspects that need to be taken into consideration

15
is, individuals need to take care of their safety. This applies particularly to women and they
need to ensure, they do not travel by themselves during the night in cabs or autos.

Individualism

In urban societies, the concept of individualism has been prevalent. The individuals
belonging to various categories and backgrounds form their own aspirations. They normally
possess the viewpoint that they need to wholeheartedly dedicate themselves towards the
fulfilment of aspirations. The individuals have recognized the significance of education and
are even migrating to other cities or countries to get enrolled in higher educational
institutions. After the completion of education, they get engaged in employment opportunities
on full-time or part-time basis. Therefore, they are unable to take out time to communicate
with their family members and even lose contacts with other relatives and friends. The
concept of individualism and ones desires and ambitions have enabled the individuals to keep
to themselves and not pay attention to the problems and concerns of the elderly members of
the family. Therefore, it can be stated that individuals need to curb the concept of
individualism and take out time for effective communication with family members, relatives,
friends and community members.

Segregation

In urban society, the individuals are normally occupied in their daily lives and in most
cases do not have time to meet with others, including their family members, relatives, friends
or community members. Research has indicated, that factors such as, pursuance of
educational programs, participation in employment opportunities, health conditions,
extensive usage of technologies and other tasks and activities are the factors, which have led
to segregation. The senior citizens in urban communities are normally unable to share their
problems and concerns with their family members, as they are occupied in their own lives.
There have been disintegration of joint family system into nuclear family system. As a result
of which individuals lose ties and thus leads to segregation. Normally, in full-time jobs, the
individuals are required to work from morning till late evening. When they reach home at
night, they are tired and have to go to work again in the morning. Thus, full-time jobs are
regarded as crucial factors, which have led to segregation of individuals from family and
community members.

Social Tolerance

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 In urban societies, there are existence of individuals, who are different from each
other in terms of number of aspects. These include, caste, creed, race, ethnicity, religion,
gender, age, educational qualifications, occupation, personality traits, behaviour and socio-
economic background. These differences are observed among individuals in neighbourhood,
educational institutions and employment settings. When the individuals are living in the same
neighbourhood or when they are pursuing educational programs or are engaged in
employment opportunities in various organizations, they need to deal with others. Therefore,
when the individuals possess the viewpoint that they have to work diligently, resourcefully
and conscientiously towards the pursuance of goals and objectives, they need to implement
social tolerance. In other words, they need to accept the other individuals and not
discriminate among them in terms of the above stated factors. Social tolerance would enable
the individuals to form positive perspectives and viewpoints for each other and eliminate any
types of negative feelings. It is vital for the individuals to work in integration with each other
to achieve personal and professional goals.

Secondary Control

Secondary control helps the individuals to cope with failures and difficult situations.
They are able to promote primary control by channelling the motivational resources towards
the selected action goals, throughout the life course. Within the course of implementation of
various tasks and activities and in the achievement of personal as well as professional goals,
it is apparent that individuals experience various problems and difficulties. It is vital for them
to provide solutions to various problems and issues. Therefore, through secondary control,
the individuals generate awareness in terms of measures that are necessary to promote
successful development. Secondary control is targeted to the inner world and enables the
individuals to influence their own motivations, emotions and mental representation. The
processes of secondary control includes positive reappraisal, downward comparison,
attribution, bias and goal disengagement. With respect to compensatory secondary control,
cross-sectional studies make provision of convergent evidence that individuals make use of
on a frequent basis (Wrosch, Heckhausen, & Lachman, 2000).

Voluntary Associations

Voluntary associations are the groups, which are formed by individuals, having
common objectives. They work in co-ordination and integration with each other to achieve
the formulated the goals and objectives. In urban areas, individuals normally form voluntary

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associations to bring about solutions or alleviation to particular problems or issues. In urban
areas, there are individuals, who are residing in the conditions of poverty. The individuals,
who have migrated from rural areas in search for better livelihoods opportunities are
struggling to make ends meet, and there is a high rate of poverty among them. Furthermore,
these individuals have been subject to criminal and violent acts. The voluntary associations
work towards formulation of laws and policies that are dedicated towards bringing about
solutions to problems of poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, homelessness and crime and
violence. The primary job duties of the voluntary associations are dedicated towards
promoting welfare, integrity and solidarity within the society. It is the liberty of the broadest
scope for individuals, who aspire to promote well-being of the individuals, communities and
nation.

Secondary Association

The secondary associations are also formed among groups of individuals to

accomplish a particular purpose or goal. When the individuals are forming secondary
associations, they need to ensure, they carry out various tasks and activities in a well-
organized manner. For this purpose, they need to augment their competencies and aptitude.
Secondary association is the association that are prominent among the problems of
democratic theory and practice. They are regarded as a comprehensive range of non-familial
organizations, which are intermediaries between individuals and organizations and the
institutions of the state and formal electoral firms. Secondary associations play an important
role in the politics of modern democratic societies. They render a significant contribution in
the setting of the political agenda to determine the choices from that agenda to implement or
to prevent the implementation of the choices from that agenda to shape the preferences and
self-understanding (Cohen & Rogers, n.d.).

Social Change and Social Order in Urban Society

Social Change

It is stated on a frequent basis that change is one feature of not only urban society, but
also of other societies, i.e. rural and tribal, which cannot be transformed. It is indispensable to
bring about changes within the society over a period of time. When changes are brought
about, it needs to be ensured that they are contributing significantly in promoting well-being
of the individuals, communities and nation as a whole. Social change is regarded as an

18
integral aspect of urban society. Social change is the general and comprehensive term that is
used to refer to almost any kind of change, i.e. political, economic, or cultural. When
understanding social change, only the major changes need to be taken into consideration. The
major changes are the ones that bring about transformations fundamentally. The types of
changes that occur within the urban society are usually classified on the basis of their values,
beliefs and perspectives (Chapter 2. Social Change and Social Order, n.d.).

Changes in the values and beliefs can lead to social change. For instance, changes in
the ideas and perspectives of the individuals to bring about improvements in the achievement
of goals and objectives are regarded as significant aspects of social change. When the
individuals are residing in the conditions of poverty and backwardness and are struggling to
make ends meet, they have the major objective of alleviating the conditions of poverty and
sustaining their living conditions satisfactorily. In such cases, they normally migrate to urban
areas and look for employment opportunities. When they begin to earn well, they are able to
obtain a housing accommodation and are able to meet the needs and requirements of
themselves and their family members. Therefore, in they are able to experience social change
within their lives. When one is implementing measures to bring about social changes, they
need to be aware of strategies and approaches that would render a significant contribution in
promoting well-being.

The major aspects that have rendered an important contribution in promoting social
changes are, acquisition of education, employment opportunities, making use of technologies,
modern, scientific and innovative methods in the implementation of tasks and activities and
bringing about changes in the environment, political, economic and cultural aspects. These
aspects have had a major impact upon the structure and shape of the society. Technology has
rendered an indispensable contribution in overcoming or adapting to the problems and issues,
posed by nature, thus, causing a reduction in the differences between the societies, living in
various sorts of environments. On the other hand, the usage of technology and innovative
methods, not only contributes in leading to enhancement in the knowledge of the individuals,
but also enables them to make improvements in their overall quality of lives (Chapter 2.
Social Change and Social Order, n.d.).

The combination of technological and economic changes have led to social changes.
In the present existence, individuals are making use of technologies for numerous aspects.
These include, generating information in terms of various aspects, purchasing and selling of

19
items, recreational purposes, communicating and so forth. The individuals, belonging to
various categories and backgrounds possess the viewpoint that technologies can lead to
changes within their living standards to a major extent. Technology affects the society in a
number of ways. It can assist in resisting, adapting, controlling and harnessing the nature in
various ways. In amalgamation with the prevailing institution in the market, technological
changes can be as impressive in their social impact as the discovery of oil. Industrial
revolution is regarded as one of the indispensable social changes that is brought about by
changes in technologies, use of machines, equipment, tools and other scientific methods.
(Chapter 2. Social Change and Social Order, n.d.). In previous years, the individuals used to
carry out their tasks and activities manually, but with the advent of industrialization, they are
making use of modern machines, equipment and technologies to augment production.
Therefore, it can be stated that improvement in productivity leads to social changes.

The individuals, who are in leadership positions have the job duty of adequately
directing and guiding others, so they are able to perform their job duties satisfactorily and
generate the desired outcomes. In educational institutions as well as in other organizations
and agencies, the individuals are engaged in the implementation of their job duties. Within
the course of performance of their job duties, they encounter problems and difficulties, which
they need to get eliminated. Hence, they need guidance and suggestions from their superiors
to not only eliminate the barriers, but also to bring about social change. It is vital for the
leaders to possess an approachable and an amiable nature. They should communicate with
their subordinates and assess their performance on a regular basis. It is vital to put into
operation, proper evaluation methods to identify the limitations and bring about
improvements. The leaders need to be aware of the methods and approaches, which would be
effectual in achieving the desired goals and objectives. Thus, it can be stated that the changes
that are taking place in educational institutions of various levels and organizations bring
about social change through the redistribution of power and authority across the individuals,
belonging to various social groups and positions.

Culture is the term that is used for values, ideas, beliefs that are considered to be
rendering a significant contribution in structuring the lives of the individuals. The changes
taking place in ideas and beliefs of the individuals lead to changes in their overall quality of
lives. Religious beliefs and norms have contributed effectively in the organization of the
society. It is not surprising that changes in these beliefs have led to social changes (Chapter 2.
Social Change and Social Order, n.d.). Religious and cultural values have led to social

20
changes to a major extent. A major social change that has taken place in the urban society is
promotion of gender equality. There have been formulation of laws and measures, which are
generating ideas among individuals that women and girls should be given equal rights and
opportunities as their male counterparts. In educational institutions as well as in employment
settings, both men and women are provided with equal rights and opportunities. Hence, this
change has led to improvements in the lives of women and girls and facilitate in the
acquisition of empowerment opportunities. Women are acquiring professional educational
qualifications and are emerging to be doctors, lawyers, teachers, engineers, researchers,
directors, administrators, and so forth. Women empowerment is an important aspect of social
change.

Social Order
The meaning of social events or processes often becomes clear through the contrasts,
just as the letters in the page that one is reading becomes legible through contrast in the
backgrounds. In order to establish itself as a just and viable system, every society needs to
reproduce itself over time and maintain its stability. Stability requires that things should
continue more or less as they are that individuals continue to put into operation similar results
to generate the desired outcomes. In other words, in the case of stability, the changes are not
taken into consideration and things continue to remain the same. However, the notion of
social order is not restricted to the idea of resistance to change. The meaning of social order is
more positive. It is primarily concerned with the active maintenance and reproduction of
particular patterns of social relations and of norms and values (Chapter 2. Social Change and
Social Order, n.d.).

It is comprehensively understood that social order can be achieved in two ways. One
is when the individuals wish to abide by the rules and norms and second is when individuals
get compelled to abide by certain rules and norms. When the individuals possess the
viewpoint that abiding by certain rules and norms would render a significant contribution in
leading to welfare and goodwill. In such cases, they put into practice the procedures in
accordance to the rules and norms. On the other hand, when the individuals get compelled to
follow certain rules and procedures, they are unable to make their own decisions or carry out
tasks and activities in accordance to their own norms and procedures. In every society, there
are combination of such methods to maintain social order. Spontaneous content to social
order derives ultimately from shared values and norms, which are internalized by the

21
individuals, through the process of socialization (Chapter 2. Social Change and Social Order,
n.d.).

Socialization process is regarded as more or less efficient in various contexts. But

socialization can never completely erase the will of the individuals. In other words,
socialization cannot turn the individuals into programmed robots. It cannot produce complete
and permanent consent for all types of principles and standards at all times. At some point of
time in their lives, the individuals experience the rules and beliefs, which may seem natural
and right at some point of time. But at other times, they may not be appropriate. Hence, it is
vital for the individuals to ensure that they implement the ideas and norms in accordance to
the situations. When one has to carry out a particular task, there are certain norms and
procedures that need to be put into operation in an appropriate manner. Therefore, it is vital
for the individuals to ensure they make use of the methods and approaches in accordance to
the situations. The socialization process does not take much of the burden of producing the
social order, thus it is not considered sufficient by itself (Chapter 2. Social Change and Social
Order, n.d.).

Most of the modern societies also depend upon some form of power or coercion. But
power, authority and coercion needs to be exercised in order to promote welfare and to
benefit individuals to a major extent. Power is usually defined as the ability to make others do
what they want, regardless of what they themselves want. When the relationship of power is
stable and settled and the individuals involved have acquired familiarity with their positions,
job duties and responsibilities, in such cases, the individuals, who are in leadership positions
have the right to exercise power and authority over their subordinates. If a social entity,
person, individual or group is regularly or consistently in the position of power, it is stated to
be dominant. In normal times, dominant institutions, groups or individuals exercise a decisive
influence on the society (Chapter 2. Social Change and Social Order, n.d.). When the
individuals are exercising power and authority over others, they need to ensure they do not
cause any unfavourable effects upon their work, personality traits and living conditions.

One can implement social order within the urban society by formulating laws and
measures against the prevalence of crime and violence. Research has indicated that in urban
communities, there have been prevalence of crime and violence to a major extent. These acts
are taking place among family members within as well as outside the home. The various
forms of criminal and violent acts that are taking place are, verbal abuse, physical abuse,

22
sexual harassment, rape, acid attacks, child trafficking, financial exploitation, theft and
robbery, grievous hurt and murder. It is vital for the individuals to ensure that they should not
get engaged in these acts and treat others with respect and courtesy. The occurrence of these
acts are regarded as major impediments within the course of maintenance of social order. The
individuals need to be aware of peaceful conflict resolution methods. Apart from generating
awareness in terms of peaceful conflict resolution and dispute settlement methods, they need
to ensure they communicate politely with individuals, especially outside the home in various
places, i.e. educational institutions, employment settings, financial institutions, marketplaces
and so forth.

It is comprehensively understood that in urban societies as well, there are differences

in the categories, backgrounds, occupations and living standards of the individuals. Hence,
these differences lead to variations in the forms of social order. The individuals residing in
urban as well as in rural communities are able to maintain social order through effective
participation in their job duties and the implementation of economic and administrative
functions. It needs to ensure that measures are formulated to lead to alleviation of societal
problems of poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, homelessness and crime and violence.
Research has indicated that apart from formulation of measures against crime and violence,
the individuals are still getting engaged in these acts. They are unable to form the viewpoint
that the implementation of these acts would impose detrimental effects. Therefore, it can be
stated to maintain social order within the society, it is essential for the individuals to take into
account certain factors. These are, formulate proper laws and measures and abide them, they
need to inculcate the traits of morality and ethics, treat each other with respect and courtesy,
depict honesty and truthfulness and inculcate the traits of diligence, resourcefulness and
conscientiousness.

Recommendations for India’s Urban Development

In order to bring about development of the urban communities in an effective manner,

it is vital to take into consideration the following recommendations (Almeida, & Charles,
2015).

Integration of Spatial Planning

The primary instrument in the achievement of social, territorial and economic

development within and between countries is spatial planning. The primary role of spatial

23
planning is the integration of housing accommodation, strategic infrastructure, urban
infrastructure and improvement in the national and local governance in the framework of
urban planning. Spatial planning has both development and regulatory function. In order to
promote development of urban societies, it is vital to ensure that the development of
infrastructure, modes of transportation and housing takes place in an appropriate manner.
Hence, in order to ensure that the development of these takes place in a well-organized
manner, it is necessary to implement the function of spatial planning. Effective spatial
planning avoids duplication of efforts by commercial developers, communities,
organizations, agencies and individuals. The implementation of spatial planning has been
possible in many countries through structural and fundamental reforms of the planning
systems.

Effective Allocation of Competencies

It is comprehensively understood that to put into operation, various tasks and

activities in an appropriate manner and generate the desired outcomes, the individuals need to
inculcate competencies. The effective allocation of competencies need to take into account
the capabilities of the individuals to achieve the desired objectives. When the individuals
need to carry out certain major tasks, they usually work in groups. When the individuals are
working in groups, they are assigned duties in accordance to their competencies and abilities.
The individuals, who are in leadership positions need to ensure in the development of
facilities and equipment, which would lead to urban development. In urban slums, the
individuals are residing in the state of poverty and backwardness. Therefore, it is vital to
implement measures to ensure they are not overwhelmed by these problems and are able to
make improvements in their living conditions. Effective allocation of competencies renders
an important contribution in bringing about sustainable development.

Managing and Regulating Issues and Concerns

It is vital to manage and regulate the issues and concerns that may take place within
the course of development of urban societies. As it is comprehensively believed that
management of certain areas is not easy, the individuals and communities have to encounter
barriers and problems. But the function of planning would contribute effectively in the
management of tasks and functions and in achievement of desired goals and objectives. In the
management and regulation of issues and concerns, there are certain aspects, which need to
be taken into consideration. These are, supervising planning at the regional and national

24
levels, monitoring spatial development trends and the impact of spatial planning, working in
collaboration with other regional and local authorities, supporting and advising regional and
local governments and help to build capacity at all levels. Formation of national agencies is
vital to act as liaisons, when working in partnership with the regional and local governments,
particularly on matters requiring immediate attention and ensuring that the organizations and
agencies acquire an efficient understanding of the effects of the measures and programs on
development.

Establishment of Special Agencies

The establishment of special agencies are on the basis of the objective of making
improvements in the infrastructure and urban development programs. These agencies need to
have special roles to address particular planning issues, which require attention on an
immediate basis. Furthermore, these agencies need to ensure, when development of urban
areas takes place, there are provision of all the facilities and amenities. The provision of all
the facilities and amenities will enable the individuals to fulfil all the needs and requirements.
Research has indicated that in urban slums and in some regions of urban areas, individuals
experience scarcity of resources. They do not have clean drinking water, lighting and
electricity in their houses. In the hot summer months, they are required to face shortage of
electricity for about eight to ten hours. Hence, these are some of the factors, which are
causing unfavourable effects upon their existence. It is the job of the special agencies to
ensure, the individuals do not experience scarcity of civic amenities and are able to live their
lives satisfactorily.

Development of Strong Leadership Skills

In the development of urban areas, there are organizations, in which there are
individuals, who are in the top of the hierarchy and they are to possess strong leadership
skills. The possession of strong leadership skills will enable the individuals to efficiently
guide and lead others in the right direction and enable them to carry out their job duties
satisfactorily. The leaders need to take into account various factors to achieve the desired
goals and objectives. These are, maintenance of pleasant and amiable environmental
conditions, making provision of necessary resources, tools, equipment, that are required in
the implementation of job duties, providing solutions to problems and difficulties, directing
them in terms of implementation of job duties, helping them to augment their skills and
abilities, making wise decisions, implementing evaluation methods, encouraging the

25
individuals to work in co-operation and integration with each other, generating awareness
among them in terms of various factors that would be helpful in achieving the desired goals
and objectives and ensuring they implement the functions of planning and organizing in an
appropriate manner.

Defining Values and Measures

It is comprehensively understood formulation of measures and programs and taking

into consideration values and norms are regarded as indispensable to achieve the desired
objectives. It is vital to define values and measures before putting into operation any task.
The defining of values and measures will help the urban areas in reaching its energy and
climate targets, such as, thermal grid extension and make use of a variety of selection criteria.
For example, energy, labelling of buildings, allocate these measures to the selected districts,
blocks and buildings directly on the map. Combination of different measures is regarded as
vital in the formation of alternative implementation plan. Operation of simulation
experiments, viewing of projected results in time, using graphs, maps and charts, identify
gaps, optimize different measurement portfolios and redefining of implementation plans are
regarded as crucial strategies that will render a significant contribution in bringing about
urban development.

Development of the City’s Vision

Development of the city’s vision is an important aspect that helps in the identification
of the areas, which are deficient in terms of various sources and need to be improved. In the
development of the city’s vision, the individuals are required to conduct an analysis of the
problems and concerns that are proving to be major impediments within the course of growth
and development. Another vital aspect is development of a transformation agenda to
supplement the current city strategy with the integrated and focused approach to planning and
action. It is vital to apply the quantitative decision support environment, an open-source web-
based decision support system that enables the individuals to make wise decisions. When the
individuals are making decisions in terms of city’s vision, they need to ensure that
infrastructural facilities and mode of transportation should not be affected in the negative
manner. Furthermore, it is vital to analyse data to obtain initial insights in terms of potential
possibilities for action.

Providing Public Services

26
 In India, throughout the country, there is a severe need to make provision of public
services. Though in urban communities, the system of education, medical and health care
facilities and other services are in a well-developed state. They are making use of modern,
scientific and innovative methods in an efficient manner. But they need to ensure, they prove
to be useful to individuals, primarily belonging to deprived, marginalized and economically
weaker sections of the society. The individuals, belonging to these communities usually
cannot afford to pay for these services, especially medical and health care. Hence, measures
need to be formulated to ensure these individuals have access to medical and health care
services. Research has indicated that these individuals are even aspiring to provide education
to their children. They migrate to urban areas to provide good-quality education to their
children and seek better livelihoods opportunities. Therefore, it can be stated that making
provision of public services would help the individuals in sustaining their living conditions
better.

Development of a Strategic Vision for Infrastructure

The development of the strategic vision for infrastructure enables to formulate certain
measures and programs. A credible vision and a clear project pipeline lead to the alleviation
of the uncertainty of the investors. This in turn can augment productive collaboration between
government and investors. The development of an ongoing project pipeline connected to the
national vision and strategy are important factors in augmenting effectiveness. A set of
realistic and comprehensive opportunities instead of ad hoc procurements will help the
investors in observing value in the building of the capacities and expertise within the country.
In the development of the strategic vision for infrastructure, the investors need to play a
worthwhile role. They need to prioritize the projects, i.e. the projects, which are important
need to be taken into consideration first. As projects which are related to the development of
infrastructure are time consuming. Therefore, the infrastructural facilities, which are more
important needs to be given first priority. These are, transportation, public services, power
supplies, communications, roads, broadcasting and water supplies.

Creation of Policy and Regulatory Enablers

The creation of policy and regulatory enablers are regarded as indispensable in the
implementation of programs and measures regarding urban development. Once the policy
environment is stable and right, the Government of India, needs to put into operation various
tools and equipment, which are required for not only the development of infrastructural

27
facilities, but also for the overall growth and development of urban communities. Adequate
attention needs to be paid to the roads. As in urban areas, there has been an increase in the
rate of accidents, and these are primarily due to increase in traffic. Hence, one of the factors
that is of utmost significance is bringing about improvements in the transportation facilities
and roads. In urban areas, there has been an increase in the population of senior citizens. In
some cases, they are exploited and mistreated by their family members and caregivers.
Hence, policy and regulatory enablers also focus upon formulating measures regarding the
alleviation of crime and violence and ensuring well-being of all individuals.

1.2 Understanding Rural Society

In the past, individuals used to sustain their living conditions by hunting and
gathering. Gradually, the individuals augmented their skills and abilities regarding agriculture
and farming practices. With the development of the agricultural sector, the individuals began
to lead a stationary life. The emergence of rural communities stated that individuals passed
from a nomadic mode of life to a more settled one. India is country of villages. Within the
country, more than 70 percent of the population is residing in rural communities. In rural
communities, agriculture and farming practices are regarded as major occupations. The
majority of rural areas are small with only five hundred population each. The living
conditions of the individuals in rural communities are based on own traditional norms and
characteristics. Their lifestyles are based on traditional norms, practices and beliefs. The
norms and cultures of rural communities lead to strengthening of the administrative systems
(Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

The rural societies within the country have undergone considerable changes in the
past. With the advent of modernization and globalization, there have been improvements
taking place in the system of education, medical and health care facilities, agricultural sector
and so forth. Furthermore, there have been establishment of training centres, which are
imparting knowledge in terms of modern and innovative methods to enhance agricultural
production. The rural individuals are getting enrolled in other training centres to augment
their academic skills. This usually applies to those, who have not been enrolled in schools
before or dropped out before their educational skills are honed. The rural individuals have
recognized the significance of education and possess the viewpoint that improvements can be
brought about in their livelihoods opportunities after they have acquired education. In rural

28
communities, the usage of technologies have also gained prominence. The individuals are
making use of technologies to carry out various tasks and activities.

The rural societies are primarily characterised by the individuals having a limited
physical area, and who have common interests and common ways of satisfying them (Indian
Society and Social Change, 2011). Each rural society has different segments of castes, which
have separate ties in some spheres. Within the rural communities, individuals form good
terms and relationships with their neighbours and personal and family relationships. The
aspects of inter-caste and interpersonal relationships within the rural communities give
regards to special consideration. The castes are required to follow specialized occupations
and professions. Apart from agriculture and farming practices, there are number of
occupations that rural individuals are engaged in. These include, pottery makers, weavers,
artisans, craftsmen, goldsmiths, painters, carpenters, repair workers, electricians, and so forth.
The functioning of the panchayats, generally require the representatives of all the castes
residing in the village. In addition to the caste panchayat, transformations have taken place in
political sphere as well (Dube, 1990).

Land is regarded as the major source on the basis of which livelihoods opportunities
of rural individuals are sustained. Land is not just considered as the means of production, nor
property nor agriculture, but it is regarded as the way of life. Many of the cultural practices
and patterns of rural individuals can be traced back to their agrarian backgrounds. For
example, most of the New Year festivals, such as, Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Bihu in Assam,
Baisakhi in Punjab and Ugadi in Karnataka are the few festivals, which celebrate the main
harvest season and herald the beginning of the new agricultural season. There is a close
connection between agriculture and culture. The nature and practice of agriculture is
different. The small farmers usually make use of traditional methods to enhance agricultural
productivity. Whereas, wealthy farmers make use of modern, innovative and scientific
methods to make improvements in the production process. It can be stated that agriculture
and farming practices have an influence upon the cultures and overall living conditions of the
individuals to a major extent (Change and Development in Rural Society, 2015).

Rural life is supported by diversity of occupations, which is reflected in the caste

system. These include, potters, carpenters, weavers, artisans, craftsmen, goldsmiths,
ironsmiths, story-tellers, astrologers, priests, water-distributors, and oil-pressers. The
diversity of the occupations was reflected in the caste system, which in most regions included

29
specialist and service castes. In order to put into practice their jobs in a well-organized
manner and augment productivity and profitability, the individuals need to augment their
skills and capabilities. As it has been stated above, they get enrolled in training centres to
acquire knowledge in terms of innovative methods, so they can enrich their products. In the
present existence, there has been a decline in some of the traditional occupations. But
increasing interconnection of rural and urban communities have led to many diverse
occupations. Majority of the individuals residing in rural communities are employed in or
have livelihoods based on non-farm activities. There are rural individuals employed in
industries and professional occupations as well, such as, teachers, doctors or health care
specialists (Change and Development in Rural Society, 2015).

In rural areas, individuals are residing in the state of poverty and backwardness. They
are normally overwhelmed due to the problems of poverty, illiteracy and unemployment.
They struggle to make ends meet due to scarcity of resources. The lives of rural individuals
are normally based on their cultures, traditions and values. Not all individuals have access to
land. In fact the distribution of landholdings in most regions is unequal to a major extent
within the households. In some parts of the country, majority of the rural households own
small plots of land. Whereas, in other areas, 40 to 50 percent of the households do not own
any land at all. In such cases, they are dependent on agricultural labour and look for other
works to sustain their living conditions. This indicates that there are few families, who are
well-to-do and do not experience scarcity of resources. Another point that needs to be taken
into consideration in terms of agricultural labourers are, their incomes are low, their
employment is insecure, most of them are daily wage labourers and do not have work for
most of the time of the year. Hence, they are underemployed (Change and Development in
Rural Society, 2015).

Characteristics of Rural Society

The characteristics of rural society have been stated as follows: (Indian Rural Society,
n.d.).

Village as the Unit

The village is the unit of the rural society. The individuals residing within the village
are carrying out the tasks and activities, related to the sustenance of their living conditions
within the distinctive framework of caste and social customs. Castes is the dominant social

30
institution, permeating social and economic relations. In most cases, there is prevalence of
traditional caste occupations. Co-operative labour for different states is required for not only
agro-economic activities but also for socio-religious life. In large villages, the individuals are
belonging to various occupations. In larger villages, the lives of the individuals are more
integrated, self-sufficient and socio-religious, as compared to the individuals residing in
smaller villages. The ethnic, linguistic, religious and caste occupation within the villages
determine its character and structure. Every village has its own organizational set-up,
authority and sanctions. The panchayats are based on the local traditions. The members of the
panchayat are vested with the authority to carry out the managerial and administrative
functions.

Lifestyle and Culture

The lifestyle and culture of the individuals in rural communities are different from the
ones belonging to urban communities. In most cases, their lifestyles are based on traditional
cultures and customs. They possess own beliefs and perspectives on the basis of which, their
lives are centred. Their culture is quite conservative and tradition bound. Normally, the rural
individuals are accustomed to their cultural and traditional practices to a major extent that
they are not aware in terms of advancements taking place and modern and innovative
practices. The culture of the rural individuals is guided by age old customs and they do not
accept the significance of scientific aspects. On the other hand, their lifestyles too are
influenced by cultures, and traditional beliefs to a major extent. In accordance to the research
studies, in some cases, they are generating awareness in terms of technologies, modern and
innovative methods, whereas, in other cases, they are practicing their own cultures, and
traditions.

Social Stratification

Social stratification determines the status and role of the individuals or differentiation
or certain individuals are regarded as superior to others. In rural communities, the system of
stratification is traditional. The caste and status of the individuals are determined by birth.
Stratification is more or less static and does not undergo changes. The difference between the
high and low is less. As the status of the individuals is determined by their birth, they are
required to take up occupations too of their fathers. Hence, the occupation of the individuals
is also determined by the occupations of their family members. But in the present existence,
the individuals are acquiring education and taking up occupations, irrespective of their caste.

31
There has been an increase in rural individuals migrating to urban communities to get
enrolled in higher educational institutions to pursue education. For example, the individuals,
belonging to a trader caste are also pursuing professional educational degrees, such as,
medical, engineering and law and taking up employment occupations related to their fields.

Social Mobility

In rural communities, there is lack of social mobility. The individuals do not change
their occupations or jobs. Agriculture is regarded as their major occupation and they train
their children as well in terms of this occupation. The individuals generate information in
terms of occupations from their parents and grandparents. They usually get engaged in family
business. On the other hand, due to lack of social mobility, individuals do not change their
residence, religion, beliefs and viewpoints. Within the course of time, there has been
generation of awareness among individuals that it is vital for them to make use of modern and
innovative methods and techniques in the production processes. Whether they are agricultural
labourers, craftsmen, artisans, pottery makers, weavers and so forth, they need to bring about
improvements in the production processes. In order to make improvements, they are
implementing modern and innovative methods. But in spite of the implementation of
scientific and innovative methods, their occupation remains the same, hence, it can be stated,
there is lack of social mobility.

Systems of Interaction

In rural communities, individuals are residing in the state of backwardness. Their

interaction with the mainstream society is negligible. They normally interact within their
families and communities. In interacting with others, face to face communication is
prevalent. On the other hand, when family members are not around and are living at a
distance, in such cases, communication takes place through telephones. Research has
indicated that in rural communities, elderly individuals as well as other individuals are not
well-equipped with the use of technologies. They are not aware of how to send emails or
messages, therefore, verbal communication is regarded as indispensable in facilitating
interaction among individuals and groups. The rural individuals normally interact with the
community members, when they are to generate information or seek assistance in terms of
various aspects, such as, acquisition of health care facilities, literacy skills and academic
concepts and other problems and concerns, such as, experiencing discriminatory treatment,
and so forth.

32
 Status of Women

In some rural communities, the status of women is in a deprived state. They are
regarded as inferior to men and are mainly required to implement the household
responsibilities and take care of the needs and requirements of family members. The
individuals possess the viewpoint that girls are liabilities. From the stage of early childhood,
they should be trained in terms of implementation of household chores and taking care of
needs and requirements of their siblings as well as the elderly members of the household and
school education is not meant for them. They need to eventually get married and would not
be able to make use of their educational qualifications. On the other hand, male children are
regarded as assets. They are provided with education and it is believed that they would make
use of education in leading to well-being of their families and communities. Furthermore,
males are encouraged to participate in social, economic, political and cultural activities.
Therefore, it can be stated that in rural communities, the status of women are not in a well-
developed state and they are regarded as subordinates to men.

System of Education

In rural communities, the individuals, belonging to all categories and backgrounds

have recognized the significance of education. They possess the viewpoint that acquiring
education will help them in sustaining their living conditions better. Even when the
individuals are not educated, they aspire to get their children educated. But in rural
communities, the system of education is not in a well-developed state. There are certain
factors, which are imposing impediments within the course of its development. These are,
lack of appropriate teaching-learning methods, inadequate teaching-learning materials, long
distance of schools from homes, shortage of teachers, lack of extra-curricular and creative
activities, discriminatory treatment against girls, lack of infrastructure and civic amenities in
schools, inadequate facilities and furniture within the classrooms, the system of examination
and use of evaluation methods are inadequate and overall environmental conditions within
schools are not in a well-developed state. Therefore, due to these problems, the rural
individuals are migrating to urban communities to bring about improvements in their
livelihoods. In urban communities, the system of education is well-developed as compared to
rural communities, hence, they are able to provide education to their children as well as
acquire employment opportunities.

Environmental Conditions

33
 The rural individuals are dependent upon the environmental conditions to a major
extent for meeting their needs and requirements. Research has indicated that they experience
shortage of water within their homes to a major extent and are required to make use of it for
multiple purposes, hence, they need to obtain water from the water bodies. On the other hand,
in the case of health problems and illnesses, also in some cases, they obtain herbs and
medicinal plants from the forests. In the preparation of meals, they make use of mud stoves
and need to make use of wood, hence, they need to obtain it from forests. The rural
individuals are normally non-literates and unaware and are dependent upon the natural
environmental conditions for the sustenance of their living conditions.

It is vital for the rural individuals to be aware of the programs and measures that are
formulated regarding the preservation of the environment. They need to curb various forms of
pollution, including land, water and air. In order to curb pollution, one of the important
aspects that need to be taken into consideration are, not dumping any types of waste materials
on the land and in the water bodies. Air pollution is normally caused due to emission of
gaseous fumes in the air. Therefore, industries and factories need to ensure, they do not make
use of chemicals and methods, which would cause air pollution. Implementing methods to
curb various forms of pollution and making use of resources in an effectual manner will help
them in preserving the environment.

Importance of Neighbourhood

The rural individuals recognize the significance of neighbourhood to a major extent.

They form the viewpoint that it is vital for them to establish good terms and relationships
with their neighbours. Rural life is based on co-operation and mutual understanding between
individuals. The individuals are close to their family members and establish effective
communication terms with them. But they feel that in the case of dilemmas and difficult
situations, it is vital for them to establish good terms with their neighbours, only then they
would be able to provide them assistance. The individuals, who are living alone, and do not
have family members around, they are the ones, who need to obtain support and assistance
from neighbours and community members. Neighbourhood of the individuals in rural
communities usually consists of same caste and economic status. This is one of the vital
causes that individuals form good terms and relationships with each other. When the
individuals are residing in the same community, it is vital to ensure one maintains effective
communication terms with each other. When they experience any positive and negative

34
situations, neighbours are the ones, who are informed first. Therefore, it is vital to recognise
the importance of neighbourhood.

Sense of Belongingness

The sense of belongingness among rural individuals is more as compared to urban

individuals. When there are organization of any functions or events or when one has to
celebrate the festivals, the individuals need to acquire support and assistance from not only
family members but also neighbours and community members. When the individuals work in
collaboration and integration with each other in the accomplishment of any tasks and
activities, they develop a sense of belongingness. Research has indicated that in some cases,
individuals residing in the same community develop close links with each other, just like
family members. When there are organization of any social, cultural, religious, political and
economic activities, they obtain support from each other and work in co-ordination. In the
making of important decisions, the individuals, particularly the male members of the society
call for meetings and all individuals are required to express their ideas and suggestions.
Therefore, it can be stated that sense of belongingness enables the individuals to share their
ideas and viewpoints and live like one family.

Programs to bring about Improvements in Rural Societies

Rural development has been receiving attention of the governments throughout the
world. In the Indian framework, rural development assumes special significance for two
important reasons, one is more than 70 percent of the population resides in rural communities
and the prevalence of the conditions of poverty, illiteracy and unemployment are the major
impediments within the course of their progression. Second, the backwardness of the rural
communities is a major impediment within the course of progression of the overall nation.
India is an agricultural economy. In terms of the methods of production, social organization
and political mobilization, the rural areas are in a backward state to a major extent. Therefore,
there was a major need to formulate programs and measures that are necessary to bring about
improvements in rural societies. Most of the labour force within the country depends upon
agriculture, the major cause is lack of employment opportunities. The major part of the labour
force needs to be shifted to non-agricultural occupations (Chapter-1. Introduction, n.d.).

In India, objectives of community development is to implement the national extension

program. The objective of this program was to assist each village in planning and in carrying

35
out the integrated, multi-phased family and village plans directed towards leading to an
increase in the agricultural production, making improvements in the existing rural crafts and
industries, making provision of recreational facilities and programs, improving housing and
family living conditions and making provision of programs for the up-liftment of women and
youth in rural areas. For the implementation of the programs, blocks were set-up, each
comprising of 70,000 individuals. Community development programs acquired a momentum,
following the introduction of Panchayati Raj Institutions. This was done on the
recommendations of the study team of the community projects and national extension service
appointed by the Planning Commission in 1957. Bringing about improvements in the
agricultural sector was regarded to be of utmost significance. As it would in turn bring about
improvements in the livelihoods opportunities of rural individuals (Chapter-1. Introduction,
n.d.).

It was recognized that improvements can be brought in the agricultural sector through
initiating modern machines, equipment, irrigation methods and other technologies.
Furthermore, the agricultural labourers and farmers need to augment their competencies and
aptitude. The first among the programs was Intensive Agricultural District Program (IADP).
This program was initiated by the Government on the recommendation of the agricultural
production team, sponsored by the Ford foundation. The team suggested that those crops and
areas, in each state having the highest potential for production must be chosen. The main
objective of the program was to achieve a rapid and significant increase in the agricultural
production. Under the IADP, a package of improved practices were to be applied. It was
thought that through the measures of concentration of resources in these areas, there would be
an increase in the production processes. The program also put emphasis upon the fact that
improvements can take place in the status and livelihoods opportunities of small scale
farmers, when improvements will take place in the agricultural production processes
(Chapter-1. Introduction, n.d.).

The Intensive Agricultural Area Program (IAAP) was initiated with the main
objective of bringing about an increase in the production of crops in selected areas by the
intensive and the co-ordinated use of various aids of production. High-yielding varieties
programs were introduced in 1965-1966. The program aimed to benefit the rural economy in
two major ways. These are, by increase in the production of cereal output and increasing the
demand for agricultural labourers. Under this program, arrangements were made to select the
areas in each state, working out a training program at all levels and arrangements of inputs,

36
like fertilizer, seeds, pesticides, plant protection equipment and credit on the basis of proper
need assessment. This program brought about green revolution within the country. In other
words, it generated awareness among the individuals to initiate measures leading to green
revolution. Another vital aspect that needs to be highlighted is inequality within the source of
income. Inequality of income not only broadened between the irrigated and run irrigated
areas of implementation of this program but also within the areas, where this program has
been introduced (Chapter-1. Introduction, n.d.).

There were initiation of measures to promote equality and social justice. In this case,
emphasis was put on the common man, deprived and underprivileged sections of the rural
communities. For this purpose, priority was given to the labour intensive programs through
the development of various areas. These include, rural infrastructure, agriculture,
communication and transport connections, rural electrification, water management, rural
industries, decentralization, and housing accommodation. Removal of poverty and attainment
of self-reliance are the major objectives that were initiated in the fifth five year plan (1974-
1978). When the individuals would attain employment opportunities and generate a source of
source of income, they would not only sustain their living conditions better but would also
attain self-reliance. The National Program for Minimum Needs is incorporated in the fifth
plan. The other two programs that were introduced are, Farmer Training and Education
Program for commercial crop oil seeds development program and Dry Land Agricultural
Development Program (Chapter-1. Introduction, n.d.).

Rural Workers Program was initiated in 1970-1971 with emphasis put upon the
implementation of rural works and generation of employment opportunities. The program
was reoriented on the basis of the area development approach and was redesigned as the
Drought Prone Area Program at the time of mid-term appraisal of the fourth five year plan
(1969-1974). The main objectives of the program are, causing a reduction in the unfavourable
effects caused by conditions of draught, stabilizing the income of the individuals, belonging
to disadvantaged groups, and restoration of ecological balance. Under the program, the
various other schemes that are undertaken are, medium and minor irrigation projects, soil
conservation, forestation and construction of roads. Another important aspect that was taken
into consideration was, small and marginal farmers were encouraged to participate in the
development processes. When the individuals participate in the development process, they
are able to acquire an efficient understanding as well as benefit to a major extent (Chapter-1.
Introduction, n.d.).

37
 The program of Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers (MFAL) was initiated
in 1971-1972. The projects under the MFAL were designed to make in-depth study of the
problems of marginal farmers and agricultural labourers and to evolve suitable programs and
make arrangements. The arrangements that were made were institutional, financial and
administrative in nature. Though not much attention was paid to the identification of
agricultural labourers in several projects. The program which was primarily addressed to
make provision of help and assistance to the weaker and disadvantaged sections of the society
also focused upon assisting the small and marginal farmers and agricultural labourers. The
Command Area Development Program was conceived towards the end of the fourth plan.
The primary objective of this program was to organize the use of irrigation systems by the
introduction of modern methods. Furthermore, adjustments were brought about in the
cropping patterns to soil and agro-climatic conditions of the command areas. The command
areas development authorities converging 47 irrigation projects that account for 37 percent
were set up till March 1978 (Chapter-1. Introduction, n.d.).

The National Program of Minimum Needs was incorporated in the fifth five year plan.
The main objective of this program was to ensure that adequate distribution of resources
takes place in all areas. It ensured that in all rural communities, there are allocation of
sufficient resources and areas should not experience dearth. The Minimum Needs Program
(MNP) aimed to make provision of certain basic minimum needs to make improvements in
the living conditions of rural individuals. It aimed at the social and economic development of
the community. It aimed to alleviate the conditions of poverty and ensure that individuals and
communities, who are affected by the conditions of poverty too are able to fulfil their daily
needs and requirements. The main areas that have been taken into consideration under the
program include, rural health, rural water supply, rural electrification, elementary education,
adult education, diet and nutrition, improvements in the environmental conditions of urban
slums and providing housing accommodation for landless labourers.

Under the Hill Area Development Project, Tribal Area Development Program and
Integrated Tribal Project, efforts were initiated to make provision of benefits to tribal
individuals. The primary objective of these programs was to make provision of basic
amenities and make improvements in their living conditions (Chapter-1. Introduction, n.d.).
The schemes initiated for the development of rural societies have been beneficial, particularly
in generating employment opportunities and thus enabling them to sustain their living
conditions better. Furthermore, there have been introduction of Women and Child

38
Development programs with the main objective of promoting well-being of women and
children. In rural communities, the conditions of women and children have been in a deprived
state. The problems of illiteracy, malnutrition, crime and violence and poverty and
backwardness have imposed major impediments with the course of attainment of
empowerment opportunities, particularly for women. But programs have led to changes in the
viewpoints and perspectives of rural individuals and they are providing equal rights and
opportunities to women as their male counterparts, thus leading to their empowerment and
enhanced living standards. Therefore, it can be stated that initiation of programs and
measures, which are focusing upon the development of rural societies have rendered a
significant contribution and have generated desired outcomes.

1.3 Understanding Tribal Society

Tribal communities form the major segment of the world’s population. There are

usage of different terms to address them, these are, primitive, tribal, indigenous, aboriginal,
native and so forth. In India, there are large number of tribal communities, these are, Bhils,
Gonds, Oraons, Minas and so forth. The tribal population is scattered throughout the country.
They are mainly residing in hilly and mountainous regions, are dependent upon the natural
environmental conditions for the sustenance of their livelihoods and speak different
languages. The tribal communities have their own cultures, norms, traditions and beliefs.
These have a major influence upon their living conditions. The states of Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa, Bihar, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal have the highest tribal
population. The tribal individuals are also known as people of the land. Another term that has
been used for them is adivasis, meaning first settlers. The tribal population is believed to be
the early settlers in the Indian peninsula and prior to the caste system, the population was
divided into different tribes (Chapter 2. Tribe, Tribal India, Tribal History, n.d.).

Each tribe is a homogeneous and a self-contained unit, without any hierarchical

discrimination. The chief of the tribe possessed the leadership skills and was responsible for
number of tasks, such as, protection, making decisions, management and administrative
functions and so forth. There was decentralization of authority among the tribals. The
traditional tribal institutions are vested with legislative, executive and judicial powers. The
Maniki and the Munda systems in Singhbhum and the Manjhi system in Santal Pargana are
examples of tribal institutions. These are headed by the tribal chiefs, who exercise control
over social, economic and religious affairs (Chapter 2. Tribe, Tribal India, Tribal History,

39
n.d.). Among the tribal communities too, there have been generation of awareness in terms of
promotion of education and health care facilities, which would enable them to be at par with
the mainstream society. Furthermore, equal participation of the individuals in the
employment opportunities and educational institutions, working efficiently towards fulfilling
the needs and requirements of each social group and leading to a decline in inequalities are
vital aspects in bringing about growth and progression of tribal communities (Basic
Characteristics of Indian Society, n.d.).

The tribal societies occupy a definite geographical area. Permanent settlement of the
tribes make provision of an identity to the tribe and this identity is in accordance to their
permanent settlement. Our country is named after the tribe called Bharata. Even in the
present, in the states like, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura, there are occurrence of Mizo,
Naga and Tripuri tribes and the states are named after them. With the growth of nationalism
in Europe, the term tribe denote the race of individuals, residing in a given territory. Tribal
societies have had a long and cultural past. Their history goes back to the pre-historic period.
It is unfortunate that due to lack of written tradition, the sociologists and anthropologists are
unable to chronicle their past. It is comprehensively understood that tribal societies live their
lives in accordance to their norms, cultures and customs. In addition, they are dependent upon
the natural environmental conditions for their survival. But they are not regarded as isolated.
Their participation in the sub-puranic and epic traditions of myths and folktales states that
they are not isolated (Chapter 2. Tribe, Tribal India, Tribal History, n.d.).

The tribal societies belong to racially, linguistically and culturally to a sphere that is
different from the other tribal societies. The present political situation of the tribals in
northern India contrasts fundamentally with the political situation and living standards of the
tribals in southern India. The tribal societies may speak different languages, which are not
mutually understandable by the other individuals, primarily belonging to urban communities.
But there are large areas within which the individuals can communicate among themselves by
speaking own language, which is more or less understood by the same, speaking own
dialects. Since the country achieved its independence in 1947, determined efforts have been
made in leading to effective growth and progress of the tribal communities (Haimendorf,
1982). The tribal communities in the present are generating awareness in terms of
significance of education and are even migrating to urban communities to get enrolled in
higher educational institutions.

40
 With the development of contacts between the tribal societies and those of the
Brahmaputra Valley and particularly with the spread of education among the tribal
individuals, they are generating information in terms of the utilization of modern and
innovative methods (Haimendorf, 1982). Agriculture is regarded as the major occupation of
the tribal societies. Apart from agriculture, they are engaged in the production of handicrafts,
baskets, and other items. When they are engaged in the manufacturing and production
processes, it is vital for them to generate awareness in terms of marketing strategies and
demands of consumers. Adequate information in terms of these factors will enable them to
augment productivity and profitability. Research has indicated that in enhancing their
production processes, the tribal individuals are making use of modern, and innovative
methods. In tribal areas, the system of education is not in a well-developed state. Hence, to
augment their knowledge and competencies, they usually migrate to urban communities to
get enrolled in training centres.

The co-existence of the established tribes and the independent tribal communities
living in accordance to the rules and customs dates back to the earliest times of recorded
Indian history. In the age, when the sub-continent was sparsely populated and beyond the
limits of the centres of higher civilization, there were vast tracks covered in forests and
difficulties in accessibility of populations on different levels of material and cultural
development could exist side by side without impinging to any great extent each other’s
resources and territories (Haimendorf, 1982). The tribal individuals live their lives in
accordance to their norms, customs and cultures. They are normally dependent upon the
natural environmental conditions for the proper sustenance of their living conditions. In the
case of any health problems, wounds or diseases, they obtained herbs and medicinal plants
from the natural environment and forests. But there have been transformations taking place in
their conditions within the course of time and they are recognizing the significance of modern
and scientific medical treatment. Therefore, it can be stated that with the advent of
modernization and globalization, improvements are taking place in the living conditions of
tribal population.

Factors imposing Challenges in Tribal Societies

The factors imposing challenges within the course of development of tribal societies
have been stated as follows: (Beniwal, n.d.).

Problems with Land Alienation

41
 Land is the primary resource and has been an issue in the lives of tribal individuals
primarily because of two reasons, first, they are dependent on the land to a major extent for
the sustenance of their livelihoods. Second, the function of planning is not carried out in a
satisfactory manner. There are number of occupations that are put into operation by the tribal
communities. These are, agriculturists, craftsmen, labourers, cultivators, traders, and they
have business pursuits. All these occupations require them to depend upon land to a major
extent. Though these individuals are mostly unaware of their land rights and the rules. The
tribal communities do not have access to land records. Due to this, they experience a high rate
of exploitation by the non-tribal communities and other individuals, who are in leadership
positions in administrative and political spheres.

Some of the tribal villages, where the problem of land alienation is high and severe
has numerous factors that are imposing unfavourable effects upon the tribal communities.
Land alienation among the tribal communities is a serious problem. In order to solve this
problem, it is necessary to make provision of special protection by the process of
categorization of tribes, both for the purpose of preventing land alienation from the tribes,
who are not in a well-developed state and are economically backward. Second reason is,
more equal distribution of reservations and other constitutional provisions. The tribal
individuals have been denied of their rights in the land. Hence, when they experience this
problem to a major extent, they get compelled to borrow loans from the money lenders.
Indebtedness is one of the major factors that displaced them from their land. The lack of
education and understanding in terms of loans are the major aspects that have led to their
exploitation. Therefore, acquisition of education is regarded as one of the major factors that
would lead to better livelihoods opportunities.

Bonded Labour

In India, in rural as well as in tribal communities, there has been prevalence of bonded
labour. When small and marginal farmers borrow loans from landlords and zamindars and are
unable to pay those loans on time, they are required to work as bonded labourers to repay the
loans. They get either less pay or no pay at all. In bonded labour, the individuals are required
to do manual jobs for long hours. Therefore, it is apparent that when the individuals will work
long hours and will not receive adequate pay, they will experience problems in meeting their
needs and requirements and encounter barriers within the course of overall sustenance of
their living conditions. Bonded labour is to be defined on the basis of labour and services,

42
extracted from the person as a penalty, when the person has not been involved voluntarily.
United Nations see bonded labour as a special kind of forced labour.

In India, bonded labour is more complex. The major causes behind bonded labour are,
connection between caste, social structure and bondage, traditional feudal social relations and
bonded labour. Small scale and localized quarrying and mining recruit labourers belonging to
nomadic tribes and rural communities. In bonded labour as it has been stated above that
labourers either get less pay or no pay at all. In addition, the working environmental
conditions are also not protective and they are required to work long hours even in hazardous
occupations. In the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Haryana
and Tamil Nadu, there has been prevalence of bonded labour. The Bonded Labour Abolition
Act was introduced in the country in 1976. It recognizes overlap between forced and bonded
labour, contract labour and interstate migration issues and embeddedness with social
customs. The implementation of this act will contribute significantly in the elimination of
bonded labour.

Issues Concerning Health and Well-being

The tribal individuals, belonging to all age groups, categories and backgrounds
experience number of issues and problems in promoting good health and well-being. The
problem of malnutrition is high among them. Research has indicated that they are dependent
upon the natural environmental conditions for meeting their daily needs and requirements.
Water is obtained from the water bodies. Vegetables, fruits and other food items are obtained
from the forests and in the agricultural sector, they are engaged in the production of these
items. These individuals are usually unaware that the use of contaminated water may cause
illnesses and health problems. Therefore, obtaining sources from the forests and natural
environmental conditions are responsible for the deprived health conditions. It is
comprehensively understood that meals should be prepared in a clean and hygienic
environment. The tribal individuals make use of traditional methods in the preparation of
meals. They obtain wood from the forests and put into practice the methods of hunting and
gathering. Therefore, when they are unable to satisfy their nutritional requirements in an
appropriate manner, they experience health problems and illnesses.

In order to provide medical treatment to cure their wounds and diseases, they obtain
herbs and medicinal plants from the forests, hence, they implement traditional methods. The
use of traditional methods have proven to be effective to them, especially in the case of

43
severe health problems. In the present existence, tribal communities have generated
awareness in terms of modern and innovative medical treatment methods and are migrating to
urban communities to acquire medical treatment. They communicate with the medical
practitioners and health care specialists and are generating information in terms of methods
that are necessary to put into operation to maintain good health. When the individuals are
healthy, only then they would be able to get engaged in various tasks and activities.
Therefore, it is vital for the tribal individuals to put into practice, modern and scientific
methods to cure their health problems and illnesses and promote well-being.

System of Education

The system of education in tribal societies is not in a well-developed state. The main
factors that are responsible for inadequate system of education are, inappropriate teaching-
learning methods, unsatisfactory teaching-learning materials, lack of proper assessment
methods, lack of extracurricular and creative activities, shortage of well-qualified and
experienced teachers, lack of infrastructure and civic amenities, and the overall
environmental conditions within the schools are not pleasant and amiable. Traditionally, the
tribal communities have undergone drastic changes due to migration to a major extent,
encroachment by outsiders and increasing vulnerability of resources on which they are
dependent. Though factors such as, scheduling of tribal areas and increasing the transfer of
rights over the resources is encouraged by the Government of India. But the lack of
educational qualifications among the tribals is regarded as the major barrier within the course
of their progression.

There is a need to bring about improvements in the system of education. The factors,
which are leading to under-development of the system of education need to be improved. The
capacity building initiatives need to focus upon the system of education. It is of utmost
significance for the tribal communities to bring about improvements in their knowledge and
competencies. The programs within the country such as, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) and
Mid-day Meal Scheme are proving to be facilitating to the tribal communities in the
acquisition of education. Furthermore, there have been provision of hostel facilities and
scholarships. Apart from these improvements are taking place in the teaching-learning
methods and teaching-learning materials, which are rendering a significant contribution in
enriching educational skills and abilities.

Solutions in Dealing with Problems Experienced by Tribals

44
 The solutions in dealing with the problems experienced by tribal societies have been
stated as follows: (Beniwal, n.d.).

Assimilation

Assimilation is one of the methods in dealing with the problems experienced by tribal
societies. In accordance to this method, one cannot provide solutions to the problems of the
tribals on the basis of tribal culture and life, but by transforming them into the framework of
new community. According to this solution advocated by social reformers and voluntary
organizations, the tribal societies need to be generated awareness in terms of the fact that they
need to be integrated into the mainstream society. Integration with the mainstream society
will render an effective contribution in providing solutions to their problems.

The Christian missionaries on one hand and the Hindu Social reformers on the other,
having been making attempts to assimilate them with the Christian and Hindu communities
respectively. This method has its own limitations. Complete assimilation of the tribal
societies is a difficult task. The major reason being, tribals have their own values, norms,
beliefs and cultures. Their living conditions are based on them to a major extent. Therefore,
they find it difficult to get adapted to other cultures. When attempts have been made to
familiarise them with the other traditional practices and cultures, they may feel perplexed and
not be able to get adjusted with them. This solution may even create economic, religious and
moral degradation among them.

Isolation

Research has indicated that tribals should be kept in isolation from the rest of the
society. When they will remain isolated from the rest of the society, they will provide
solutions to two major problems. These are, the tribals would be able to maintain their
independent identity and they would be free from the exploitation of the outsiders. The tribal
communities are residing in the state of backwardness. Therefore, it is necessary to provide
them sufficient time to acquaint themselves with the mainstream society. One of the major
limitations of isolation is, tribals remain unaware of advancements taking place, they are
unable to implement modern, scientific and innovative methods in the implementation of
various tasks and activities and continue to reside in seclusion and backwardness. Therefore,
it is vital for the tribals to generate information in terms of modernization and advancements
taking place, recognize the significance of education and be at par with the mainstream
society.

45
 With the advent of modernization and globalization, the tribal communities too are
migrating to urban communities to get enrolled in higher educational institutions to pursue
educational programs. Upon completion of educational programs, they are looking for
reputed employment opportunities. Acquisition of good employment opportunities not only
helps the individuals in augmenting their skills and aptitude, but they are able to generate a
source of income. Upon completion of education, some of the individuals belonging to tribal
societies return to their homes and make use of their education and competencies to promote
well-being. Therefore, it can be stated, when the tribal individuals acquire education, they are
able to promote welfare of their families and communities. In this manner, they are able to
alleviate isolation and move towards progression.

Integration

In order to progress, it is vital for the tribal societies to get integrated into the
mainstream society. The method of integration with the mainstream society would prove to
be beneficial to the tribals in number of ways. These are, they would generate awareness in
terms of consumer demands, which would enable them to market their products effectively;
they would be able to enhance productivity by making use of modern and innovative methods
in the manufacturing and production processes; they would augment their technical skills, as
use of technology is regarded as indispensable in the implementation of various tasks and
functions; in the agriculture sector and farming practices too they will be able to make use of
modern, scientific and innovative methods in the production processes; they will make use of
technologies in the management of household chores, thus make improvements in their living
conditions; they will generate awareness in terms of acquisition of basic literacy skills of
reading, writing and arithmetic; migrate to urban areas to acquire education and employment
opportunities; develop effective communication terms with others; generate information in
terms of urban culture, norms, values and traditions and lead to enrichment in their overall
living conditions. Therefore, it can be stated integration should be recognized and put into
operation appropriately.

Through integration, the tribal communities are not only able to make improvements
in their quality of lives, but also are able to retain their identity. When there have been
formulation of measures and programs to integrate them with the mainstream society, they
are not compelled to give up their own cultures, norms, principles and standards. But in the
method of integration, they are supposed to generate awareness in terms of modern, scientific

46
and innovative strategies that should be implemented in an appropriate manner to bring about
improvements in their living conditions. It is comprehensively understood that individuals
need to put major emphasis upon enrichment of their career prospects. In order to enrich
career prospects, they are required to acquire good quality education and look for
employment opportunities. Hence, as it has been stated above, when they migrate to urban
areas to acquire education and employment, they are able to promote well-being.

Through integration, the tribal individuals are also able to augment their knowledge in
terms of modern health care and medical facilities. Health care and medical are the areas that
are of utmost significance to individuals, belonging to all age groups, communities,
categories and backgrounds. Integration will render a significant contribution in enabling
them to acquire modern health care and medical facilities, thus promoting good health. When
the tribal individuals communicate with the health care specialists and medical practitioners
in urban areas, they are also provided with information in terms of ways that are necessary to
maintain physical and psychological health of the individuals. In addition, the utilization of
mobile technology has gained prominence among tribal communities. The individuals, who
are above 60 years of age too are making use of them for communication purposes. The
usage of technology has enabled the tribal individuals to establish effective integration terms
with the mainstream society.

1.4 Forms of Diversity in India

Unity implies oneness or a sense of oneness. It holds together the various

relationships of ethnic groups or institutions through the bonds of structures, norms and
values. The source of diversity in India can be understood through number of ways. The most
apparent being, the ethnic origins, religions, castes, tribes, languages, social customs,
cultures, beliefs, norms, principles, standards, philosophies, ideologies, and geographical
variations. The various forms of diversity have been stated as follows: (Indian Society and
Social Change, 2011).

Linguistic Diversity

In India, there is diverse population of individuals residing throughout the country.

They speak different languages and these can be found in one of the largest democracies in
the world. Most of the languages are distinct and have their own distinct form of writing and
speech. The languages contribute an important part in shaping the identity of the individuals.

47
The use of languages is primarily made in communicating with others. The languages that are
spoken by individuals from the state of Maharashtra may not be spoken by the individuals
from the state of Punjab. Therefore, in most cases, individuals are not well-acquainted with
the languages of other states. After the country achieved its independence in 1947, there were
formulation of policies and programs for promoting the development of all sectors within the
country. While forming the Constitution of India, the leaders had to come up with an official
language and that was English. Throughout the country, English is the language that is used
to facilitate communication among individuals.

The diversity of languages gives rise to number of problems within the country. One
of the major problems is the lack of the unified system of languages. Research has indicated
that individuals belonging to rural and tribal communities are still not well-equipped with the
English language and thus experience problems in communicating with others. Though a
national language was chosen among the 114 officially recognized languages and 216
(Census of 1991) mother languages within the country. The population that speak this
language account for 28 percent. The people of India have a sense of belonging to a particular
language speaking community rather than the nation as a whole.

Religious Diversity

Religion is the unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things.
Religion is an important aspect on the basis of which there are differences among individuals.
India is a secular country, in which all the individuals have the right to practice the religion of
his or her own choice. The right to freedom of religion is regarded as the fundamental right
by the Constitution of India. The major religious groups within the country are, Hindus,
Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Parsis, Buddhists, Jains and Zoroastrians. The basic idea and
faith of each religion is different. The individuals celebrate festivals, and carry out various
tasks and activities in their lives on the basis of their religious beliefs. The religions
contribute significantly in influencing the lives of the individuals.

In educational institutions, employment settings and communities, there are number

of individuals, who are from different religious backgrounds. It is vital for the individuals to
accept each other’s religion and there should not be any type of discriminatory treatment.
Research has indicated that in urban communities, the individuals, belong to various religious
groups. When Sikhs, Hindus or Muslims or Christians or individuals belonging to other
religions organize any functions or ceremonies, they give invitations to others as well. This

48
indicates that individuals have developed the feeling of brotherhood. On the other hand, in
rural and tribal communities, the population is usually less as compared to urban
communities. Therefore, these communities worship and propagate their own religion and
develop interaction terms among themselves. In India, one can find confessing all the major
religions of the world. These are strong and unifying, which bind the nation as the strong and
homogeneous socio-cultural entity.

Racial Diversity

The concept of race is used in various aspects by the individuals belonging to various
professions. These include, biologists, anthropologists, sociologists, historians and
politicians. In not only India, but in other countries of the world as well, there is occurrence
of racial diversity. The racial classifications are made on the basis of certain genetic traits.
Such types of traits are used in the classification of races and are referred to as racial criteria.
The racial criteria is supposed to fulfil certain needs and requirements. Most of the
contemporary anthropologists classify Indians as belonging to one of the four of the ethno-
racial groups, which often overlap with each other because of the continuous process of racial
admixture: Caucasoid, Mongoloids and Negritos. Mongoloids are confined to the north
eastern region of the country and mostly speak Tibeto-Burman languages. Negritos are found
on the Andaman Islands on the south-eastern part of the country.

In India, the racial diversity is classified on the basis of number of factors. These are,
pre-Dravidian, Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Turko-Iranian, Scytho-Dravidian, Arya-Dravidian,
Mongoloid, and Mongoloid-Dravidian. The formation of race is the dynamic process and the
environmental stimuli have caused many changes in the ethic types. There are comprehensive
variety of differences in the physical features, complexion and even languages. The linguistic
terms of Aryan and Dravidian have been applied to ethnic units. The races have migrated into
the ethnological paradise from distance places. There have never been any kinds of attempts
made to ascertain how far the country has racial diversity.

Ethnic Diversity

The relationships among various ethnic groups can be reinforced by unity. In India,
throughout the country, there are individuals belonging to different ethnicities. The values,
norms, cultures and ethics are the main factors that contribute significantly in forming
effective terms and relationships between individuals, belonging to various ethnic groups. It
has also been described as the social psychological condition. Ethnic diversity is normally

49
understood as a historically formed community of individuals, possessing common relatively
stable, specific features of culture as well as generating awareness in terms of unity and
difference from communities. Ethnic group is the social category of individuals, who shared
common culture, language, dialect, religion, practices, custom and history. In their lives, they
implement their own norms, cultures and values. In India, the various ethnic diversities are
due to immigration. The majority of present population within the country is from the
surrounding territories across the Himalayas. The various ethnic groups include, the Negrio,
Proto-Austroloid, Mongoloids, Mediterranean or Dravidian, Western Brachycephals and
Nordic Aryans.

In order to lead to effective growth and development of the communities and nation as
a whole, there is a law that individuals, belonging to various ethnic groups should not be
discriminated against and they should be provided with equal rights and opportunities. In
educational institutions at all levels, in organizations and agencies and in various employment
settings, equal rights and opportunities should be provided to the individuals, belonging to
various ethnic groups. Provision of equal rights and opportunities would enable to acquire
empowerment opportunities and be at par with the mainstream society.

1.5 The Bonds of Unity in India

The meaning of the term unity is oneness. It is comprehensively understood and

acknowledged that when there is unity among individuals, they can achieve their desired
goals and objectives as well as promote well-being of the community and nation. Unity
within the country is essentially a religious one. The individuals may worship different
deities, but the religious scriptures of Vedas, Epics, Purans and Brahmanas unite the
numerous heterogeneous groups together into one religious society that make them recognize
the significance of unity. The bond of unity is in relation to the heritage of the country. In the
certain underlying uniformity of life have been reflected in the observations of many foreign
individuals. Diversity is envisioned in the geo-political sphere, institution of pilgrimage,
tradition of accommodation, tradition of interdependence, emotional bond and so forth
(Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

In the various diversities that are evidenced within the country, there are bonds of
unity, which are located in the certain underlying uniformity of life as well as in certain
mechanisms of integration. Notwithstanding the various diversities that have been evidenced

50
in India, there are bonds of unity, which are located in the underlying uniformity of life as
well as in the mechanisms of integration. This is the unity of common culture and tradition,
common historical growth, common struggle for the achievement of independence, and
implementing fundamental rights (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Geographical Unity

The geographical unity takes place within the country due to the existence of
geographical boundaries. The natural boundaries within the country contribute in the
maintenance of geographical unity. The citizens of the country as well as the other
individuals are able to recognize the significance of geographical unity by the concept of
Mother India. The boundaries of the country vary from Kashmir to Kanyakumari. In different
parts of the country, there are differences in the climatic conditions. The geography of the
country renders a significant contribution in promoting unity and a sense of oneness. India is
a vast country having diverse geographical features. Due to the presence of geographical
features, India looks like one country. The mountain ranges, hills, rivers, lakes and other
natural environmental conditions promote unity within the country. The individuals have
equal rights to make use of natural resources (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Within the country, the individuals are different in terms of cultures, religions,
ethnicities, races, castes and socio-economic backgrounds. The tasks and occupations of
individuals, who are different on the basis of these factors are also different. Whereas, in
other cases, they need to carry out same job duties. For instance, people of different cultures,
such as, Aryans and Dravidians have lived together. On the other hand, the individuals,
belonging to different religions such as, Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism, Christianity, Muslims,
and Buddhists have lived in close proximity and participate together in various occupations,
which are related to trade and industry, commerce, education, social work, government,
management and administration and other tasks and activities. Research has indicated that
religion has rendered a significant contribution in making the individuals recognize the
significance of unity. The individuals have comprehensively formed this viewpoint that ‘God
is one’. They belong to different religious groups and thus implement the norms and worship
different deities. Therefore, this viewpoint helps the individuals to develop the feelings of
unity and brotherhood.

Religious Unity

51
 Although various groups in India depict components on the basis of which the
individuals are different from each other. Each religion preaches fundamentally a single
religious faith and shares the belief in the purity and value for life. Faith is in a visible power,
benevolence, piety, honesty and liberality are the important aspects in every religion. In
India, there are religious places throughout the country. The various religious places are
Vaishno Devi in the north, Dwarika in the West, Rameshwaram in the South and so forth. In
all states of the country, there are important religious places. These are visited throughout the
year by not only the nationals, but also internationals. Religious unity within the country is
recognized through the places of worship. The Hinduism is regarded as the major religion of
the people of India. Hinduism provides the basis of unity. The individuals, belonging to
various religious groups feel pleasurable and contented when they make visits to other
religious places. For example, Hindus, Muslims, Jains, Christians make visits to the Golden
Temple in Amritsar, throughout the year. It is the religious place of the Sikhs (Indian Society
and Social Change, 2011).

When the individuals make visits to other religious places, when they greet their
friends and community members, belonging to other religions on festivals and when they
need to work in collaboration with the individuals, belonging to other religious groups in
educational institutions as well as in other organizations, they recognize the significance of
religious unity and accept individuals, belonging to various cultures and religions. Religious
concepts such as, monotheism, immortality of the soul, re-incarnation, karma, nirvana and
moksha inspire the individuals throughout the country. Religious rites and rituals have
uniformity in the case of different religions. Sages, saints, religious preachers and pilgrims
have not differentiated between individuals on the basis of caste, creed, ethnicity, religion and
so forth. When there are organization of religious sermons, all individuals have equal rights
to visit them. The norms, viewpoints and values of all religious groups are uniform. Morality
and ethics are important concepts that are emphasised upon. It is vital for the individuals,
belonging to all categories, and backgrounds to inculcate the traits of morality and ethics.
These would enable them to achieve their desired goals and objectives as well as turn into
good human beings.

Political Unity

India is a plural society, both in letter and spirit. It is characterised by unity in

diversity. In spite of the prevalence of inequalities in economic, social, cultural and religious

52
spheres, the individuals throughout the country have recognized the significance of unity in
diversity. This is comprehensively understood that in India, individuals are different from
each other in on the basis of number of factors, i.e. caste, creed, race, religion, ethnicity,
culture, educational qualifications, occupation, and socio-economic background. In spite of
these differences, they need to work in integration and co-ordination with each other in
educational institutions as well as in organizations. Hence, it is vital for the individuals to
accept each other’s cultures, religions, norms and other traits. Political unity is the outcome
of religious and cultural unity. The political functions are indispensable. The individuals, who
are engaged in political functions need to possess the essential educational qualifications,
competencies and abilities. They need to form good terms and relationships with each other
and render a significant contribution in promoting effective growth and development of the
communities and nation.

In the case of reinforcement of political unity, it is vital for the political leaders to
conduct the analysis of the areas, which need to be improved. Throughout the country, the
individuals are overwhelmed by the societal problems of poverty, illiteracy, unemployment
and homelessness. For the effective growth and development of the country, it is vital to
conduct an analysis of these problems. The main aspects that need to be taken into account
are, how they are proving to be unfavourable to the individuals, measures that would be
beneficial to the individuals to a major extent and programs that would promote their well-
being. When there are formulation of measures and programs for promoting well-being of the
community and nation, the leaders need to provide meaningful suggestions, make wise
decisions and work in integration with each other. Therefore, these factors contribute
effectively in promoting political unity. In India, there have been improvements taken place
in various spheres as well as in urban, rural and tribal communities. This identifies that
geographical, religious and political unity have been acknowledged throughout the country.

Bonds of Unity in Modern India

India is a secular country. Secularism means that all the individuals have the right to
practice the religion of his or her own choice. There should not be any type of discrimination
on the basis of any factors and individuals have the right to practice their cultures, norms and
beliefs. In the present existence, there have been formulation of programs and measures,
which are rendering a significant contribution in promoting development of the individuals,
primarily belonging to deprived, marginalized and economically weaker sections of the

53
society. In rural and tribal societies, individuals are still residing in seclusion and
backwardness. These are the major factors, which are impediments within the course of
effective growth and development. It is vital to provide help and generate awareness among
rural and tribal societies, in terms of various factors. These are, significance of education,
assistance in the acquisition of employment opportunities, alleviation of poverty and
backwardness, establishment of health care and medical centres, training centres, adult
education institutions, women and child development programs, financial assistance,
improvement in agricultural productivity and farming practices and development of
infrastructure and transportation facilities (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

When the individuals will recognize the significance of education and get enrolled in
training centres to up-grade their knowledge and skills in terms of various areas, such as,
production of artworks and handicrafts, computer skills, child development, communication
skills and so forth. In such cases, they would be able to contribute effectively in achieving
their goals and objectives as well as in promoting well-being of the community. The
economically backward sections of the society are provided with special privileges to
alleviate the gap between them and upper sections of the society. In the present existence,
rights and opportunities are available to all individuals in leading to progressions. When the
rural and tribal individuals migrate to urban communities to get enrolled in higher
educational institutions or to acquire employment opportunities, they are provided with equal
rights and opportunities. Therefore, it can be stated when the individuals, belonging to
various castes, races, ethnicities, religions, and socio-economic backgrounds work in
integration, enjoy equal rights and opportunities and work efficiently in the same
organization, they are able to promote bonds of unity (Indian Society and Social Change,
2011).

1.6 Conclusion

In India, the societies are classified into three types, urban, rural and tribal. In urban

societies, the development processes have taken place in a well-organized manner. The
infrastructural facilities, system of education, medical and health care facilities, financial
institutions, banks, means of transportation and other sources are in a well-developed state in
urban communities. On the other hand, in rural and tribal communities, they are not in a well-
developed state. The individuals belonging to rural and tribal communities have the primary
objective of bringing about improvements in their livelihoods opportunities. Therefore, to

54
achieve their personal and professional goals, they usually migrate to urban areas to acquire
education and employment and thus enrich their living conditions. With advancements taking
place, the individuals belonging to rural and tribal communities are augmenting awareness in
terms of various factors that are necessary to promote well-being of themselves and
communities.

This is apparent that there are differences among individuals on the basis of number
of factors. These include, caste, creed, race, religion, ethnicity, gender, age, educational
qualifications, occupation, and socio-economic background. It is vital to generate awareness
in terms of these differences and make provision of equal rights and opportunities. In order to
promote development of the individuals, communities and nation as a whole, it is vital for the
individuals to eliminate any type of discriminatory treatment. To promote enhancement of
rural and tribal communities, it is essential to ensure effective developments are made in the
system of education and medical and health care centres. Agriculture is the main occupation
of these individuals. Hence, in order to enhance productivity and profitability, it is vital to
implement technologies in the agricultural sector and farming practices. The rural individuals
are joining training centres to generate information in terms of innovative methods and
technologies.

Agriculture and farming practices are the major occupation of tribal communities. In
addition, they are engaged in the production of handicrafts and primarily depend upon the
natural environment for sustenance of their living conditions. Research has indicated, they are
migrating to urban communities and are augmenting their understanding in terms of various
areas. The tribal communities have their own beliefs, norms, traditions and cultures, in
accordance to which they carry out their tasks and activities, but with the advent of
modernization and globalization, they are coming at par with the mainstream society. Finally,
it can be stated that with advancements taking place in technologies, system of education at
all levels, employment opportunities, health care and medical facilities, infrastructure,
communications, transportation, power supplies, water supplies, roads and rail networks, and
broadcasting, the individuals, belonging to disadvantaged and economically weaker sections
of the society are progressing and enrichment is brought about in the Indian social structure.

55
 2
Family, Marriage and Kinship
Ever since the growth of human civilization, family has been a consistent part of
every society, though there have been variations in its state and directions (Doddamani,
2014). The family is the basic unit of the society. It is the first and the most immediate social
environment to which the child is exposed. The family lays the foundation on which growth
and development of the child takes place. Through ones family, the individuals learn how to
speak, and inculcate the traits of morality and ethics. The family structure exists in urban,
rural and tribal communities. It forms the most enduring relationship in one form or the other.
In spite of the universal and permanent nature of the family, one can see the differences in the
structure of society. In rural and tribal societies, there is usually the prevalence of joint family
system. Whereas, in urban societies, there is prevalence of nuclear family system. Family is
defined as a universal institution. Family is a group of persons, united by the ties of marriage
or blood or adoption, constituting a single household, interacting or communicating with each
other in their respective social roles. The male members of the family have the roles of
husband, son, father and brother. Whereas, female members of the family have the roles of
wife, daughter, mother and sister (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Kinship system represents one of the basic social institutions. Kinship is universal and
in most of the societies renders a significant contribution in the socialization of the
individuals and the maintenance of group solidarity. It is vital that in most of the societies,
kinship extends its activities in social, economic, political and religious spheres. Kinship is
referred to the system of dynamic relations between individuals in the community. In this
system, the behaviour of two persons in any of these relations is regulated by the
implementation of norms and values. In other words, when the individuals need to form good
terms and relationships with each other, they need to implement effective communication
skills and morality and ethics. Furthermore, the social usage is put into operation to a greater
or lesser extent (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

2.1 Meaning and Significance of Family

The families in India are understood as the ideal homogeneous unit with the strong

coping mechanisms. In the formation of the family, social and biological aspects are taken
into consideration (Family, n.d.). It is the basic, cohesive and an integral unit of the larger

56
social systems. Families in a large and culturally diverse country, such as India have plurality
of forms that vary with class, ethnicity, religion, caste, creed and socio-economic
background. The members of the family are bound together by interpersonal relationships in
a wider network of roles and social relations. It is considered as a connection between
community and change. Another important role that family members play are in the
generation of human capital resources and the power that is vested in it to influence
individual, household and community patterns. The meaning and significance of family can
be understood as the basic unit of society. This is regarded as indispensable in various fields,
such as, sociology, psychology, economics, anthropology, social psychiatry, social work and
human development (Sonawat, 2001).

The family is the social institution found in all societies. In the system of family, units

of individuals work in co-operation to administer the upbringing of children. Family ties are
also called kinship, a social bond based on blood, marriage or adoption. The family is the
most basic unit of the society. It is the first and the most immediate social environment to
which the child is familiarised with. There are existence of families in all societies. They are
different from each other in terms of social, economic, cultural and religious functions. But
what every family has in common is, the individuals, who call it a family are making it clear
that those individuals, who are important in some way to the person, calling them his family.
In some way or the other, the family is the universal group. It exists in urban, rural and tribal
communities and among the followers of all religions and cultures. It provides the most
enduring relationships in one form or the other. Throughout the life of the individuals, the
family exerts a constant influence (Bhoje, 2016).

In tribal and agrarian societies, the individuals, belonging to different generations

exist simultaneously. These societies have large and joint families. Whereas, in urban areas,
in most cases, there is prevalence of nuclear families, comprising of husband, wife and their
unmarried children. This family is formed with the number of members. The members live
together. Within the family, it is vital for the individuals to follow certain norms and
principles in forming effective terms and relationships with each other. They need to ensure,
they treat each other with respect and courtesy. In order to understand the concept of family,
it is vital to take into consideration certain elements. These are, family is basic, definite and
enduring people, family is formed by durable companionship of husband and wife, it can be
large or small in size, and family procreates and lead to upbringing of children (Bhoje, 2016).

57
 Marriage plays an important role in bringing about changes in the relationship
between man and woman. For the success of the institution of family, the individuals need to
recognize their roles and responsibilities and carry them out in a well-organised manner. The
family has passed through many stages to reach its modern form. The family, marriage,
economic system and succession are inter-related. The structural behavioural patterns and
functions have been undergoing changes with modifications in the socio-economic order. The
changes in the family structure takes place along with changes in the socio-economic order.
(Bhoje, 2016). When the individuals possess the viewpoint that they need to look for better
opportunities, in order to generate an adequate source of income and bring about
improvements in their living conditions, this leads to disintegration of joint family system
into nuclear family system.

With the increase in urbanization and globalization, changes are taking place in the
system of family. In spite of the socio-economic and political changes, family life and family
structure have remained an integral part of the Indian society with the spirit of solidarity as
the sustaining power. Throughout the country, there have been changes taking place in the
family structure. The main types of families that have been prevalent are, large joint families,
small joint families, nuclear families and nuclear families with dependents. In India, there are
occurrence of stressful situations among family members. But it is vital that they need to
provide solutions to problems and difficulties in a calm and peaceful manner. Within all
communities, the individuals need to pay adequate attention towards three main aspects.
These are management of household responsibilities, child development and looking after the
needs and requirements of the elderly individuals. In nuclear families, the job responsibilities
of the individuals may be less, as there may or may not be the existence of elderly family
members (Niranjan, Sureender, & R.G. Rama, 1998).

Though it is generally felt that in joint families, whose members are bound together
by ties of common ancestry and common property dominate in the past and there are
diverging views regarding the same. Fraternal or collateral joint family was never the most
common form, as there has been occurrence of disputes and conflicting situations between
members. In some cases, daughters-in-laws and mothers-in-laws are unable to get along with
each other. Whereas, in other cases, sisters-in-laws and brothers get involved into conflicting
situations due to property or any other matters. When they are unable to live together, they
make the decision of living separately. Though it is a negative factor, but it leads to
disintegration of joint family system into the nuclear family system. As it is comprehensively

58
believed that parents play an important part in the settlement of their children. Whereas, when
children are given independence of selecting their partners on their own, they need to obtain
approval from their parents. Therefore, it is understood that in the case of decisions taken by
the family members, ideas and suggestions need to be taken from other members as well,
particularly when they concern them (Niranjan, Sureender, & R.G. Rama, 1998).

Family lays the foundation from where growth and development of the individuals
takes place. It is stated that an aimless life is a meaningless life, therefore, the individuals
have to form certain aims and objectives. In order to achieve aims and objectives
satisfactorily, it is apparent that they need support and assistance from family members.
Parents are regarded as the most important family members for their children. They would
provide adequate guidance and suggestions to their children, lead them in the right direction,
look out for their well-being and provide support in all ways to facilitate the achievement of
their goals and objectives. On the other hand, it is the job duty of the children to obey their
parents. Siblings are another important relationships within the family. The individuals may
or may not have siblings. It is vital to maintain good terms and relationships with siblings as
well, as they too can guide and lead each other in the right direction. Younger siblings need
to be respectful and courteous towards older siblings. Therefore, it can be stated that
maintaining good terms and relationships with not only parents and siblings, but other
members render an effective contribution in generating pleasure and contentment and
achieving the desired goals and objectives.

2.2 Functions of the Family

The family is of two types, the family of orientation and family of procreation. The
family of orientation is the family in which the individual is born. It comprises of parents and
siblings. Whereas, the family of procreation is the family, which is formed due to marriage
and comprises of husband, wife and their children. The characteristics of the family shows
that on one hand, it has the biological mode in which the man and a woman enter into a
relationship with each other. They have children and are engaged in their upbringing. On the
other hand, it has social support, in which family members have responsibilities towards each
other. In the socio-cultural sphere, the family influences its members by the process of
socialization. It also regulates the personality traits and behaviour of its members (Indian
Society and Social Change, 2011).

59
 The family is generally smaller in size, companied to other social groups,
organizations and associations. Therefore, it needs to be remembered that the size of the
family in agrarian and tribal communities in some cases can be large. The institution of the
family has passed through many stages to reach its modern form. The family, marriage,
economic system and succession are interrelated. The structure, behaviour patterns and
functions of the family have been undergoing changes in the socio-economic order. The
family cannot be understood through the clusters of members, including, husband, wife, their
children and relatives. These members develop affective relations and perform their roles
through social values, customs and traditions (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Functions of the Family

The functions of the family have been classified into two categories, primary and
secondary. These have been stated as follows: (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

The Primary Functions

Stable Satisfaction of Needs and Requirements

Throughout the lives of the individuals, their needs and requirements are endless. In
order to satisfy needs and requirements, they need support and assistance from family
members. When the child is born in the family, he or she is dependent upon family members,
particularly parents, older siblings and grandparents, if they are living in the joint family
system. Youth and individuals, belonging to middle age groups are in most cases, engaged in
jobs and are occupied in their lives. They either make use of their income to meet their own
needs or give to their parents. In old age, due to health problems and illnesses, the individuals
are dependent upon their family members, as they are unable to carry out certain tasks and
activities on their own. Therefore, it is the primary function of the family to promote stable
satisfaction of their needs and requirements.

Reproduction or Procreation

The reproduction and procreation activities are carried out by the family members.
These activities need control and regulation. It is natural that when a man and woman enter
into a relationship, they need to carry out this function. The functions of reproduction and
procreation are institutionalized within the family. Therefore, it assumes the regularity and
stability that all societies recognize as desirable. Through the fulfilment of the reproductive

60
function, family has made it possible to have the propagation of the species and the
perpetuation of human race.

Child Development

The function of child development is the primary function of the family. When the
child is born, the parents are the ones, who have to play an important part in leading to his or
her development. The factors that need to be taken into consideration in the case of child
development are, providing education, taking care of health care needs, diet and nutrition,
personality development, inculcating the traits of morality and ethics, leisure and recreational
activities, extra-curricular and creative activities, providing facilities within home, providing
technologies and other materials, which would promote their development and contributing
towards making them good human beings. In order to carry out this function in an efficient
manner, the parents need to possess adequate knowledge in terms of the needs of their
children and augment their knowledge and skills.

Provision of Homes

It is essential for the individuals to achieve their goals and objectives in a well-
organized manner. One can carry out their tasks and functions appropriately and achieve
personal and professional goals, when they will have proper homes to live. Family members
are the ones that make provision of homes to their members. The home is regarded as one of
the primary requirements of the individuals. In some cases, when individuals do not have
their own homes, they live in rented accommodation. On the other hand, the individuals,
belonging to deprived, marginalized and economically weaker sections of the society are
living on the roadsides and are homeless. The major causes of homelessness is when the
individuals are required to migrate from rural or tribal societies to urban areas and do not
have their own homes. When they are unable to afford housing accommodation, they are
homeless. Therefore, it is the primary responsibility of the family members to make provision
of homes.

Transmission of Cultures and Norms

It is vital for the individuals to generate information in terms of cultures and norms.
The lives of the individuals are implemented in an appropriate manner, when they would put
into operation certain cultures and norms. The family members are the ones, who impart
information in terms of cultures and norms. For example, when the child begins to go to

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nursery school, he or she is taught basics of socialization, i.e. smiling, wishing and possessing
a pleasant attitude. Possessing a pleasant and an amiable nature and communicating in a
polite manner are the norms and values that individuals learn from their family members.
When individuals grow up and understand the significance of cultures and norms, they are
able to achieve their goals and objectives, form effective terms and relationships with family
as well as community members and emerge to be productive citizens of the country.

Promoting Socialization

Socialization is regarded as indispensable for all the individuals. It is the primary

function of the family members to provide information to the individuals in terms of its
meaning and encourage them to socialize. Socialization process has number of functions.
These include, alleviating loneliness and seclusion, generating information in terms of
various aspects, forming an effective social circle, augmenting ones communication skills,
encouraging participation of the individuals in various tasks and activities, acquiring
knowledge in terms of other cultures, obtaining solutions to problems and concerns,
enhancing personality, maintaining good terms and relationships with family members,
friends, and community members and promoting enrichment in the overall quality of life.
Therefore, it is of utmost significance for the individuals, belonging to various age groups,
categories and backgrounds to promote socialization.

Status assigning Function

Within the family, the individuals are required to carry out functions in accordance to
the roles. As it has been stated above that women perform the roles of daughter, sister, wife,
and mother. In these roles, they need to ensure, they have to form good terms and
relationships, communicate effectively and be aware of the needs of their family members.
Furthermore, they need to ensure, they do not implement tasks in such a manner, which
would impose unfavourable effects upon others. On the other hand, the male members are
required to perform the roles of son, brother, husband, and father. They have to ensure, they
carry out their responsibilities towards well-being of their family members. After marriage,
the individuals form other relationships as well, such as, sister-in-law, brother-in-law, aunts
and uncles. In order to form good terms and relationships with each other, it is vital for the
individuals to implement effective communication skills and other tasks and functions
appropriately.

Decision Making Processes

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 The parents are the ones, who have the right to make decisions in terms of various
aspects concerning their children. When the children are young, they are dependent upon
their parents for various things. Parents make decisions in terms of various aspects, i.e. their
education, participation in extra-curricular and creative activities, leisure and recreation,
health care and so forth. Youths or middle aged individuals may or may not seek ideas and
suggestions from their parents. On the other hand, husbands may make decisions regarding
their wives and so forth. Siblings may give ideas and suggestions to each other and
participate in the decision making processes. Therefore, it can be stated that family members
render an important contribution in the decision making processes. In making effective
decisions, it is vital to conduct an analysis of the alternatives and select the most appropriate
one.

Emotional Satisfaction

Individuals need to be emotionally satisfied. When they are emotionally satisfied,

they will generate pleasure and contentment, maintain good health and carry out their tasks
and activities satisfactorily. Research has indicated that the individuals, who are above the
age of 60 years need to be emotionally secure. They are senior citizens and as the individuals
grow, they develop health problems and illnesses. Therefore, they not only need assistance
and support from their family members in taking care of their needs and requirements, but
also in augmenting emotional satisfaction. Not only are the elderly members of the family,
but emotional satisfaction is needed by other members of the family as well. Lack of
emotional satisfaction imposes unfavourable effects upon individuals and impedes effective
growth and development.

Security

Security is important for individuals, belonging to various age groups, categories and
backgrounds. It is the job of the family members to make provision of security. The two
forms of security are, physical security and psychological security. When the family members
need to go out of homes to some places, they advise the elderly members as well as children
to keep the doors and windows locked, not respond to strangers, not attend any phone calls,
which are not known and elderly individuals are advised to take care of their health care
needs. In some cases, children and elderly members of the family are not aware in terms of
aspects that are needed to promote security. Hence, they obtain ideas and suggestions from
their family members. On the other hand, psychological security is the security that is

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imparted by the family members. When they get engaged into pleasant conversations with
each other, share joys and sorrows, when they have support from each other, they are able to
promote psychological security. Apart from family members, it is vital to form good terms
with friends and community members. They too can render a significant contribution in
promoting physical and psychological security.

The Secondary Functions

Economic Functions

The family fulfils the economic needs of its members. The economic needs are one of
the basic needs, which need to be taken into consideration. To fulfil the basic needs of food,
clothing and shelter, the individuals need to make use of financial resources. The families are
different on the basis of their financial position. The families, who are financially strong
spend money on various types of leisure and recreational activities as well. On the other
hand, the families, who are not financially strong and experience scarcity of resources are
required to be cautious in spending their finances. When the individuals are young, their
parents are vested with the responsibility to take care of their financial requirements. On the
other hand, when they grow up and start earning, they need to take care of financial
requirements of their parents. Hence, economic function is the secondary function that is
taken care of by the family members.

Educational Functions

The family is vested with the responsibility of taking care of the educational needs
and requirements of their children. In the present existence, not only the individuals,
belonging to urban communities, but also individuals, belonging to rural and tribal
communities have recognized the significance of education. Even when the parents are not
educated, they aspire to give good education to their children. Hence, the individuals,
belonging to rural and tribal communities are migrating to urban areas to acquire good-
quality education. Apart from school, college and university education, parents get their
children enrolled in training centres, where they acquire knowledge and competencies in
terms of various fields, such as, computers, artworks, handicrafts, events management, home
science and so forth. Parents are usually well-aware of fields, which would prove to be
effective and meaningful to their children. In some cases, children ask their parents regarding
pursuance of a long-term or short-term training program, which would be beneficial in
enriching their lives. In the present existence, individuals are also getting enrolled in

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educational institutions. Therefore, family members are responsible for the secondary
function of imparting education.

Religious Functions

The family is the institution that makes provision of religious information to its
members. Through the family, the individuals generate information in terms of religious
beliefs and functions. Usually within the households, there are organization of prayer
ceremonies first in the morning, before the individuals are to carry out other tasks and
activities. Furthermore, there are other areas too, which need to be taken into consideration.
These are communicating in an appropriate manner with everyone, not imposing any injury
or harm upon anybody, not possessing any feelings of animosity or ill feelings against
anybody, giving donations of various items, and implementing the traits of morality and
ethics. It is comprehensively believed that with the implementation of religious functions in
an appropriate manner, listening to religious sermons and hymns and making visits to
religious places would enable the individuals to do well and achieve the desired goals and
objectives. Therefore, it is indispensable for the individuals to generate information in terms
of religious norms and values.

Recreational Functions

Recreation is an important aspect that all individuals desire. There is a saying that ‘all
work and no play makes jack a dull boy’, this indicates that it is vital for the individuals to get
engaged in recreational functions. The family members are the ones, who are vested with the
responsibility of taking care of recreational functions. The various recreational functions that
the individuals have been engaged into include, watching television shows, movies, listening
to music, going for outings, getting engaged in play activities and so forth. When the children
are young, parents are the ones, who are supposed to encourage the participation of their
children in recreational functions, in accordance to their needs and requirements. For
example, they are permitted to watch only those television programs, which are suitable.
Children attain the opportunities for socializing with others and forming a social circle.
Participating in various kinds of recreational activities helps in stimulating their mind-sets
and they are able to concentrate on their studies satisfactorily.

2.3 Changes taken place in the Family System

The classification of the family structure within the country has taken place on the

65
basis of number of factors. These are, size, residence, ancestors, power and authority and
marriage. It is vital to take into consideration these factors for classifying the families on the
basis of historical factors. In terms of historical factors, the families are classified in the
ancient, medieval and modern societies. On the basis of structure, the families are classified
into agrarian and industrial families. In rural and tribal societies, agriculture is the primary
occupation of the individuals. Whereas, in urban communities, the individuals are engaged in
number of professional jobs, such as, doctors, lawyers, teachers, engineers, managers,
administrators and so forth. Therefore, there are differences among individuals on the basis of
occupations (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

The family structure has undergone qualitative changes due to industrialization,

urbanization, migration, revolution in the field of transport and communications, increasing
influence of the state and the influence of the individualization philosophy of life. The
changes have been rapid in some parts of the world. With the advent of industrial civilization
with technologies, changes have taken place in the family system. In the present existence,
the traditional activities of the family were transferred to outside agencies. Thus weakening
of the bonds contributed in keeping the family together. With changes taking place, the
individuals are utilising the services of educational institutions, organizations, agencies,
recreational facilities, hospitals and health care centres (Indian Society and Social Change,
2011). Some of the changes in the family have been stated as follows:

Changes in Family

The family which was the principle unit of production has been transformed into a
consumption unit (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011). Some of the members of the
family stay at home, while few of them go out to get engaged in occupations to generate a
source of income. In some of the rural and tribal communities, there has been prevalence of
the viewpoint that men should go out and work, whereas, women should remain confined
within the households and carry out the household responsibilities. On the other hand, in
urban communities, women are home-makers as well as are engaged in work. These changes
within the family has effected family relations.

Disintegration of Joint Family into Nuclear Family System

The joint family is the family when two or more nuclear families reside under the
common roof. They comprise of grandparents, parents, children, siblings, aunts, uncles,
cousins, sisters-in-laws, and brothers-in-laws. There has been disintegration of joint family

66
system into nuclear family system. The nuclear family consists of husband, wife and their
children. In joint family, members usually obtain support and assistance from others in
meeting all their needs and requirements. On the other hand, in nuclear families, the members
need to work towards taking care of each other’s needs and promoting well-being. The
disintegration of joint family into nuclear family has contributed in making the individuals
more independent. They may or may not maintain contacts with other family members on a
frequent basis.

Factory Employment

The employment opportunities that are made available to the individuals have freed
them from being directly dependent upon their parents (Indian Society and Social Change,
2011). This is apparent when the individuals will get engaged in employment opportunities,
they would generate a source of income and be free from being dependent upon their parents
for financial resources. Research has indicated that when individuals, belonging to deprived,
marginalized and economically backward sections of the society ask their parents for money
to pursue higher education, they simply refuse, as they lack the resources. In such cases,
either the individuals give up their dreams or work to generate income, so they can pursue
education, after they have enough funds. Hence, when individuals get engaged in
employment opportunities, they are bringing about changes in their living conditions.

Changes in the Viewpoints

The changes have taken place in the social situation of the individuals. In some rural
communities, girls are considered as liabilities and are discouraged from acquisition of
education and employment opportunities. It is comprehensively believed that they have to
eventually get married and should be trained in terms of management of household
responsibilities. On the other hand, male members are regarded as assets. When they are
provided with education, they would render an important contribution in promoting well-
being of their families and communities. Changes have taken place in these viewpoints and
girls too are encouraged towards acquisition of education and employment opportunities.

Modernization

Modernization has rendered a significant contribution in bringing about changes in

the family structure. As it has been stated above that in rural and tribal communities,
agriculture is the major occupation of the individuals. With modernization and advancements

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taking place, they are generating awareness that agriculture and farming practices will not
enable them to generate sufficient income. It is vital for them to get engaged in other
occupations and augment their living conditions. Therefore, rural and tribal individuals are
not only making use of technologies and modern and innovative methods in the agricultural
sector, but they are also augmenting their skills and abilities and taking other jobs. For
instance, rural individuals are migrating to urban communities to work as electricians,
plumbers, carpenters, painters, repair workers and so forth. Therefore, modernization has
rendered a significant contribution in bringing about changes in the family structure and
transforming overall lives of the individuals.

Technologies

In the present existence, technologies have rendered a significant contribution in

transforming lives of the individuals, belonging to urban, rural and tribal communities. The
individuals are making immense use of technologies for numerous purposes. These include,
generating information in terms of various areas and concepts, such as, communication,
paying bills, recreational and leisure purposes, research and writing, preparation of
documents, reports, letters and notices, booking of tickets and reservation for the purpose of
travelling, preparation of graphs, charts and maps, purchasing of items, looking for
educational institutions and employment opportunities and use of various technologies have
led to transformations in the overall lives of the individuals. Therefore, it can be stated that
through the utilization of technologies, changes have taken place in the system of family.

Improvements in Communication Processes

Communication is an important aspect that needs to be paid attention to. The

individuals belonging to various communities get engaged into effective communication with
family members, relatives, friends and community members. In order to carry out various
tasks and activities, alleviate ones problems and concerns, provide solutions and maintain
amiable terms and relationships with each other, it is vital for the individuals to implement
effective communication processes. Communication takes place in two forms, verbal and
written. Verbal communication takes place either face to face or through telephone. Whereas,
written communication takes place through messages, notices, letters and emails. In the
present existence, individuals, belonging to various communities are making use of
technologies to communicate with individuals, who are residing at a distance. Rural and tribal
individuals are usually not well-equipped with English language. Therefore, they get enrolled

68
in training centres to augment their English language skills. Therefore, it can be stated that
effective communication helps in bringing about changes in the family and improve overall
quality of lives of individuals.

Personality Development

In order to enrich ones overall quality of lives and achieve personal and professional
goals, it is vital for the individuals to bring about changes in the personality. The individuals,
belonging to various communities pay attention towards development of their personality.
Research has indicated that attire of the individuals play an important part in shaping their
personality. The individuals, belonging to rural and tribal communities have their own
traditional attire. But when they migrate to urban communities to pursue higher education or
to get engaged in employment opportunities, they usually adopt the attire of urban
communities. In some cases, these changes are approved by their family members, whereas,
in other cases, they are not approved. Hence, changes in the attire lead to immense changes in
the personality of the individuals. Therefore, it can be stated that changes in the personal
appearance contribute in bringing about changes in the family structure.

Changes in Marriage Systems

Since ancient times within the country, there have been changes in the marriage
system. In ancient times, individuals were married in their childhood stage. But in the present
existence, the age of girls is 18 years and the age of boys is 21 years for marriage. Earlier, the
family members were vested with the responsibility of making a selection of the match for
their children. But in the present existence, the individuals themselves are given the freedom
of finding their partners. After they have found their partners, approval is obtained from
parents. Therefore, the changes in the marriage systems are important in leading to changes in
the family structure.

Legislative Measures

The impact of legislative measures on the family system need to be taken into
consideration. Prohibition of early marriage and fixing the minimum age of marriage by the
Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 have extended the
period of education. The freedom of selecting the matches and marriage in any caste and
religion without the consent of the parents after a certain age is permitted through by the
Special Marriage Act, 1954. Other acts, such as, Widow Remarriage Act, 1856, Hindu

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Marriage Act, 1955 and Hindu Succession Act, 1956, all have modified inter-personal
relationships within the family, the composition of the family and the stability of the joint
family (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

2.4 Types of Family

The basic unit of social structure consists of two primary links of kinship. These are

parenthood and siblings. In simple terms, the family usually comprises of various
combinations and permutations of these relationships. In the Indian context, when the
classification of families are being discussed, normally two types of families are taken into
consideration, joint and nuclear families. A classification of families into joint and nuclear
types is usually based on the way in which the families are organized. Nuclear family is the
family that consists of husband, wife and their unmarried children. Whereas, joint family is
the family that comprises of two or more nuclear families living under the common roof. The
joint family is usually given the name of the extended family. The patrilineal extended family
is based on the father-son relationship and matrilineal extended family is based on the
mother-daughter relationship. The extended family may also be extended horizontally to
include a group of two or more brothers, their wives and children. The horizontally extended
family is known as the fraternal or collateral family (Unit 6 Family and Its Types, n.d.).

In India, the joint family is the family, which is extended vertically and horizontally
and it is also called the property-sharing unit. The nuclear and joint family systems have to be
viewed as a continuum. These two types of family systems have to be seen as interrelated in
the developmental cycle. The structure of the family undergoes changes over a period of time
in terms of roles, size, composition, status of persons, family and societal norms and
sanctions. In India, when elderly parents live with their adult children or when unmarried
children continue to live with their parents and siblings, the nuclear family undergoes
transformation (Unit 6 Family and Its Types, n.d.). The nuclear family system within the
country is classified into various types: (Unit 6 Family and Its Types, n.d.).

Nuclear Family

Nuclear family is the family which consists of husband, wife and their unmarried
child or children. In some cases, the couple may have just one child, in some cases more than
one child, whereas, in some cases, they do not have children. Changes take place in the
nuclear family system, when the child or children get married and form their own families.

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 Supplemented Nuclear Family

Supplemented nuclear family comprises of the members of the nuclear family plus
one or more unmarried, separated, or widowed relatives of the parents, other than their
unmarried children. In other words, when one or more relatives stay along with the members,
it is termed as supplemented nuclear family.

Sub-nuclear Family

Sub-nuclear family is identified as the fragment of the former nuclear family, which
comprises of a widow or widower and their unmarried child or children. Apart from child or
children, when elderly parents or siblings, unmarried, widowed or divorced are living
together, it leads to the formation of sub-nuclear family.

Single Person Household

When an individual resides within the household by himself or herself, it is termed as

single person household. The major factors that lead to single person household are loss of
spouse, and children living separately from their parents. In some cases, when there are not
any children, then too the individuals have to reside by themselves and depend upon others.
The individuals need to hire helpers and caregivers to take care of their needs and
requirements.

Supplemented Sub-Nuclear Family

Supplemented sub-nuclear family refers to a group of relatives and members of a

formerly complete nuclear family, along with some other unmarried, divorced and widowed
relatives, who is not a member of the nuclear family. For instance, a widow and her
unmarried children may be living with her widowed mother-in-law. Within the Indian
framework, these types of families are found in all societies. However, in terms of societal
norms and values, these types relate to the joint family system.

Joint Family in India

In joint family, there are existence of many relationships, consisting of grandparents,

parents, grandchildren, children, siblings, aunts, uncles, cousins and in-laws. The oldest male
is the head of the family. The rights and duties in this type of family is laid down to a great
extent by the hierarchical order of power and authority. Age and gender are the main ordering
principles of the family hierarchy. Though there are variations in terms of the nature of

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communication and contacts between the family members. The younger members are
required to be respectful towards the adults. They need to accept the decisions that are taken
by the other members regarding them (Unit 6 Family and Its Types, n.d.).

In understanding the nature of joint family system, there are two questions that need
to be taken into account. These are, what constitutes jointness? and who constitutes a joint
family? (Unit 6 Family and Its Types, n.d.).

What Constitutes Jointness?

Jointness is reflected in the factors of commensality, common residence, joint

ownership of property, co-operation and sentiment of jointness and ritual bonds of worship of
common deity.

Commensality

Most of the research studies on joint family has put emphasis upon commensality. It
means eating together. The members of the joint family share the common kitchen. The
female members of the family work together in the preparation of meals as well as in the
implementation of other household chores. The members have to work in collaboration with
each other and meals are prepared in one kitchen.

Common Residence

It has been stated above that members of the joint family reside under the common
roof. It is apparent, that rooms may be different, but places, such as, kitchen, drawing room
and courtyard are common. It is advantageous for all the members to reside under the
common roof, as they interact with each other, share their ideas and perspectives, and acquire
each other’s support and assistance in the implementation of tasks and activities.

Joint Ownership of Property

The property is jointly owned by the members of the joint family. For instance, a
couple has three sons, who are living with their families. In such cases, the male member,
who is the head is supposed to provide equal share to his sons. In some cases, there are
occurrence of disputes as well among siblings and parents and children in terms of property,
but providing equal share would lead to elimination of disputes. The daughters should also be
provided with equal share in the property and not be discriminated against.

Co-operation and Support

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 When the members are residing in the joint family, they are mostly supportive of each
other. Research has indicated that individuals form sociable and amiable terms and
relationships with each other and assist each other, particularly in providing solutions to their
problems. Management of household responsibilities is also not an easy job. The members
need to work in co-operation and integration with each other to carry out the job duties in a
well-organised manner. For this purpose, the members provide each other support and
assistance. Therefore, it is one of the advantages of joint family system that members provide
each other co-operation and support.

Ritual Bonds

The ritual bonds of the joint family is considered to be an important component of

jointness. Throughout the country in all communities, rituals and religious ceremonies are
focused upon to a major extent. The religious rituals are performed in which all the members
participate. In all communities, there are celebration of festivals and religious functions are
organized. Research has indicated that the elderly members of the family usually dedicate
themselves towards religious services. The individuals normally possess strong religious
beliefs and form the viewpoint that these would help in leading to goodwill and prosperity.

Who Constitutes a Joint Family?

In understanding who constitutes a joint family, three questions need to be taken into
account. These are, kin relationships between members, number of generations in one unit
and sharing of common property.

Kin Relationships between Members

The joint family comprises of members related, lineally, collaterally or both. There is
more or less a unanimous agreement that a joint family is essentially defined as the joint
family, when it comprises of two or more nuclear families living under the common roof. The
members of the joint family are related to each other lineally. These include the relationship
between parents and children. Collaterally is the relationship between siblings. In matrilineal
systems, the family is usually comprised of a woman, her mother and married or unmarried
daughters. The mother’s brother is an important member of the family and is vested with the
authority to manage all the tasks and functions. The husbands of the female members live
with them. In some cases, they live in their mother’s household, but make visits to the wife’s
household on a frequent basis (Unit 6 Family and Its Types, n.d.).

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 Number of Generations in One Unit

The number of generations are residing in one unit. The elderly members of the
family have their children, grandchildren, and in some cases great grandchildren as well. The
number of generations present in the family are regarded indispensable for the identification
of the joint family. One can understand the meaning and significance of joint family by
identifying the members and their relationships. Joint families are normally three-
generational, but in some cases, fourth generations are also present (Unit 6 Family and Its
Types, n.d.).

Sharing of Common Property

As it has been stated above that the members of the joint family share the common
property. Among the patrilineal Hindus, some of the property is given to the daughters at the
time of their marriage. With the initiation of the Hindu Succession Act of 1956, a uniform
system of inheritance has been established. It is vital to provide equal treatment to both males
and females in the case of sharing of common property. Another important feature of the act
is, property possessed by the female Hindu gives her absolute rights and she has complete
right to make use of the property in accordance to her desires. This act has provided right to
women to inherit the property from her father as well as from her husband. However, the
benefit conferred on women is limited when compared to the rights of the male members.
The male members have the right to coparcenary ancestral property by birth. On the other
hand, daughters are not part of the coparcenary and do not have birth-rights (Unit 6 Family
and Its Types, n.d.).

Types of Joint Family

The various types of joint family have been stated as follows: (Unit 6 Family and Its
Types, n.d.).

Collateral Joint Family

Collateral joint family is the joint family that comprises of two or more married
couples, between whom, there is a sibling relationship. In this type, usually two or more
brothers, their wives and unmarried children live together.

Supplemented Collateral Joint Family

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 It is a joint family along with unmarried, divorced or widowed relatives. The
supplemented collateral joint family includes either the widowed mother, widower father or
an unmarried sibling.

Lineal Joint Family

Two couples, between whom, there is a lineal connection, such as parent and married
son or married daughter. When the parent is a widow or widower and their married son or
married daughter is living with them, in such cases, it is termed as lineal joint family.

Supplemented Lineal Joint Family

It is a lineal joint family that includes unmarried, divorced and widowed relatives.
These relatives do not belong to the lineally connected nuclear families. For example, father’s
brother, who is a widower or son’s wife’s unmarried sibling.

Lineal Collateral Joint Family

In this type, three or more couples are connected lineally or collaterally. For instance,
one can have a family consisting of parents and two or more married sons, along with their
unmarried children.

Supplemented Lineal-Collateral Joint Family

In this type of joint family, apart from the members, the other relatives are also
included, these are, unmarried, widowed or separate relatives, who belong to one of the
nuclear families, lineally and collaterally linked. The examples of these include, father’s
widowed sister or brother or unmarried nephews or nieces of the fathers.

2.5 Developmental Process of the Family

Before acquiring an efficient understanding of the developmental process of the

family, it is vital to understand the nature and meaning of developmental process.

Developmental process is referred to the movement, which takes place in a systematic and
structured manner. Developmental process of the family denotes that the elements of the
family life forms a structure. In the formation of the structure, it is vital to implement certain
methods and procedures. It relates to the processes of fission and fusion, occurring in the
residential and compositional aspects of family life (Unit 6 Family and Its Types, n.d.).

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 The Indian patri-virilocal family can be viewed in terms of the cycle. The nuclear is
the foundation for the formation of joint family system. When marriage of son or sons takes
place and coming in of daughters-in-laws lead to formation of joint family system. After the
death of the fathers, normally brothers separate. Research has indicated that when the sons
are unmarried, they live with their parents, but after marriage, they tend to separate. In this
way, the process of fission takes place and disintegration of joint family system takes place
into nuclear families (Unit 6 Family and Its Types, n.d.). It is comprehensively understood
that in order to form a joint family system, it is vital for the individuals to form good terms
and relationships with each other and work in collaboration and integration.

When the disintegration of joint family system takes place into nuclear families, the
parents usually chose to live with one of the sons. Some parents may live alternatively with
all the sons. There may be other kin members, who come to live with the members of the
nuclear families. For example, a widow may come to live with her brother, his wife and their
children, if she has no children of her own. The feeling of oneness and unity is vital in
holding a family together. The parents and children, siblings, in-laws and other members
need to form amiable and pleasant terms and relationships with each other. The son’s family
along with the father’s family is regarded as one family. It is the family of daughter-in-law
that needs to be incorporated (Unit 6 Family and Its Types, n.d.).

The viewpoint of the developmental cycle of the family does not apply universally to
all groups of individuals. The system of joint family among the artisans is more advantageous
as compared to individuals, belonging to agricultural groups. In this case, the organization of
labour and pooling of labour is less advantageous (Unit 6 Family and Its Types, n.d.). There
are factors, which are rendering a significant contribution in reinforcing the system of joint
family. These have been stated as follows: (Unit 6 Family and Its Types, n.d.).

Demographic Factors

In rural and tribal communities within the country, the system of education is not in a
well-developed state. Research has indicated that due to lack of medical and health care
facilities, the individuals, belonging to all age groups are required to either move to urban
areas or they make use of traditional methods. The rural and tribal communities in most cases
depend upon the natural environmental conditions. The life expectancy among these
individuals is low and lack of modern, medical and health care facilities is the major cause.
Due to low life expectancy, the chances for three generations to exist at the same time is

76
usually less. But with the formulation of programs and measures, there have been
improvements taking place in the medical and health care facilities. Due to these, the system
of joint family is getting reinforced.

Economic Factors

The more the number of family members, the more will be the resources required to
sustain their living conditions. In rural communities, there are in most cases, five to six
children in the nuclear family. The individuals possess this viewpoint, the more the number
of family members, the more they will contribute towards generation of family income. On
the other hand, elderly members of the family experience a decline in physical abilities and
experience health problems. Due to this, they are unable to render an efficient contribution
towards generation of income. They are dependent upon their family members for the
sustenance of their living conditions. In order to meet their daily needs and requirements,
they are dependent upon the care and support of others. Hence, in some cases, they are
regarded as liabilities and are not considered important. Therefore, it can be stated that young
and middle aged family members, as well as senior citizens render an important contribution
towards generation of income and leading to economic well-being.

Role of Women

In the families, which are residing in the conditions of poverty and are struggling to
make ends meet, cannot survive just on the income earned by men. The women too are
encouraged to get engaged in employment opportunities or work at home to generate a source
of income. The women are either engaged in the agricultural sector or farming practices or
they participate in the production of artworks, handicrafts, jewellery, food items and so forth
in their homes and market their produce to supplement family income. The women usually
acquire training in terms of these aspects from their in-laws or parents. In the present
existence, they are even getting enrolled in training centres to acquire knowledge in terms of
modern, and innovative methods. They are making use of technologies and innovative
methods in not only the agricultural sector and farming practices, but also in the production
of handicrafts, artworks, and so forth. Hence, the role of women is regarded as indispensable
in augmenting the system of joint families.

Mobility

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 The individuals, belonging to all communities and categories have the primary aim of
enhancing their career prospects, looking for good employment opportunities and generating
a source of income. In urban communities, when there are existence of joint family system,
the members have the opportunities of acquiring good quality education, looking for
employment opportunities and augmenting their career prospects. On the other hand, in rural
and tribal communities, when individuals form the viewpoint that it is vital for them to
migrate to urban communities to enhance their living conditions, then disintegration may take
place. But mobility of the entire family to another regions or cities does not lead to
disintegration of joint family. In the case of occurrence of natural calamities and disasters,
when individuals lose their homes, then the entire family has to migrate to other regions,
where they are able to recuperate. Thus, mobility is also one of the factors that lead to
strengthening of joint family system.

Growth of Nuclear Families

With the advent of modernization and globalization, there has been emergence of
nuclear families. Industrialization is also regarded as one of the important factors that has led
to increase in nuclear families. In urban communities, not only the system of education is
well-developed as compared to rural and tribal communities, but there are more advanced
employment opportunities as well, which are leading to an increase in the number of
individuals to migrate from rural and tribal to urban communities. In some cases, the families
of the individuals are in their villages, whereas in other cases, they bring their families with
them. When the individuals are well-settled in their jobs and are able to generate a good
source of income and are able to sustain the living conditions of their families, they call their
families. On the other hand, when they do not call their families, they send money home
(Chapter 5, n.d.).

When rural and tribal individuals form this viewpoint that migrating to urban
communities will enable them to enrich their livelihood opportunities, they move from their
parents. The parents in most cases, continue to reside within their homes, as they form the
viewpoint that they would not be able to adjust in a satisfactory manner with urban life.
When their children would go to work, they will not have anyone to take care of their needs
and requirements. One of the major advantages that elderly members of the family have is,
their children would assist them in obtaining medical treatment in case of any health
problems and illnesses. The elderly individuals usually feel disheartened, when their adult

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children move to distant places, but they need to adjust, as they want their children to prosper
and achieve their aims and objectives (Chapter 5, n.d.).

There are number of factors that give rise to nuclear families. These have been stated
as follows:

Acquisition of Education

Learning is a lifelong concept. Individuals continue to learn throughout their lives.

The individuals, belonging to various age groups can get enrolled in educational institutions
and training centres to acquire education and training. As it has been stated above that in
urban communities, the system of education is well-developed as compared to rural and tribal
communities. Therefore, in order to acquire education and augment their knowledge and
competencies, the individuals migrate to urban areas.

Acquisition of Employment Opportunities

In urban areas, the employment opportunities are more advanced as compared to rural
and tribal areas. The various types of occupations and employments that rural individuals are
engaged in are, carpenters, electricians, painters, plumbers, drivers, gardeners, construction
workers, cooks, repair workers, or they find work in various stores or offices, such as,
grocery stores, paint shops, restaurants, shops dealing with spectacles and so forth. In some
cases, rural women get engaged in the production of various types of handicrafts and market
them. In market places or in fairs, they set up stalls and market their produce. In this manner,
participating in various types of work activities help them to generate a source of income to
sustain their living conditions appropriately.

Personal Freedom

When the individuals are residing independently or with their spouse and children,
they are able to acquire personal freedom. They are able to make their own decisions as well
as carry out their tasks and activities with dedication. These factors mainly are applied in the
case of individuals, who are living independently. When the individuals think of forming a
nuclear family, they usually possess the viewpoint that they will be able to get freed from
taking care of the needs and requirements of other family members and thus promote
enrichment of their living standards.

Financial Stability

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 When the individuals migrate to urban communities, in the initial stage, they prefer to
move by themselves. Research has indicated that usually aspire to look for more than one job,
so they are able to attain financial stability. In most cases, they are unable to pay rent, hence,
make an attempt to find work as domestic helpers. When they are working as domestic
helpers, they obtain a free housing accommodation as well as their food requirements are
taken care of. They usually look for jobs and are able to save money. Hence, in this manner,
by working at two or more places and making savings, they are able to promote financial
stability. This applies to both men and women.

Preference for Place

Research has indicated that in some cases, individuals do not feel pleasurable and
contented in the place, they reside. There are number of reasons for this, i.e. lack of civic
amenities and facilities, under-developed infrastructural facilities, lack of proper
transportation facilities, lack of employment opportunities, under-developed system of
education, and so forth. These causes are mainly prevalent in rural and tribal areas. On the
other hand, in urban communities, the amenities and facilities are in a well-developed state.
Hence, the rural and tribal individuals possess comprehensive viewpoint that migration to
urban areas will enable them to sustain their living conditions in a well-organized manner.

Better Facilities and Amenities

In urban areas, there are better facilities and amenities. Civic amenities and facilities
are regarded as indispensable for the sustenance of living conditions of individuals. Research
has indicated that in rural areas, the facilities and civic amenities are not in a well-developed
state. In most of the communities, there is shortage of electricity and water. The individuals
need to depend upon the water bodies for obtaining water. They are making use of traditional
methods and mud stoves are used in the preparation of meals. On the other hand, in urban
areas, the individuals make use of modern and scientific methods in the management of
household chores. Hence, with the availability of better facilities and amenities, the
individuals are migrating to urban areas and there is an increase in nuclear families.

Changes in Taste and Preference

The individuals, belonging to rural communities are also making use of technologies
and internet. When they make use of internet, they see pictures and images and generate
information in terms of various aspects of urban communities. In this manner, they develop

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inclination and bring about changes in taste and preference. The changes in taste and
preference are considered vital to give rise to nuclear families. Research has indicated that
individuals, belonging to rural and tribal communities not only aspire to generate better
livelihoods opportunities, but they also aspire to bring about changes in their personality.
Hence, when they form the viewpoint that they need to bring about changes in taste and
preference, they move at a distance from their families and this gives rise to nuclear families.

Discriminatory Treatment against Women and Girls

The discriminatory treatment against women and girls is one of the indispensable
factors, which gives rise to nuclear families. When women experience problems and are
unable to adjust with their in-laws, in such cases, they prefer to live in nuclear families.
Research has indicated that in some homes, women and girls are discriminated against. They
are not provided with equal rights and opportunities as compared to their male counterparts.
In such cases, they experience problems in living in joint families and prefer to live in nuclear
families. In nuclear families, they feel they would be able to live their lives in accordance to
their desires and not experience any kind of discriminatory treatment.

Adjustment Problems

In some cases, individuals are unable to adjust with other members of the family. This
applies basically to women, who are unable to get along with other members of the family in
their marital homes. In accordance to some research studies, the women and girls are
discriminated against and are not given equal rights and opportunities. In some cases, they
even experience violent and criminal acts at the hands of their family members. These
include, verbal abuse, physical abuse, sexual harassment, financial exploitation and
discouragement from participation in social, cultural, economic and political activities.
Therefore, when women and girls are unable to adjust with other members and they are not
provided with equal rights and opportunities, they prefer to move to other places and look for
better livelihood opportunities. Therefore, adjustment problems lead to growth of nuclear
families.

Treating Elderly Parents as Liabilities

In some cases, when the individuals aspire to acquire education and employment
opportunities, they form the viewpoint that in rural areas, they would not be able to acquire
education and employment and hence, they migrate to urban areas. But in some cases, they

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regard elderly parents as liabilities and do not want to take care of their needs and
requirements. When they possess the viewpoint that their elderly parents are liabilities and
devoting time towards them would give rise to impediments within the course of their
progression, they simply move to urban areas. Thus, treating elderly parents as liabilities
gives rise to nuclear families.

2.6 Understanding the Institution of Marriage

The ancient human society was the nomadic society. Within the course of time, the

nomadic human beings evolved into an agricultural society and it was necessary to ascertain
the paternity of children. So long as the individuals formed this viewpoint that development
of the family is an important aspect, the institution of marriage was recognized. The Hindus
have made an attempt to idealize and sanctify the institution of marriage, as no other civil
society has done so far. Conjugal fidelity is regarded as the supreme virtue of a woman and it
is this character that has protected the Hindu race and Hindu religion down the ages. The
institution of marriage is regarded as beneficial to the society, as it is the foundation of the
family and the basic building block of the society. It provides stability and meaning to human
relationships. When the individuals enter the institution of marriage, they are able to become
more responsible and learn to cope with various types of problems and challenges (Chapter 1.
Evolution of Marriage as a Social Institution, n.d.).

The process of child development is an important function that takes place as a result
of marriage. The husband and wife need to participate jointly in the process of child
development and it is not only the responsibility of women. In the process of child
development, there are number of factors that need to be taken into consideration. These
include, health care, diet and nutrition, education, recreation and leisure, extra-curricular and
creative activities, creation of pleasant and amiable home environmental conditions,
providing facilities and amenities, providing technologies and internet to facilitate their
learning and understanding, planning their outings and providing knowledge in terms of
values, norms, morals and ethics. It is comprehensively believed that children are more close
to their mothers. Women are more responsible towards the upbringing of their children and
taking care of their needs and requirements. But in the present existence, there have changes
taking place in the structure of the family and men too are dedicated towards the
implementation of the function of child development.

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 The institution of family is universal. There cannot be a family without marriage.

Marriage is crucial for the survival of the individuals. When mating takes place in a more or
less permanent relationship and is publicly recognized, it is termed as marriage. There are
number of rituals carried out in the case of marriage. The alliance of marriage can be for a
lifetime or it may be short-lived. But in various situations, there are some alliance, some
understanding and some sharing between the families, who are entering into a marital
relationship. Within the Indian society, one finds several marriage alliances, established for
several purposes between royal families. In medieval India, the treaty was signed or peaceful
relationships were established between the families, who enter into a marital alliance
(Marriage: Definition and Forms of Marriage, n.d.). It is comprehensively understood that
individuals need to establish amiable terms and relationships with each other, when they enter
into an institution of marriage.

Marriage can be conceptualized in three ways, as an institution, rite and as a process.

As an institution, marriage consists of patterned behaviours, expectations and relationships
that are organized and endured over the period of time. As a rite, it includes the ceremonies,
through which married status is achieved. As a process, it is a phenomena, which is marked
by gradual changes that lead to ultimate dissolution through separation, divorce and death.
Marriage results in the establishment of the family and family relationships. It initiates the
long-term alliance between two families in social and economic spheres. These relationships
form a network of bonds, which are varied in terms of proximity and intensity. With the
advent of globalization, changes are taking place in the institution of marriage. Furthermore,
there are also transformations taking place in the family structure and kinship. The major
causes that are leading to these changes are, societal shifts in norms, values and orientations
due to exogenous and endogenous forces (Chapter 1. Sociology of Marriage and Kinship,
n.d.).

In some of the communities, particularly in rural areas, there has been prevalence of
the custom of child marriage. The girls and boys get married, before they have attained 18
and 21 years of age respectively. Child marriage has been an archetypal institution within the
country. The girls are trained from the stage of early childhood in terms of implementation of
household chores and taking care of the needs and requirements of other family members.
They are discouraged from acquisition of education, as it is believed that in their marital
homes, they would not be able to make use of their educational skills in any manner. The

83
Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929 brought about transformations. The age of marriage
was increased to 21 for boys and 18 for girls (Chapter II. The Indian Family System, n.d.). In
the present existence, there have been transformations taking place in the viewpoints and
perspectives of rural individuals and they too are encouraging their girls towards acquisition
of education and empowerment opportunities.

The Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929 has led to improvements in the status of
women to a major extent. The girls are able to acquire opportunities to get enrolled in
educational institutions and augment their academic skills and abilities. Furthermore, they are
also provided with the opportunities to participate in social, religious, cultural and economic
activities. When they have reached the age of 18 or 20, their parents feel that it is vital to get
them settled. If they want to enhance their career prospects, pursue education or get engaged
in employment opportunities, they can do so after marriage with approval of their in-laws and
husbands. This is common in rural communities. On the other hand, in urban communities,
women are provided with complete independence to pursue education and get engaged in
employment opportunities in accordance to their knowledge and competencies. Hence, due to
this, women may even get married after they have attained the age of 30 years. Therefore, it
can be stated that in some cases, primarily in urban areas, career prospects are given more
importance as compared to marriage.

Rules of Marriage

In all the societies, there are certain restrictive and preferential rules regarding
marriage. These rules play an important part in making the selection of marriage partners.
These have been stated as follows: (Chapter 1. Sociology of Marriage and Kinship, n.d.).

Endogamy

This rule impose restrictions upon the choice of the mate within the certain group. It is
referred to the marriage that takes place between caste, tribe, race and other groups. In the
Indian society, the system of caste endogamy is prevalent. In accordance to this rule of
marriage, it is necessary that the life partner may be selected from the same group, within the
same caste or tribe. The endogamous groups refer explicitly to the caste or sub-caste. Caste
endogamy specifies that marriage should compulsorily take place within the castes and sub-
castes endogamy limits marriage relations within the same sub-castes. The practice of
endogamy is followed within the caste system of the country. The elementary generalized

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exchange is the traditional practice of selection of matches. The complex and the open
systems points towards recent trends in marriages, where they are arranged either through the
intermediaries or matrimonial bureaus or girl or boy on their own.

Exogamy

Exogamy is the rule, which restricts the selection of spouse from a certain group. It
forbids marriage within the same group. Marriage is prohibited up to second cousins. The
rule of exogamy is of two forms, i.e. gotra and sapinda, both of which are practiced in the
Hindu society. Members of the same gotra are believed to have descended from a common
mythical ancestor or rishi. Therefore, the same gotra-exogamy marriages are prohibited.
Sapinda means the individuals, who carry the particles of the same body. Sapinda
relationship arises from being connected by having the particles of the same ancestor.
Therefore, marriage between sapinda are prohibited. Since the limits are not known,
particularly which are consanguine relationships between persons. The prescribed limit for
prohibiting marriage in accordance to the sapinda are within the generations from both
father’s and mother’s side.

Therefore, it can be stated that every society has different rules of marriage, which
specify the partners and also the groups among which marriage is not prohibited. Prohibition
of marriage between certain individuals is called incest taboo. The incest taboo and
preferential rules regarding marriage differ on the basis of number of factors. These include,
caste, creed, race, religion, education, occupation, family background and socio-economic
background (Chapter 1. Sociology of Marriage and Kinship, n.d.). It can be stated that when
the families are looking to get their children settled, these factors are taken into consideration.

Forms of Marriage

The forms of marriage are classified into two types, monogamy and polygamy. These
have been stated as follows: (Marriage: Definition and Forms of Marriage, n.d.).

Monogamy

Monogamy appears to be a natural form of marriage. One man marries one woman.
Monogamy seems to be the earliest form of marriage, though its evolution may be
controversial. Some of the researchers have stated that in the earlier periods of history, there
was promiscuity followed by matriarchal and patriarchal forms of marriage. But there is
enough evidence available to suggest that before the emergence of agriculture, people of

85
subsistence economy had monogamous marriage. Monogamy is the prevalent form of
marriage not only in India, but in other countries of the world as well. Even the communities,
who practice other forms of marriage, such as polygamy are returning to monogamy. It is the
standard form of marriage throughout the world. It is a true type of marriage.

Polygamy

Polygamy is understood as the mean marriage with two or more wives. It properly
designates the marriage of man or woman with more than one mate. What is commonly
reckoned as polygamy is accurately called polygyny. The complementary institution is called
polyandry. In addition, it must be considered as the union with the group of men with the
group of women. It is a custom, which is known as group marriage. Polygamy is further sub-
divided into two forms, i.e. polygyny and polyandry. Polygyny is the system in which one
man has two or more wives at a time. In ancient times, there was prevalence of the system of
polygyny. On the other hand, polyandry is the form of marriage that allows woman to have
more than one husband. Polyandry has been found in the number of societies. It is believed to
have been to a great extent in many food-gathering societies.

Functions of Marriage

Marriage is regarded as an indispensable part of the social system. When individuals

enter into an institution of marriage, they need to carry out certain tasks and functions, taking
into consideration the fact that they should prove to be beneficial to their spouse as well as
his or her families. The universality of marriage points to its functional importance in the
maintenance of social equilibrium (Chapter 1. Sociology of Marriage and Kinship, n.d.). The
functions of marriage have been stated as follows: (Chapter 1. Sociology of Marriage and
Kinship, n.d.).

Development of Family

When the individuals enter the institution of marriage, they form relationships. Apart
from spouse, the other relations that are formed include, mother-in-law, father-in-law,
brothers-in-laws and sisters-in-laws. In addition, relationships are developed with other
relatives as well, including aunts, uncles and cousins. The family which is formed as a result
of marriage is known as the family of procreation. It comprises of one’s spouse and children.
When children are born, the development of the family takes place. When they grow up and
get married, and there are grandchildren within the family, the development of family takes

86
place. The relationships that are established after marriage help in maintaining social
solidarity and contribute to the unity of society.

Providing Security

The institution of marriage provides social and financial security to women and
children. Research has indicated that before marriage, individuals may feel lonely and
secluded. They may or may not get engaged into employment opportunities in order to
support themselves financially. But when they are fortunate enough to find a good life
partner, who is well-educated and is engaged in a good job, they are not only able to alleviate
the feeling of loneliness, but also augment financial security. This usually applies to women.
Life partners usually provide financial security and take care of the needs and requirements of
their spouse.

Provides Stability to Relationships

In order to provide stability to relationships, it is vital that individuals need to

inculcate the traits of morality and ethics, communicate with each other in an appropriate
manner, create amiable and pleasant environmental conditions within home and be assistive
and supportive. In the institution of marriage, the individuals may be supportive and helpful
towards each other or they may encounter problems and may not get along with each other.
When they encounter problems and do not get along with each other well, it is vital to
conduct an analysis of the problems and provide effective solutions. When the partners would
implement effective solutions, it would lead to stability in their relationships.

Providing Solutions to Problems

Problems is an integral part of lives of the individuals. These may take place in
educational institutions, employment settings, management of household responsibilities and
in relationships. In some cases, individuals are able to provide solutions to the problems on
their own, whereas, in other cases, they need help and guidance from others. Life partners
assist each other in providing solutions to various problems and challenges. Both husband
and wife may discuss their problems with each other and seek ideas and suggestions. When
the ideas and suggestions are meaningful, they are implemented. Whereas, when they are not
worthwhile, they should be turned down in a polite manner.

Provide Economic Co-operation

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 Research has indicated that women, belonging to various communities, categories and
backgrounds aspire to get enrolled in higher educational institutions and augment their
academic knowledge and competencies. In other words, they aspire to acquire good
employment opportunities and be financially strong. But lack of financial resources are
regarded as the major impediments within the course of acquisition of education. In such
cases, when they get married, not in all, but in some cases, they receive economic co-
operation and support from their husbands. They provide economic co-operation, as well as
support and assist their spouses in achieving the desired goals and objectives.

Equal Rights and Opportunities

In some of the societies, mainly rural. Men are engaged in work, whereas, women are
meant to manage the household responsibilities. In some of the rural communities, there has
been prevalence of the viewpoint that men should get engaged in employment opportunities,
whereas, women should take care of household chores. Transformations need to be brought
about in this viewpoint. It is an important function of marriage that both men and women
should be provided with equal rights and opportunities. The women should also be allowed to
participate in employment opportunities and men should assist them in the management of
household responsibilities.

Honesty and Truthfulness

Honesty and truthfulness are the aspects that not only enable individuals to establish
good terms and relationships with each other in the institution of marriage, but through the
inculcation of these traits, they are able to carry out their tasks satisfactorily, achieve personal
and professional goals and emerge into good human beings. The husbands and wives need to
be honest and truthful towards each other. When they are going out of their homes or need to
get engaged in any task or activity, they need to provide information to each other. It is vital
for them to be honest and truthful towards each other.

Mutual Trust and Co-operation

The development of mutual trust and co-operation not only enables the individuals to
form pleasant and congenial terms and relationships with each other, but they are able to
generate the desired outcomes. The husband and wife need to develop mutual trust and co-
operation. In some cases, one may carry out certain tasks and activities independently,
whereas, in other cases, they need help from each other. Providing mutual trust and co-

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operation is indispensable among spouses. When one establishes mutual trust and is fortunate
enough to find a co-operative spouse, one is not only able to promote stability in
relationships, but also generates pleasure and contentment.

Kind-heartedness and Generosity

The traits of kind-heartedness and generosity render a significant contribution in

reinforcement of marital relationships. This is apparent that families are different on the basis
of number of factors. These include, number of members, location, residence, and so forth.
Research studies have indicated that in cases of joint families, members are more kind-
hearted and generous as compared to nuclear families. As the members are more in number,
they need to adjust with all the others. For example, when there is preparation of a food item
and some of the members are unable to consume, they do not mind. Therefore, possession of
a giving nature, being accommodating, adjustable and helpful depict kind-heartedness and
generosity.

Joint Management of Household Responsibilities

Women and girls should not just be vested with the authority of management of
household responsibilities. But it is vital for the male members as well to render an equal
contribution. The men and women need to divide the tasks among themselves in accordance
to their skills and abilities. In some cases, when cleaners are not available, they need to divide
this work among themselves. In some cases, when women are preparing meals in the kitchen,
men may assist them by cleaning the utensils and the kitchen environment. Decision making
is an integral part of lives of the individuals. Men and women need to make decisions in
terms of number of factors, including, jobs, education of their children, outings, household
chores, financial concerns and so forth. Hence, it is vital that both should be allowed to
express their ideas and viewpoints. Therefore, joint management of household responsibilities
and joint participation in the decision making processes are regarded as important functions
of marriage.

Marriages in various Religions

Marriage as a physical and moral union is recognized by the society as a basis of the
family. It may be a sacrament that may be indissoluble for this life and hereafter, as in the
case of individuals, belonging to various religions (Wimalasena, 2016). It is apparent that
individuals, belonging to all communities have the right to practice the religion of his or her

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own choice. The marriage ceremonies are carried out in accordance to the religions. In India,
there are number of religions and the system of marriage is different in all religions. These
have been stated as follows: (Chapter 1. Evolution of Marriage as a Social Institution, n.d.).

Hindu Marriage

Hindu marriages are a sacrament. They last few days. They are ritualized to a major
extent. Fire is regarded as the sacred and central element of the Hindu marriage. In the Hindu
marriages, there are normally organization of two to three ceremonies. The marriages are
festive with lots of music, dance, food, and family traditions. In the Hindu weddings, black or
plain white is never worn, as they are regarded as the colours of sorrow, mourning or
widowhood. But not all Hindu marriages are noisy or long. The individuals organize Hindu
marriages in accordance to their financial resources (Indian Society and Culture, n.d.).

Buddhist Marriage

Buddhist marriage is a simple ceremony and a social contract. In accordance to the

Buddhist law, as soon as the girls attain the age of 20 years, they are given the rights of
making selection of their life partners on their own. In other words, they have the right to
make decisions regarding their marriage. The Buddhists do not have any reserves especially
in terms of caste and consanguinity. Divorce and separation takes place by way of mutual
consent. The Buddhist view of marriage considers marriage as the secular affair and not a
sacrament. The civil laws are initiated by the Government, which the Buddhists are meant to
follow.

Jainism Marriage

In Jainism as well, men and women are provided with the right of making selection of
their own life partners. Parents provide complete autonomy to their children to pursue
education and get engaged in employment opportunities. But it is recommended that when
they reach marriageable age, either they should make selection of their life partners on their
own and obtain approval from their parents or the parents look for partners for their children.
When marriage ceremonies are organized, the Jains follow their own customs and rituals.
Jains are pure vegetarians. The food is pure vegetarian on all the occasions that are organized
for marriage.

Sikhism Marriage

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 In Sikhism, marriage is usually organized in a lavish manner with celebrations and
festivities to a major extent. Marriage ceremonies are usually organized in the morning and
Sunday is the day of the week that is chosen. Marriages normally take place in Gurudwaras in
accordance to the customs and traditions. Marriage is considered as the sacramental bond of
life. It is believed that with the grace of God, the marital bond is created from the beginning
of life. In other words, marriage is regarded as the bond with which life begins. The Sikhs,
normally prefer to get married upon completion of their education.

Muslim Marriage

Muslim marriage is unlike the Hindu marriage. In the case of Muslims, there are not
organization of proper ceremonies under the Muslim Law, except a religious discourse by the
Qazi. There is a fundamental difference between the nature and character of Hindu and
Muslim marriage. Within the Muslim community, the marriage proposal by the men and its
acceptance by women is essential for the valid marriage to take place. The only essential
requirement of form is that a contract of marriage must come into existence. Muslim
marriage is a polygamous marriage, as men are allowed to have up to four wives. Polygamy
is part of the personal law of the Muslims.

Christian Marriage

Christian marriages are just as sacrosanct and binding as any Hindu marriage.
Marriage rituals are conducted in the church by the priest. These are meaningful as the
marriage that takes place around the fire in Hindu religion. The Christians can get married in
the church or in a registry office. The priest in the church is authorized to legalize the
marriage, but all marriages must be registered. Non-Christians can get married at the places
of their worship. But the marriage has to be preceded by the civil ceremony, where the
official registrar is meant to legalise the marriage. Church does not condone divorce or
separation, but remarriage after divorce is regarded as a normal practice.

2.7 Significance of Kinship

Man cannot dwell alone within the society. Throughout his life, he has to deal with
number of individuals. These individuals include, family members, relatives, friends, helpers,
caregivers and community members. The family members are the individuals, who are
created on the basis of blood and marriage. The relations based on blood or marriage may be
close or distant. The bond of blood or marriage, which binds the individuals together is called

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kinship. In accordance to the dictionary of anthropology, kinship includes society recognized
relationships based on supposed as well as actual genealogical ties. These relationships are as
a result of social interaction and are recognized by the society. The system of kinship
represents one of the basic social institutions. Kinship is universal and in most societies, it
renders a significant contribution in the socialization of the individuals and maintenance of
group solidarity. It is important in the primitive societies and extends its influence on all the
activities, i.e. social, economic, political, religious and cultural (Indian Society and Social
Change, 2011).

The kinship system is referred to the set of individuals recognised as relatives, either
by virtue of the blood relationship, technically called consanguinity or by virtue of marriage,
what is technically known as affinity. In most cases, individuals tend to regard the kinship
system in which they are born. In the system of kinship, the members need to treat each other
with respect, courtesy, kind-heartedness, generosity and form all the positive feelings for
each other. All the aspects of kinship relations need to be taken for granted, until or unless,
one is confronted with the kinship relations of other individuals. There have been
progressions taking place in the kinship systems throughout the country. Kinship relations are
regarded as the outcome of the cultural interpretations of relations given in nature and
discussed some of the ways of kinship relations from the point of view of sociologists (Unit
7: Kinship, n.d.).

Kinship is regarded as one of the most important social organizing principles along
with gender and age. In large industrial societies, the impact of kinship is alleviated by the
factors of occupation, social class, ethnicity, education, political affiliation and religion.
Kinship is understood as the culturally defined relationships between individuals, who are
commonly thought of having family ties. In most cases, the concept of kinship is culturally
constructed. In the system of kinship, three types of relationships need to be taken into
consideration. These include, consanguineal relatives, these are the individuals on the father’s
and mother’s side, who are related by blood. Affinal relatives are the relatives, who are
related through marriage and fictive kinship is patterned on kin-like relations, but not actually
based on blood or marriage (Kinship and Family, n.d.).

Role and Importance of Kinship in Social Structures

Kinship is an institution in real and primitive societies. The individuals augments his
or her understanding in terms of various aspects in this institution and it renders a significant

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contribution in controlling his or her behaviour (Sociology of Kinship, 2013). The major
factors which highlight the role and importance of kinship in social structures have been
stated as follows: (Sociology of Kinship, 2013).

Family and Marriages

The institution of kinship renders a significant contribution in the determination of the

life partners. Which type of marriage has been banned, which has been recognized and which
type has been given preference. The marriages should be implemented on the basis of norms
of the groups. If the individuals get engaged into marriage, which is not preferred, they are
required to experience conflicting situations and disputations. In some cases, marriages may
lead to family issues, which the individuals need to provide solutions to. The various forms of
marriages, such as, internal marriage, external marriage, parallel cousin and cross cousin
marriage are decided on the basis of kinship. In the patrilineal family, the male members are
vested with the power and authority required to render a significant contribution and make
important decisions. Whereas, in matrilineal family, it is the mother’s brother, who is vested
with the power and authority to exercise control. In other words, the role of the brother is
important in his sister’s family.

Descent, Inheritance and Succession

Kinship determines genealogy. The family, descent and clan are regarded as
elaborative forms of kinship. By generating awareness in terms of the descent relatives of the
past, the individuals form this viewpoint that they are not without a historical background. All
the individuals have the right to be transferred and this is determined by kinship. The rules of
descent, inheritance and succession are different in matrilineal and patrilineal families. In all
types of societies, kinships are used in the determination of the relationship between masters
and successors and inheritors. The parents pass on their rights regarding wealth, property,
designation, position and other resources to their children, when they form the viewpoint that
they are trustworthy and possess the essential skills and abilities. When the parents reach the
age of 70 years, they usually experience a decline in physical health conditions. Therefore,
they pass on their job duties and responsibilities to their children. Therefore, descent,
inheritance and succession are common in all societies and pass from generation to
generation.

Providing Financial Assistance

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 Financial assistance and economic interests are regarded as important aspects of
individuals, belonging to various age groups, categories and backgrounds. During the stage of
early childhood, the parents are vested with the authority of taking care of the needs and
requirements of their children. All their needs, health care, diet and nutrition, education,
recreation, and so forth, require financial resources, which are taken care of by the parents.
Research has indicated that in some cases, when the parents are not around, the grandparents
are vested with the responsibility of taking care of their grandchildren. When the children
grow up and get engaged in employment opportunities, they provide financial support to their
parents. This basically applies in case of families, who belong to deprived, marginalized and
economically weaker section of the society. When the parents are unable to earn or when they
experience health problems and illnesses and are financially dependent upon their children,
the children are vested with the responsibility of taking care of the needs and requirements of
their parents. Therefore, it can be stated that family members render a significant contribution
in providing financial assistance.

Fulfilment of Social Responsibilities

Within one’s family, the individuals are vested with the task of fulfilment of social
responsibilities. From the stage of early childhood, the individuals are taught by their parents
that they need to be respectful towards their elders and friendly with the individuals,
belonging to one’s own age group. They should communicate with others in a polite and
friendly manner, wait for one’s turn, give others a chance, possess a sharing nature and
inculcate the traits of diligence, resourcefulness and conscientiousness. Within the home,
when the parents are not around, they need to be helpful towards their elderly parents and
listen to them. The individuals are also taught to assist their parents in the implementation of
household chores in accordance to their skills and abilities. As they grow older and reach the
stage of adulthood, they are vested with the responsibility of implementation of various tasks
and activities, which would generate pleasure and contentment among their family members.
Therefore, fulfilment of social responsibilities is regarded as indispensable and individuals
are supposed to identify them from the stage of early childhood.

Pleasure and Contentment

When effective terms and relationships are formed among family members, this
generates pleasure and contentment among them to a major extent. This can be explained
with the help of number of examples. When children are obedient and dutiful towards their

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parents, they feel pleasurable and contented. When the children receive support and
assistance from their parents in the fulfilment of their needs and requirements, they feel
pleasurable and contented. When elderly members of the family form the viewpoint that they
are not considered as liabilities and their needs and requirements are adequately taken care of
by their family members, they feel pleasurable and contented. It is vital for the siblings to
form effective relationships with each other and take their share in property and wealth, as it
has been distributed among them by their parents. When the family members communicate
with each other in an appropriate manner in the family of orientation as well as in the family
of procreation, they are able to generate pleasure and contentment.

Basis of Anthropological Knowledge

Anthropologists and sociologists realized the importance of kinship as the first

systematic comparative study of numerous aspects of kinship behaviour in India
(Haimendorf, 1965). Knowledge of kinship has an important place in the study of
anthropology. The primary anthropologists started the majority of studies from kinship only.
In the fields of sociology and anthropology, the concept of kinship has given recognition. The
understanding of social structure can be done on the basis of kinship. In addition, the
sociologists and anthropologists also have interest in the development of society and
institutions. The study of kinship has proven effectual in this direction. After much research
has been conducted in these areas, there has been political, religious, economic and regional
units of descent in early societies.

Types of Kin

In social relations, such relations are universal and basic relations are the ones, which
are based on reproduction. Two types of relationships emerge from reproduction. The
relationships between parents and children and siblings are called consanguineous
relationships. On the other hand, relationships between husband and wife and both parties are
called affinal relationships (Sociology of Kinship, 2013). These have been stated as follows:
(Sociology of Kinship, 2013).

Consanguineous Relationships

Consanguineous relationships are one of the social relationships, which emerge due to
reproduction, such as, relationships between parents and children. Children acquire genes
from parents and they have blood relationships with each other. In the same manner, siblings

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have blood relationships with each other. If these relations are considered by the society, they
are considered to be actual relations. In the case of absence of consanguineous relationships,
the individuals follow the custom of adoption. When the couple does not have a biological
child, they adopt the child. The adopted person is treated in the same manner, as though he is
a biological child. If real blood relations are the only basis of such relations, then adoption is
prohibited. In some cases, the individuals give more importance to the rights and duties done
by the relatives, other than biological relations.

Affinal Relationships

Marriage is the basis of affinal relationships and individuals are not related to each
other by blood. In reproduction-based kinship, there is affinal relationships, which is
established between two persons of opposite gender with the consent of the society. The
affinal relationships are, not only husband and wife, but also other relatives, such as, fathers,
mothers, brothers, sisters, sons, daughters, sisters-in-laws, brothers-in-laws and so forth.
These relations are relevant only in the reference of two persons, such as, mother-in-law and
daughter-in-law, father-in-law and daughter-in-law, husband and wife, brother-in-law and
sister-in-law and so forth.

Degree of Kinship

Kinship usages accomplishes two major tasks. They create groups, special groups and
special groupings of kin. On the basis of nearness, relatives have been classified into various
categories: (Sociology of Kinship, 2013).

Kin

Marital or blood relatives are called kin. In most cases, marital or blood relatives are
usually recognized by the cultural parameter of. This is the reason for recognising person’s
kin and others, who are not in the relationship.

Collateral Kin

Kins which get separated from the main group as a branch such as, uncles and cousins
are called collateral kin. Simply the descendants of lineal kins are called collateral kin.

Lineal Kin

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 Kins which are directly related in succession are called lineal kin. Lineal kins are
direct ancestors and direct descendants like parents, grandparents, great-grandparents, and
their children and grandchildren.

Primary Kin

Persons associated on the basis of direct kinship are kept in the category of primary
kin. Father-son, father-daughter, mother-son, mother-daughter, younger and elder brothers,
younger and elder sisters, brother-sister, and husband-wife are the relationships that fall under
the category of primary kin. All of these are regarded as blood relatives, except husband and
wife, which are regarded as primary relatives.

Secondary Kin

Primary relatives of primary kin fall under the relatives of secondary kin. The
relatives, which are included in secondary kin are, grandfather, grandmother, father-in-law,
mother-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law, maternal and paternal aunts and uncles and
cousins.

Tertiary Kin

Primary kins of secondary kins are regarded as tertiary kins. These include, brother-
in-law’s wife or daughter or son.

Kindred

Relatives in a bilateral succession are collectively called kindred. These descendants

can be from both sides, maternal and paternal. Father’s siblings and their children as well as
mother’s siblings and their children are considered kindred.

Usage of Kinship

The study of kinship system does not end on the basis of descriptions of various kins
and the basis of their classification, but it includes the study of the behaviour patterns of
various kins. In every relationship, the individuals need to carry out a particular type of
behaviour. The behaviour of the children towards their parents is one of respect and the
behaviour of siblings towards each other is one of care and affection. There are some usages,
which regulate the behaviour of different kin, these are called kinship usages (Indian Society
and Social Change, 2011). These have been stated as follows: (Indian Society and Social
Change, 2011).
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 Avoidance

In all societies, the usage of avoidance is observed in one form or the other. It means
that the two kin should remain at a distance from each other. In other words, they avoid each
other. In some cases, they not only avoid relationships, but also avoid seeing each other face-
to-face. The purdah system in the Hindu family illustrates the usage of avoidance. Different
explanations are given for the usage of avoidance. Avoidance serves to foster further and
more serious trouble between relatives.

Joking Relationship

Joking relationship is the reverse of avoidance relationship. Under this relationship,

the individuals make fun of or tease the other. The joking relationship is between brother-in-
laws, brother-in-laws and sisters-in-laws and cousins. In this relationship, individuals may
make use of descent language or they may use insulting and abusive language as well.

Teknonymy

The word, teknonymy was taken from the Greek word and has been used in
anthropology for the first time by Taylor. According to this usage, the kin is not referred to
directly, but he is referred to through another kin. A kin becomes a medium of reference
between two kin. Therefore, in a traditional Hindu family, the wife does not utter the name of
the husband. She calls him through the son or daughter, such as, father of Tapu.

Avunclate

This kinship usage is the peculiar feature of the matriarchal system. The maternal
uncle (mother’s brother) plays an important part in the lives of his nephews and nieces. He
has special obligations towards them, which exceeds those of father’s. He has prior rights
over their loyalties. He is given the top rank among all male relatives.

Amitate

In this case, the father’s sister renders a significant contribution in the lives of her
nieces and nephews. She gets more respect than the mother.

Couvade

This is the queer usage, which is found among primitive tribes like the Khasi and
Toda. In this usage, the husband is meant to lead the life of an invalid along with his wife,

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whenever she gives birth to the child. He refrains from participating in any work, does not
contribute towards family income and his diet is also comprised of food items, which are
given to the sick. He observes the same tabous, which are observed by his wife. This kinship
usage thus involves both husband and wife.

Functions of Kinship

The functions of kinship are of two types, vertical and horizontal. These have been
stated as follows: (Kinship and Family, n.d.).

Vertical Function

As the name implies, the vertical function is carried out in the vertical form in the
hierarchy, from father to son and further to his sons and so forth. Vertical function is the
function that is concerned with binding of successive generations, thereby providing social
continuity. In the vertical function, the individuals not only pass property and other sources,
but also traditions, values, norms, principles, and power and authority. When the individuals
do not have biological children, then adoption is one of the major alternatives that is
implemented. The adoption of the child may take place from either one’s own family, i.e.
child of the brother or sister or it may take place from outside.

Horizontal Function

Horizontal function is related to creating a bond between the individuals through

marriage. Kin groups usually practice some degree of exogamy. It is the rule, which states
that marriage of the individuals takes place outside some group. In other words, they are
prohibited from getting married within a certain group. In the case of this function, it is
recommended that individuals need to look for marriage partners outside their own groups. In
this manner, they can augment their terms and create a wide social network. The individuals,
belonging to the same kinship need to establish good terms and relationships with other
individuals and groups as well. To carry out various types of functions, social, economic,
political, and ceremonial purposes, they need to collaborate and work in co-ordination and
integration with each other. Through effective communication, the individuals are able to
obtain ideas and suggestions from each other and carry out their job duties in a well-
organized manner.

Basic Concepts of Kinship

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 The basic concepts of kinship have been stated as follows: (Unit 7: Kinship, n.d.).

The Principles of Descent

Descent is regarded as the principle, whereby a child is socially affiliated with the
group of his or her parents. In some societies, child is regarded as the descendant of both
father and mother. The titles and surnames are usually passed down along the male line, such
system is termed as bilateral or cognate. The individuals belongs to several descent groups of
two parents, four grandparents, eight great-grandparents and so on. This connection is limited
only by memory or by some conventionally determined cut-off point, four or five degrees
removal. In small inter-marrying communities, membership will probably overlap. Whereas,
in the case of a conflicting situation or disagreement, the individuals normally find they are
not being able to exercise their rights in an appropriate manner. There are some cognate
systems, where the individuals have the right by descent to membership. But this right is
actualized, only if the person is able to reside in the particular group or territory.

Types of Descent

In other societies, by contrast and one’s own is most probably one of them, descent is
reckoned unilineally. The child is affiliated either with the group of the father, i.e. patrilineal
descent or the group of the mother, i.e. matrilineal descent. Theories of the physiology of
procreation and conception often correlate with the different modes of reckoning descent. In
the former, the father is provided with the primary role of procreation. Whereas, the mother is
regarded merely as the carrier of the child. There are societies within the country, in which
the role of the father may not be acknowledged by all. In some societies, one finds that the
child is affiliated to the group of either parent, depending on choice or to one parent for some
purposes. In the case of ritual or ceremonial roles, the individuals have to render a significant
contribution. This is called double unilineal descent.

The principle of unilineal descent provides the individuals an unambiguous

identification with the bounded social group that exists before an individual is born and there
is continuity remains after death. Members of the shared group have a sense of shared
identity. In India, it is comprehensively acknowledged that individuals should have the
feeling of brotherhood. They need to treat all individuals as their brothers and sisters. Descent
groups are often traced by exogamy. The marriage needs to take place outside the kinship.
Normally, marriage among Indians is prohibited up to second cousins. Second cousins are the
children of parent’s first cousins. Clans in which marriage is not permitted is divided into

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lineages. The members of the lineages should be able to trace their descent, perhaps for
several hundred years from a founding ancestor and then further localized sub-lineages and
down to the individual co-resident families. In some cases, the members of the single lineage
may form a whole village. The gotras of the Indian caste society are also exogamous descent
groups, segmented in rather the same way.

Functions of Decent Groups

Apart from the functions of exogamy, unilineal descent groups tend to be corporate in
several other senses. The members collaborate, communicate and work in co-ordination and
integration in the case of organization of any functions or celebrations. The descent group
will have a built-in authority structure, with power exercised by senior males. They possess
the leadership skills and are also vested with the authority of making decisions. An
individual’s economic rights and responsibilities will be defined by his or her position in the
descent group. The main function of the descent groups is, the members generate awareness
in terms of implementation of various tasks and activities in a well-organised manner,
inculcate the traits of morality and ethics and learn to be responsible members of the family
and community.

The expansion of lineages cannot take place indefinitely across a single locality. The
lineage segments are divided into smaller, manageable and economically viable lineage
segments. In the village, the pattern of land ownership is taken into consideration. The
patterns of village or urban settlements are different in various communities. A particular
quarter of the village or town may be inhabited by the descendants of the single founding
ancestor. Research has indicated that large mansions in rural as well as in urban communities
is divided between brothers and step-brothers. At a later stage, the property is divided among
the descendants. When the line dies out, the property would be reconsolidated. The range of
social functions are identified that descent groups may potentially perform. It is little wonder
that concerns with the principles of the unilineal descent. The unilineal descent has
influenced the work of students to a major extent.

Inheritance Rules

Rules of inheritance tend to co-ordinate with the reckoning of the descent in most of
the societies. The common rule of inheritance that is prevalent throughout the country is
property is passed from father to children and in some cases from mother to children. In order
to acquire property, it is vital for the children to form good terms and relationships with their

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parents. When the children are obedient and trustworthy, the parents nominee them in their
financial resources and give them property. Research has indicated that in some cases, adult
children tend to exploit and mistreat their parents for property and financial resources. In
such cases, the children not only damage the relationships with their parents, but they would
also refrain them from being nominee or inherit their property.

In addition to financial resources and property, the parents would also pass on titles
and leadership positions to their children. These include, chieftainship, kingship and other
social roles and statuses. In order exercise these roles in an appropriate manner, it is vital for
the individuals to acquire knowledge and competencies. Normally, individuals acquire
assistance from their parents in augmenting their competencies and information to perform
their job duties in a well-organized manner and achieve personal and professional goals.
Research has indicated that most of the women, who are active in political spheres have been
either daughters, wives or sisters of individuals, who have been active in politics. Due to their
relationships, they began to participate in political sphere. One of the examples is Nehru
family in India.

Rules of Residence

Rules of residence is primarily referred to the changes that took place in the system of
residence after marriage. Upon the marriage of daughters, they are required to leave natal
homes and go to marital homes. Hence, in this manner a new residence is formed after
marriage. The rights and living conditions of individuals are different in natal and marital
homes. In natal homes, girls and women are free to express their ideas and viewpoints to their
parents. They are able to carry out their tasks and activities in accordance to their aspirations.
On the other hand, in marital homes, they are supposed to recognize their rights and
responsibilities and meet the expectations of individuals. In some cases, restrictions are based
upon them and they are discouraged to participate in various tasks and functions. When the
daughters are supportive to their parents and maintain good terms and relationships with
them, they also provide them a share in property, apart from their brothers. Whereas, in
marital homes, too the women need to be obedient and meet the expectations of their family
members. In this manner, they will be able to acquire right to property of their husbands.

2.8 Conclusion

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 Family is regarded as the basic institution from where learning, growth and
development of the individuals takes place. The common types of families that are prevalent
in all societies are joint and nuclear families. Joint families are the families that consist of two
or more nuclear families residing under the common roof. Whereas, nuclear families are the
families, that consist of husband, wife and their unmarried children. With the advent of
modernization and globalization, the individuals are forming high aspirations and objectives.
In order to achieve their goals and objectives, they are migrating to other regions, cities or
countries, hence, it is leading to disintegration of joint family system into nuclear family. The
individuals, belonging to all categories and backgrounds need to maintain amiable and
effective terms and relationships with family members. The individuals need to be respectful
and courteous towards each other.

Marriage is an important social institution. It is a relationship, which is socially

approved. The relationship is defined and sanctioned by the custom of law. The definition of
the relationship includes not only the guidelines for behaviour that the individuals need to
carry out with each other, but they need to be aware of norms and principles that are
necessary to strengthen relationships. In marital relationships, the individuals need to
maintain amiable and pleasant terms and relationships with each other and carry out their job
duties and responsibilities in a well-organized manner. Children, born out of the institution of
marriage are considered as legitimate offspring. The legitimacy is important in the matters of
inheritance and succession. Therefore, marriage is not only regarded as the means of sexual
gratification, but also a set of cultural mechanisms to ensure the continuation of the family. It
is regarded as more or less a social institution within the country.

The major function of kinship usages is to govern the role relationships between kin.
The kinsmen are required to implement certain norms, values, morals and ethics in the
implementation of effective terms and relationships with each other. Kinship assigns
guidelines for interaction between individuals. It defines the roles and relationships between
family members. The family members are related to each other by blood or marriage. The
rules governing the relationship between the pair of kinsmen may be patterned to a major
extent in some societies. Whereas, in other societies, such rules may be less patterned and
leave much room for the individualised behaviour. Finally, it can be stated in order to acquire
an effective understanding of the Indian social structure, the individuals need to understand
the institutions of family, marriage and kinship.

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 3

Religion and Caste

Throughout the country, religion has rendered a significant contribution in influencing
the lives of the individuals. The vast majority of Indians associate themselves with the
religion and religious tolerance is established both in custom and law. The sixth century B.C.
is one of the cardinal epochs in human history. It was an age of extra-ordinary mental and
spiritual unrest widely apart. In India, ardent spirits were unusually active in the quest of
truth. Ancient India has two philosophical streams of thought, i.e. the Samana religion and
the Vedic religion. Parallel traditions that have existed simultaneously for thousands of years.
Buddhism and Jainism are continuations of Samana religions. Whereas, modern Hinduism is
the continuation of the Vedic tradition. These traditions that have been occurring at the same
time have been mutually influential. The key concepts of Hinduism, such as, reincarnations
of actions (Karma), fate, duty (Dharma) and the four varnas, classes developed during this
time (Chapter-2. Historical Background of the Indian Society, n.d.).

Religion has a powerful social factor in all phases of human history and in all parts of
the human world. In not only India, but in other countries of the world as well, religion
renders a significant contribution. The individuals, belonging to various age groups,
categories and backgrounds, possess the viewpoint that practicing religion, generating
information in terms of religious beliefs, norms and values will enable them to carry out their
tasks and activities in a satisfactory manner. Therefore, the level of religious orientation
among the individuals within the country is regarded as the concept that is of utmost
significance. The Constitution uses and does not define the expression of religion and
religious denomination, therefore, the court have found it necessary to explain the meaning
and significance of religion. In India, all individuals are provided with the right to practice
the religion of his or her own choice (Chapter- I. Introduction, n.d.).

3.1 Religions of India

The religions that are prevalent within the country are stated as follows: (Religions of

India, n.d.).

Hinduism

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 Hinduism is the most prevalent form of religion in India. In Hinduism, the individuals
acquire sacred knowledge through the Vedas and Upanishads. The religion imparts
knowledge, ideas and information to the individuals in terms of morals, ethics, principles,
standards and so forth. It is believed in Hinduism that to carry out one’s actions and deeds in
a well-organized manner, the individuals need to have faith in the Almighty and perform
good deeds. In the performance of good deeds, the individuals need to ensure they do not
impose any harm upon anybody. In this religion, the individuals worship the Hindu deities
and in some cases make visits to religious places. Temples are regarded as the religious
places of the Hindus. It is the oldest living religion in the world. When marriages or any other
functions and ceremonies are carried out, the individuals need to practice their own norms,
customs, morals and values.

Sikhism

Sikhism is the monotheistic religion. It was founded during the 15th century in the
state of Punjab. Sikhs practice the faith that consists of the elements of Hinduism and Islam
(Hooker, 2013). In the present existence, the population of Sikhs is highest in the state of
Punjab. In Sikhism, the individuals carry out their norms and values in accordance to the
norms. The religious place of the Sikhs is the Gurudwaras. In some cases, individuals make
visits to the Gurudwaras on daily basis. One of the important aspects that is emphasised upon
in Sikhism is giving donations. In some cases, free meals are provided for 24 hours in a day,
seven days in a week. In order to make provision of meals, it is apparent that individuals
would need donations in cash or kind from other individuals. The individuals, belonging to
poverty stricken, deprived and marginalized sections of the society are the ones, who make
visits to Gurudwaras to obtain two square meals. In Sikhism, it is taught, the Sikhs are
required to have the courage to defend the rights of all the individuals. The individuals, who
are taken into consideration, include particularly those, who are oppressed and discriminated
against on the basis of factors, such as, caste, creed, race, religion, ethnicity, gender, age,
education, occupation and socio-economic background.

Buddhism

Buddhism is regarded as India’s main contribution to spirituality (Hooker, 2013).

Buddhism is the path of practice and spiritual development leading to insight into the true
nature of reality. Buddhist practices like the meditation are regarded as the means of
changing oneself in order to develop the qualities of awareness, kindness and wisdom. The

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experience developed within the Buddhist tradition over thousands of years has created an
incomparable resource for all those, who wish to follow the path. A path which ultimately
culminates in the enlightenment of Buddhahood. In India, all individuals have equal rights to
practice the religion of Buddhism. There is not any discrimination on the basis of number of
factors, such as, caste, creed, race, religion, gender, age, ethnicity, occupation and socio-
economic background. In Buddhism, the individuals are imparted with information in terms
of practical methods, which enable them to realise and make use of the teachings in order to
bring about transformation in their expressions and be completely responsible for their lives.

Jainism

Jainism is the religion that is practiced by followers of Lord Vardhaman Mahavira.

Lord Vardhamana Mahavira is the founder of Jainism. In Jainism, profound respect for life is
emphasised upon (Hooker, 2013). In this religion, the individuals, follow certain norms and
values in accordance to which they live their lives. The Jains are pure vegetarians and refrain
themselves from the consumption of alcohol and non-vegetarian food. In this religion,
emphasis is put upon the philosophy of non-violence and asceticism. It began in the sixth
century B.C., the same time, the development of Buddhism was taking place. The faith is
named for the jinas, and spiritual conquerors, who have received liberation. In Jainism, there
are 24 spiritual leaders, known as tirthankaras. Jain rituals centres upon sacred images and
mantras i.e. chants. In this religion, the individuals form the viewpoint that wholehearted
faith in the Almighty will help them to achieve their goals and objectives and generate
prosperity and affluence.

Christianity

The Christianity emerged in India in the third century CE. It includes some of the
communities, who used Syriac liturgically. It is a possibility that the existence of the religion
extends as far as the 1st century. It is also well-noted that Thomas, the Apostle visited Muziris
in Kerala in 52 A.D. The main objective was to spread the gospel amongst Kerala’s Jewish
sentiments. San Thome Basilica in Chennai is built over the site, where St. Thomas is
believed to be originally interred. Christian communities are found throughout the country.
The individuals have their own viewpoints and perspectives in accordance to which they live
their lives. But in Christianity, the individuals usually make visits to the churches on
Sundays. The norms, values, ethics, morals and principles are stated in the religion in

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accordance to which they carry out various functions and ceremonies. Christmas is the major
festival of Christians and is celebrated with joy and merriment.

Judaism

Judaism is the monotheistic religion developed among the ancient Hebrews. Judaism
is characterized by the belief in one transcendent God, who revealed himself to Abraham,
Moses and the Hebrew Prophets. These individuals live religious lives in accordance to the
values, norms, and principles that have been stated in the religious scriptures. In addition, the
information that has been contained in the rabbinic texts is followed. Judaism is the complex
phenomenon of the total way of life for the Jewish individuals, comprising of theology, law
and innumerable cultural traditions. When research has been conducted on this religion, the
history of Judaism is also taken into consideration. History is regarded as the key in the
effective understanding of this religion. In this religion, God’s presence is experienced within
the natural realm, but with the more immediate or intimate disclosure that takes place in
human actions. Although other ancient communities also perceived the divine presence in
history.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastranism is an ancient Persian religion that may have originated as early as 4000
years ago. It is regarded as the world’s first monotheistic faith. It is regarded as one of the
oldest religions still in existence. Zoroastrianism was the state religion of three Persian
dynasties, until the Muslim conquest of Persia in the seventh century A.D. Zoroastrianism
refugees, called Parsis escaped the Muslim persecution in Iran by immigrating to India.
Zoroastrianism, in the present existence has 100000 to 200000 worshippers on a
comprehensive scale. In the present existence, it is practiced as the minority religion in parts
of India and Iran. Zoroastrianism is thought to have been born in what is now known as
north-eastern Iran or south-western Afghanistan. There is a collection of Zoroastrian religion
scriptures. But the individuals, who have conducted research on this religion are still unable
to find out where and in what time period Zoroastrianism may have been initiated.

Bahai

The Bahai’s faith is the world’s newest independent global belief system, teaches the
oneness of God, the unity of humanity and the essential harmony of religion. Bahaullal
(1817-1892) is the prophet of the Bahai faith. Bahai believes in peace, justice, affection,

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appreciation, altruism and unity. The Bahai’s teachings promote the agreement of science and
religion, the quality of gender and the elimination of all prejudice and racism. In the religion
of Bahai, the teachings are followed of Bahaulla, who proclaimed the Bahai Faith during the
middle of the 19th century, who taught the world of peace. In the kingdoms of earth and
heaven, there must needs be manifested as being, an essence, who shall act as a manifestation
and vehicle for the transmission of the grace of divinity itself, the sovereign of all. In the
religion of Bahai, when there are organization of marriages, ceremonies and occasions and
celebration of festivals, the individuals are required to implement their own norms, customs
and values.

Islam

Islam is the major religion promulgated by Prophet Muhammad in Arabia in the

seventh century CE. The Arabic term Islam, literally means ‘to surrender’. It illuminates the
fundamental religious idea of Islam that the believer is called Muslim, from an active particle
of Islam. It accepts surrender to the will of Allah. Retaining its emphasis on an
uncompromising monotheism and a strict adherence to certain religious practices, which are
vital. The religion is taught by Muhammad to a small group of followers, spread rapidly
through middle-east to Africa, Europe and the Indian sub-continent, Malay Peninsula and
China. By the early 21st century, there were more than 1.5 billion Muslims on a
comprehensive scale. Matters of jurisdiction involving Muslims in India related to marriage,
inheritance and wakf properties are governed by the Muslim personal law. The courts of law
that ruled Sharia or Muslim law holds precedence for Muslims over Indian civil laws in such
matters.

3.2 Role of Religion in Indian Societies

Role of religion is regarded to be of utmost significance in Indian societies. Man is a

spiritual being, there has been prevalence of the viewpoint among individuals that having
faith in the Almighty will help them in the achievement of goals and objectives. There are
organization of religious ceremonies before the initiation of any functions and tasks. For
example, when there are birth, death or marriages in the family, there are organization of
religious ceremonies to obtain the blessings of the Almighty. In some cases, the individuals
make visits to temples or other religious places on daily basis, based on their faith. This
applies, mainly to the elderly individuals, who are not vested with any major responsibilities.
Research has indicated that when the elderly individuals are ambulatory and have time, they

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make visits to religious places on daily basis. Apart from social, economic, and cultural
needs, individuals have religious needs. Religion is the unified system of beliefs and
practices, relative to sacred things (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

The institution of religion is universal and during what time period, this religion was
initiated is unknown. Religion is found in all societies in the past as well as in the present
existence. Religion is regarded as a powerful instrument of social control. When the
individuals practice religion, when they read religious scriptures or listen to religious hymns,
they acquire an efficient understanding in terms of the aspects that what are the good deeds
that individuals should perform. The individuals understand that performance of good deeds,
will help them to generate prosperity, affluence and maintain good terms and relationships
with other individuals. On the other hand, the performance of bad deeds will enable the
individuals to experience unfavourable effects. Therefore, it can be stated that when the
individuals realise that when they will perform good deeds and inculcate the traits of morality
and ethics, they will be able to exercise social control and implement effective behavioural
traits (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

The social life of the individuals is concealed on a large scale with political, scientific,
economic, philosophical and other aspects of human life. Religious aspect is considered as
more significant as compared to other aspects in the lives of the individuals. In modern
civilized societies, religious leaders have developed elaborated theories to explain the
position of human beings within the universe. The religions that have been practiced by the
individuals throughout the country, i.e. Hinduism, Sikhism, Christianity, Jainism, Buddhism,
Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Islam and Bahai are regarded as the institutions of elaborate cultural
systems that have dominated whole societies for centuries (Indian Society and Social Change,
2011). In the Constitution of India, right to religion is one of the fundamental rights, in which
the individuals are required to practice the religion of his or her own choice. Research has
indicated, there are religious places established throughout the country with renowned
architecture, magnificence and splendour. The religious places that are established throughout
the country are open to individuals, belonging to various religions for visiting.

Practicing of religious beliefs is regarded as fundamental in human life and human

development. In order to bring about progression of oneself, the individuals need to take into
consideration certain aspects. These include, education, employment opportunities, housing
accommodation, an effective social circle, good terms and relationships with family

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members, development of competencies and aptitude, work ethics, morality and ethics,
economic well-being and abilities to fulfil their needs and requirements. In order to acquire
these, the individuals need to generate awareness in terms of their job duties and
responsibilities. Furthermore, they need to inculcate the traits of diligence, resourcefulness
and conscientiousness. It is comprehensively understood that apart from these, they need to
practice religious beliefs and values. Having faith in the Almighty will help the individuals in
providing solutions to their problems. In the augmentation of one’s career prospects, the
individuals need to experience number of problems and challenges. Therefore, in order to
provide solutions to these problems, they offer prayers, donate items and perform good deeds.
Therefore, it can be stated, religious practices are comprehensively acknowledged by
individuals, irrespective of backgrounds and categories.

The practicing of religious beliefs is a concrete experience and is associated with

emotions, especially fear. In many societies, there is a comprehensive range of institutions,
connected with religion and the body of special official forms of worships, ceremonies,
sacred objects and the like. In modern and civilized societies, the religious leaders are
actively participating in the organization of religious sermons. The individuals and societies,
not only in India, but in other countries of the world as well are developing interest in
listening to religious sermons from religious leaders. In foreign countries, such as, United
States of America, there is a large number of Indian population, who make visits to religious
places as well as attend religious sermons. The primary objective of religious sermons is to
provide information to the individuals, so they are able to alleviate any negative feelings and
turn out to be moral, ethical, honest and productive human beings.

In India, throughout the country, there is prevalence of criminal and violent acts. The
individuals, in urban as well as in rural and tribal societies are getting engaged in various
acts, such as, verbal abuse, physical abuse, sexual harassment, theft and robbery, grievous
hurt, domestic violence, acid attacks, child trafficking, rape and murder. The individuals are
finding it difficult to exercise control on the feelings of anger and frustration. It is primarily
due to the psychological problems of anger, stress, frustration and feelings of antagonism and
antipathy that individuals are getting engaged in criminal and violent acts. In educational
institutions, organizations, offices, and other public places, the individuals are getting
engaged in these acts, primarily due to anger and antipathy. All religions provide information
to the individuals that it is vital for them to maintain control on the feelings of anger and
frustration. Furthermore, they should not develop any types of ill-feelings against anybody.

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The tasks and activities of the individuals need to be dedicated in promoting well-being of
others. Therefore, it can be stated that the primary objective of all religions is to impart
information among individuals to depict honesty, righteousness and truthfulness.

3.3 Characteristics of Religion in Urban, Rural and Tribal

Communities

The various characteristics of religion in urban, rural and tribal communities have
been stated as follows: (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Gods and Goddesses

In rural and tribal communities, Gods and Goddesses are worshipped in accordance to
their beliefs. The most important God is the Shiva, who is worshipped in different forms and
under different names. Lord Hanuman is also worshipped. He is known by the name of
‘Sankat Mochan’ in Ramayana. In accordance to the research, the individuals, belonging to
rural and tribal communities, worship Lord Shiva and Lord Hanuman on a large scale.
Besides these two, the other deities, who are worshipped in these societies are, Brahma,
Vishnu, Rama, Krishna, Agni, Vayu, Valmiki, Jagannath, Sun God, Moon God, Goddess
Lakshmi, Goddess Saraswati, Goddess Kali and so forth. The individuals, belonging to these
communities extends respect and reverence to many other deities, which cannot be called
Hindu by tradition. Furthermore, every village has its own Gods and Goddesses, which are
essentially regarded as local, often the place of worship of such a deity is outside the village
and is worshipped from time to time.

Worship of Plants, Trees, Mountains, Rocks and Animals

In the rural and tribal communities, worship of plants, trees, mountains, rocks and
animals are considered divine. The plant of tulsi is regarded as sacred. In urban areas as well,
individuals have tulsi plant in their homes, which they worship on daily basis. It is believed
that worshipping of tulsi plant will help the individuals in bringing peace and affluence. In
villages as well as in urban areas, there are trees outside the temples. When the individuals
make visits to the temples, they are able to complete their prayers only after tying a sacred
red thread on the tree. The worshipping of Govardhan Mountain is common within the
country, which is called ‘Govardhan Puja’. In the Hindu Mythology, it is stated that Lord
Krishna lifted the Govardhan Mountain to protect the individuals, when the town of
Vrindavan was affected by severe rainfall and floods. In tribal communities, the individuals

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worship rocks, as they are regarded as divine in their religious beliefs. In India, cow is a
sacred animal. Cow is called Gowmata and is considered divine.

Beliefs in Black Magic and Witchcraft

The individuals, belonging to urban communities, who are well-educated and are
engaged in good employment opportunities or are professionals, do not believe in black
magic and witchcraft. They have their own religious beliefs and norms and practice their own
religion. On the other hand, the individuals, belonging to rural and tribal communities usually
possess their own traditional beliefs and viewpoints. They are either non-literates or possess
low literacy skills. In some cases, they possess the viewpoint that practicing black magic and
witchcraft will help them in providing solutions to their problems. The problems that are
prevalent among the individuals, belonging to these communities are, poverty, illiteracy,
illnesses and health problems and challenges and difficulties that are experienced in the
sustenance of overall livelihoods opportunities. Hence, to provide solutions to these
problems, they practice black magic and witchcraft. The other areas are, activities get
instituted to get rid of all the activities, which may prove to be impediments, mainly within
the course of achievement of goals and objectives.

Ideas of Auspicious and Inauspicious

In all societies, urban, rural and tribal, the individuals possess the ideas of auspicious
and inauspicious. Before initiating any tasks and activities, they conduct an analysis of
factors, which may prove to be auspicious or inauspicious. For example, the individuals may
not make purchases of any item, made of metal on Saturdays. They possess the viewpoint
that if they would make purchases of technologies or kitchen appliances or any other piece of
metal on Saturdays, the items would not prove to be effectual and would impose
unfavourable effects. On the other hand, offering prayers in the morning as well as in the
evening, performing good deeds and not initiating any tasks, which may prove to be
disadvantageous to others are important factors that would lead to auspiciousness and good
luck. In case of implementation of important tasks and organization of marriage ceremonies,
they consult the religious leaders and priests for fixing of the date.

Faith in Dreams

It is stated that an aimless life is a meaningless life, therefore, the individuals

belonging to various age groups, categories and backgrounds have aspirations and develop

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faith in dreams. Research has indicated that individuals, belonging to urban communities
normally dream of acquiring good quality education from a reputed educational institution
within the country of residence or international countries. The other dream that they have is,
acquisition of reputed employment opportunities. Whereas, individuals, belonging to rural
and tribal communities also have dreams in terms of alleviation of the conditions of poverty
and backwardness, acquisition of education, acquisition of employment opportunities, and
ability to sustain their conditions in a satisfactory manner. Therefore, to achieve their goals
and objectives, they practice religious beliefs and devise measures and strategies that are
needed to achieve the desired goals.

Religious Consideration in Dietary Habits

Diet and nutrition are regarded as important aspects within the lives of the individuals.
In some cases, the individuals are pure vegetarians and do not even consume eggs. In some
cases, they only consume food after taking a bath. In accordance to the research studies, the
individuals, who possess strong religious beliefs observe fasts. In some cases, they may
consume water and fruits during fasts, in some cases, only fruits, but no water, in some cases,
only water, whereas, in other cases, they may not consume even water. There are different
types of fasts, which are observed primarily by women. In the Hindu religion, married
women observe fasts for the longevity and prosperity of their husbands. In this case, they
refrain themselves from the consumption of food and water. The individuals may observe
fasts to repent for their sins and wrongdoings and so forth. In the cases of religious occasions
and celebrations too the individuals may observe fasts. Hence, observation of fasts and
possession of certain viewpoints regarding diet is also one of the important religious
considerations.

Formation of Good and Bad Viewpoints

In rural and tribal communities to a major extent and in urban communities to a minor
extent, the individuals form good and bad viewpoints. These viewpoints are directly or
indirectly associated with religious beliefs and practices. This can be explained in the better
way by stating an example. In some of the villages, girls were not given preference. In other
words, the birth of girls was not considered auspicious. They were regarded as liabilities and
preference was given to male children. But there has been a case of the family, in which the
birth of the girl child was regarded as auspicious. When the girl was born in the family, the
family began to prosper and were able to alleviate the conditions of poverty and

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backwardness. Therefore, it can be stated that there have been transformations taking place in
the viewpoints of individuals and communities and birth of the girl child is also regarded as
auspicious. Therefore, it can be stated that formation of good as well as bad viewpoints have
an influence upon the beliefs and practices of the individuals.

Superstitions in the Occurrence of Natural Calamities and Disasters

The individuals, belonging to various communities form superstitions regarding the

occurrence of natural calamities and disasters. For example, when it rains heavily or there are
occurrence of floods, it is believed that skies are angry. They begin to conduct an analysis of
their deeds and actions, which have been negative. Hence, as a result of implementation of
negative acts, they are required to undergo detrimental effects. In India, throughout the
country, there are occurrence of natural calamities and disasters, such as, earthquakes, floods,
draught and so forth. In the case of these, individuals experience loss of life, wealth and
property to a major extent. In most cases, it may take longer period of time for the individuals
to recuperate. This is apparent that viewpoints and perspectives of the individuals will be
different in all communities. In urban areas, the individuals, usually built houses and
formulate measures to protect themselves from natural calamities and disasters. Whereas in
rural and tribal communities, the individuals are usually unaware of the measures that need to
be implemented to protect themselves. Therefore, they get effected to a major extent. Due to
this factor in the superstitions of the rural and tribal individuals in the occurrence of natural
calamities and disasters is more as compared to urban individuals.

Morality and Ethics

Practicing religious beliefs, listening to religious sermons and hymns and reading
religious texts imparts knowledge to the individuals in terms of morality and ethics. It is of
utmost significance for the individuals to augment knowledge in terms of morality and ethics.
In urban communities, there are individuals and families, belonging to upper castes, who are
well-educated and financially well-to-do. These individuals possess the viewpoint that it is
vital for them to make donations and provide assistance to individuals, belonging to poverty
stricken, deprived and economically weaker sections of the society. They may provide
assistance to individuals, in number of ways. These include, making provision of free
coaching classes to provide them knowledge in terms of academic concepts, to provide
medical treatment free of cost, if they are from the medical background and making
donations of various items, including food, clothing, stationary, bags, furniture, blankets,

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kitchen appliances and so forth. In this manner, the individuals not only inculcate the traits of
morality and ethics among themselves, but also earn blessings and good wishes from
individuals, whom they are helping. All religions impart knowledge in terms of providing
help to the needy and poor and promoting their well-being.

Generation of Awareness

Through religious texts, hymns and sermons, individuals generate information in

terms of various aspects. When they are generating information in terms of positive actions, it
is vital for them to put these into practice in order to promote well-being of themselves, their
families and communities. In the epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, the individuals
generate information in terms of various mythological characters and their roles. The religion
imparts information to the individuals, that they should respect their parents and treat them
with courtesy. Parents render a significant contribution in the growth and development of the
children. In some cases, there may be differences in the viewpoints of the parents and
children. But parents will make wise decisions and work diligently in promoting well-being
of their children. Therefore, it is vital for the children to listen to their parents and obey them.
In the epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, emphasis has been put upon obeying and
respecting one’s parents and older siblings.

3.4 Sources of Indian Religion

The topic that is concerned with the sources of Indian religion is a topic, which has
been under debate in the sub-continent. What is the prudent way of discussing the topic to
recognize the existence of multiple sources of what emerged to be Indian religion and
civilization (Clothey, 2006).

Hunting Civilization

It is believed that the existence of human beings in the Indian sub-continent was from

at least 100000 B.C. It is apparent that not all Indian culture emerged from the hunting
civilization. But in India, the individuals, belonging to tribal communities depend upon
hunting and gathering. When the individuals were not aware of measures and approaches
regarding making use of other sources to earn their living, they were dependent upon the
natural environmental conditions for the sustenance of their living conditions. In the present
existence, with advancements taking place, agriculture is regarded as the major occupation of

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the individuals, belonging to rural and tribal communities, but they are dependent upon the
natural environmental conditions for their survival and practice hunting and gathering.

Hunting and gathering societies were described in some of the early literary sources
dating in the early centuries CE. These societies did lend certain motives to the mythology of
later forms of religion. Several deities in the Hindu religion, either passed through the hunting
stage or assumed the role of hunter at certain points of their histories. These include, Vithoba,
one of the most renowned deities of Maharashtra, Murukan, God in Tamil Nadu, Sasta and
Aiyan are known in Kerala and Bhairava is the manifestation of Shiva. Furthermore, animals
were also incorporated into Hindu Mythologies. For example, elephant is the part of
mythology of Lord Ganesh. Tiger is associated with the powerful Goddess. Therefore, in the
Hindu mythology, animals also render an effective contribution.

Agricultural Communities

By the 3500 B.C.E, cultivation was taking place in many parts of the Indian sub-
continent. Cultivation took place of certain types of grains and fruits. Some animals were
domesticated, including cattle and fowl. Pottery was an indispensable part of the economy
and small settlements had become part of the landscape. These agricultural communities
seem to have resulted from indigenous development and from further migrations. It is
possible that the development of agriculture and cultivation skills owed something to women,
who had been food-gatherers. They have been involved in the collection of wild fruits, which
had not needed cultivation. Some of the agricultural communities have been matrilineal,
suggesting that women had a significant role to play in the social and economic lives of the
agricultural communities.

Before summarising the religious contributions of the agricultural communities, a

brief word is appropriate in terms of the Indus Valley Civilization. While this was the culture
that may have had some affinities with agricultural communities to the west. The Indus
culture was the diverse set of civilizations, where trade occurred with Mesopotamia and
Persian Gulf. In these entities, such as, coral, lead and gold were exchanged. The individuals
were skilled in the use of copper and bronze and had domesticated number of animals. These
include, bison, cats, dogs, sheep and pigs. It is also apparent that the agricultural motifs have
filtered into the classical forms of Indian religion. There have been contributions of
agricultural communities to the religious life of the country. Religion has roots in the
agricultural settings within the country.

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 The Indo-European Influence

There have been discussions taking place in the recent years as to the sources of
culture and religion. These come to be known as Vedic. There are basically two points of
view. The traditional view is that, there was a migration of Indo-European that influenced the
Indian sub-continent (as well as Iran and other cultures). The other is that, much of the
culture is indigenous to India. The traditional hypothesis are based on the comparisons of
culture and religion. These individuals are called Indo-Europeans were thought to have been
widely spread and loosely connected confederation of tribes wandering in the Steppe Islands
of Eurasia. Some of those migrated towards the west is suggested by their apparent influence
on the culture and language of the Nordic, Germanic, Greek and Slavic regions. Others,
known as Indo-Iranian were thought to have moved from south and east across Afghanistan
and influenced cultures in the countries of Iran and India.

These tribes are believed to have several features in common. Their awareness was
less in terms of creativity of earth. The sky served as the model for the sense of direction of
the community. Their deities were Gods of the sky, virtually all of them were male in as
much as the tribes were patrilineal. During the night, the community centred around the fire
that served the focal point of the ritual, and the agency or messenger, by which the
individuals would have access to Gods. Fire could also transform and served as the centre for
the sacrificial liberations. Some of the Indian scholars insisted upon the idea of migration into
India was a construction of the colonialist European discourse. Furthermore, the
developments that took place in the sub-continent were of purely indigenous origins.

The Vedic Period

The social order of the Vedic period was primarily patrilineal. Though women did
have certain privileges, they could provide their ideas and suggestions in the decision making
processes, they owned a share in the property, and they rendered an efficient contribution in
social, cultural, economic and religious activities as well. The marriages were monogamous
and polygamous. The caste system is classified into four categories. These include,
Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmans are the priests, Kshatriyas are the
rulers and warriors, Vaishyas are traders and merchants and Shudras are cleaners and
sweepers. The individuals, belonging to various castes carried out their tasks and activities in
accordance to their knowledge, competencies and aptitude. In the Vedic period, religion was
practiced in accordance to the castes.

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 The various Gods are mentioned in the Hindu texts. One of those, a four-part
compilation known as Vedas are the scriptural texts that form the basis of Hinduism. The
oldest Veda is the Rig Veda that dates back to at least 1500 B.C.E. The other three Vedas are
Sam, Yajur and Artharva Vedas. In the Vedic period, the Vedas themselves are not
considered as human compositions, but were rather received by Shamans, known as rishis.
The Vedas weren’t actually written down until about fifteenth century C.E., so their passing
down by the word of mouth for over three millennium is indeed remarkable (Chapter-2.
Historical Background of the Indian Society, n.d.).

3.5 Distribution of Population by Religion

The Constitution of India in Part III provides endorsement to Freedom of Religion in

India. India is a secular country and has no state religion (Mahmood, 2006). This freedom is
reserved not just for the citizens of India, but also applies in case of other individuals as well,
who are residing in India. The citizens and other individuals within the country have the right
to practice the religion of his or her choice. All the individuals are equally entitled to freedom
of conscience and the right to freely profess, propagate and practice religion. In India, the
states are also empowered to regulate the matters, incidental to religion or in other words,
secular activities associated with the religious practices can be carried out by individuals,
irrespective of factors, such as, caste, creed, race, ethnicity, religion, gender, occupation and
socio-economic background. Throughout the country, there have been establishment of
religious places and religious institutions, which are rendering a significant contribution for
leading to effective growth and development of the individuals, communities and nation as a
whole (Chauhan, 2017).

Religious profile of the populations is an important socio-cultural and demographic

feature. It is noticeable since the first census in 1872 till the present existence. The data in
terms of religions or religious groups for which information was collected had some
variations in the pre-independence period. After the country attained its independence in
1947, since 1961, there has been some uniformity in the collection of religious data. Apart
from six major religions, i.e. Hindu, Sikh, Christians, Jains, Buddhists and Muslims, the data
was also collected in terms of other religious faiths and denominations. Some of the religious
faiths and persuasions are variants or varied manifestations of the major religious groups. The
list of other religions were checked, edited, classified and processed to obtain accurate data.
Cross-tabulation in terms of different religious groups in terms of the factors of literacy, and

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classification of workers and non-workers provided new insights (Distribution of Population
by Religions, 2011).

Distribution of Population by Religious Groups and their Gender

Ratios

In accordance to the 2001 census, out of the total population of the country, 80.5
percent are Hindus, while Muslims account for 13.4 percent and Christians, 2.3 percent
respectively of the total population. In absolute numbers, 828 million are Hindus, 138 million
are Muslims, and Sikhs account for 1.9 percent of the total population. The proportion of
Buddhists, Jains and other religions are 0.8 percent, 0.4 percent and 0.6 percent respectively.
Gender ratio is the number of females per one thousand males is 933 for all religious groups
at national level. Hindus and Sikhs are below the national average, whereas, the rest are
above average (Distribution of Population by Religions, 2011).

Child Population in the Age Group 0-6 Years and their Gender Ratios

The proportion of the population in the age group of 0-6 years to the total population
offers a general picture of the relative fertility status among the religious groups, a higher
proportion meaning the higher fertility. While the proportion of all-India is 15.9 percent. The
five religious communities within the country, including, Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Jains,
Buddhists and Christians exhibit rates lower than the national average. The lowest being 10.6
percent for the Jains. The proportion of 0-6 population for the Sikhs, i.e. 12.8 percent is also
lower than the national average by more than three percent. Hindus account for 15.6 percent.
On the other hand, Muslims have the highest proportion of 18.7 percent, whereas, other
religious groups have the rate of 18 percent. The child gender ratio is 927 for all India is
lower as compared to the total population of six percent.

Literacy Rate by Religious Communities

The rate of literacy for the population computed for the 2001 census after excluding
the population less than seven years of age is found to be 64.8 percent for the whole country.
The percentage of literacy among males is 75.3 percent, while the percentage of literacy rate
among females is 53.7 percent. Except Muslims and other religions, all the rest of the major
religions have the literacy rate higher than the national average. Jains have the highest rate of
literacy, which accounts for 94.1 percent followed by Christians with 80.3 percent. Buddhists
with 72.7 percent occupy the third position. Whereas, among other religions, there is a lowest

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rate of literacy. Hindus have a total literacy rate of 65.1 percent, which is above the national
average. On the other hand, Muslims have a total literacy rate of 59.1 percent, below the
national average (Distribution of Population by Religions, 2011).

Work Participation Rate by Religion

Work participation rate is referred to the percentage of workers to the total population
of the country. It was 39.1 percent in accordance to the 2001 census. The percentage of
religious groups in terms of the work participation rates are, Buddhists (40.6 percent), Hindus
(40.4 percent), Christians (39.7 percent), Muslims (31.3 percent), Jains (32.9 percent), Sikhs
(37.7 percent) and other religions (48.4 percent). There are differences in the work
participation rate in accordance to the genders. Males have a higher rate of work participation
rate as compared to women. Comprehensive variations are found in work participation rates
among the major religions. The gender gap in the work participation rate is particularly large
among Jains (46 percent points), Muslims (33.4 percent points) and Sikhs (33.1 percent
points). The differences at the national level being 26.1 percent points (Distribution of
Population by Religions, 2011).

Proportion of Workers by Categories

In India, the individuals are involved into various types of occupations in accordance
to their educational qualifications, competencies and aptitude. The jobs are classified into two
categories, white collar and blue collar jobs. The white collar jobs are reputed jobs, which
primarily recruit the individuals, who are professionally qualified. These are also termed as
desk jobs. On the other hand, blue collar jobs are the jobs, which involve manual skills and
abilities. The recruitment of individuals, who do not possess even the basic literacy skills of
reading, writing and arithmetic or possess low literacy skills takes place in these jobs. The
percentage of total workers in terms of various occupations of cultivation, agricultural
labourers, industry workers and other workers have been classified in accordance to the 2001
census. It has been found that the percentage of Hindus is high as compared to other religions
(Distribution of Population by Religions, 2011).

3.6 Communalism, Secularism and Regionalism

Communalism

Communalism is an ideology, which states that society is divided into religious

communities, which states that in some cases, the individuals and groups have varied
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interests, perspectives and viewpoints. The antagonism, which is practiced by the individuals,
belonging to one community against people of the other communities and religion is termed
as communalism. The feelings of antagonism may even assume an extreme form. The
individuals may harm, insult and get engaged in various types of criminal and violent acts.
These include, theft, robbery, grievous hurt, verbal abuse, physical abuse, burning down the
homes and shops of helpless and weak individuals, dishonouring women and even homicide
(Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

The major factors that have encouraged the growth of communalism are economic
backwardness of the Muslims, growth of communal parties and organizations, electoral
compulsions of political parties, communal media, literature and text-books and separatism
and isolation among Muslims. A probe into the major communal riots within the country
during the past five years reveals that communal riots are more politically than fuelled by
religion. Another factor is, apart from political interests, economic interests also render a
significant contribution in aggravating communal clashes. The probability of recurrence of
communal riots in a town, where the communal riots have already taken place once or twice
is as stronger than in the town, where such riots have not taken place. Most of the communal
riots takes place on the occasions of religious festivals. The use of weaponries in case of riots
are on the predominance (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Measures to Deal with Communalism

The measures, which need to be implemented to deal with communalism have been
stated as follows: (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

1. In the initiation of the process of de-communalising the individuals and

communities at all levels. In order to carry out this process, there are certain
factors, which need to be taken into account. These are, bringing home to them
that communal assumptions are false; and by providing them explanations in
terms of socio-economic and political roots of communalism.
2. Communalism of the state and that of the political elite has to be checked as it
leads to inactions against the communal violence. In addition, covert or overt
political and ideological support to communalism by the state apparatus.
3. The communalization of civil society also needs to be checked as it leads to riots
that are more communal. The individuals and groups with communal ideas and

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 perspectives require the government to formulate measures and programs, which
may enable the individuals and groups to alleviate communal riots.
4. In educational institutions, there has been an introduction of the subject which
facilitate understanding among the individuals that all have the right to practice
the religion of his or her own choice. Furthermore, the individuals, belonging to
various religions have the right to equal opportunities and there should not be any
type of discrimination. Emphasis is put on value-oriented education.
5. The media can render a significant contribution in the prevention of communal
feelings. Communal press need to be banned and legal action need to be taken
against communal writers.
6. It is vital to establish peace committees. In this case, the individuals, belonging to
different religious groups can work together to spread goodwill, welfare and the
feelings of brotherhood. In other words, it is essential for the individuals,
belonging to various religious groups to understand that all Indians are like
brothers and sisters. They need to remove the feelings of antagonism and hatred.
7. The state has to plan and implement new strategies and approaches in dealing with
communal violence. When leaders have initiated measures and approaches to curb
communal riots. In such cases, the occurrence of communal riots have been less or
did not occur.
8. The role of media has been taken into consideration within the course of
communal riots. The feelings of fear, antagonism and hatred can be checked, if
press, radio and television report the events in a manner conducive to promote
peace and tranquillity among individuals. When the individuals and groups are
peaceful, they would contribute effectively in elimination of communal riots.
9. The occurrence of communal riots prove to be unfavourable and cause loss of life
and property to a major extent. It becomes difficult for the individuals to live their
lives peacefully in the communities and regions, where there are occurrence of
communal riots. Therefore, it is vital for the individuals to take precautions and
implement measures that would help in curbing communal riots and promoting
brotherhood.
10. The communal riots are regarded as major impediments within the course of
progression of the country. In not only educational institutions at all levels, but in
employment opportunities and organizations as well, it is vital for individuals to
provide equal opportunities and not discriminate on the basis of religion.

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 Discriminatory treatment is regarded as the major factor in leading to communal
riots, therefore, it needs to be eradicated.

Secularism

Secularism along with commitment to the ideals of democracy, equality and

freedom are some of the fundamental principles that inspired a large section of the
individuals to struggle for the achievement of country’s independence (Indian Society and
Social Change, 2011). India is a secular country. It signifies that all citizens of the country
have the right to practice the religion of his or her own choice. In educational institutions, in
the acquisition of various kinds of employment opportunities and in carrying out one’s daily
life tasks and activities, the individuals, need to practice the religion of his or her own choice.
Religion renders a significant contribution in influencing the lives of the individuals.

Secularism is a part of the whole range of new ideas and institutions that marked the
end of the feudal order and the emergence of sovereign modern nation states with new forms
of economic organization. The term ‘secularism’ is clearly western and more specifically of
Christian origin. It need not limit its applications to other cultures. Modern western
secularism was the consequence of the search for a way out for religious wars. These took
place quite often between Christians of various persuasions. Furthermore, they need to
separate the domain of the state from that of the church. Secularism is regarded as essential
for the modern democratic nation-states to ensure a resilient sense of identification with the
polity based on the common sense of identity. Being a citizen of the country takes precedence
over all other identities, such as, family, class, race, and religion (Indian Society and Social
Change, 2011).

In India, secularism is understood as the philosophy that would enable the individuals,
belonging to various categories and backgrounds to live together. The individuals need to
generate information in terms of other religions as well. When they will generate adequate
information and form positive viewpoints, the individuals will form good and amiable terms
and relationships with each other. In educational institutions, individuals have an aim of
augmenting their knowledge and competencies in terms of academic concepts and obtain
their degree. In order to achieve their goals and objectives, they need to work in co-ordination
and integration with others. The teachers and fellow students are from different religious
backgrounds. In the same manner, in employment settings, as well, it is vital for the

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individuals to work in collaboration and integration with each other. Therefore, in order to
carry out their job duties in a well-organized manner and achieve the desired goals and
objectives, the individuals need to form positive viewpoints in terms of other religions.

The practice of secularism within the country is condemned on the grounds that
religious and non-religious practices are not separated. However, instead of arguing for such
an unsustainable position. When secularism is being understood, it is vital to identify the
separation of religious and non-religious institutions. Secular institutions are necessary to
check the religious devotion. The occurrence of conflicts may not be of religious character,
therefore, individuals need to resolve conflicting situations peacefully. The individuals,
belonging to various categories and backgrounds realise that they are Indians and need to
treat each other with respect and courtesy. The individuals need to be committed to the ideals
of national movement and the democratic vision of the makers of the Constitution. India has
population of individuals, belonging to various religious groups, Hinduism, Buddhism,
Jainism, Christianity, Sikhism, Islam, Judaism, Zoroastrianism and Bahai. Hence, it can be
stated that there are diversity of religions in India (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Article 15 of the Constitution provides that the state shall not discriminate against the
individuals on the basis of religion, caste, gender, race and place of birth. Article 16
guarantees that the citizens of India should not be discriminated against in matters of public
employment on the basis of religion. Article 25 guarantees the freedom of conscience and the
right to freely propagate, practice and profess religion. When this right is given to the citizens
of India, it is necessary that they should treat each other with respect. The individuals need to
ensure that they do not get engaged into any kinds of communal riots. The occurrence of
communal riots impose detrimental effects upon not only the existence of individuals, but
also in the case of effective growth and development of communities and nation (Indian
Society and Social Change, 2011).

Article 27 and 28 further contribute in the reinforcement of the freedom of the

individuals. This is put into operation by banning taxation for the purpose of supporting a
particular religion and by banning religious instruction in the institutions recognized or
assisted by the state. Article 28 provides freedom to all religions, to set up trusts and
institutions and acquire property and manage their own matters and undertakings. Article 325
and 326, provide for the principle of non-discrimination among the citizens of area of voting
and representation on the basis of religion, race and gender. India has no state religion, nor

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does it give any constitutional recognition to the religion of the majority (Indian Society and
Social Change, 2011). It can be stated that when secularism is promoted within the country, it
would lead to progression of the nation.

Regionalism

Regionalism is the feeling or an ideology among the section of individuals, residing in

a particular geographical space. The geographical space characterised by unique language,
culture and so forth. The individuals residing in a particular locality are regarded as the sons
of the soil and they should be provided every opportunity and rights in their land. The growth
and development of regionalism can be traced back to the Dravida movement started in Tamil
Nadu. The main objective of the movement is to promote empowerment opportunities among
Dalits, non-Brahmins and the individuals, belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-
economically backward sections of the society. At a later stage, it turned imposition of Hindi
as the sole official language. Finally, the movement for some time focused on seceding from
India to carve out their own Dravidastan or Dravida Nadu. There was a gradual decline in the
movement and they have become prominent regional parties after number of fragments and
factionalism (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Furthermore, the concept of regionalism enable the individuals to develop peaceful

terms and relationships with each other. It turned from a non-violent means to violent means.
The individuals to a major extent formed this viewpoint that they need to achieve their goals
and objectives. Hence, with the main objective of achieving one’s goals and objectives, they
begin to adopt violent means. Regionalism in contemporary India is readily used for political
gains by party politicians and secessionists organizations. Economic reasons are exploited for
political dividends. When violent means are used against individuals in the name of
regionalism, it is regarded as the criminal offence and is punishable under law. Article 19 of
the Constitution of India provides right to the citizens to move freely throughout the country,
live and settle in any part of the country, practice any profession and to carry out any trade,
occupation or business. When United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) militants or
Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS) activists used violence against the poverty stricken
migrant workers, they violated the law of the land and also the Constitution, which is above
all, even above the Parliament (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Regionalism within the country is only regarded as the way to meet the political
ambitions by emotionally exploiting the sentiments of the individuals. The fear of

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Balkanization is devoid of any logic. India is bound by the common culture that has been on
the land thousands of years ago. First of all, the citizens of India need to state that they are
Indians first. First the individuals are Indians and then they say, which state, they belong to.
In foreign countries, the identity of the persons is that of an Indian. The states, which fought
for complete independence are now part of the Indian union and they have renounced
violence to some extent. These include, Mizoram, Nagaland, Kashmir, Bodoland and Tamil
Nadu. In the present world, regional parties define the formation of the Governments and
conducted both at the centre and state level. Indeed, it is regarded as an appropriate
development of some of the political entities, such as, RJD, BSP, LJP, DMK, AIADMK and
BJD. These parties have represented to some extent the individuals, who were neglected in
the political process for a long period of time (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Measures to Combat Regionalism

The measures to combat regionalism have been stated as follows: (Indian Society and
Social Change, 2011).

1. To even promote the development of the neglected areas, so they feel part of the
national mainstream.
2. The state government need to formulate effective measures and programs, which
may lead to well-being of the communities.
3. Problems of the individuals need to be solved in a peaceful and constitutional
manner. Politicians must not be allowed to misuse the issue of the regional
demands.
4. Except for the issues of national importance, the states should be given the
freedom to run their own affairs.
5. Changes are necessary in the central-state relations in favour of the states, and for
introducing the system of national education. It would contribute in helping the
individuals to overcome the regional feelings and develop an attachment towards
nation.

The resurgence of nationalism in various parts of the country has emerged as such

a serious problem that it literally threatens to divide the country. The formation of the new
states of Uttarakhand, Jharkhand and Chattisgarh in recent times is the expression of
territorial regionalism. The demand for Bodoland, Vidarba, Telangana, Gorkhaland and so
forth, cannot be traced in the earnest desire of the individuals to have their regional identity,

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which results from regional imbalances. In fact, it is the natural desire for the individuals
within the country to progress in every sphere, including social, economic, political, and
cultural. But within the course of time, some part of the region makes rapid development. On
the other hand, others remain neglected. When the feelings of anger and frustration assume a
major form within the mind-sets of the individuals, they make a demand for separate
homeland. Thus, this development imbalance in which some part of the state receives special
attention and the other areas remain neglected. It is a well-known strategy of the regional
leadership to launch their agenda, against the centre, i.e. the opposition party for
discriminating against the state with political motives (Indian Society and Social Change,
2011).

Therefore, the need of the hour is to develop a realistic perception of regionalism at

the conceptual level, focusing on the righteousness and judicious outlook on the part of the
political parties. If this objective is achieved, then the realization of the ideas of different
communities, speaking diverse languages and each is connected with the particular cultural
expression, thinking globally, acting globally and seeing human unity in diversity in
particular terms. In one community, there are individuals, who would be different from each
other on the basis of number of factors, such as, caste, race, ethnicity, religion and socio-
economic background. When they see unity in diversity, they would be able to achieve their
goals and objectives. It would turn into a distinct possibility (Indian Society and Social
Change, 2011).

3.7 Caste System in India

The social structure of the Indian society is characterised by a unique social

institution, called caste. The Indian caste system is the system of social stratification and
social restriction within the country, in which the communities are defined by thousands of
endogamous hereditary groups called jatis. The jatis are grouped under well-known
categories, including Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Certain individuals, such
as, foreigners, nomads, forest tribes and chandalas were excluded together and were treated
as untouchables. The caste system, which emerged out of the Varna system as a form of
social stratification is peculiar to the country and is regarded as an inseparable aspect of the
Indian society. There is not any institution in any other parts of the world for the caste
system. Besides India, evidences for the caste are found in other parts of the world, but the
most perfect evidence exists in India (Caste System, n.d.).

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 The word caste is derived from the Latin word, castus, which means pure. It was
loosely used by the Portuguese to denote the Indian social classification, as they formed the
viewpoint that the system was intended to preserve the purity of blood. The term was first
applied to the Indian caste system by Garcia De Orta in 1563. The Sanskrit word for caste is
varna, which means colour. There are complexities involved in the caste system, due to
which the individuals have not been able to state the exact definition of it (Caste System,
n.d.). The spread and the growth of the caste system is too gigantic, a task to be achieved by
the power or authority of an individual or of a class. The caste system is primarily referred to
the grouping of the individuals. It is created by the Shastras (Castes in India. Their
Mechanism, Genesis and Development, n.d.).

The Indian caste system is regarded as the system of social stratification and social
restriction within the country. The communities are defined by thousands of endogamous
hereditary groups called jatis. The jatis comprised of the four castes of Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Shudras. The origin of the caste system is an important aspect, which needs to
be taken into consideration. Various theories need to be understood in order to acquire an
effective understanding of the origin. The Indian caste system has been defined as the
segmental division of the society, hierarchy, restrictions on food habits, occupational
restrictions, religious disabilities, endogamy, maintenance of social distance, untouchability
and settlement pattern and the concept of purity. These characteristics give the caste system a
distinctive individuality. However, they have positive and negative aspects giving rise to
advantages and disadvantages. The changes that have taken place in the caste system has
been brought about in accordance to the changing world (Summary, n.d.).

Origin of Caste System

The origin of theories, which explain the origin of the caste system have been stated

as follows: (Caste System, n.d.).

Racial Theory

This theory propounds that the caste system is based on the original diversity of races.
This theory was propagated by Herbert Risley, G.S. Ghurye and D.N. Majumdar. The
Aryans, who migrated to India had a caste-like structure, corresponding to the major castes
within the country. As the Aryans came to India as invaders, they could not bring women
with them, therefore, married women from the indigenous Indian society. But at the same

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time, they did not give their daughters in marriage to the non-Aryans. Therefore, hyper-gamy
and hypo-gamy, practiced by the Aryan invaders, who developed the social structure
modelled on the native country gave rise to caste system in India.

Political Theory

In accordance to this theory, caste system is the device that is invented by the
Brahmans to place themselves in the highest position in the social hierarchy. Ghurye states
that “caste is the Brahmanic child of the Indo-Aryan culture, cradled in the land of the
Ganges and transferred to other parts of the country”. In the Brahman period, the position of
the Brahmans increased in multiple aspects. The three lower castes are ordered to live in
accordance to the teachings of the Brahmans. They state their duties and the kings and rulers
are vested with the power and authority to maintain law and order. The pre-eminence of the
Brahmans enabled them to secure many social privileges sanctioned by the law-givers.

Occupational or Functional Theory

In accordance to this theory, the origin of the caste system can be founded in the
nature and quality of social work. In other words, there were variations among individuals in
accordance to the jobs and occupations, they are engaged in. The aspects of occupational
specialization and economic functions of different groups have led to the origin of the caste
system. The types of occupations, superiority and inferiority of work is represented in the
hierarchy of occupations.

Guild Theory

According to Denzil Ibbetson, castes are regarded as the modified form of guilds. In
this case, caste system is regarded as the product of interaction of three forces, i.e. tribes,
guilds and religion. The tribes adopted certain fixed professions and assumed the form of
guilds. In ancient India, scholars, priests and teachers were regarded to be upper castes, they
were respected within the society. The upper castes were hereditary and endogamous groups.
The other guilds also adopted the same practices and within the course of time, turned into
castes.

Religious Theory

The two main advocates of religious theory are Hocart and Senart. According to
Hocart, social stratification originated on account of religious principles and customs. In

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ancient India, religion had a prominent place. The king is regarded as the image of God. The
priest kings are accorded different positions in accordance to different functional groups. On
the other hand, Senart has tried to explain the origin of the caste system on the basis of
prohibitions regarding the sacramental food. He holds on account of various family duties,
there grew up certain prohibitions regarding sacramental food. The followers of one
particular deity considered themselves as the descendants of the same ancestor and offered a
particular kind of food as offering to their deity. Those, who believed in the same deity
considered themselves as different from those, who believed in the other deity. Each group
assumed the caste status on the basis of worshipping a particular deity.

Evolutionary Theory

According to this theory, the origination of the caste system did not occur all of a
sudden or at a particular point of time. The origination of the caste system is the result of the
long process of social evolution. In this process, number of factors rendered a significant
contribution in the development of the caste system.

Mana Theory

J.H. Hutton possessed the viewpoint that occupational classes existed before the
Aryan invasion. Furthermore, the indigenous tribal individuals had belief in the mana or the
impersonal force in an object contact with which power could originate. The belief in mana
says, Hutton could have been the forerunner of the concepts of purity and pollution. The
origination of the caste system occurred by the combination of the pre-Aryan social divisions
and the tribal attitude towards the force of mana.

Traditional Theory

The traditional theory believes that the caste system has been established by divine
ordinance or at least with divine approval. The traditional theory has two versions, mythical
and metaphysical. The mythical versions regard four varnas as four castes. The Brahmins
were born out of the mouth of the primordial being, Kshatriyas from the arms, Vaishyas from
the thighs and Shudras from the feet. It considers caste as the naturally determined
organization of social functions and provides explanation in terms of membership of the
individuals in terms of Karma and Dharma doctrine (Chapter – III. The Caste System in
India, n.d.).

Brahmanical Theory

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 Caste system originated in India, because of the Brahmins. The Brahmins imposed
social restrictions upon the non-Brahmins, especially on the Shudras to preserve their purity.
They gave themselves a higher status in the Brahmanas and in other books, declared them as
inferior to anyone else. The role of the Brahmin is vital in the origin of the caste system in
India. The Brahmins were the teachers, scholars and priests. The main job of the teacher is to
impart knowledge and information to the individuals and enable them to carry out their job
duties in a well-organized manner. Whereas, the job duties of the priests is to perform the
rituals and other religious ceremonies. The performance of rituals and religious ceremonies
are regarded as an integral part of the lives of individuals, belonging to various categories and
backgrounds (Chapter – III. The Caste System in India, n.d.).

Ketkar’s Theory

S.V. Ketkar is of the viewpoint that the origin of the caste was from the early tribes
and the psychological prejudicial tendencies of the human beings. The country has numerous
tribes throughout the country. The tribes have their own norms, values and cultures. Due to
the occurrence of conflicting situations and disagreements, the tribes confined interactions
within their own community. Therefore, the point of view of the author is, caste originated
from the tribes. Furthermore, Ketkar provides explanation in terms of psychological
prejudicial tendencies. He states that the psychology of endogamy came to be practiced due
to three main factors. These include, feelings of sympathy and affection for the members of
the group, maintenance of blood purity and social adjustment. These feelings brought the
social restrictions and clear-cut differentiation of the individuals into different groups and
different castes (Chapter – III. The Caste System in India, n.d.).

Characteristics of the Caste System

The characteristics of the caste system have been stated as follows: (Indian Society
and Social Change, 2011).

Caste is Innate

The first distinguishing feature of the caste system is it is innate and characterised by
absolute rigidity and immobility. The individuals remain in the same caste throughout their
lives. The caste determines the status of the individuals. The occupations and the livelihoods
opportunities of the individuals are based on their castes.

Restriction on Food Habits

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 Diet and nutrition are regarded as important aspects. The diet and nutrition of the
individuals is determined on the basis of caste. The Brahmins were not permitted to consume
non-vegetarian food. On the other hand, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas were permitted to consume
vegetarian food. They were forbidden from consuming food such as, beef. Shudras were
provided with the freedom to consume any type of food.

Caste is Endogamous

Endogamy is the most important element of the caste system. The scholars and the
researchers have conducted research on the caste system. In accordance to this research, each
one is supposed to marry within one’s own caste and within the sub-group, if there be any in
that caste. The caste system has become so rigid that inter-caste marriages have been difficult
within the caste system. The individuals were supposed to find a life-partner within own
caste. The main reason being, individuals belonging to two different castes differ from each
other in terms of customs, traditions, norms, values and perspectives. Due to these
differences, it becomes difficult for them to adjust with individuals, belonging to different
castes. Therefore, they are supposed to find a match in their own caste.

Hierarchical Social Structure

The caste structure of the society is the hierarchy or the system of subordination. It is
held together by the system of superiority and inferiority. The Brahmins are at the top of the
hierarchy, whereas, Shudras are at the bottom of the hierarchy. The relative position that the
person occupies in the caste hierarchy is, in most cases determined by its relations to the
Brahmins. The highest caste will be the caste from which the Brahmins will accept food. At
the lowest are those castes, from whom the higher castes cannot accept any food or drink.
The lowest castes are those castes, from whom any food or drink is not accepted. The
Brahmins are the highest in the social structure and are granted social rights and privileges.

Occupation is Stable

Every caste regards its own occupation as hereditary and individuals, belonging to
other castes do not exercise the occupations of other castes. For instance, the job duties of
Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras are different from each other and occupations
performed by members of one caste is not performed by the members of the other castes.
Each caste has its own specific occupations. Occupations were almost hereditary. The
individuals, belonging to various castes possessed certain skills, abilities, interests and

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achievements. These were neglected, as in some cases, due to stability of occupations, they
were not allowed to exercise their skills and abilities. The only occupations that were
common are, agriculture, trade and labouring.

Segmental Division of the Society

Segmental division of the society means that the Indian social stratification is based
upon caste to a major extent. There are various castes that have a well-developed lifestyle of
their own. This is apparent that individuals, belonging to various castes, categories, and
backgrounds carry out their tasks, and daily life activities in accordance to their own norms,
values, cultures and principles. The membership of the caste is determined by birth, therefore,
it is regarded as hereditary in nature (Lecture 23: Caste System in India, n.d.).

Purity and Pollution

Purity and pollution are one of the important features of the caste system. These are
judged in terms of factors, such as, deeds, occupations, language, dress patterns and food
habits. Impurity is characterised by consumption of liquor, non-vegetarian food and left-overs
of high castes, participation in occupations, such as, leather craft, lifting dead animals,
sweeping and carrying of garbage. These are supposed to be impure. The individuals, who
were engaged in these occupations were supposed to be belonging to low caste groups. But in
the present existence, it is not easy for the individuals to find employment opportunities.
Therefore, the individuals, belonging to higher castes are also engaged in minority jobs to
earn their living, such as, cooking, driving, cleaning and so forth (Lecture 23: Caste System
in India, n.d.).

Social and Religious Disabilities and Privileges of Few Sections

The individuals belonging to lower castes are debarred from carrying out various
tasks and activities. These include, making an entry into the temple, not making use of
literally language, not being able to use gold ornaments or wear any particular type of attire
or making use of umbrella. In the present existence, there have been transformations taking
place and individuals are entering religious places, irrespective of their castes, wear
ornaments of gold and get engaged in social and religious activities (Lecture 23: Caste
System in India, n.d.).

Differences in terms of Custom, Dress and Speech

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 This is apparent that there were differences in the personality traits of the individuals,
belonging to various castes. The individuals differed from each other on the basis of their
attire, communication abilities, traditions, norms, values and customs. They carry out their
daily routine activities on the basis of these aspects. The high caste made use of pure
language, i.e. literally words. Whereas, the individuals, belonging to low castes made use of
colloquial language (Lecture 23: Caste System in India, n.d.).

Conflicting Resolving Mechanisms

In castes, there are occurrence of conflicts and disagreements. They have their own
norms and conflict resolution methods. The castes are well aware that occurrence of conflicts
and disagreements are regarded to be barriers within the course of development of the
individuals and communities. The conflict resolution mechanisms, such as, caste panchayats
are at the village and inter-village levels. In the caste panchayats, there are leaders, who are
involved in providing peaceful resolution to the occurrence of conflicting situations. In order
to promote goodwill and welfare of the individuals and communities, it is vital to implement
peaceful conflict resolution methods (Lecture 23: Caste System in India, n.d.).

3.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Caste System

The advantages and disadvantages of the caste system have been stated as follows:
(Caste System, n.d.).

Advantages of the Caste System

Unity in Diversity

The Indian caste system has preserved unity in diversity. In educational institutions,
employment opportunities, financial institutions and other organizations, the individuals are
working together, belonging to various castes, creeds, races, ethnicities, religious
backgrounds and socio-economic backgrounds. In order to achieve one’s goals and objectives
and carry out one’s job duties appropriately, it is vital to maintain unity in diversity. It has
achieved a graded racial and cultural harmony within the country.

Co-operation

The caste system has enabled the inculcation of the trait of co-operation and fellow
feeling among individuals, belonging to the same caste. By rendering an effective
contribution in making provision of support and assistance to individuals, belonging to

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deprived, marginalized and socio-economically backward sections of the society, the
advantage of co-operation has been recognized in the caste system.

Economic Security

Acquisition of employment opportunities is regarded as one of the common ways of

providing economic security. Therefore, in this case, individuals are assisted in obtaining
employment opportunities. Economic security is provided by guaranteeing different types
and fixed types of occupations for individuals, belonging to various groups. The caste system
has provided economic security and psychological security.

Defines Economic Pursuits

By defining occupations and distributing economic pursuits between different groups

is one of the major advantages. This is apparent that for economic pursuits, it is vital for the
individuals to get engaged in employment opportunities for achieving economic goals and
objectives. The caste system has ensured for the provision of all the functions that are
necessary for bringing about improvements in the overall quality of lives from social,
economic, political, religious and cultural point of view.

Racial and Ethnic Purity

Through the enforcement of endogamy, the caste system has rendered a significant
contribution in the preservation of racial and ethnic purity. It has also promoted the habits of
cleanliness by focusing on ritual purity. The individuals, belonging to various racial and
ethnic groups have their own norms, values, customs, traditions and beliefs. They need to
ensure they implement morality and ethics and promote positive factors.

Cultural Diffusion

The caste system has rendered a significant contribution in cultural diffusion, by

which the customs, beliefs, skills, behaviour and trade are passed on from one generation to
another. Furthermore, the lower castes have adopted some clean, hygienic practices as well
from the upper castes. Cleanliness, hygiene and sanitation are some of the aspects that need
to be taken into consideration for the individuals, belonging to various castes to live a healthy
life.

Integration of the Country

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 The development of class consciousness takes place due to the caste system, without
breeding caste struggle. It has created an efficient organization of the Hindu society, without
giving any chance to class frictions and factions. When the individuals, belonging to various
castes work in co-ordination and integration with each other, they are not only able to
promote their well-being, but also lead to welfare of the community and nation.

Disadvantages of the Caste System

Mobility of Labour

By restricting change of occupation, it denies mobility of labour and consequently

leads to stagnation. The individuals, belonging to higher castes cannot follow a low
occupation, which may be productive and lower castes cannot follow a higher and decent
occupation.

Inappropriate Occupation

An individual may not be interested in the caste trade but may be capable and
proficient of some other pursuit, which by caste conventions may be prohibited. It leads to
frustration and acts as a barrier to optimal productivity.

Obstacle to National Unity

Discontentment felt by the lower caste groups at the behaviour, which they have
experienced within the society. The prevalence of caste system is regarded as the major
impediment within the course of development of national consciousness.

Undemocratic

The caste system denies equal rights to all, irrespective of caste, creed, race, religion,
gender, occupation and socio-economic background. Deprivation of opportunities for mental
and physical development of lower caste individuals establishes social barriers.

Untouchability

The untouchability is regarded as one of the most negative effects of the caste system.
The untouchables are, shunned, despised and prevented from social intercourse within higher
caste groups.

Promote Casteism

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 The members, belonging to the castes carry caste feelings and manifest blind and
over-riding loyalty to their castes. This makes them disregard the healthy social standards of
justice, fair-play, impartiality and brotherhood. Under the influence of casteism, members of
one caste do not hesitate in imposing any disadvantageous effects upon the members of other
castes. Casteism, therefore, spells the need of the autocracy instead of the system, based on
fraternity.

3.9 Castes in India

The Varna system was formed because of the need to form the social order.
Promotion of the expansion of human achievement takes place by fostering the trends and
traits of each person. The duties of each community are also specified. Comprehensively,
Brahmins are regarded as the models of humility, concerned primarily with teaching and the
preservation of the Vedic scriptures and guiding the individuals and the country with advice,
timely, impartial and most conducive to the common good. The primary job duties of the
Kshatriyas are to protect the individuals, communities and nation as a whole. The Vaishyas
are concerned with trade and commerce and Shudras are regarded as the untouchables, who
are primarily devoted towards providing manual services to the individuals, belonging to
other castes. The individuals had their own place in the society in accordance to their
inclinations and skills. The system helped the society from disintegrating due to disorder. The
caste system contributed effectively in the maintenance of sense of order and peace among
individuals (The Hindu Caste System in India, n.d.).

The castes are found in the Indian sub-continent. In the caste system, non-economic
factors, such as, the influence of religion, rebirth and rituals are regarded as the most
important. Caste system is static, when the individuals are born in the caste, they continue to
remain in them throughout their lives. The occupations of the individuals are regarded as an
integral part of their lives. They are engaged in occupations according to their castes. Caste
system is characterised by cumulative inequality. It is an organic system and acts as the
political force, particularly in rural areas (Introduction, n.d.).

The three upper levels, Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas are considered to be
twice-born. In addition to the biological birth, they are born second time after the initiation
rites. The Shudras, the fourth level includes the multiplicity of artisans and occupationally
specialised jatis, who pursue clean, i.e. non-polluting occupations (Dube, 1990). When one is
conducting research in the case of caste system. One is able to acquire an efficient

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understanding in terms of the castes, their lifestyles, occupations and how they are different
from each other. The various castes experienced various kinds of treatment and attitude from
the individuals. The Brahmins were treated with respect. When they were invited to perform
rituals and religious ceremonies, the individuals, belonging to other castes obeyed them. The
Kshatriyas were the rulers and warriors, hence, they too held a high position within the
society. Vaishyas were the traders and they were low to Brahmins and Kshatriyas and were
upper castes as compared to Shudras. The Shudras were the lowest caste. They kept a
distance and were meant to provide services to upper castes. Their utensils were separate in
which they were given food and drink and were meant to sit on separate chairs. The castes in
India have been stated as follows:

Brahmins

The Brahmins are regarded as the top-most castes in the hierarchy. They were
engaged in the occupations of priests and teachers. They were esteemed and were treated
with respect and courtesy. When there were organization of any ceremonies or functions in
the homes of the individuals, the Brahmin priests were invited to perform the rituals. The
main functions of the Brahmins were to study the Vedic scriptures and various branches of
knowledge, such as, science and philosophy. They were to offer spiritual guidance and
provide assistance to all the other classes in the performance of religious ceremonies and
rituals. The individuals, belonging to all classes were dependent on them, as they were
believed to be specially favoured to interpret the Veda. The Brahmin’s threefold function of
teaching, studying and renunciation inspired among the masses of mankind. To kill a
Brahmin was regarded as an im-pardonable sin, which could not be expatiated even by
penance through an unlimited number of successive rebirths (Chapter IV. The Caste System
of India, n.d.).

Kshatriyas

The Kshatriyas were the royal or military class that were the rulers of the country. The
Kshatriyas constituted the knightly caste of India. They were brave and chivalrous. The
enjoyment of the senses and of pleasures, subject to such laws may provide protection to the
weak and vulnerable sections of the society from the strong were the legitimate rewards of
this class. Many a deed of extreme heroism committed by this class under the noble impulse
to provide justice or to provide assistance to the marginalized, deprived and economically
backward sections of the society (Chapter IV. The Caste System of India, n.d.).

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 Vaishyas

The Vaishyas were the traders and merchants. The individuals, who were engaged in
trading and business had the main objective of making profit. Theoretically, they were the
equals of the other classes of the Aryan family. They managed the business in life of the
country and were responsible for the maintenance of the other classes. They tilled the soil and
managed the entire commercial and industrial affairs. This class was sub-divided into various
sub-groups in accordance to their professions. This classification of the middle class of India
on the basis of occupation was founded upon a thorough understanding of the laws of
hereditary. The main objective being was to develop the best qualities through hereditary
transmission. Their main objective was to develop their knowledge and competencies, so they
can render a significant contribution in improving productivity and profitability and
providing assistance to the community (Chapter IV. The Caste System of India, n.d.).

Shudras

Shudras are the lower class and they performed the job duties of cleaning and
sweeping. They constituted the entire non-Aryan population of the country, whose function
was to perform mechanical services for the households of the entire community. According to
Manu, the highest merit of this class was to serve faithfully the other three classes. They were
not allowed to approach the individuals, belonging to high castes (Chapter IV. The Caste
System of India, n.d.). There are certain individuals, who are not able to live up to the caste
dharma. Such individuals, as well as their children are considered as outcastes from the
Hindu society (The Caste System, n.d.).

3.10 Changes in the Caste System

Changes in the caste system have been found in the past two centuries in general and
in the past 50 years in particular. The major factors, which are responsible for changes in the
caste system are, sanskritization, westernization, modernization, dominant caste,
industrialization, urbanization, democratic decentralization, caste and politics and caste and
economy (Lecture 23: Caste System in India, n.d.). These have been stated as follows:
(Lecture 23: Caste System in India, n.d.).

Sanskritization

Sanskritization is the process by which any low caste could adapt to the behaviour
patterns, lifestyles, norms, values, standards, principles and cultural traits of high caste. But

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they need to leave their impure occupation and habits such as, consumption of non-vegetarian
food and consumption of liquor. The untouchables were not allowed to sanskritise their
status. Therefore, only the middle class individuals could sanskritise themselves. For
sanskritization, the castes are supposed to have three conditions. It should have a touchable
status, it should have a better economic condition and it should make claim to membership
into the high caste, by the propagation of some story or myth. It is a group process and not an
individual process. It is a lengthy process and may take a long period of time. It does not lead
to structural change and only positional change. It means that particular low caste changes its
position into the high caste in a particular area and there are not any changes in the caste
structure. Through the process of sanskritization, there are few lower castes, who have
changed their position into high castes.

Westernization

Westernization is referred to the process by which the individuals and communities

adapt to the western way of life. In the adoption of the western lifestyle, the individuals put
into operation various methods and approaches in order to bring about changes in their
personality. These include, western attire, communication skills, and all the other factors,
which lead to changes in their overall quality of lives. One of the most important aspect that
needs to be taken into consideration in promoting westernization is making use of
technologies, modern and innovative methods in the implementation of various tasks and
activities. In the present existence, the individuals, belonging to deprived, marginalized and
economically weaker sections of the society are also making use of these techniques in
enriching their overall quality of lives. With the advent of westernization, individuals and
communities are bringing about improvements in their overall quality of lives. It has proven
to be beneficial to the individuals to a major extent.

Modernization

It is a process, which relies on scientific outlook, rational attitudes, high social

mobility, mass mobilization, belief in liberty, equality and fraternity, empathy, high level of
motivation to do everything with perfection, specialization and super-specialization in work,
active participation and dealing with complex organizations. It also requires changes in the
institutional, structural, occupational and organizational aspects of social, cultural and
personal level. This has affected the caste system in the way of promoting more flexibility. In
urban areas, castes are actually turning into classes. In India, there is an emerging middle

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class with rational outlook and goal orientation. Modernization is a comprehensive concept
than westernization. Any culture can modernize itself by gaining familiarity in terms of the
western values. The system of education has rendered an indispensable contribution in
modernizing itself.

Dominant Caste

In the 20th century, the phenomena of the dominant caste have emerged. It means
some castes become politically and economically dominant virtually over the other castes in
the region. A caste can become dominant by having features like, large land holding in the
area, i.e. good economic position, politically dominant, i.e. turning into a vote bank, having
large population, high ritual status, English medium education, having tradition and standards
in the agricultural sector, i.e. landlords and having a tradition of violence, i.e. muscle power
is essential. However, in the present existence, it is not limited to the high castes only, but has
been found among lower castes as well.

Industrialization

As the name implies, in simple terms, industrialization means growth in industries. In

urban as well as in rural areas, there are growth in industries. Due to this aspect, the
individuals are obtaining more access to employment opportunities. In rural areas, there have
been establishment of small scale industries. They are providing employment opportunities
for individuals. When the individuals are recruited in industries, they need to undergo
training programs as well. These training programs are providing information to them in
terms of industries, job duties, goals and objectives and employee morale. Research has
indicated that in some cases, the jobs in industries are hazardous. These include, plantations,
coal mines, diamond industries, lock industries, gem cutting, silk weaving, beedi rolling and
so forth. In order to perform their job duties in a well-organized manner, it is vital for the
individuals to acquire training in terms of processes, methods and approaches that are
necessary to generate the desired outcomes. On the other hand, it is the job duty of the
supervisors to ensure they provide adequate supervision to the workforce.

Urbanization

Urbanization is referred to the growth of towns and cities. Migration to these areas
have increased. The individuals, belonging to tribal and rural communities are migrating to
urban areas to enhance their livelihoods opportunities. As in urban areas, the system of

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education, employment opportunities, health care and medical facilities and other services
and facilities are in a well-developed state as compared to rural and tribal communities. In
urban areas, the market places, malls, restaurants, hotels, banks, and so forth have rendered
an effective contribution in enhancing the lives of the individuals. Furthermore, there are
developments in the system of infrastructure, transportation facilities, communications and so
forth. Hence, with the improvements in these facilities, there have been changes taking place
in the caste system.

Democratic Decentralization

Democratic decentralization has been initiated with the introduction of Panchayati Raj
system. The local governments have been created in the villages. In the Panchayat,
reservations have been made for the lower castes. It means, they were encouraged to
participate and express their viewpoints. In this way, the lower castes are provided with the
opportunities to empower themselves. In the system of democratic decentralization, there is
decentralization of authority. In the decentralization of authority, all individuals, who are
participating in political affairs and governance are encouraged to participate. When they are
participating, they are not only expressing their ideas and viewpoints, but they are also
acquiring empowerment opportunities. Furthermore, they are able to establish
communication skills and generate information in terms of various aspects.

Caste and Politics

Caste and politics are not regarded as the new phenomenon, as politics is regarded as
an integral part of the lives of the individuals. In the present existence, it is stated that there is
a close connection between caste and politics. The reasons being, castes have become vote
banks, castes have become politically aware, there have been identification of castes with
political parties and every caste has its own association. The connection between caste and
politics has led to empowerment opportunities among the deprived, marginalized and socio-
economically backward sections of the society. These castes have been non-literates and
unaware to a major extent. Furthermore, they have not had any opportunities to express
themselves. In the present, through this linkage, they are able to express their feelings
through elections and power lobby. Dalit politics is one of the examples, where dalits are
making an attempt to assert their identities and they have acquired success in obtaining
empowerment opportunities in various states.

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 The negative aspect of this link has been found in factionalism. The high castes want
to maintain their status quo. They are not able to accept the changing dominant position of
the lower castes. This has led to frequent conflicts between high castes and low castes in
several regions of the country. However, this is only a transitional phase. Good quality
education, mass awareness campaigns and employment opportunities for the individuals are
regarded as important aspects that would lead to progression of the individuals, communities
and nation as a whole.

Caste and Economy

It has been stated that the caste system has been functional in the society, particularly
in the economic sense. It is known as the jajmani system. It is a system of traditional
occupation for the lower castes, especially the service castes. The service castes are known as
the kamins and they are supposed to provide service to the higher castes, known as the
jajmans. The kamins made use of specialized skills and abilities in providing services to the
jajmans and in return, they were rewarded in kind. The relationship between the kamins and
jajmans used to be a permanent and hereditary relationship. After the death of the jajman, his
son used to be the jajman and same applies to the kamin. Therefore, it is regarded as the
functional relationship in India. The jajmani system did not exist any longer with the
introduction of land reforms and market economy.

New Socio-Economic Conditions

With the advent of market economy, there were changes taking place in the socio-
economic conditions of the individuals. It is apparent that with the advent of modernization
and globalization and introduction of skills development programs, the individuals are
generating awareness in terms of various aspects and augmenting their knowledge,
competencies and aptitude. These factors are proving to be assisting to them to a major extent
in acquiring employment opportunities. In present existence, in urban areas, the individuals
not only adhere to caste norms. The only aspect in which caste is taken into consideration is
marriage. In urban communities as well, the individuals need to marry within their own caste.
But research has indicated that individuals, do get married in other castes as well. Hence, in
some cases, marriage does take place between individuals, belonging to different castes.
Individuals have adopted inter-caste and inter-religious marriages.

3.11 Conclusion

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 Religion and caste are important aspects in the Indian social structure. India is a
secular country, in which the individuals are provided with the right to practice the religion of
his or her own choice. In India, the major religions are, Hinduism, Sikhism, Islam,
Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism and Bahai. The individuals have
their own norms, values, standards, principles, and traditions in accordance to their religions.
They carry out their daily life activities and functions in accordance to the religions. For
instance, Muslim women are meant to cover their head, when they are going out of their
homes. Therefore, it is regarded as one of the aspects of religion. The individuals celebrate
festivals and their overall quality of lives are influenced by religious beliefs. One of the
aspects that is of utmost significance is, all religions should be regarded as equal. In
educational institutions, employment settings and in other places as well, there should not be
any discrimination on the basis of religion.

Caste is another important factor within the society. There are four castes within the
country, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmins are the upper most
caste. They are the priests and teachers. Their main job duties were to perform religious
ceremonies and rituals in the homes of individuals, belonging to other castes and were treated
with respect and admiration. As teachers, they provide knowledge and training to the
individuals in terms of various aspects. The Kshatriyas are the rulers and warriors. Their main
job duty was to protect the region and nation as a whole. They augmented their knowledge
and competencies and performed the job duties of management and administration. Vaishyas
were the traders and merchants. The services of the Vaishyas were considered important in
the purchasing of various goods and materials. Shudras were the lowest caste. Their primary
job duties were focused on cleaning and sweeping. They picked up rags and even performed
the job duties of removing other waste materials. They maintained distance and were not
meant to sit near the upper caste individuals.

The individuals remain within the caste throughout his lifetime. The occupations of
the individuals and their status within the society is determined on the basis of caste. It is vital
for the individuals to ensure, they carry out their job duties in an appropriate manner in
accordance to the castes. In the present existence, there have been changes taking place in the
caste system. The individuals, belonging to all four castes are acquiring good quality
education by seeking admission in reputed educational institutions. Furthermore, they are
getting engaged in reputed employment opportunities in order to enhance their living
conditions. Hence, it can be stated that the individuals, belonging to various religious groups,

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castes, categories and backgrounds are provided with opportunities, so they are able to
augment their living conditions in a satisfactory manner.

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 4

Culture and Social Classes in India

The influence of the British rule within the country has rendered a significant
contribution in bringing about far-reaching changes in the Indian society. The interpretation
of class structure within the country has taken place by employing different theoretical
orientations by Indian sociologists. However, attributes, such as, income, occupation, non-
agricultural modes of earning are used in the studies of caste and class. Caste and class are
regarded as the two principles of stratification with age persisted in the Indian social system
in the dialectical relationship. The sociology of the Indian class stratification should not only
take into account the present day processes in terms of various class strata, but also conduct
their analysis in terms of historical framework of change. The class structure and its
processes in the traditional Indian society put emphasis upon the fact that the class structure
was related to the modes of production and ownership (Indian Society and Social Change,
2011).

The social relationships of kings, feudal chiefs, traders, artisans, peasants and
labourers are regarded important in acquiring an understanding of the social class structure.
In urban, rural and tribal communities, the individuals are categorised in accordance to the
classes. In rural and tribal communities, agriculture is regarded as the major occupations of
the individuals. Apart from agriculture and farming practices, the individuals are engaged in
other occupations as well. These include, artisans, craftsmen, weavers, pottery making, cattle
rearing and production of other items. Hence, the individuals are categorised into classes on
the basis of their occupations. On the other hand, in urban areas, the individuals are engaged
in number of reputed occupations and professions, these include, doctors, researchers,
educationists, lawyers, teachers, and so forth. Hence, the social classes of the individuals in
urban communities are classified on the basis of their educational qualifications and
occupations (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Indian society is stratified on the basis of age, gender, rural-urban differences and
class. But unlike many of them, Indian society is marked by considerable cultural
heterogeneity too, particularly, because of large number of speech communities, counting
more than one thousand five hundred, including some six hundred tribal communities. But
the religious plurality of the country is complicated by the uneasy co-existence of religions of

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Indic and non-Indic origins. It is a rare phenomenon in many contemporary societies.
However, what is unique to India is the non-pervasive caste hierarchy legitimized through the
Hindu doctrine of karma and reincarnation (Oommen, 2001). India struggled for
independence against the British rule as one unified entity. Foreign invasions and
immigration from other parts of the world, and the existence of diverse languages, cultures,
and religions have made India’s culture tolerant. On one hand, a unique continuing living
culture with its specificity and historicity of the order contributes in the reinforcement of
culture (Perspectives of Indian Society, n.d.).

4.1 Indian Culture and Heritage

The history and culture of India are ancient, dynamic and spanning back to the
beginning of human civilization (Chapter – II. Nature of Indian Society, n.d.). Culture refers
to the patterns of thought and behaviour of people. It includes, values, behaviour, rules of
conduct, and patterns of social, political and economic organizations. These are passed from
one generation to the next by formal as well as informal processes. Culture comprises of the
ways in which one person act as a member of the society. Culture thinks of the ways in which
one act as a member of the society. Therefore, all the achievements of group life are
collectively called culture. In the popular parlance, the material aspects of culture, such as,
scientific and technological achievements are seen as distinct from culture, which is non-
material, such as, higher achievements of group life, i.e. art, culture, music, literature,
philosophy, religion and science. Culture is the product of such an organization and expresses
itself through language, art, philosophy and religion. It also expresses itself through social
habits, customs, economic organizations and political institutions (Satpathy, n.d.).

The Indian history generates information in terms of development of norms and

values and cultures. The historical leaders have rendered a significant contribution in the
preservation of the culture and heritage (Chapter – II. Nature of Indian Society, n.d.). There
are two types of cultures, material and non-material. The first includes, technologies,
instruments, material goods, consumer goods, household design and architecture, modes of
production, trade, commerce, welfare and other social activities. The material and the non-
material aspects of culture are usually independent of each other. The non-material forms of
culture includes, values, norms, principles, standards, literature, arts and other ritual
activities. The culture is the invaluable possession of all societies. Indian culture is the oldest
of all cultures of the world. In spite of experiencing ups and downs, the culture of India is

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acknowledged. Culture is the soul of the nation. Culture is the collection of values of human
life, which establishes the identity of the society (Satpathy, n.d.).

Culture thus refers to a human-made environment, which includes all the material and
non-material products of group life that are transmitted from one generation to the next.
There is a general agreement among social scientists that culture consists of explicit and
implicit patterns of behaviour acquired by human beings. These may be transmitted through
symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their
embodiments as artefacts. The essential core of culture thus lies in those fine ideas, which are
transmitted within the group, both historically derived as well as selected with the attached
value. More recently, culture denotes the historically transmitted patterns of meanings
embodied in the symbols. Through culture, development takes place of the attitudes, norms,
values and outlook towards life. The individuals are able to communicate and establish a
social circle through cultures (Satpathy, n.d.).

Culture is referred to the expression of one’s nature within the modes of living and
thinking. Culture has an influence upon the lives of the individuals in number of aspects.
These include, communication, establishment of terms and relationships with others,
recreation and leisure activities, enjoyment and in the implementation of other tasks and
activities. In the material culture, the various aspects that are focused upon include, attire,
food, and household goods. Whereas, in the non-material culture, the various aspects that
need to be included are, norms, values, morals, ethics, standards and principles (Satpathy,
n.d.). Culture varies from place to place and country to country. They are characterised by
their distinctive cultural traditions. This is apparent that individuals, residing in different
regions or countries have their own cultural traditions. They have their own lifestyles,
occupations, differ from each other in terms of attire, food, festivals, events, rituals, norms,
customs, political, cultural, social, and economic activities.

Cultural development is the historical process. The ancestors learnt number of things
from their predecessors. With the passage of time, they also added to it from their own
experience and gave up those, which they cannot consider useful. Within the period of time,
one brings about improvements in cultures. This can be done by adding new thoughts, ideas,
viewpoints, perspectives and values. In this manner, the transmission of culture gets
facilitated and it is passed on from one generation to the other. The culture that is inherited
from the predecessors can be called cultural heritage. A nation also inherits the culture, which

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is termed as national cultural heritage. Cultural heritage includes all those values of culture
that is transmitted from their ancestors to the human beings from generation to generation.
They are cherished, protected and maintained by them with unbroken continuity and they feel
proud and pleasurable (Satpathy, n.d.).

In India, there are religious places, historical places, heritage sites and monuments
throughout the country. These are visited by nationals as well as internationals. These places
signify the culture, beauty and architecture of the country. Apart from the religious and
historical places, heritage sites and monuments throughout the country, there are other
aspects as well, which put emphasis upon the culture of the country. These include, material
artefacts, intellectual achievements, philosophy, treasures of knowledge, scientific inventions
and discoveries. These are part of heritage. Within the Indian framework, the contributions of
Baudhayana, Aryabhatta, Bhaskaracharya in the fields of mathematics, astronomy and
astrology, Varahmihir in the field of physics, Nagarjuna in the field of chemistry, Susruta and
Charak in the field of medicines and Patanjali in the field of yoga are regarded as profound
treasures of Indian culture heritage (Satpathy, n.d.).

Changes can be brought about in culture, but not in heritage. Changes in culture can
be brought about by initiating changes in the lifestyles of the individuals. For instance, when
a person goes to a foreign country to acquire education or to get engaged in employment
opportunities, it is indispensable for them to get adapted to the cultures, norms and values of
other countries. The individuals, belonging to a culture or a particular group, may acquire or
borrow certain cultural traits of other communities or cultures. But the belongingness of the
individuals to the Indian cultural heritage remains unchanged. When the individuals migrate
to foreign countries, still, they do not forget Indian culture. In foreign countries as well,
individuals make visits to religious places, listen to religious sermons, celebrate festivals and
practice other norms and values related to Indian culture. The Indian cultural heritage has
rendered a significant contribution in creating a bond between individuals. Indian literature
and scriptures, namely, Vedas, Upanishads, Gita and Yoga system have contributed in
providing right knowledge, right action, behaviour and practices that are complementary in
the development of civilization (Satpathy, n.d.).

Characteristics of Indian Culture

The characteristics of Indian culture, which puts emphasis upon the moral values,
ethics, norms, principles and standards and the attitudes of generosity, simplicity and

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frugality are regarded as important in not only bringing about improvements in the overall
quality of lives of the individuals, but also in promoting welfare of the communities and
nation. These have been stated as follows: (Satpathy, n.d.).

A Cosmic Vision

The framework of the Indian culture places the individuals within the conception of
the universe as a divine creation. It is not anthropo-centric (human centric) only and
considers all the elements of creation, both living and non-living, as the manifestations of the
divine. Therefore, it respects God’s divine and promotes the ideal of co-existence. The
cosmic vision synthesises human beings, nature and God as an integral whole. This is
reflected in the perspective of Satyam-Shivam-Sundaram.

Sense of Harmony

Indian philosophy and culture made an attempt to achieve an innate harmony and
order and this is extended to the entire cosmos. Indian culture assumes that the natural cosmic
order, inherent in the nature is the foundation of the moral and social order. Inner harmony is
supposed to be the foundation of the outer harmony. External order and beauty will naturally
follow from the inner harmony. Indian culture balances and seeks to synthesise the material
and the spiritual. This is illustrated in the concept of Purushartha.

Tolerance

In India, tolerance and liberalism is found in all religions, castes, communities and so
forth. Many cultures of foreign countries have also been prevalent throughout the country.
Indian society provided opportunity to every culture of thriving. Indian society provided
respect and regards to every culture. The various cultures of Shaka, Huna, Shithiyan, Muslim,
Christian, Jain, Buddhist and Sikh cultures are acknowledged throughout the country. The
development of the feelings of tolerance towards all cultures is acknowledged in the Hindu
society. All the religions within the country are provided with equal respect. Indian culture
accepts the reality and assimilated plurality of viewpoints, behaviours, customs and
institutions. It does not make an attempt to suppress diversity in favour of uniformity. The
Indian culture promotes unity in diversity as well as diversity in unity.

Continuity and Stability

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 Indian culture is based on values. Due to this aspect the development of culture takes
place on continuous basis. Many changes have taken place in the Indian culture since ancient
times till the present. The individuals make visits to other areas and regions. When they make
visits to other places and regions, they generate information in terms of other cultures. For
instance, the individuals and communities, belonging to urban, rural and tribal communities
have their own cultures and norms. This is apparent that there will be differences. When
continuity and stability of cultures are promoted, it is necessary to ensure that they should
prove to be beneficial to the individuals and communities and promote their well-being.

Adaptability

The aspect of adaptability has rendered a significant contribution in making the Indian
culture immortal. Adaptability is referred to the process of changing in accordance to the
time, place and time period. It is an essential element that signifies longevity of any culture.
Indian culture of all communities is important in influencing their lives. This is regarded as
one of the vital aspects in maintaining culture. Within the course of time, there have been
transformations taking place in Indian family, norms, morals, ethics, system of education,
employment opportunities and overall quality of lives of the individuals. The aspect of
adaptability enables the individuals to adjust and generate awareness in terms of various
cultures.

Receptivity

Receptivity is an important element of Indian culture. In simple terms, it means

openness and approachability towards culture. In India, individuals and communities have
accepted the positive aspects of the foreign cultures. Though in various cultures, not much
research has been conducted in terms of negative aspects. As it has been stated above that
cultures render a significant contribution in enriching the lives of the individuals and
communities. In other words, individuals are able to achieve personal and professional goals,
when they develop receptivity. One of the important aspects is, individuals need to develop
positive viewpoints in terms of other cultures.

Spirituality

Spirituality is referred to the soul of Indian culture. The existence of the soul is
accepted. Therefore, it can be stated that the ultimate aim of the individuals is not physical
comforts, but it is self-realization. There has been prevalence of the comprehensive viewpoint

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that when individuals will perform good deeds, treat others with kindness and courtesy and
dedicate themselves towards the services of the Almighty, they will be able to carry out their
job duties in a well-organized manner and achieve personal and professional goals as well.
Therefore, generating information in terms of Indian culture is one of the essential aspects of
spirituality.

Religious Dominance

Religion has a central place in the Indian culture. Vedas, Upanishads, Purans,
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Gita, Agama, Tripitak, Quran and Bible are the religious texts that
have influenced the lives of the individuals, belonging to various cultures. In these religious
texts, all the important aspects are emphasised upon, which enable the individuals to live
effectual lives. These include, optimism, theism, sacrifice, penance, restraints, good conduct,
morality, ethics, righteousness, honesty, compassion, sympathy, respect, friendliness,
goodness and forgiveness. From the stage of early childhood, these aspects are emphasised
upon. In order to enrich ones lives, the individuals need to focus upon these aspects and put
them into practice.

Thoughts about Karma and Reincarnation

The concepts about karma (good deeds) and reincarnation have special significance
within the context of Indian culture. It is believed that one takes action during good virtue
and perform good deeds, takes birth in higher order and lives a comfortable life. When one
does bad action, takes birth in lower order and are required to experience pain and suffering.
Upanishads say that the fruits of action need to be appropriate. It is comprehensively believed
that individuals need to experience the outcomes of good and bad deeds. Therefore, all
individuals, belonging to all categories and backgrounds need to perform good deeds to
obtain good results.

Emphasis on Duty

Indian culture puts emphasis on karma or moral duty. The aimless life is stated to be a
meaningless life. Therefore, it is indispensable for the individuals to put emphasis on duty. In
order to achieve one’s goals and objectives, it is vital for the individuals to focus on duty. The
individuals have various types of aims and objectives. For instance, acquisition of good
quality education, employment opportunities, making visits to various places and so forth.

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Therefore, in order to achieve one’s goals and objectives, they need to carry out their job
duties in a well-organized manner and augment their knowledge and competencies.

The Joint Family System

The joint family is the family system, when two or more nuclear families reside under
the common roof. It consists of multiple relationships among family members. These include,
grandparents, parents, siblings, aunts, uncles, cousins, and so forth. In most cases, the
members of the joint family share the same kitchen. One of the major advantages of the joint
family system is, individuals are able to acquire each other’s support and assistance. But
assistance and support can only be acquired, when the individuals maintain good terms and
relationships with each other. It is indispensable for the family members to communicate with
each other in an appropriate manner, depict honesty and truthfulness and possess a forgiving
nature. These aspects are considered vital in the Indian culture.

Caste System

In India, there has been prevalence of the caste system. The individuals, belonging to
various castes are engaged in different types of occupations and implement various norms,
cultures and values in influencing their lives. There are four main castes, which have been
classified as Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmins are the top-most
castes, they are mostly priests and teachers. Kshatriyas are rulers and warriors. Vaishyas are
traders and merchants and Shudras are the lowest in the hierarchy of castes and are engaged
in cleaning and sweeping jobs. In the present existence, there have been formulation of
measures and programs, which are providing equal rights and opportunities to individuals,
belonging to various castes. The individuals are provided with complete rights and
opportunities to carry out their tasks and activities.

Unity in Diversity

An important characteristic of Indian culture is unity in diversity. In the Indian

culture, individuals are different from each other in terms of number of aspects. These
include, caste, creed, race, religion, ethnicity, occupation, gender, age, educational
qualifications and socio-economic background. In spite of these differences, the individuals
are able to communicate with each other in an effective manner and live in unity. This can be
explained in a better way by providing an example from urban communities. In urban
communities, the individuals are able to live together and communicate in a friendly manner,

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in spite of the differences on the basis of the above stated factors. Unity in diversity is
regarded as one of the important aspects in augmenting Indian culture.

Culture is Learned and Acquired

Culture is learned and acquired. It is acquired from others. Individuals acquire culture
from their family members. As the child begins to grow, his parents provide him knowledge
and information in terms of other cultures and values. The parents teach their children that
implementation of various cultural traits enables the individuals to live effectual lives. In
educational institutions, communities and in other places as well, implementation of various
cultural traits enables the individuals to not only form an effective social circle, but also put
into operation, the methods and strategies to bring about improvements in their overall
quality of lives.

Culture undergoes Transformations

It is apparent and is comprehensively understood that culture has undergone

transformations. The culture that was prevalent in India since ancient times has changed in
the present existence. There are number of factors that are considered indispensable in
bringing about changes in the culture. These include, globalization, modernisation, advent of
technologies, expansion in the system of education, establishment of various organizations,
skills development programs and so forth. With the improvements taking place in these
aspects, the individuals are putting into operation modern and innovative cultures and values,
which are rendering a significant contribution in leading to effective growth and progressions
of the individuals, communities and nation as a whole.

4.2 Culture in Urban Communities

In urban communities, individuals are usually living their lives in accordance to the
advancements that have taken place within all spheres, i.e. political, economic, social,
cultural, educational, occupational, and religious. These advancements have taken place with
the advent of modernization, and globalization. In urban communities, the lives of the
individuals are influenced to a major extent by the advent of technologies. The urban
individuals are making use of technologies in the implementation of various tasks and
activities. The technologies are used for number of purposes, these include, making sales and
purchases of items, booking tickets, ordering cabs, communication, preparation of reports and
documents, conducting research, leisure and recreational purposes, generating information in

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terms of various aspects, listening to religious sermons, understanding concepts, observation
of various pictures and images and so forth. Therefore, it can be stated that technologies have
rendered a significant contribution in influencing culture, particularly in urban communities.

In urban communities, individuals normally are well-educated and are engaged in

professional jobs in various fields. These include, law, education, medical, engineering,
architecture, management, and so forth. In these fields, individuals are required to possess the
essential educational qualifications and augment their knowledge and competencies. In order
to acquire knowledge and upgrade their skills and abilities, the individuals are making
extensive use of technologies. In addition, there are establishment of reputed educational
institutions at all levels and training centres in urban communities. The individuals are
migrating from rural and tribal communities to urban communities to get enrolled in
educational institutions and training centres to augment their skills and abilities. The
individuals make selection of the fields in accordance to their interests. In some cases, from
the stage of early childhood, individuals make decisions in terms of what professions, they
want to pursue, when they grow up. Some individuals aspire to become doctors, some
lawyers, some artists and so forth. There is a close relationship between the occupations of
the individuals and cultural traits. The professions and occupations of the individuals render a
significant contribution in enabling them to practice cultural traits.

In urban communities, the individuals are taught in terms of religious aspects from the
stage of early childhood. They are taught that offering prayers to the Almighty before
initiating of any tasks and activities would lead to positive and favourable outcomes. In
schools, first of all, assemblies are organized and prayers are offered, before the
commencement of the school day. Research has indicated that individuals, who are engaged
in full-time jobs, normally offer prayers at home, before leaving for work. Due to their busy
schedules, they are usually unable to take out time for any religious activities. On the other
hand, women, who are home-makers and elderly individuals, who are retired or are confined
to homes are the ones, who render an effective participation in religious activities. When they
are ambulatory, they make visits to religious places and participate actively in functions and
ceremonies. In most cases, they gain memberships and in this manner they stay occupied.
Therefore, it can be stated that participation in religious ceremonies enables the individuals to
augment their cultures and promote well-being of the communities.

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 The values, norms, principles and ethics are considered as an integral part of culture.
When the individuals depict morality and ethics in their behavioural traits and tasks and
activities, it is stated that they are signifying cultural aspects. In educational institutions as
well as in employment settings, the individuals are different from each other on the basis of
number of aspects. These include, caste, creed, race, ethnicity, religion, gender, age,
educational qualifications, occupation and socio-economic background. In spite of these
differences, they need to work in co-ordination and integration with each other. The
individuals usually have different cultures. It is vital on the part of the individuals to accept
other cultures. In order to achieve organizational as well as personal goals and objectives, it is
vital on the part of the individuals to make provision of equal rights and opportunities and not
discriminate against each other. Research has indicated that individuals, belonging to various
cultures are working in integration with each other in educational institutions as well as in
other organizations.

Communication with others is regarded as an important aspect of culture. In urban

areas, individuals are making use of technologies to a major extent in communicating with
each other. It has been found that while travelling in buses and metros too, individuals are
sending messages and making use of technologies for verbal and written communication.
When individuals are communicating with each other, it is vital for them to make use of
polite and decent language. Research has indicated that feelings of anger and frustration are
common among individuals. These take place in educational institutions, employment
settings, market places, homes and so forth. The occurrence of conflicting situations and
disagreements and feelings of anger and frustration are regarded as the major impediments
within the course of development of culture. Therefore, one of the aspects that is of utmost
significance in terms of culture are individuals need to communicate with each other in an
effective manner. Effective communication processes are regarded as the foundation of not
only development of good terms and relationships between individuals, but also development
of culture.

There is a relationship between culture and urban society. Relationship can be

understood, when one states that culture refers to the ideas, values and norms of the
individuals. When the individuals depict these traits, it is stated that they are maintaining
good terms and relationships with other individuals within the community. When the
individuals are working with each other, they share ideas and perspectives. They render a
joint participation in the making of decisions and express their viewpoints. When they are

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working in co-ordination and integration with each other and expressing ideas, they are
depicting cultural traits. Therefore, it can be stated that ideas constitute culture and people
constitute society (Chaudhary, n.d.). When the individuals communicate with each other in a
well-organized manner, they are not only able to achieve personal and professional goals, but
also acquire an efficient understanding in terms of other cultures as well. When the
individuals have generated information in terms of other cultures, it is essential to form
positive viewpoints. Formation of positive viewpoints will contribute significantly in
enriching the lives of the individuals, belonging to not only urban, but rural and tribal
communities as well.

4.3 Culture in Rural Communities

In order to acquire an efficient understanding of rural culture, it is vital to understand

the meaning of rural. When one is conducting research in terms of culture in rural
communities, focus is put upon agriculture. Agriculture is the major occupation of the
individuals in rural communities. The culture and lifestyle of the individuals is based upon
the agrarian sector. Rural is essentially agricultural, its settlement system consists of villages
or homestead. Socially, it connotes greater interdependence among people, more deeply
rooted community life and a slow moving rhythm of life built around nature and natural
phenomenon. Occupationally, it is dependent upon crop-farming, animal enterprises, tree
crops and related activities (Chapter – I. The Concept of Rural Culture, n.d.). In addition to
these activities, the individuals in rural communities are engaged in number of activities.
These include, rearing of livestock, pottery making, weaving, handicrafts, artworks and so
forth. In the rural communities too, there have been establishment of training centres, which
are contributing in augmenting the knowledge and competencies of the individuals in terms
of agriculture and farming practices, handicrafts and artworks and so forth.

The rural culture comprises of number of aspects, these include, language, ideas,
beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art, rituals,
ceremonies and symbols. It has played a crucial role in human evolution, allowing human
beings to create the environmental conditions and get adapted to the environment in
accordance to their own purposes, rather than depend sole on the natural selection in order to
achieve the adaptive success. The ideas and beliefs of the individuals are influenced by
culture to a major extent. Within the course of time, there have been changes taken place in
culture. It is as the result of ecological, socio-economic, political, religious and other

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fundamental factors affecting the society (Chapter – I. The Concept of Rural Culture, n.d.). In
rural areas, there have been formulation of measures and programs, which are having an
effect upon the culture and living conditions of the individuals. As a result of these programs,
there are changes taking place in cultures and the living conditions of rural communities.

In rural communities, culture is viewed as the meaningful organization of traits,

occupations, education, information and skills. The rural individuals are also generating
awareness in terms of significance of education. They have formed this viewpoint that
through the acquisition of education, they will be able to bring about improvements in their
overall quality of lives. Research has indicated that even if the individuals are not educated,
they aspire to make provision of good quality education to their children. The individuals,
belonging to rural communities are migrating to urban communities to get enrolled in higher
educational institutions and pursue Bachelors, Masters and doctoral programs. Upon
achievement of their educational goals and objectives, they are migrating to their
communities and working towards the upliftment. In rural communities, there have been
establishment of training centres and institutions in which adults and senior citizens are
getting enrolled, particularly, those who have not been enrolled in schools before or dropped
out prematurely. Therefore, it can be stated that through acquisition of education, one is not
only able to bringing about improvements in their living conditions, but also rural culture.

In rural communities, individuals are residing in the state of poverty and

backwardness. The conditions of poverty and backwardness are regarded as the major
barriers within the course of development of their living conditions. The individuals and
communities, who are residing in the conditions of poverty have the major objective of
alleviating these conditions and generating an adequate source of income. The rural
individuals struggle to make ends meet and look for ways through which they are able to
sustain their living conditions in an appropriate manner. The rural culture is characterised by
norms, values, principles and standards of the rural individuals. Their lives are influenced by
their own customs and traditions. Furthermore, they have their own festivals, which are
celebrated by organization of fairs and events. In rural areas, individuals develop keen
interest in singing and dancing. These are regarded as an integral part of their lives and depict
rural culture.

Communication is regarded as an important aspect that depicts rural culture. In rural

communities, individuals have their own ways of communicating with family as well as

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community members. They have their own languages in which they communicate. In the
present existence, rural individuals are also making use of technologies in which they are
communicating with others. But in most cases, the elderly individuals are making use of
technologies for leisure and recreational purposes. The use of technologies are rendering a
significant contribution in making improvements in rural culture. Furthermore, there have
been improvements in other areas as well. These include, infrastructure, telecommunications,
transportation, power supplies, water supplies and so forth. This has enabled the rural
individuals to augment pleasure and contentment among themselves. Due to improvements
taking place in these areas, there are not only improvements taking place in the living
conditions of the individuals, but also their culture.

In rural communities, there has been prevalence of the viewpoint that girls are
liabilities and they should not be provided with education. They should be trained in terms of
the implementation of household chores, as they need to get married. On the other hand, male
members were regarded as assets and were provided with education. As there has been
prevalence of the viewpoint that males, if educated would contribute efficiently in promoting
well-being of their families and communities. But there has been transformations taking place
in the viewpoints of individuals and girls are also provided with the opportunities to acquire
education and empowerment. The women, belonging to rural communities are also migrating
to urban communities and are acquiring education and employment opportunities. Inequality
is regarded as the major barrier within the course of development of culture, norms and
values. But provision of equal opportunities to both boys and girls are regarded as effectual in
augmenting rural culture. In rural areas, when there are organization of social, cultural,
political, economic and religious activities, both men and women participate equally.

The Concept of Rural Culture and Its Characteristics

The concept of rural culture is understood as the way of life of the individuals living
in the rural area (Chapter – I. The Concept of Rural Culture, n.d.). In the lives of the
individuals, there are number of aspects, which are taken into account. These include,
management of household responsibilities, occupations, communication and dealing with
individuals, within as well as outside the home, implementation of norms, values, standards
and principles and inculcation of traits of morality and ethics. The characteristics of rural
culture have been stated as follows:

Texture of Life

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 Each rural community has its own texture of life. The texture of life of the individuals
is characterised by norms, values, ethics, morals, principles, standards, caste and class
systems, traditions, arts, taboos, superstitions, social mores and dialects.

Agriculture as the main Occupation

Agriculture is the major occupation of the individuals in rural communities. It is

apparent that the cultures and lifestyles of the individuals are influenced to a major extent by
the occupations of the individuals. The rural individuals, both men and women are in most
cases agricultural labourers and farmers. The possession of constructive viewpoints regarding
the land is an important aspect in influencing culture.

Societal Problems

The main societal problems that have been prevalent in rural communities include,
poverty, illiteracy, homelessness, ignorance and backwardness. These societal problems are
regarded as the major impediments within the course of progression of rural individuals,
communities and culture. Therefore, in order to augment rural culture, it is vital to alleviate
societal problems and promote well-being.

Prevalence of Superstitions

Prevalence of superstitions, powerful beliefs, traditional viewpoints and perspectives

are regarded as the major impediments within the course of development of rural culture. The
rural individuals possess their own superstitions and traditional viewpoints and perspectives
on the basis of which their lives are influenced.

Natural Environmental Conditions

The rural individuals are dependent upon the natural environmental conditions in
sustenance of their living conditions. They obtain wood, and other materials from the forests
and the natural environmental conditions. Research has indicated that they need to obtain
water from the water bodies, as they experience shortage of water supplies within their
homes. Therefore, dependence on natural environmental conditions are regarded as important
aspects in the sustenance of their living conditions.

Experiencing Problems and Challenges

Experiencing of problems and challenges are regarded as important characteristic of

rural culture. The problems of poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment are the major

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impediments within the course of sustenance of living conditions. These problems also render
an indispensable contribution in influencing their culture. Bringing about improvements in
these problems and challenges leads to improvements in culture.

Natural Calamities and Disasters

In rural communities, the individuals experience natural calamities and disasters to a

major extent. These are, drought, floods, earthquakes, and so forth. These have an effect upon
the lives of the individuals to a major extent. When the individuals experience detrimental
effects, it is apparent that their overall quality of lives will be influenced. Therefore, the
formulation of programs and measures will render an effective contribution in helping the
individuals recuperate.

Skills Development Programs

In some cases, rural individuals do not depict interest in learning academic concepts.
Due to this, they drop out before their educational skills are honed. On the other hand, there
have been initiation of skills development programs, which are enabling the individuals to
hone their skills and abilities. Development of skills have enabled the individuals to acquire
employment opportunities, which have rendered a significant contribution in bringing about
changes in culture.

Religious Beliefs

The religious beliefs possessed by rural individuals are strong. Research has indicated
that they begin their day with the offering of religious prayers. When they are to get engaged
in any task or activity, they carry out a religious ceremony. They possess the viewpoint that
religious beliefs will enable them to carry out their tasks satisfactorily and achieve the desired
goals and objectives. These are considered as important cultural traits.

Diligence and Conscientiousness

The culture and living conditions of the rural individuals are influenced by the traits
of diligence and conscientiousness. When they are carrying out any task within the home or
outside the home, they carry it out with wholeheartedness. In addition, the inculcation of the
traits of diligence, resourcefulness and conscientiousness will help them to achieve the
desired objectives.

4.4 Culture in Tribal Communities

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 Indian society is enormous and multifaceted as it is the land of multiple religions,
communities and cultures. Due to the diversified nature of the society, there is vast landscape,
over-sized landscape and multiplicity of castes and communities, religions and cultures.
Apart from urban and rural communities, tribal communities are also settled throughout the
country. Presence of the tribal communities symbolize the character of the Indian society.
However, the number of tribal individuals varies in different parts of the country and also in
relation to the non-tribal individuals. As per the 1981 census, the percentage of Scheduled
Tribes in the country was 7.76 percent of the total population, and in 1991, they constituted
8.08 percent. The decadal growth of the tribal population was 25.67 percent in 1981-1991. It
is more than the growth of the total population of the country, i.e. 23.79 percent. The tribal
population is recorded 39 million in 1971, 52 million in 1981 and 67.76 million in the 1991
census (Chapter - III. Tribal Culture in India, n.d.).

Tribal population both in absolute numbers and in terms of percentage vary

comprehensively from state to state. The tribal population is present in the states of Haryana,
Punjab, Chandigarh, Delhi and Pondicherry. The population of some states and Union
Territories consist of predominantly the Scheduled Tribes. In accordance to the 1991 census,
the ratio of the Scheduled Tribes to the general population was 94.75 percent in Mizoram,
93.15 percent in Meghalaya, 79.99 percent in Dadra and Nagar Haveli, 63.66 percent in
Arunachal Pradesh, 34.41 percent in Manipur, 30.95 percent in Tripura, 23.27 percent in
Madhya Pradesh and 22.21 percent in Orissa. The large tribal communities are the Gonds,
Bhils and Santhals. A few tribes, such as, Haisa, Tangsa, Hotang Tangsa, Katin Tsanga and
so forth have returned only as a single person. Whereas, the tribes such as, Bamdo, Jambo
Karka and the Kangoo have been between two and ten persons in accordance to the 1981
census. In accordance to the 1981 census, the Andamanese including all sub-groups had only
42 persons followed by Jaswas (31), Chaimals (18), Onges (97), Aranadans (236) and the
Kochuvelans (53) (Chapter - III. Tribal Culture in India, n.d.).

Therefore, the size of the tribal communities varies from few to millions. When the
tribal community is below the minimum size, it is necessary to keep the group going, a tribe
can be termed as diminutive. Above a certain size groups can turn viable and can stand the
economic pressures from the other groups. Between the diminutive and large groups, a
distinct spectrum of intermediate groups can be identified, who can be regarded to be in a
state of unstable equilibrium. They may cross the upper critical limit under favourable
circumstances. But under adverse circumstances may join the diminutive category. This

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category may be termed as the small group. Hence, on one hand, there are large tribal
communities, whose numbers are increasing, whereas, on the other hand, there are tribal
communities having few numbers, who are on the verge extinction found on the other. Tribes
in India are the collection of families or group of families, bearing the common name
(Chapter - III. Tribal Culture in India, n.d.).

It is not necessary that the tribes will denote the particular occupation, as a rule, it
does not donate any particular occupation, generally claiming common descent from a
mythical or historical ancestor and occasionally from an animal. But in some parts of the
country held together rather by obligations of blood-feud, than by the tradition of kinship.
They usually speak the same language and occupy the definite track of the country. A tribe is
not necessarily regarded as endogamous. In terms of marriage also, there is not a particular
rule that a man of one tribe must marry a woman, belonging to the same tribe. In other words,
individuals are allowed to marry individuals, belonging to different tribe. The tribal
communities have their own norms, values, traditions and customs for the implementation of
marriage ceremonies. A tribe is understood as the group of individuals bearing a common
name, occupying a territory, claiming a common ancestry, speaking common language,
observing religious rites and practices, and following same norms and customs (Chapter - III.
Tribal Culture in India, n.d.).

In India, social differentiation among the tribes can be seen in every sphere. Even
after conducting research in terms of tribes and their cultures, the actual number of tribes
within the country is not known. The tribes within the country are residing in hilly and
mountainous regions. The tribes are dependent upon the natural environmental conditions for
the sustenance of their living conditions. In tribal households, the individuals make use of
mud stoves for the purpose of which, they are required to obtain wood from the forests. Apart
from wood, there are number of other items as well, which are obtained from the forests.
Health is an important aspect for individuals, belonging to all age groups, backgrounds and
communities. In order to treat their wounds, illnesses and health problems, they obtain herbal
and medicinal plants from the forests. The tribal individuals need to ensure, they formulate
measures in terms of preservation of the natural environmental conditions. It is of utmost
significance to keep the water bodies clean, as number of diseases and health problems are
caused due to contaminated water.

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 The dependence of the tribal individuals on the natural environmental conditions are
regarded to be having an impact on their cultures to a major extent. The individuals,
belonging to tribal communities are trained from the stage of early childhood to go to the
forests and collect the necessary materials and products. Furthermore, they are also trained in
terms of keeping the environment clean. The tribal culture is dedicated to a major extent in
terms of preservation of the environment and making use of resources in the sustenance of
their living conditions. In the present existence, there have been transformations taking place
within the lives of tribal individuals. They are recognising the significance of education and
are migrating to rural communities to get enrolled in higher educational institutions and
acquiring employment opportunities. Research has indicated that in the present existence,
tribal individuals are also turning out to be professionals in various fields, such as, law,
medical, education, engineering, science and technology, management, administration and so
forth. Therefore, in this manner, they are bringing about transformations in their culture.

Factors Influencing the Culture of Tribal Communities

In tribal communities, there are number of factors, which have an impact upon not
only their living conditions, but also culture. The possession of ideas, viewpoints, and
perspectives in terms of supernatural powers, superstitions, ritual customs and other religious
beliefs enable them to form their own cultures. In this manner, they are unable to generate
information in terms of modern, scientific and innovative methods. These aspects prevent
them from trying newer forms of life (Kosambi, n.d.). The factors influencing the culture of
tribal communities have been stated as follows: (Chapter - III. Tribal Culture in India, n.d.).

Geography and Demography

Based on the geography of India and the tribal demography, regional groups and the
zonal classification of tribal communities have been worked out. As it has been stated above
that tribal communities reside in hilly and mountainous regions. In these communities, the
system of education as well as medical and health care facilities are not in a well-developed
state, therefore, the literacy rates are not high among the tribal communities, particularly the
elderly individuals. Hence, in terms of the factors of geography and demography, the culture
of the tribal communities is influenced to a major extent by their dependence on the natural
environmental conditions.

Language

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 Language is regarded as one of the most significant aspects influencing the culture of
tribal individuals. Tribal communities have their own language. In most cases, they speak
their own languages and communicate within their own communities. They are usually not
familiar with the language of other tribal communities. But as it has been stated above that
they have realized the significance of education and are migrating to urban communities.
Hence, in order to achieve their goals and objectives, they are generating information in terms
of English and Hindi. When they are not familiar with the language, they join training
centres, so they are able to augment their communication skills. In order to acquire good
quality education and employment opportunities, it is essential for the individuals to hone
language skills. Therefore, it can be stated that honing of language and communication skills
would contribute effectively in bringing about improvements in culture.

Attire

The attire of the tribal communities is regarded as indispensable in influencing their

cultures. The tribal individuals, both men and women have their own attires. Research studies
have indicated that tribal individuals have been engaged in the occupations of hunting and
gathering. These have been prevalent among them not only in the ancient times, but also in
the present. These individuals are making use of skin of dead animals as well for the purpose
of their attire. In some cases, these individuals even make use of twigs and leaves for their
attire. The tribal individuals are skilled in making their own attire and do not obtain services
from other individuals. Hence, the attire of these individuals also contribute in depicting their
culture.

Dance and Music

Dance and music is regarded as an integral part of tribal culture. In the organization of
social, cultural, religious, economic, and political activities and celebration of festivals, the
tribal individuals focus on dance and music. They are skilled at dancing, singing and in the
playing of musical instruments. The individuals acquire an understanding of these aspects
from their parents. From the stage of early childhood, the individuals get trained in terms of
these areas and participate in the celebration of various festivals and social, religious,
cultural, economic and political activities. Dance and music are regarded as important
aspects, which encourage socialization among the individuals and communities.

Hunters and Food-Gatherers

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 Tribal communities are hunters and food-gatherers to a major extent. They hunt wild
animals and birds for satisfying their nutritional requirements. The coast-dwellers obtain
much of the food from the sea. They are experts in turtle hunting and fishing. In addition,
they also hunt wild pigs and gather food from the forests. Their canoes help them not only in
hunting, but also in shifting from one place to another. The forest-dwellers depend entirely on
the forests for fulfilling their nutritional needs and requirements. The coast-dwellers have
access to sea and forests. They are in a better position as compared to forest-dwellers in
having access to food. For the forest-dwellers, transportation is also one of the major
problems.

Nuclear Family System

The nuclear family system is prevalent among the coast-dwellers. The widows and the
widowers have separate huts to live. Their huts are constructed in such a manner that
interaction can take place easily among individuals, especially at the time of need. The role of
the women are important in the management of household responsibilities and in taking care
of the needs and requirements of their family members. On the other hand, the men are
responsible for working and generating a source of income. Agriculture is regarded as the
primary occupation of the tribal individuals. Men as well as women are engaged in the
agricultural sector and farming practices. Within the nuclear family, both men and women
have to work in integration and co-ordination with each other in the sustenance of adequate
living conditions.

Housing Accommodation

The tribal communities make use of leaves, grasses and bamboo in the construction of
their huts. They are skilled at construction and are well aware of methods and strategies that
need to be implemented in the construction of a hut. When they obtain materials from the
natural environmental conditions in the construction of the huts, one of the major
disadvantages is, huts are unable to survive, particularly during the occurrence of natural
calamities and disasters. These leads to loss of life and property to a major extent. But, after
they have experienced natural calamities and disasters, they generate awareness that it is
essential to have strong and robust housing accommodation.

Beliefs in Supernatural Powers and Spirits

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 The tribal communities have strong beliefs in supernatural powers and spirits. There
are some customs and traditions of tribal communities, which are unusual to urban and rural
communities. They practice these customs and traditions, so they will be able to promote
well-being. The tribal individuals possess this viewpoint that they need to devote themselves
towards securing immunity. This is done with the help of magical powers, which is regarded
as the leading cause of death. As it has been stated that natural environmental conditions are
regarded as indispensable for the sustenance of their living conditions, hence, their beliefs
also enable them to worship sun, moon, sky, trees, plants, rocks, mountains, rivers, lakes and
other features of the natural environment. They possess the viewpoint that worshipping these
would enable them to live effectual lives and bring about prosperity.

Other Occupations

Apart from agriculture and farming practices, the tribal communities are dependent
upon other occupations as well. These include, production of artworks, handicrafts, food
items and so forth. They obtain various materials from the forests, such as, roots, fruits,
tubers, and honey. They hunt animals and birds and go for fishing. These activities, not only
help them in satisfying their nutritional requirements, but they are also able to generate a
source of income by trading various goods. The tribal communities barter forest products for
rice, chillies, opium, tea and cloth. In this manner, they are not only able to interact with the
mainstream society, but also are able to bring about transformations in their cultures and
lifestyles. Therefore, it can be stated that the occupations of the individuals are regarded as
important aspects in bringing about changes in culture.

Faith in Religion

The tribal communities have strong faith in religion. They possess this viewpoint that
having faith in religion will help them in overcoming the barriers that may arise with the
course of sustenance of their living conditions. Festivals, rituals and ancestor worship are
regarded as common among the tribal communities. The institution of priesthood is quite
strong among the tribal communities. When the individuals need to organize marriage
ceremonies or obtain answers to any questions, they consult priests. The priests acquire an
efficient understanding of the problems and provide solutions. Marriage is an important
institution among the tribal communities, in terms of which they seek ideas and suggestions
from priests. In the organization of marriage ceremonies too, the tribal individuals put into

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operation, religious beliefs. Therefore, it can be stated, religious beliefs are regarded as
indispensable in influencing culture.

4.5 Social Classes in Urban India

The social classes in urban areas, mainly comprise of capitalists (commercial and
industrial), corporate sector, professional classes, petty traders and shopkeepers, and working
classes.

Commercial and Industrial Classes

Under the British rule, production in India, became production for the market. When
the individuals are engaged in the production process, they need to market their products. It is
the job of the manufacturers and producers to generate awareness in terms of the marketing
strategies and methods. The producers and manufacturers are required to augment their
knowledge and aptitude in terms of modern, scientific and innovative methods and
approaches. As a result of advancements taking place, the internal market has expanded and
class of traders engaged in internal trading increased. Simultaneously, India was also
connected with the world market. This led to the growth of class merchants, who are engaged
in the occupations of export and import. Therefore, there was an increase in the expansion of
commercial middle class within the country. The expansion in the infrastructure,
communication and transportation facilities have enabled the individuals to move from one
place to another. As when the individuals need to market their products, it is apparent that
they need to move from one place to another (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Commercial and industrial classes within the country, particularly residing in urban
areas are well-educated and generate information in terms of marketing strategies and
approaches. With the advent of technologies, they are bringing about expansion in their
business. The rich commercial middle class took the form of the capital to be invested in
other large scale manufactured goods and services and modern industries. The British
rendered a significant contribution in leading to the establishment of industries. The
establishment of industries is regarded as one of the indispensable aspects in leading to
effective growth and development of the nation. The development of industries not only led
to an increase in the employment opportunities for the individuals, but also are bringing about
improvements in their overall quality of lives (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

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 The various industries that were setup include, mining, cotton, plantations, jute,
handicrafts, silk weaving, lock industries, restaurants and so forth. With the establishment of
these industries, the Indian societies included in its composition, new groups as mill owners,
mine owners and so forth. The individuals are bringing about improvements in their overall
quality of lives by not only seeking employment opportunities in industries, but they are also
able to establish their own industries. Subsequently, the individuals are also divided in the
sphere of their industrial activity. The class of commercial and industrial, turned out to be the
strongest classes in India, from the social and economic perspective (Indian Society and
Social Change, 2011). The executive branch of the government at both state and national
levels is organized into line ministries, each of which is responsible for the particular sector
or area. In the case of industrial and economic planning, the responsibilities are shared by the
department of commerce and department of industrial policy and promotion (Anand, Arakali,
Jana, Kaduganti, & Sami, 2015).

Corporate Sector

The corporate sector is referred to any organization that is under the control of the
Government ownership and control. The Government has formulated policies and programs
that are dedicated towards bringing about improvements in this sector and generating positive
outcomes. This sector does not belong to the public sector and can be taken to have been part
of the private sector. The firms and the organizations, which are owned, controlled and
managed exclusively by the private individuals and entities are included in the private sector.
All the private sector firms can be classified into two categories, one is individually owned
and the other is collectively owned. The individually owned firms are known as sole
proprietorship. In this case, one person is responsible for the implementation of tasks and
functions. He is vested with the authority and responsibility of implementation of
management and administrative functions (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

On the other hand, collectively owned firms are those, in which case, the individuals
are required to work in partnership. In this case, normally there are two partners, who need to
work in co-ordination and integration with each other. They have to jointly participate in the
implementation of management and administrative functions and in the decision making
processes. Collectively owned firms are classified into three other types as well. These are
known as joint-Hindu family, joint-stock companies, and co-operatives. In the case of joint-
Hindu family, the brothers are participating in the joint establishment of the business or

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organization. Similarly in the case of joint-stock companies and co-operatives, the individuals
may or may not belong to the same family. They render a collective participation in the
management and administrative functions and in the making of decisions. The most
important of these is the joint-stock organization, which is otherwise known as the corporate
sector. The joint stock companies, which do not belong to the public sector are collectively
known as the private corporate sector (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Professional Classes

In urban communities, the individuals normally are well-educated and are engaged in
professional fields. These include, education, law, medical, architecture engineering,
management, administration, science and technology and so forth. In these fields, the
individuals are engaged in good employment opportunities in accordance to their educational
qualifications and competencies. For example, in the field of education, the individuals are
employed as teachers, professors, supervisors, researchers, co-ordinators of curriculum and
instruction, and so forth. In the present existence, in urban areas, improvements are taking
place in all important areas, i.e. education, employment opportunities, infrastructure, civic
amenities, facilities, and so forth. Through these developments, individuals are gaining
opportunities to excel in various fields and promote well-being of themselves, their families
and communities.

The new economic systems and state systems brought about by the British rule
required cadres of educated Indians trained in modern law, technology, medicine, economics,
administrative science and other subjects. In fact, it was primarily because of the pressing
need of the new commercial and industrial enterprises and the administrative systems that the
British Government was forced to introduce modern education to India. The British
contributed effectively in the introduction of modern and innovative methods in all spheres.
There was expansion in the education system, law, medical and health care facilities and so
forth. They established modern educational centres on an increasing scale. The social
categories were linked up with the modern industry, agriculture, commerce, finance,
administration, press and other fields of social life. The professional classes comprise of
modern lawyers, doctors, teachers, managers, administrators, engineers, and others working
in the modern, commercial and other enterprises, officials working in the state administrative
machinery, engineers, technologists, agriculture scientists, journalists, educationists,
researchers and so forth (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

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 Petty Traders and Shopkeepers

Trading is an important profession of individuals not only in rural but also in urban
communities. The individuals are migrating from rural and tribal communities to urban areas
on a large scale. They have the primary objective of looking for employment opportunities
and generate a source of income. In some cases, they are fortunate enough to find
employment as cooks, domestic helpers, cleaners, drivers and so forth. On the other hand,
they get engaged in trading and business. They set up their own tea stalls, and grocery shops
in market places, outside educational institutions and so forth. In some cases, they are skilled
in the production of handicrafts and artworks, they produce and sell them. The various kinds
of artworks include, canvas paintings, fabric paintings, tanjore paintings, madhubani
paintings and so forth. On the other hand, various types of handicrafts include, pottery works,
garlands, and various kinds of decorative items. Not only the individuals, belonging to rural
and tribal communities, but also the individuals, belonging to urban communities are setting
up own businesses of various items, including food items, garments, groceries, repairing of
mobile, television and so forth.

The classes of petty traders and shopkeepers have expanded with the growth of
modern towns and cities. They constitute the connection between the producers of goods and
commodities and the mass of consumers. They make purchases of goods from the producers
and wholesalers and sell them among consumers. Therefore, they make their living from the
profit margin of the prices on which they buy and sell their goods and commodities. Like all
the other classes, this class has grown in scale in post-independent India (Indian Society and
Social Change, 2011). The individuals normally possess the viewpoint that setting up own
businesses of production and sales would help them to earn profitability and sustain their
living conditions in an appropriate manner. It is not easy to find employment opportunities.
Research has indicated that individuals, belonging to urban communities, who are well-
educated are also finding it difficult to obtain employment. Therefore, they form the
viewpoint that trade and business will help them to sustain their living conditions in a
satisfactory manner.

Working Classes

The origin of the working classes can be traced back to the British rule. This was the
modern working class, which was originated as the result of the establishment of modern
industries, plantations, and railways established in India, during the British period. This class

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grew in proportions as plantations, factories, industries, mining, transportation, railways and
other industrial sectors (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011). The individuals, who are
engaged in the agricultural sector and farming practices are termed as working class. The
artisans, and craftsmen, who are engaged in the production and manufacturing processes are
also termed as working class. Hence, it can be stated that working class is a comprehensive
term, which comprises of number of individuals, who are engaged in various occupations and
fields.

As the term implies, working classes are the individuals, who are engaged in
employment opportunities. There are number of employment opportunities within urban
areas. Some are considered as reputed and well-paying jobs, these include, jobs in
professional fields, such as, education, medical, law, engineering, science and technology,
management, administration, architecture, banks, financial institutions, organizations, multi-
national companies and so forth. In order to acquire employment opportunities in these fields,
it is vital for the individuals to possess the essential educational qualifications, competencies
and aptitude. Furthermore, when they get recruited, they are required to undergo the training
and development programs. In these programs, they are provided with knowledge and
information in terms of the organization, job duties, departments, personnel, goals and
objectives and so forth. Within the course of time, when the individuals are experienced in
terms of their job duties, they are able to sustain their living conditions in an enhanced
manner.

In urban areas, the other jobs in which the individuals are engaged in are minority
jobs. The individuals, normally belonging to rural and tribal communities are the ones, who
are engaged in minority jobs. These including, domestic work, cleaning, cooking, driving,
gardening, and so forth. In some cases, the individuals get engaged in various types of work,
including repair work, painting, plumbing, and electric work. For this purpose, it is vital to
acquire appropriate training. The individuals, who develop interest in these areas, normally
acquire training from vocational training centres in order to adopt one or more of these fields
as their professions. In some cases, they may work with the organization or company,
whereas, in other cases, they may work by making visits in households. When these
individuals are able to find more work, they are able to generate sufficient income, which can
be even more than 40,000 Rs per month. On the other hand, when they are unable to find
more income, then income may be less, i.e. 5000 to 10,000 Rs. per month. Therefore, it can

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be stated that individuals, belonging to urban communities are engaged in various types of
employment opportunities in accordance to their competencies and aptitude.

4.6 Social Classes in Rural India

The social classes in rural India are landlords, agricultural labourers, artisans,
production of handicrafts, livestock sector and rural aquaculture. These have been stated as
follows:

Landlords

There are two types of landlords, zamindars, i.e. old landlords and moneylenders,
merchants and others. They are willing to accept any types of changes that are taking place in
the agricultural sector, farming practices, markets and so forth (Dey, Rafat, & Agarwal,
2012). Those, who held such ownership of tenure rights in the zamindari area are often
referred to as intermediaries. These intermediaries belonged to various categories and were
known by different names. They are found in various regions of Bihar, U.P., Bengal and
Orissa. Taluqdars were inferior intermediaries, whom large zamindars created out of their
own zamindari rights. Jotedars found in some parts of Bengal were substantial landlords, who
held land directly from the zamindars. They got the land cultivated by subletting it to the
tenants on a 50:50 share. In the same manner, patedars held permanent leases at fixed dues
under the zamindars. Ijardars on the other hand were those, to whom the revenue of the area
was hired out on a contract basis (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

The contemporary Indian society is characterised by the prominent feature of the rise
and expansion of the middle class. Though in India, extensive research studies have been
conducted on middle classes, but primarily in the industrial-urban framework, the analysis of
the middle class in rural communities is scanty. It has also been asserted that class and caste
analysis, despite their relevance and explanatory power, seems to have been dropped from
dominant rural development studies as well as policy and political practice. Generally, the
studies that have been conducted on industrial-urban middle classes focus upon the macro
level. The three primary classes that were identified in rural areas, include, landlords, farmers
and agricultural labourers. It is regarded as an effort to bring micro-level to the macro-level
(The Rise of Rural Middle Class, n.d.). The landlords are regarded as an influential and
dominant class in rural India (Patole, 2018).

Agricultural Labourers

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 Agricultural labour constitutes the most important single element in the gainfully
employed population of the country. Data on the proportion of agricultural labour to the
gainfully employed population, and to the total population is derived from the census of
India, 1951 (Som, 1960). In the present existence, with the advent of technologies, modern
and innovative methods in the agricultural sector, there have been improvements taking place
in not only the production processes, but also conditions of farmers. One of the major
disadvantages that farmers and agricultural labourers experience is, they do not have work
throughout the year. When the productivity is low, they remain unemployed and struggle to
make ends meet. Therefore, it is essential to formulate measures and procedures to bring
about improvements in the conditions of agricultural labourers.

In rural areas, agriculture is the primary occupation of the individuals. They can be
comprehensively divided into family labourers and hired labourers. The first category,
belongs to the small farmers, who are not financially sound to hire labourers. Small farmers
hire labourers during peak seasons, such as, harvesting, weeding and transplanting. When the
labour is hired in abundance, the operations and tasks are carried out within a short period of
time. Hired labour can be divided into two groups, i.e. casual labour and attached labour.
Attached workers are the workers, who are more or less in continuous employment and are in
some sort of contract with the employers, during the period of employment. On the other
hand, casual workers are employed from time to time in accordance to the emergencies of
work. Casual labourers are employed on daily wages, just for the purpose of completion of
specific operation, which may last for short period of time. On the other hand, attached
workers are employed on contract basis. It is in most cases oral contract, extending over a
longer period, i.e. yearly, half yearly or quarterly (Chapter - II. Agricultural Labour, n.d.).

The growth of the commercial crops are regarded as significant potential for the
promotion of exports of agricultural commodities and bringing about faster development of
agro-based industries. Therefore, the agricultural sector not only contributes effectively in the
overall growth of the economy, but also causes a reduction in poverty by making provision of
employment opportunities and food security to the majority of population of the country.
Therefore, it is regarded as the most inclusive growth sectors of the Indian economy (Dev,
2012). Improvements are taking place in the agricultural sector and it is leading to up-
gradation of conditions of farmers and agricultural labourers.

Bonded Labour

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 The special class of agricultural labourer is called bonded labour. When the small and
landless farmers have to pay the loans that their fathers, grandfathers or other members of the
family have borrowed, they work as bonded labourers. In bonded labour, the individuals are
required to get engaged in the agricultural sector for long hours in return for very less pay or
no pay at all. Normally, they are not paid as they are required to repay the loans borrowed
from the moneylenders or landlords. In this labour, the inability of the individuals to repay
the loans leads to the attachment of the labourer to the moneylender till the time, when the
loan is finally repaid (Chapter - II. Agricultural Labour, n.d.).

Characteristics of Agricultural Labour

The census of India defines the agricultural labourer as the person, who works on
another person’s land for wages. The wages may be paid in cash or kind. The characteristics
of agricultural labour have been stated as follows: (Chapter - II. Agricultural Labour, n.d.).

Firstly, the agricultural labour need not work in unison. There is lack of
communication between the individuals and lack of communication is regarded as one of the
barriers within the course of development of the meaningful organization.

Secondly, agricultural workers are incompetent. They are not skilled in terms of
practices and methods that are needed in agriculture and farming practices. Consequently,
their supply is perfectly elastic and whatever they earn are in the nature of transfer earnings.
The employer often makes use of this position to his personal gain by contracting to pay less
than the market forces.

Thirdly, agricultural labour is migratory in character. It can be drawn from the distant
place to the place of work during the busy season.

Fourthly, the individuals, who are employing agricultural labourers may not be of
high sources. This will be the situation, when the small farmers employs another farmers,
who may not have sufficient work that needs to be done by him. Therefore, a direct contact
between the employers and the workers is regarded as the distinct characteristic of
agricultural labour.

Finally, the agricultural labour is not covered by any laws, rules and regulations.
Therefore, lack of laws and rules are also regarded as barriers within the course of
meaningful organization of agricultural labour.

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 Artisans

In rural areas, artisans are regarded as an integral part of the society. The artisans have
been existed in the rural communities since ancient India. Their job duties are not only
dedicated towards sustaining their living conditions, but through their work and participation,
they are rendering an indispensable contribution in promoting well-being of the communities
and nation. The various categories of artisans that have been prevalent within the rural
communities are, carpenters, weavers, potters, goldsmiths, ironsmiths and so forth. Not all
villages had the family of artisans, but under the jajmani system, sometimes the family of
these occupational castes served more than one village. In the pre-British period, there was
existence of some social mobility, but generally the artisans did not experience any change.
Due to the advent of British rule within the country, the artisans began to experience changes
in their conditions (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011). Previously they carried out
their tasks and functions manually, but with the advent of technologies, they began to make
use of modern, scientific and innovative methods in the production processes.

In rural communities, there have been establishment of training centres, which are
providing knowledge and skills to individuals in terms of making use of technologies and
innovative methods in augmenting productivity. The nation’s economic system of the 21st
century is being dominated by knowledge which differs from the traditional service and
manufacturing based industries. The major difference in this transformation is the substitution
for creation of production. This new economy creates, manages and leads to the growth of
intellectual property. Equally important is the intellectual property, which is turning into the
basis for new business and entrepreneurial activity. With the advent of modernization and
globalization, there are emergence of technologies, which are being used by artisans. The job
of the artisans is to make use of tools, machinery and equipment in the production of various
items. Mechanical means, as long as the direct manual contribution of the artisans remains
the most substantial contribution of the finished product. The production of various items
takes place without any kinds of restraints on the quantity and using raw materials (Chapter –
II. Rural Artisans in India, n.d.).

The artisans have been a significant pillar of the Indian society. They were the
artisans, who rendered a significant contribution in the development of techniques that are
required in the development of bullock cart. These techniques were originating from the
native skills that have been accepted by the rural masses (Chapter – II. Rural Artisans in

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India, n.d.). The primary job duty of the artisans were to upgrade their skills and abilities in
terms of modern, scientific and innovative methods, which are required in the production and
manufacturing of various items. In the ancient times, when technologies and modern and
scientific methods were not put into operation, the artisans were involved in the production
processes manually. Whether they carry out the tasks manually or make use of modern,
scientific and innovative methods, it is vital for them to make the product artistic and
attractive. Artistic and ethnic products would catch the attention of the buyers and augment
productivity and profitability.

The contribution of various categories of artisans is recognized in the development of

the economy. In the previous times, they adopted their ancestor’s vocations. Their role was
regarded as significant in the maintenance of cultural life. Consequently, this enclosed self-
sufficient lifestyle, which led to cultural practices. In self-sufficient isolated villages, after the
harvesting of operations were over, peasant households used to give a traditionally
determined share out of their output to artisans, craftsmen and others. Due to the increasing
magnetization of trade in rural communities, the artisans in all fields are augmenting their
productivity. Rural artisan is a person, who derives 50 percent of the national income from
the village crafts, such as, carpentry, blacksmithing, gold-smiths, handlooms, leather works
and so forth. As an independent occupation, rural artisans represent the class of rural
households, whose main function is to provide ancillary to agriculture and farming. They also
include households, primarily engaged in the production of handicrafts (Yadav, 2012).

The rural artisans experience number of problems and challenges within the course of
achievement of desired outputs. These include, illiteracy, poverty, non-availability of raw
materials, low income level, use of old and absolute machinery and equipment, lack of
financial assistance, seasonal demand of their products, lack of adequate means of
transportation, lack of communication, and the increase in the demand for industrial products
by rural individuals. The rural artisans are overwhelmed by the conditions of poverty and
backwardness. They usually lack the resources, which are needed in the production
processes. In addition, they are non-literates and even lack the basic literacy skills of reading,
writing and arithmetic. In order to market ones products in an appropriate manner and
generate information in terms of consumer demands, it is necessary to possess the basic
literacy skills of reading, writing and arithmetic. Therefore, it is vital for the rural artisans to
not only generate information in terms of utilization of modern, scientific and innovative
methods in the production processes, but also augment the basic literacy skills. Furthermore,

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it is vital for them to augment their knowledge and skills in terms of usage of technologies.
Through efficient usage of technologies, one can gain information in terms of various aspects
and carry out their job duties in a well-organized manner.

Within the period of time, there have been initiation of policies and programs to bring
about improvements in the conditions of artisans. Improvements in technologies are regarded
to be of utmost significance, which were initiated in the first five year plan (1951-1956).
Under the second five year plan (1956-1961), included the policy for providing a satisfactory
arrangement for carrying out marketing research, electrification, improvement in the housing
conditions of rural individuals, credit, financial sources and so forth. The third five year plan
(1961-1966) put emphasis upon the introduction of improved tools and equipment. The
fourth five year plan (1969-1974) put emphasis upon the number of measures, which are
required to obtain various facilities and equipment, which are necessary to make
improvements in productivity. The fifth five year plan (1974-1979) focused upon the
eradication of poverty and inequality. In addition, it put emphasis upon the development of
skills and abilities to bring about improvements in the source of income (Yadav, 2012).

The sixth five year plan (1978-1983) focused upon the development efforts in the
proposed plan that were directed to generate employment opportunities for full-time
employment and augment the levels of earnings of rural artisans. The seventh five year plan
(1985-1990) aimed at the reinforcement of the infrastructure facilities of various levels and
bring about improvements in productivity and quality. Under the eighth five year plan (1992-
1997), Haryana and Khadi Village Industries Board was established to provide financial
assistance to the traditional artisans for setting up of the industry in the field assigned to the
Board. It also provides financial assistance in the form of 50 percent of the grant and 50
percent of the loan for the purchase of tools and equipment, construction of watersheds and
working capital for rural artisans and entrepreneurs (Yadav, 2012).

Under the ninth five year plan (1997-2002), Government gave priority to the
development of rural areas. Under the tenth five year plan (2002-2007), Government made
provision of finance through regional banks towards promoting agriculture and rural
development. Under the eleventh five year plan (2007-2012), Government put emphasis upon
the formulation of new policies and programs. The main objective of these programs was to
eradicate poverty. Through this plan, the government made provision of financial assistance

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and subsidies to the artisans, so they can develop their minor industries and development of
rural areas can take place (Yadav, 2012).

Production of Handicrafts

The Indian handicraft industry forms the major part of the rich cultural heritage within
the country. Rural marketing is the process of developing, pricing, promoting, distributing
specific rural product and the service leading to an exchange between the rural and urban
market which promotes satisfaction of consumer demand and achievement of organizational
objectives (Rural Marketing, n.d.). It is an unorganized and decentralized labour intensive
cottage industry. Some of the major strengths are, availability of inexpensive labour within
the country, use of local resources, low capital investment and unique craftsmanship in the
manufacturing of products. The individuals, who make visit to India from foreign countries
are also having appreciation for Indian handicrafts on a large scale. Therefore, in the
production of handicrafts, the individuals are provided with adequate training and there are
utilization of modern and innovative methods. When they augment their skills and enrich
their knowledge in a satisfactory manner, they are able to not only enhance productivity but
achieve the desired goals and objectives (Jadhav, n.d.). In rural areas, the individuals develop
interest and enthusiasm in the production of handicrafts. Research has indicated that
especially, women, who are not employed in the agricultural sector and remain at home get
engaged in the production of handicrafts to supplement family income.

India is known for its rich cultural heritage and includes variety of handicrafts. The
handicraft industry has been prevalent within the country since ancient times. The
individuals, belonging to various categories and backgrounds develop interest in handicrafts.
In schools, in urban as well as in rural areas, production of handicrafts is regarded as one of
the important subjects. The individuals, belonging to rural communities, particularly, women
and elderly individuals, who remain confined within the homes are engaged in the production
of handicrafts. When the individuals undertake this profession, it is vital for them to generate
information in terms of consumer demands. Furthermore, it is vital to generate information in
terms of innovative patterns and designs. When the handicrafts are attractive, the individuals
develop interest in purchasing them. In the present existence, the individuals are making use
of technologies and internet to generate information and augment their understanding in
terms of production of various kinds of handicrafts.

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 The handicrafts sector, which forms the part of the rich cultural heritage of the
country makes use of the traditional skills of the artisans in various crafts, such as, wooden
ware, metal ware, textile weaving, printing marble, items made of stones, various kinds of
paintings, leather works, jewellery and so forth (Jadhav, n.d.). When individuals are skilled in
the production of various types of handicrafts and it is their family business, then this skill is
passed from generation to generation. The individuals generally acquire knowledge in terms
of the production processes from their parents and grandparents. In some rural communities,
when girls are not sent to schools, they usually assist their parents in the management of
household responsibilities and in the production of various types of handicrafts. In rural
communities, there have been establishment of training centres as well, which are providing
training to the individuals in terms of utilization of modern, scientific and innovative methods
in the production of handicrafts.

Despite the strengths, there are number problems as well in the handicrafts industry.
These are, low literacy skills and education levels, lack of modern, scientific and innovative
methods and shortage of financial resources. When the individuals are involved in the
manufacturing and production of handicrafts, they need to hone their literacy skills.
Acquisition of literacy skills would facilitate in the generation of information in terms of
various factors. These include, labour market factors, consumer demands, making use of
modern, scientific and innovative methods in the production and manufacturing processes,
purchasing and selling strategies, having sufficient financial resources and information in
terms of skills development programs. Research has indicated that the use of traditional
methods and approaches are not effective in leading to an increase in the consumer demand.
Therefore, it is vital for the rural individuals to make use of technologies and modern and
innovative methods to augment productivity and profitability. Throughout the country, most
of the artisans lack the information in terms of usage of technologies and innovative methods
and possess low literacy skills or no literacy skills. These are regarded as the major
impediments within the course of productivity. Therefore, it is necessary to upgrade not only
their literacy skills, but also technical skills.

Research has indicated that rural artisans do not inculcate the traits of diligence,
resourcefulness and conscientiousness in the implementation of their tasks and activities. In
other words, not in all, but in some cases, the quality of products are low (Jadhav, n.d.). The
lack of technical know-how also have an effect upon the design of the products. In order to
generate awareness in terms of various designs, the individuals need to make use of

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technologies and internet. Internet is regarded as most effectual in generating information in
terms of production processes and designing. In India, the individuals are engaged in the
production of handicrafts manually. But with advancements taking place and with the advent
of technologies and modern and scientific methods, the artisans are making use of machines,
tools and technologies. They are getting enrolled in training centres in order to acquire
information in terms of usage of technologies and scientific methods. The training centres are
established in rural communities, as well as the individuals migrate to urban communities.

The two major aspects that are necessary to maintain sustainability in the production
processes are innovation and creativity. Though the handicraft industry is known for its
exquisite craftsmanship and inability to adopt the innovative methods of production (Jadhav,
n.d.). Furthermore, the artisans need to develop creativity in their products in the production
methods. The improvements take place in innovation and creative methods in accordance to
the changing demands of the customers. The artisans experience difficulties in the
preservation of various forms of art by keeping the next generation involved in the latest
identified problem in the conservation of handicrafts. Due to financial pressures, the children
of artisans are compelled to get engaged in other professions. But in most cases, the children,
especially girls are provided training and they assist their parents in the production of
handicrafts.

Livestock Sector

Livestock sector contributes about six percent to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
and 25 percent to the Agricultural Domestic Product (ADP). Over the past two decades, there
has been an increase in the livestock sector at an annual rate of 5.6 percent, which is higher
than the growth of the agricultural sector (3.3 percent). This suggests that livestock is likely
to emerge as an engine of agricultural growth. It is also regarded as one of the potential sector
for export. Livestock sector plays multi-faceted roles in the socio-economic development.
The significance of livestock is recognized towards the conservation of the environment.
Livestock sector supplements income from the production of crops and other sources. It
generates a continuous stream of income and employment, causing a reduction in the
seasonality of the livelihoods patterns, particularly in concern with the deprived,
marginalized and socio-economically backward sections of the society (Livestock Sector in
India, n.d.).

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 India has an extensive livestock population. Due to huge livestock population, the
individuals, particularly in rural communities regard the function of rearing of livestock as
the major function. There has been an increase in the production of livestock. The various
forms of livestock include, cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, and pigs (Livestock Sector in India,
n.d.). When the individuals are skilled in the rearing of livestock, they are able to make use of
the livestock in the generation of the source of income and transferring to other places. Over
the years, slow and perceptible changes have been taking place in the favour of buffalos.
There has been an increase in the significance of poultry as well. As in rural communities,
besides agriculture, farming practices, production of handicrafts and artworks, production of
food items are also regarded as important ways of generating a source of income. The
individuals obtain milk, eggs, meat and wool from the livestock and are engaged in selling
and marketing the items to sustain their living conditions.

Livestock sector provides the variety of food and non-food products. The major
livestock products are milk, meat, wool and eggs. India is the largest producer of milk in the
world. The annual production is of 81 million tonnes in 2000-2001. There has been a
continuous increase in the production of milk, since the initiation of the operation flood in the
early 1970s. On account of bringing about improvements in productivity and formation of
connections between the markets between rural producers and urban consumers through the
network of dairy co-operatives. Yet the productivity is low as compared to many other
countries and the world average. Buffaloes are regarded as the major sources of milk
production, accounting for 54 percent of the total milk production in the country. Cows
account for 42 percent and goats account for four percent of the milk production. In the past
two decades of 1980-2000, the milk production grew at a rate of 4.5 percent (Livestock
Sector in India, n.d.).

The growth in the production of meat has been rapid as compared to the production of
milk. The total meat production within the country has increased from 881 thousand tonnes in
1980-1981 to 4712 thousand tonnes in 2000-2001 at an annual rate of 10.5 percent. The
growth accelerated during the 1990s mainly due to the higher growth in buffalo and the
production of meat. Gradual changes are taking place in the structure of meat production. It
needs to be noted that the growth in the meat production has been driven to a major extent by
increase in the number of animals slaughtered, as increase in the yield was negligible in case
of almost all categories of livestock. It has been observed that there has been an increase in
the meat yield of cattle, buffalo and sheep. On the other hand, there has been a decline in the

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meat yield of goat and pig. A large number of factors are responsible for the production of
meat and growth therein. Large animals, such as, cattle and buffalo are raised primarily to
provide milk and meat (Livestock Sector in India, n.d.). Therefore, it can be stated that
individuals need to put into operation, various methods and approaches that are needed in the
rearing of livestock.

In the rearing of livestock, there are number of factors that need to be taken into
consideration. These include, providing proper shelter, providing them proper nutrition,
taking care of their health and so forth. In rural areas, apart from management of household
responsibilities, the children are trained from the initial stage in terms of rearing of livestock.
Furthermore, one of the important factors that need to be taken into consideration are, the
livestock should not be made to work more than what is required. For instance, when the
farmers and agricultural labourers are making use of bullocks in their fields, it is vital to
ensure that they are not made to work more than what is required. Furthermore, their health
conditions need to be taken care of. In rural areas, in the present existence, individuals are
making use of modern, scientific and innovative methods in the rearing of livestock. When
they have to obtain wool, and other items, they are making use of technologies. Therefore,
making use of technologies and innovative methods in the rearing of livestock are regarded to
be of utmost significance in enhancing production.

The major share of livestock comes from the milk group, which has rendered a
significant contribution of 62.2 percent in the total values of the livestock sector in 1980-
1981. This share has increased to the extent of 66.8 percent during 1998-1999 due to the
various policy interventions for development of the dairy sector within the country. The
livestock sector employs the labour force, belonging to rural communities to a major extent.
The significance of livestock as the source of employment varies across different states.
During the year 1999-2000, contribution of livestock towards rural employment ranged
between six and 28 percent in the states of Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Kerala and Uttar Pradesh. Whereas, in other states, it was below the national
average (Livestock Sector in India, n.d.). Therefore, it can be stated that livestock is regarded
as an important sector that has rendered a significant contribution in generating a source of
income and sustenance of living conditions of rural individuals.

Rural Aquaculture

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 Rural aquaculture is regarded as the weapon to fight against poverty and cause a
reduction in inequality and received attention in the recent years. It renders an effective
contribution towards alleviation of the conditions of poverty and provides employment
opportunities to number of individuals, both in the sector as well as in support services. Rural
aquaculture pertains to the farming of aquatic animals by small scale farming practices by the
households or communities. In rural aquaculture, there is a low level of fish production for
household use and family income. In other words, fish is used to satisfy the nutritional
requirements as well as it is used for selling purposes. Development of rural aquaculture can
be accomplished in two ways, by increasing the area, devoted to aquaculture and by
increasing production in the existing aquaculture areas. Rural aquaculture cannot be viewed
as an isolated technology, but be considered as one of the aspects of rural development and
form a part of the holistic growth to development (De, & Pandey, 2014).

Rural aquaculture pertains to the farming of aquatic animals by small-scale farming

households or communities. Normally, extensive or semi-extensive low cost production
technology is appropriate to their resource base. In rural aquaculture, there is low level of
production of fish. In this process, the individuals need to possess the entire skills and
abilities to carry out the processes in a well-organized manner and attain the desired
outcomes. The aquaculture growth can be accelerated in two ways, by leading to an increase
in the area devoted to aquaculture and by increasing production in the existing aquaculture
areas. According to the estimate potential of the freshwater resources covering 6.7 million
hectares is yet to be completely utilized. Aquaculture make use of swamps, saline soils and
mangroves that are otherwise unsuitable for agriculture. It may also make use of inland
aquatic resources, such as, natural and manmade lakes, reservoirs and rivers (De, & Pandey,
2014).

Aquaculture is regarded as the sunrise sector and the major share of the total fish
requirement of the country is going to be contributed in this sector. Fish Farmers
Development Agency (FFDA), one of the flagship schemes of DAHDF, Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India has made effective contributions in bringing about
improvements in the average yield levels. However, the yield levels of ponds are not covered
under FFDA. Promotion of scientific fish farming in such areas is recommended to a major
extent. Recently various new aquaculture resources are developed including the water harvest
structures (NWDPRA), farm ponds (NREGA), water bodies renovated under the Ministry of
Water Resources funded project, i.e. Repair, Renovation and Restoration (RRR) of water

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bodies. These are regarded as the untapped potentials for the production of fish. The
technological package developed for perennial water bodies will have to be suitably modified
in accordance to the cultural environment prevailing in the seasonal tanks, which are
essentially rain-fed. It is necessary to develop appropriate technological packages in remote
and inaccessible terrains (De, & Pandey, 2014).

Researchers within the country and in other countries of the world as well have
demonstrated the impact on rural aquaculture on the lives of poverty stricken, deprived and
marginalized sections of the society. Diet and nutrition are regarded as important aspects
within the lives of the individuals, irrespective of occupations, categories and backgrounds.
The individuals need to obtain an adequate diet, irrespective of their work. It is
comprehensively believed that when the individuals will obtain adequate diet, they will
obtain the necessary nutrition and will be able to carry out their tasks and activities in an
appropriate manner. Fish is considered as one of the most inexpensive sources of protein (De,
& Pandey, 2014). Aquaculture is also regarded as useful in the creation of employment
opportunities. As in rural communities, the individuals are residing in the conditions of
poverty and backwardness on a large scale and are struggling to make ends meet. Therefore,
aquaculture has been assisting to them to a major extent in the acquisition of employment
opportunities and generating a source of income.

When it needs to be ensured that aquaculture needs to render a significant

contribution in bringing about improvements in the lives of the individuals, primarily, who
are poverty stricken and marginalized. In such cases, there is a need to bring about
improvements in aquaculture. The expansion in the aquaculture has the potential for creating
new job opportunities and make improvements in food security in rural households. Three
computable general equilibrium models were used to estimate the effects of the aquaculture
expansion and promote increase in productivity. Fish farmers have gained an increased level
of satisfaction by the increase in the production of fish along with the corresponding
economic gain. Rural aquaculture has been rendering a significant contribution in enhancing
rural livelihoods. In the present existence, there are number of changes that are taking place
in the rural aquaculture. The changes that are taking place need to be productive and
enriching upon the lives of the individuals. The major change that has taken place is, the
combination of species have undergone sea changes. Composite carp culture in its stringent
sense has probably terminated (De, & Pandey, 2014).

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 Farmers are involved in the experimentation of the limited sources that are possessed
by them. In the present existence, the use of technologies and innovative methods are
rendering a significant contribution in bringing about improvements in productivity and
profitability. The major objective is to lead to an increase in production in order to sustain
one’s living conditions in an appropriate manner. In some cases, the innovative methods have
remain unnoticed. In other words, farmers are not well-aware in terms of utilization of
modern and scientific innovative methods and technologies. These innovations need to be
nurtured, promoted and popularized as they can be productive in planning and implementing
research and development work. Research institutes under the administrative control are
organization of the innovator’s meet with the objective of documenting such innovations. The
endeavour in this direction does not come to an end with only documentation. The
stakeholders need to come forward and strive for promoting of the connections between
Research and Development Institutions, line departments and innovators for up-gradations
(De, & Pandey, 2014).

4.7 Social Classes in Tribal Communities

As it has been stated above that tribal communities are the communities, who are
residing in hilly and mountainous regions and are dependent upon the natural environmental
conditions for the sustenance of their living conditions. The agriculture and farming practices
are regarded as the major occupations of the tribal communities. They are also engaged in the
production of handicrafts and artworks and are dependent upon barter trading as well. The
social classes of tribal communities are agricultural labourers, hunters, fishermen and food
gatherers, artisans, labourers and industrial workers and skilled workers and white collar jobs.
These have been stated as follows:

Agricultural Labourers

The representation of tribes in the Indian society is quite small and at the same time
effective and significant. Indian culture is rich in tribal heritage and their identification is
regarded as the matter of question in the exploration of Indian social system and cultural
heritage. In the agricultural sector and farming practices, they are making use of traditional
methods. The use of primitive methods results in low productivity. There have been
formulation of plans, such as, the Tribal sub-plan and Tribal block development. The main
objective of these two programs is to bring about improvements in the agricultural sector and
farming practices. However, most of these plans were directed towards more resourceful

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areas. Among the tribal farmers, big farmers living near urban centres benefit from the
facilities of programs and schemes that have been initiated by the Government. Tribal
agriculture is characterised by small land holdings, improper land utilization, deprived
farming techniques, over-grazing of pastures, low capital investment and low production
inputs (Dash, Amardeep, & Mahra, 2018).

Most of the research studies have put emphasis upon the deprived and inadequate
agricultural production. In order to bring about improvements in the agricultural sector and
farming practices, it is necessary to make use of scientific and pioneering methods. On the
other hand, the use of traditional methods and approaches need to be replaced. Improper
irrigation methods and other methods that are used in the agricultural sector are also in an
under-developed condition. Hence, the use of traditional methods are regarded as the major
impediments within the course of increase in productivity. The young individuals, belonging
to tribal communities aspire to acquire good-quality education and attain reputed employment
opportunities. For this purpose, they are migrating to urban communities. But this applies
only in some cases. Whereas, in other cases, it is understood that the rural agrarian economy
of tribal communities employ young farmers (Dash, Amardeep, & Mahra, 2018).

Dwelling amidst hills, forests, coastal areas and deserts, tribals over the centuries
gained comprehensive and valuable experience. Their main objective is to combat economic
hardships and sustain their living conditions in an appropriate manner. Their diligence and
resourcefulness is reflected in the water harvesting techniques. They are generating
awareness in terms of utilization of modern and innovative irrigation methods. The other
tasks that are carried out are the construction of the cane bridges in the hills, adaptation to
desert life, and utilization of herbs and medicinal plants in the curing of wounds and illnesses.
Furthermore, the tribal farmers are making use of traditional tools, methods and equipment in
the agricultural production. These include, wooden plough, ox and sickles for the
implementation of manual field operations. It is vital to conduct an analysis in terms of the
factors that compel the tribal individuals to make use of traditional methods. These are,
illiteracy, unawareness, poverty, backwardness, insufficient capital, lack of resources and so
forth. Therefore, it is essential to formulate measures, policies and laws that would enable
them to make use of modern and innovative methods in the production processes (Dash,
Amardeep, & Mahra, 2018).

Hunters, Fishermen and Food Gatherers

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 Since ancient times, the tribal communities have been hunters and food gatherers. In
these cases, they primarily obtain variety of food items, such as, fruits, and vegetables from
the forests. In addition, they also hunt wild animals and birds for the fulfilment of their
nutritional requirements. Development of 5000 forest villages and 2.5 lakh tribal families
living therein continue to be one of the weakest connections in the whole process of tribal
development. The tenth five year plan (2002-2007) would take up the development of forest
villages on priority basis and ensure extending of benefits and services, just as in the case of
revenue villages and in reaching a comprehensive package with the minimum services of
food, health care facilities, primary education, approach roads and other infrastructural
facilities. To this effect, there is a need to implement efforts to develop effective co-
ordination to converge not only the existing services, but also the men and machinery of the
state departments. In the achievement of this endeavour, the state departments of forests are
required to play a major role (Chapter 4.2, n.d.).

The tribal communities in the past as well as in the present are overwhelmed by the
problems of poverty, unawareness, illiteracy and backwardness. They were not aware of
methods and ways that they need to put into operation to sustain their living conditions. They
possessed this viewpoint that they are dependent upon the natural environmental conditions
for the sustenance of their living conditions, hence, it is essential for them to be aware of
hunting and gathering strategies. In the implementation of hunting and gathering methods, the
tribal communities made use of tools and weapons, which would enable them to achieve
success in their mission. Hunting and gathering not only enabled them to satisfy their
nutritional requirements, but they are also able to obtain animal hides for the purpose of
making rags and other materials. Tribal communities, who are forest dwellers are the ones,
who are dependent upon hunting and gathering for their survival.

Apart from making visits to the forests for the purpose of hunting and gathering.
Fishing is also considered as one of the important aspects of satisfying their nutritional
requirements. Fishing is commonly implemented by the tribes, who are residing in coastal
areas. As, sea is one of the important areas that would make provision of food to them to
satisfy their nutritional requirements. The tribal communities residing near the coastal regions
are not only engaged in fishing to satisfy their nutritional requirements, but they also market
them to generate a source of income to fulfil their needs and requirements. The activities of
hunting, fishing and food gathering are regarded as the economic activities of the tribes.
When they are engaged in these activities, it is essential for them to possess the adequate

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knowledge and competencies. Research has indicated that possession of determination and
through getting engaged in regular practice, they are able to augment their skills and abilities
in terms of hunting, fishing and food gathering strategies. The children, belonging to tribal
communities are trained from the stage of early childhood in terms of hunting, fishing and
food gathering.

Artisans

There are number of tribes in India, who are artisans and augment their knowledge
and competencies regarding production of handicrafts and artworks. The various kinds of
handicrafts that they are skilled at producing are, wood craft, basket making, weaving, iron
smelting, rope making and so forth. The various forms of arts and crafts are usually useful in
sustaining one’s living conditions in an appropriate manner. For instance, all the above stated
items are useful to them in the implementation of daily routine tasks and activities. Except in
few cases, these are regarded as subsidiary occupations (Unit I, Types of Tribes, n.d.). The
individuals, belonging to various age groups develop their skills and abilities in terms of
various jobs of artisans. In carrying out various tasks and activities, the individuals are
required to develop their competencies and aptitude. For this purpose, there are number of
programs and measures that are initiated by the Government.

The project is initiated, which will support the creation of the model training centres
for the disabled in selected locations, with the required trainers, infrastructure, equipment,
curriculum design and so forth. Another aspect that has been initiated is reinforcement of the
capacity of the state skills missions and national research division to integrate disability into
job diagnostics and skills gap. Another aspect is to test the effectiveness of using the
Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) enabled training and information in
remote locations and areas with high concentration of individuals, belonging to deprived,
marginalized and economically weaker sections of the society. For the individuals with
disabilities, strategic interventions will be supported through the increased and relevant job
opportunities, self-employment divisions and more disaggregated strategies for women
(Tribal People Planning Framework, n.d.). The women, belonging to tribal communities are
also enhancing their skills and abilities and are working as artisans. It is vital for the tribal
individuals to generate information in terms of programs and policies that are formulated
with the main objective of honing their skills and abilities.

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 When the individuals are carrying out various forms of job duties of goldsmiths,
ironsmiths, production of handicrafts, artworks and so forth, they need to take into account
various factors. One of the important factors is possession of sufficient raw materials.
Research has indicated that they usually obtain raw materials from the natural environmental
conditions. The tribal individuals are skilled at producing jewellery items through the use of
rice. Hence, they possess innovative and aesthetic viewpoints and perspectives, which enable
them to produce appealing items. Other factors that need to be taken into account are,
generating information in terms of marketing strategies, and consumer demands. They should
alleviate isolation and backwardness and integrate with the mainstream society. Their
integration with the mainstream society would enable them to up-grade their knowledge and
aptitude. Furthermore, they should also develop the abilities to transfer to other regions to
market their products. Therefore, it can be stated that through performing jobs of the artisans,
individuals are able to augment their knowledge and aptitude and sustain their living
conditions in a well-organized manner.

Labourers and Industrial Workers

The tribal individuals are also working as labourers and are seeking employment
opportunities in small scale industries. In the job of the labourers, they are getting employed
at construction sites, where they are paid daily wages. The labour market profile of the tribal
communities is quite distinct from any other social group. The majority of tribal households
own subsistence land and when they cannot get benefits from the job quotas, due to various
reasons, such as, lack of literacy skills, unawareness, backwardness, lack of information
regarding the vacancies or due to the fact that these vacancies remain unfulfilled. As a
consequence, they end up being casual labourers. This is different from the households,
belonging to Scheduled Castes communities that have less access to land and are
overrepresented in casual wage employment and are under-represented in self-employment.
Men that account for 44 percent of the Scheduled Tribe communities as against 32 percent of
men, belonging to Other Backward Classes, 35 percent men from the general category and 19
percent from the Scheduled Caste category are self-employed as subsistence farmers in rural
areas (Das, Hall, Kapoor, & Nikitin, n.d.).

The men belonging to tribal communities have a higher rate of employment

opportunities as compared to women. The reason being, women are vested with the authority
and responsibility of taking care of household chores and looking after the needs and

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requirements of the family members. Therefore, in some cases, they are employed in the
agricultural sector as labourers. Whereas, in other cases, they are vested with the primary
responsibility of managing the household responsibilities. In order to carry out ones job
duties of labourers and construction workers, the individuals are required to inculcate the
traits of diligence, resourcefulness and conscientiousness. The tribal individuals are normally
skilled at lifting loads and performing manual jobs. As when they need to go to forests and
collect materials from the natural environmental conditions to fulfil their needs and
requirements, they are able to improve their manual skills and abilities to get employed as
labourers and industrial workers.

In industries, in some cases, the individuals need to perform hazardous jobs as well.
In which they need to work with machines, tools, equipment, chemicals and the working
environmental conditions are also not very favourable. In such cases, it is vital for them to
possess the essential skills and abilities. In industries, when the individuals are recruited, they
are required to undergo the training and development programs. In these programs, they are
provided with information in terms of adequate performance of job duties. It is the job duty
of the supervisor to provide them help and assistance, especially when they are newly
recruited and get engaged in the implementation of job duties for the first time. On the other
hand, when the individuals are experienced, they may carry out their job duties
independently. But it is vital on the part of the individuals to be cautions and make use of
proper gear, attire and equipment, especially when they are engaged in hazardous
occupations. These include, plantations, silk weaving, lock industries, diamond polishing,
gem cutting and so forth.

Skilled Workers and White Collar Jobs

As it has been stated above that in tribal communities too, especially youth has
recognized the significance of education. They have formed this viewpoint that upon
acquisition of education, they will be able to get engaged in white collar jobs. These are
referred to as office jobs, for which purpose, individuals are required to possess the required
educational qualifications and adequate skills and abilities. Therefore, in order to acquire
good quality education, they are migrating to urban communities to get enrolled in higher
educational institutions. Research has indicated that in tribal communities, even when the
parents are not educated, but they aspire to make provision of good quality education to their
children. Upon completion of their education, the tribal individuals are usually fortunate

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enough to acquire employment opportunities in professional fields including law, education,
medical and health, engineering, science and technology, management and administration,
and so forth. Through the acquisition of good employment opportunities, they are able to
promote well-being of themselves, their families and communities.

In India, there are number of skill development programs, which are proving to be
advantageous to individuals, belonging to rural and tribal communities. The individuals are
getting enrolled into training institutions to hone their skills regarding number of fields.
These include, electric work, painting, production of handicrafts, artworks, welding and so
forth. When the individuals augment their knowledge and skills in terms of various fields,
they may work either within their own communities or other regions. The skills development
programs are regarded as indispensable in facilitating acquisition of employment
opportunities and sustenance of one’s living conditions. In rural and tribal communities as
well, there are skills development programs, in which the individuals get enrolled to enrich
their knowledge and competencies. But in urban areas, the system of education is in a more
well-developed state. Therefore, individuals migrate from tribal to urban communities to get
enrolled in training centres. In urban areas, the instructors are also well-trained and proficient
as compared to instructors in rural and tribal communities. Furthermore, the instructional
strategies too are in a well-developed state and technologies are made use of in training
programs in urban areas.

In order to acquire white collar jobs, the individuals need to possess the essential
educational qualifications. In some cases, individuals, who have not been engaged in
employment opportunities are preferred, whereas, in other cases, experienced individuals are
required. In reputed companies and organizations, when individuals are recruited, they are
required to undergo the training programs. In the training programs, they are provided
information in terms of various aspects. These include, history of the organizations,
departments, personnel, job duties, infrastructure and facilities and goals and objectives.
Within the training programs, skilled and qualified trainers are recruited, whose main job
duties are focused upon enhancing the skills and abilities of the individuals, so they are able
to carry out their job duties in a well-organized manner and generate the desired outcomes.
The tribal individuals are getting employed in reputed organizations and companies in urban
areas, based on their educational qualifications, skills and abilities.

4.8 Conclusion

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 Culture is referred to as the norms, values, customs and traditions. In all societies, the
lives of the individuals are influenced by culture. The individuals, belonging to all societies
need to understand that irrespective of their occupations, categories and backgrounds, they
need to inculcate the traits of morality and ethics. They need to treat others with kindness and
courtesy, communicate with others in a well-organized manner and not possess any kinds of
ill feelings against anybody. Furthermore, they need to inculcate the traits of diligence,
resourcefulness and conscientiousness. The traits are essential to implement in order to
signify the culture. The individuals perform numerous tasks and activities in their daily lives.
These include, management of household responsibilities, occupations, communication and
dealing with other individuals, and participation in social, political, economic, cultural and
religious activities. In the implementation of all these tasks and functions, cultural traits are
required to be significant.

The culture of the individuals is depicted in various aspects. These include, personal
appearance, behavioural traits, ways of communication, home environmental conditions and
other factors, influencing the lifestyles of the individuals. Within the course of time, changes
do take place in the cultural traits of the individuals. But it needs to ensure that cultures are
positive and prove to be advantageous to the individuals. Social classes are the classes, which
are classified on the basis of occupations of the individuals. In urban, rural and tribal
communities, the social classes are regarded to be of utmost significance. Through social
classes, the individuals not only acquire information in terms of their occupations, but also
the individuals are able to attain an efficient understanding in terms of the factors that depict
differences among communities.

The social classes in urban areas, mainly comprise of capitalists (commercial and
industrial), corporate sector, professional classes, petty traders and shopkeepers, and working
classes. The social classes in rural India are landlords, agricultural labourers, artisans,
production of handicrafts, livestock sector and rural aquaculture. The social classes of tribal
communities are agricultural labourers, hunters, fishermen and food gatherers, artisans,
labourers and industrial workers and skilled workers and white collar jobs. The individuals,
belonging to various societies get engaged in occupations in accordance to their educational
qualifications, skills and aptitude. The individuals, belonging to marginalised groups, who are
engaged in the agricultural sector or are working as labourers are also providing good-quality
education to their children, so they are able to acquire reputed employment opportunities. In
urban communities, usually individuals acquire education and employment opportunities

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related to their fields. But the individuals belonging to rural and tribal communities are also
acquiring good education and reputed employment opportunities, so they are able to bring
about improvements in their living conditions.

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 5

Significance and Developments in the System of

Education
The level of education is regarded as one of the major indicators of promoting
goodwill, well-being and security among the individuals, belonging to all societies. The
primary objective of education is to provide knowledge to the individuals, so they are able to
render a significant contribution in the development of the structure of the society. Education
is regarded as the process by which the individuals are equipped with the knowledge and
competencies that are needed to carry out their tasks and functions in a well-organized
manner. Through education, the individuals are able to hone their skills to cope with various
kinds of problems and challenges. Education is regarded as an instrument that is used to
shape and modernize the lives of the individuals, irrespective of categories and backgrounds.
It is regarded as the mechanism by which the quality of human resources is determined.
Educated individuals possess the capabilities of bringing about transformations, which may
prove to be beneficial to themselves, their families and communities (Indian Society and
Social Change, 2011).

Education in ancient India had a deep impact in the up-gradation and advancement of
the society. From the Vedic to the Brahman period, literature was created. In the Brahman
period, education was looked upon as the source of knowledge. However, within the course
of time, there were changes taking place in the Indian society. With changes in the society,
the system of education also underwent changes. The main aspects that were taken into
account include, exercising self-control, development of character, generation of sociability
and social awareness, integral development of personality, propagation of purity and
preservation of knowledge and culture (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011). Education
enables the individuals to generate awareness in terms of roles and responsibilities. The
individuals need to carry out various roles and responsibilities towards family and society.
The factor that is of utmost significance is, the individuals need to make use of their
education towards promoting well-being of their families and communities.

Education in medieval India experienced a new perspective. It witnessed a radical

transformation of the Indian sub-continent. During this period, the country was invaded by
foreign rulers and several traders from around the world came and settled within the country.
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The tradesmen and the invaders brought with them their own cultures. In this way, there was
an amalgamation of foreign cultures as well as cultures in the Indian societies. The system of
education in medieval period experienced a new perspective and underwent changes (Indian
Society and Social Change, 2011).

The introduction of modern education began by the middle of the 19th century. The
imperial Government began to introduce European literature and science in India.
Educational opportunities were provided to all the individuals, irrespective of caste, class,
race, ethnicity, religion, occupation and socio-economic background. There were
developments taking place in the system of education and there were introduction of new
branches, including science and technology. The Chartered Act of 1813 empowered the
missionaries to make visit to the country and spread education. In the Charter Act, a clause
was annexed to the effect that the sum of not less than one lakh rupees each year shall be set
than one and applied to the revival and improvement of literature and the encouragement of
the learned narratives of India. The other aspect that has been taken into consideration is,
introduction and promotion of knowledge and sciences among the inhabitants of the British
territories (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

The provision of education development in India under the British rule was the
milestone for the future development of western education in India. But the sum allocated by
the charter was not utilized till as late as 1823, when a commission was appointed to look into
the appropriation of the sum that showed the company did not want to take the responsibility
regarding education. The report of the collectors showed that in 1826, there were 12,498
schools providing education to 188,650 pupils in Chennai. Similarly, in Bombay, there were
1705 schools with 35143 scholars in 1829, out of which the Government maintained only 25
schools with the total enrolment of 1315 students. The rest of the schools were located in the
village communities with the total enrolment of 33828 students and lastly in Bengal and
Bihar, there were 100000 village schools in 1835. Hence, developments in the system of
education began to take place under the British rule (Chapter – 3. School Education System,
n.d.).

5.1 Features of Education

In one’s lives, all individuals need to have an aim or an objective. As it is stated that

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an aimless life is a meaningless life. Education is one of the instruments that makes provision
of adequate knowledge and also renders a significant contribution in the up-gradation of the
competencies that would make provision of help and assistance to the individuals in coping
with problems and challenges and help them achieve their goals and objectives in a well-
organized manner. Education renders a significant contribution in the development of the
capabilities of individuals (Unit 1. Concept and Meaning of Education, n.d.). In the
implementation of various tasks and activities in one’s daily life as well, such as,
management of household responsibilities, carrying out banking transactions, making
investments, making sales and purchases of items, it is essential for the individuals to acquire
good quality education. The main features of education have been stated as follows:

Development of the Mind-sets

The development of the mind-sets is regarded to be of utmost significance in order to

lead effectual lives. Through the development of mind-sets, the individuals are able to
develop intellectual abilities and critical thinking skills. Decision making is an integral part of
one’s lives and in order to live effectual lives, they need to make wise decisions. The process
of development of the mind-sets is initiated from the stage of early childhood. When the
students get enrolled in nursery schools, they are given playthings, are shown pictures and are
imparted information in terms of concepts, which may render a significant contribution in the
development of the mind-sets. This task needs to be carried out at the initial stage. The reason
being, through the development of mind-sets, the individuals are able to augment their
intellectual and cognitive skills and abilities, which would enable them to carry out their tasks
and activities satisfactorily and achieve the desired goals and objectives.

Development of Comprehensive Human Interest

In educational institutions, the students are not only provided with information in
terms of academic concepts, but they are generated awareness in terms of number of aspects
that are vital to live effectual lives. These include, morality and ethics, communication skills,
time management skills, decision making skills, conflict resolution skills, and so forth. In
nursery schools and formal schools, apart from academic concepts, emphasis is put upon the
introduction of extra-curricular and creative activities as well. These include, artworks,
handicrafts, dance, music, sports, physical activities, role plays, speech, debates and so forth.
Participation in these extra-curricular and creative activities contributes in the stimulation of
one’s mind-sets and motivates the individuals towards learning. The students develop interest

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and enthusiasm in one or more of these concepts and make selection for their future career
prospects. For instance, if they develop interest in art, it is a possibility that they may become
an artist. Therefore, it can be stated that development of comprehensive human interest takes
place in one or more fields.

Development of Leadership Skills

Development of leadership skills is regarded as essential for individuals, particularly

when they aspire to take up employment opportunities. It is the job of the leaders to
adequately guide and direct, provide solutions to one’s problems, create an amiable and
pleasant work environmental conditions and ensure that their subordinates are able to achieve
the goals and objectives in a well-organized manner. Education renders a significant
contribution in the development of leadership skills among students. In elementary,
secondary and senior secondary schools, the teachers assign the duties of monitoring and
supervising the class to the students. These duties help them to develop leadership skills. In
higher educational institutions, the students are provided with the opportunities to even give
lectures to the students. In other words, they work as teaching assistants. In this manner, they
are able to enhance their teaching as well as leadership skills. Therefore, when one works
towards the development of their leadership skills in educational institutions, they are able to
develop leadership skills in employment settings as well.

Promotion of Economic Growth

The acquisition of higher education is optional. After the completion of high school,
the students may or may not get enrolled in higher educational institutions to pursue
Bachelors, Masters or doctoral programs. When the individuals pursue higher education, they
have one particular aim, which is they need to make use of their educational qualifications,
competencies and capabilities in promoting economic growth. In other words, these
individuals aspire to take up well-paid employment opportunities and sustain their living
conditions in an appropriate manner. For instance, when the individuals are to apply for
managerial positions in organizations, they need to have a Masters of Business
Administration Degree. When they need to obtain teaching positions at college or at the
university level, they need to possess a masters or doctorate degree. Therefore, it can be
stated that educational qualifications are regarded as indispensable in the acquisition of
employment opportunities and in promoting economic growth.

Development of Personality Traits

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 In order to enrich one’s lives, it is essential for the individuals to develop one’s
personality traits. In the development of personality traits, there are number of factors that
need to be taken into consideration, these include, personal appearance, communication
skills, behaviour and attitudes, honesty, truthfulness, righteousness and self-confidence.
Through education, the individuals are able to generate awareness in terms of the fact that
development of personality traits will help them to accomplish their personal and professional
goals. In educational institutions at all levels, the individuals need to take into account these
factors to achieve their academic goals and objectives. On the other hand, in employment
settings as well the individuals need to first of all take into account all the personality
development factors and then focus upon the implementation of job duties. Through
education, the individuals are able to understand that development of personality traits will
render an effective contribution in the satisfactory performance of job duties.

Implementation of Science-Based Technology

At all levels of education from nursery schools to university level, the members of the
educational institutions are making of use of technologies in the implementation of tasks and
activities (Chapter – IV. Educational System of India, n.d.). Research has indicated that
adoption of science-based technology has proven to be beneficial to the teachers and students
to a major extent. The teachers need to prepare themselves well and augment their
understanding in terms of the academic concepts, before giving lectures. Hence, they make
use of science-based technologies and internet to prepare their lectures. On the other hand,
students too need to make use of science-based technologies to augment their understanding
in terms of the academic concepts. Technologies are not only made use of to prepare
assignments and projects, but educators and students are also making use of them to
understand the concepts better and augment the overall system of education. Therefore, it can
be stated that implementation of science-based technology has led to enrichment of overall
system of education.

Instrument of Social Change

Education is regarded as an instrument of social change (Chapter – IV. Educational

System of India, n.d.). Changes are important in the lives of the individuals, communities and
nation as a whole within the period of time. But when changes are taking place, it needs to be
ensured they are productive and beneficial to the individuals and communities. Through
education, one is able to understand that one needs to bring about productive changes in all

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spheres of life, i.e. social, political, economic, cultural, educational, organizational and
religious. When the human resources are bringing about changes, they need to ensure, their
growth and development takes place in an effective manner. The reason being, it is vital for
the human resources to possess the essential competencies and abilities to bring about
changes in all spheres. For instance, in order to make changes in an assignment through
computers, individuals need to possess computer skills to promote social change. Therefore,
it can be stated that education is an instrument of social change.

Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women

In the present existence, there have been implementation of programs and laws that in
educational institutions of all levels, there should be gender equality. In other words, both
girls and boys should be provided with equal rights and opportunities in educational
institutions. There should not be any type of discriminatory treatment on the basis of factors,
such as, caste, creed, race, religion, ethnicity, gender, age, educational qualifications,
occupations and socio-economic background (Chapter 1. Understanding Education Quality,
2005). In rural communities, in some cases, there have been prevalence of the viewpoint that
girls need to be trained in terms of implementation of household responsibilities and
education is not meant for them. They have to eventually get married and in their marital
homes, they should not be able to make use of their educational skills. But through programs,
there have been transformations brought about in the viewpoints and perspectives of the rural
individuals and they are encouraging their girls towards acquisition of education. Another
vital aspect is, in educational institutions, girls are provided with equal opportunities as
compared to their male counterparts.

Development of Morality and Ethics

In order to achieve one’s personal and professional goals and enrich one’s life, it is
essential for the individuals to inculcate the traits of morality and ethics. In one’s lives, it is
crucial for the individuals to take into account certain aspects. These are, communicating
with others in a polite and decent manner, treating others with respect and courtesy, being
honest and truthful, not possessing any ill feelings against anybody, inculcating the traits of
diligence, resourcefulness and conscientiousness, developing positive thinking, controlling
the feelings of anger and frustration and inculcation of these traits renders a significant
contribution in making improvements in the overall quality of lives. When the individuals are
implementing these factors in educational institutions and employment settings, they are able

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to not only achieve their desired goals and objectives, but also form good terms and
relationships with others. Therefore, it is one of the important features of education to impart
understanding to the students in terms of morality and ethics.

Creative and Emotional Development

Through education, individuals are able to promote creative and emotional

development. In order to enrich one’s lives, the individuals need to be creative in the
implementation of various tasks and functions. When one is carrying out a particular task, the
creativity leads to putting into operation artistic, inventive, innovative and imaginative ideas,
which lead to generation of desired outcomes. Besides developing creativity, it is essential for
the individuals to promote emotional development. Within the course of pursuance of
personal and professional goals, the individuals do experience problems and challenges. It is
vital for them to augment their knowledge, competencies and aptitude to deal with problems
and challenges. Through acquisition of education, the individuals are able to understand the
fact that they need to be creative and promote emotional development. These factors would
render a significant contribution in making improvements in their overall quality of lives and
help them to achieve goals and objectives in a satisfactory manner.

5.2 Significance of Values in Education

Education is necessarily a process of inculcating values among individuals,

irrespective of age groups, categories and backgrounds that would facilitate in bringing about
improvements in their overall quality of lives. Through generating awareness in terms of
values and putting them into practice, the individuals feel pleasurable and contented. The
philosophers, researchers, spiritual leaders and educationists have put emphasis upon the fact
that education leads to development of character, bringing out the latent potentialities and
inherent qualities and development of an integrated personality for the well-being of the
individuals and society as a whole. The significance of developing values has long being
embedded in the age old traditions of the country’s civilizational and cultural heritage. The
individuals are provided with information in terms of values at all levels of education. The
individuals have to experience conflicting situations and disagreements in their lives at some
point. But through values, they are able to acquire understanding regarding how to cope with
these situations in a manageable way. Therefore, significance of values in education are
recognized in dealing with problems and difficulties (Concepts and Concerns, n.d.).

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 Through education at all levels from nursery schools to universities, the individuals
not only acquire knowledge in terms of academic concepts, but also generate information in
terms of values. One of the important reasons for reorienting education for values is the fact
that the current practices in school education contribute effectively towards growth and
development of students. The students are nurtured in the spirit of excessive competition and
are trained from the initial stage to develop their mind-sets and have constructive outlook
towards learning. The young students and the individuals, belonging to rural and tribal
communities in some cases are unable to understand the significance of education. The rural
and tribal individuals have the main objective of bringing about improvements in their living
conditions by acquiring employment opportunities and generating a source of income. These
individuals are usually unable to understand how the various academic subjects help them in
enriching their lives (Concepts and Concerns, n.d.).

Values enshrined in the Constitution of India point towards the principles of equality
and social justice, appreciation of cultural values of each other, and dignity of the individuals.
The values, such as, equality, fraternity and justice can promote inclusivity, where all the
members of the society feel included, irrespective of factors, such as, caste, creed, race,
ethnicity, religion, education, occupation, age, gender and socio-economic background. In
community, neighbourhood, educational institutions, and employment settings, the
individuals are different from each other on the basis of the above stated factors, but they
need to accept each other. It is the job of the superiors to make provision of equal rights and
responsibilities to their subordinates. This shows that they have acquired significance of
values. The culture of inclusivity is particularly relevant and important within the framework
of the Indian society. It focuses upon the fact that individuals need to work in collaboration
and integration (Concepts and Concerns, n.d.).

The educators at all levels of education are required to go through the process of
learning in schools, by which they are empowered to interpret the negative messages and put
into operation effective and meaningful teaching-learning methods and instructional
strategies. It is the job of the instructors to implement the teaching methods in such a manner
that students are able to acquire an efficient understanding of the academic concepts. On the
other hand, the students need to generate interest and enthusiasm towards learning and put
into operation, worthwhile and meaningful learning methods. Therefore, it can be stated that
values contribute in making the individuals recognize the significance of education. The
individuals are able to acquire an efficient understanding of the fact that through the

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acquisition of education, they will be able to promote better livelihoods opportunities. In the
system of education, it needs to be ensured that educators and students work in co-ordination
and integration with each other towards acquiring an efficient understanding of the concepts
and augmenting the system of education.

Values in education aims at promoting broader capabilities, skills and attitudes not
only in educational institutions but also in other areas, outside the schools. Values render a
significant contribution in making the environmental conditions pleasant and amiable. It is
apparent that all individuals need to work towards fulfilment of their goals and objectives.
They think in terms of the methods and approaches that need to be put into practice to enrich
their career prospects. But through values, they also generate awareness in terms of ways for
promoting well-being of the community. The students in nursery schools are taught they
should possess a sharing nature, give others a chance and wait for their turn, be respectful
towards their elders, communicate in a polite manner, maintain cleanliness, develop interest
in studies, try not to spend their parent’s money on things, which they do not require, depict
manners and etiquettes, such as, smiling and wishing, depict kindness and helpfulness and be
truthful and honest. When the individuals are provided with information in terms of these
factors at the initial stage, they need to implement them throughout their lives. Therefore, it
can be stated that through values, individuals are able to augment socialization skills and
maintain good terms and relationships with each other.

At the individual level, promoting values in school students is regarded as an

investment in building the foundation for lifelong learning and promoting human excellence.
The moral and ethical individuals are able to develop effective listening skills, patience,
endurance, co-operation and teamwork and positive attitudes towards study, work and living
conditions. Therefore, values promote both academic and human excellence. At the societal
level, the education for values aims at promoting social cohesion and national integration for
leading to transformations in the societies, nation and creating a better world. It can
contribute to create the aspiration for transformation of the culture of war, violence and greed
into the culture of peace. In this the individuals are able to learn and understand more in
terms of each other’s uniqueness, human rights and fundamental freedom. Therefore, it can
be stated that through values, the individuals learn to live in peace and harmony and
contribute effectively towards enriching their lives and achievement of personal and
professional goals.

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 5.3 Education in Urban Communities

Urban areas and their development are often regarded as one of the factors that is of

utmost significance for the development of the country. It is indispensable to bring about
developments in the field of education. As it is comprehensively understood that through
acquisition of education, individuals will be able to bring about effective growth and
development in all spheres, including, science, technology, literature, arts, engineering,
management, administration, law, health care and medical, and so forth. Education is a
process, which brings about modification in the behaviour of the human beings. When the
individuals get enrolled in educational institutions from nursery schools to universities, they
are not only acquiring an understanding of the academic concepts, but they are also able to
generate information in terms of various aspects that are necessary to promote better
livelihoods opportunities (Unit 2. Urban Education, n.d.).

In urban areas, the population density is high (Unit 2. Urban Education, n.d.). The
infrastructural facilities, civic amenities, and modes of transportation are well developed in
urban areas. When these aspects are in a well-developed state, the individuals will be able to
acquire good quality education and enhance their career prospects. The development in these
aspects will contribute efficiently in bringing about improvements in the system of education.
In the education system at all levels, the individuals need to make use of technologies and
appropriate teaching-learning methods, teaching-learning materials and instructional
strategies. These would facilitate in the achievement of desired academic goals and
objectives. In the present existence, urban society and education are regarded as complicated
aspects in terms of size, heterogeneity, absence of operative measures and increase in the
unorganized sector. There are multiple providers of education from the primary to the tertiary
levels. There are variations in their existence, in terms of structure and sizes (Unit 2. Urban
Education, n.d.).

Issues and Challenges in Urban Education

The issues and challenges in urban education are stated as follows: (Unit 2. Urban
Education, n.d.).

Socialization and Culture Assimilation

In educational institutions at all levels, the individuals are different from each other in
terms of number of factors. These include, caste, creed, race, ethnicity, religion, gender, age
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and socio-economic background. These differences are highlighted not only in terms of
students, but also in terms of other members as well, these are, teachers, staff members,
clerical, technical, administrative staff members and so forth. In colleges and universities,
there are number of departments, which comprise of members, who are different from each
other on the basis of the above stated factors. When students get enrolled in educational
institutions to acquire knowledge in terms of academic concepts and when teachers,
instructors and staff members are also performing their job duties to achieve personal and
professional goals and incur job satisfaction, they need to socialize well and accept each
other. Therefore, it can be stated that socialization and culture assimilation are regarded as
indispensable aspects, which need to be augmented in the system of education.

The individuals, belonging to rural and tribal communities are also recognizing the
significance of education and are migrating to urban communities to get enrolled in higher
educational institutions or training centres. In higher educational institutions, they pursue
Bachelors, Masters or doctorate programs. Whereas, in training centres, they join the training
programs to enhance their skills in terms of various fields, such as, painting, production of
handicrafts, electric work and so forth, so they are able to achieve the desired goals and
objectives. Research has indicated that in some cases, rural and tribal individuals are not
familiar with particularly the Hindi language and are unable to communicate in Hindi. In
such cases, they need to hone their communication skills. This is apparent and is
comprehensively understood that in order to achieve the academic goals and perform ones
job duties in a well-organized manner, it is essential for the individuals to socialize and
assimilate culture.

In the early childhood education, emphasis is put upon the fact that to achieve
academic goals and objectives, individuals need to socialize with each other. In higher
educational institutions, group work is recognized to a major extent. The individuals need to
work on group projects and are required to socialize with others. When the individuals are
pursuing doctoral programs, it is of utmost significance for them to not only form effective
communication terms with the supervisors, but also fellow students. It is an important part of
the program to work on research papers. For this purpose, they need to socialize and work in
co-ordination and integration with each other. Therefore, it can be stated that through
socialization and culture assimilation, individuals are rendering a significant contribution in
not only the achievement of academic goals and objectives but in enriching their lives as
well.

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 Dualism in the System of Education

The dualism in the system of education is characterized by the existence of two

different sets of agencies. One is the government institutions, which are completely or
partially managed and financed by the government and the other is private agencies, which
are managed by group of individuals. The group of individuals and organizations include
non-profit sector, religious organizations and private initiatives. The public and the private
agencies may be involved in the delivering of education. But there are differences in the
system of education. One of the important variations in the system of education is former
education is meant for individuals, belonging to various categories and backgrounds.
Whereas, latter system of education is for the individuals, who can pay and purchase it. The
former system of education is having a large network. Whereas, the private education system
is the small organized effort, which is focused upon quality education in certain areas, such as
urban communities, where individuals have a high purchasing power.

The dualism in the system of education is creating a divide or two classes among the
masses. This aspect is regarded as the major issue in the system of education. The main
purpose of education is to promote unity among individuals and not a divide. The distribution
of private schools is not found consistently and uniformly in all regions. The reason being
that absence or shortage is unambiguously observed in rural and remote regions. The
difference between government and private school system is comprehensive in this structure,
accessibility, expenditure, rural-urban divide and most importantly the fee structure. The
system of private schooling within the country is diverse. Furthermore, there has been an
increase in the urbanization, which is contributing towards its reinforcement. In the present
existence, the private education system is not limited to nursery school education, but also
higher education.

Gender Inequality in Education

Gender inequality in education are regarded as one of the major impediments within
the course of progression of education. This means that in the system of education, the girls
and women were not provided with equal rights and opportunities as compared to their male
counterparts. Research has indicated that gender inequality in education is more common in
rural communities as compared to urban communities. In educational institutions, when there
are organization of any functions and events, the male students were encouraged to
participate. On the other hand, girls and women were not given much consideration. The

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individuals get enrolled in educational institutions not only to enhance knowledge in terms of
academic concepts, but also to develop their skills and abilities, so they can turn into
productive citizens of the country and good human beings. For this purpose, it is vital to
encourage the participation of girls in various activities and functions that are organized in
schools and higher educational institutions as well.

When there is prevalence of gender inequality in education and girls are not
encouraged to participate, it is regarded as the major impediment within the course of not
only acquisition of education by women and girls, but also within the course of development
of the system of education. Therefore, it is necessary to resolve this issue and encourage the
participation of girls and women in extra-curricular and creative activities, academic
activities, organization of programs, seminars and events and so forth. Research has indicated
that in educational institutions at all levels, girls and women have experienced criminal and
violent acts as well. These are, sexual harassment, verbal abuse, physical abuse, rape, acid
attacks and even murder. They compel them to drop out of school prematurely. Appropriate
measures and policies need to be formulated to promote law and order and treat girls and
women with respect and courtesy. Therefore, to promote gender equality, it is essential to
eliminate these violent and criminal acts and provide equal rights and opportunities to girls
and women.

It is essential at all levels of educational institutions to formulate measures and

programs, which have the main objective of imparting knowledge to the individuals that in
leading to not only progression of system of education, but also country as a whole, it is
necessary to make provision of equal rights and opportunities to all individuals, irrespective
of caste, creed, race, religion, gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic background. When both
girls and boys are treated equally, it would help in resolving the problems and difficulties and
enhancing the overall system of education.

Measures to Promote Education in Urban Areas

In urban areas, the system of education is in a well-developed state, but it is essential

to formulate measures, which would contribute effectually in promoting education in urban
communities. These have been stated as follows: (Unit 2. Urban Education, n.d.).

Role of Programs and Policies

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 The formulation of programs and policies are regarded to be of utmost significance in
enriching and promoting education. One of the important programs is Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
(SSA). The main objective of this program is to ensure all individuals have the right to
education. In urban areas, there are adult individuals, who have either not been enrolled in
schools before or have dropped out prematurely. These individuals are also provided with the
opportunities of honing their academic skills by getting enrolled in educational institutions
and training centres. Therefore, in order to achieve this objective, there have been
establishment of adult education training centres in urban areas. In addition, there have been
establishment of computer training centres. As not only youth, but adults too are getting
enrolled in these centres to hone their computer skills.

Right to Education (RTE) is the act of the Government of India that was enacted on
August 4, 2009. The main objective of this act was to make provision of free and compulsory
education for children, belonging from six until fourteen years of age. Furthermore, there
have been initiation of other programs as well. The Mid-day Meal scheme was initiated in
1995. Its primary aim was to make provision of nutritious meals in schools to the children to
boost their energy levels. These programs have proved to be beneficial to the students and
enabled students as well as their parents to recognize the significance of education.

Role of JNNURM in Augmenting Infrastructural Facilities

Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission is one of the indispensable measures that
has the main objective of augmenting the infrastructural facilities in urban areas. The primary
focus is upon the physical infrastructure development. There is an interconnection between
infrastructure development and system of education. In educational institutions at all levels, it
is essential to focus upon the development of infrastructural facilities. The development in the
infrastructure will render a significant contribution in the formation of the pleasant and
amiable environment, which will facilitate in the achievement of academic goals and
objectives. In the development of infrastructure, the main aspects that need to be taken into
account are, buildings, walkways, organization, set-up, transportation, communications,
power supplies and water supplies. These aspects are necessary in formation of appropriate
conditions, which would enable all members of the educational institutions to perform their
job duties satisfactorily.

JNNURM is also focusing upon the development of urban slums. It allocates certain
amount to sub-heading education and communication to almost 63 towns and cities within

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the country. Building of urban infrastructure including schools in urban areas is the thrust of
JNNURM. Within educational institutions at all levels, it is essential for the individuals to
form effective communication terms with others. Establishing effective communication terms
through technologies or face to face is regarded as indispensable in augmenting the system of
education as well as to achieve their goals and objectives satisfactorily. Therefore, it can be
stated, improvements in communication and other infrastructural facilities is regarded to be
of utmost significance.

Role of Non-Government Organizations and Voluntary Organizations

Role of non-government organizations (NGOs) and voluntary organizations (VO) are

working towards bringing about improvements in not only the system of education, but also
other factors, such as, alleviation of the conditions of poverty and backwardness, promoting
empowerment opportunities among women, and working towards up-gradation of children,
belonging to deprived, marginalized and economically weaker sections of the society. The
primary role of NGOs, and VO is recognized in making provision of education to individuals,
belonging to disadvantaged groups. The individuals in urban communities as well are also
residing in the conditions of poverty and are struggling to make ends meet. Research studies
have indicated that individuals, who are engaged in minority jobs do not have sufficient
income are encouraging their children as well to get engaged in work. In this manner,
children contribute towards the generation of family income and are unable to attend schools.

The NGOs, and VO are working towards making provision of education to these
children, who aspire to study, but due to deprived financial conditions of their families, they
are unable to meet the expenses that are involved in the pursuance of education. The research
conducted on NGOs and VO has revealed that they are even providing help and assistance to
the children, belonging to deprived communities to get enrolled in schools. When they get
enrolled in schools, they feel pleasurable and contented. In this manner, NGOs and VO work
effectively towards providing them the direction that would facilitate in the achievement of
their academic goals.

Role of Urban Local Bodies

Local bodies render a significant contribution in the reinforcement of the educational

institutions. Major emphasis is put upon school education, both in urban and rural
communities. Research has indicated that in urban areas, particularly in government schools,
the system of education is not in a well-developed state. The teaching-learning methods,

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teaching-learning materials, instructional strategies and other factors that are necessary in
augmenting the system of education are not in a well-developed state. Due to these problems,
the students are unable to acquire an efficient understanding of the academic concepts. As a
result, they do not perform well in tests and are unable to achieve their academic goals and
objectives. In rural communities as well, the problems are the same and individuals are
unable to acquire an efficient understanding of the academic concepts and thus are unable to
achieve the desired academic outcomes. Therefore, the role of urban local bodies is focused
upon providing solutions to these problems and augmenting the system of education.

The primary objective of education is to facilitate the understanding of academic

concepts among students. For this purpose, it is vital on the part of the instructors to make use
of appropriate teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies. These need to be
suitable to the grade levels of students, academic goals and objectives and in enhancing the
overall system of education. Furthermore, local bodies also render a significant contribution
in providing education and other civic amenities at their own jurisdiction. Their contributions
are primarily recognized in providing education to the deprived, marginalized and
economically weaker sections residing in urban communities.

Role of International Agencies

One of the important measures that need to be observed are with regards to
international agencies. Many invaluable agencies have rendered a significant contribution in
bringing about improvements in the system of education in urban areas. These include, World
Bank, IMF, Asian Development Bank, Islamic Development Bank, USAID, UNESCO,
UNICEF and so forth in the field of education. These organizations provide various inputs of
research, technology, teaching aids and other resources to different stakeholders in the system
of education. Apart from these inputs, there are many organizations that make provision of
economic aids to initiate various educational programs in developing and developed
countries. The World Bank is the largest fund provider towards the education sub-sector. It
provides support to various programs and operations of education across the world and its
proportional expenditure shows the highest focus on primary education with almost half of its
allocation. Therefore, it can be stated that inputs of research, technology, teaching aids and
financial resources are regarded to be of utmost significance in up-grading the system of
education.

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 In urban areas, in some schools, the technologies are not put into operation, due to
lack of financial resources. Therefore, it is the primary job duty to make provision of
financial resources to bring about effective growth and progressions in the system of
education. When the educational institutions will possess adequate financial resources, they
would be able to bring about improvements in various aspects that are necessary to augment
the system of education. These include, technologies, infrastructure, civic amenities and
facilities, teaching-learning methods, teaching-learning materials, instructional methods,
furniture, heating and cooling equipment, and the overall school environmental conditions.
When these aspects will be in a well-developed state, the individuals will be able to carry out
their job duties satisfactorily and achieve the desired goals and objectives.

5.4 Features of Education in Urban Areas

The features of education in urban areas have been stated as follows: (Chapter – II.
Education, n.d.).

Basis for Development and Empowerment of Nation

Education is regarded as the basis of development and empowerment of every nation.

It renders a significant contribution in understanding and participating in daily life activities
of the world. It renders an important contribution in building one’s character and facilitates in
the transmission of culture, beliefs and values to others within the society. It helps in the
creation of innovations and in the fulfilment of needs and requirements of the individuals,
communities and nation. The development of nation is not measured through buildings, it has
built, the roads that it has constructed and establishment of infrastructural facilities, but it is
the education and competencies on the part of human resources that are rendering a
significant contribution in effective growth and development of nation. Education is therefore
regarded as the crucial instrument that not only equips the individuals with knowledge and
skills for earning livelihoods opportunities, but also generate awareness among them in terms
of social and scientific realities and inculcate scientific temper, and independence of mind
that are of significance for the individuals to turn into responsible citizens of the country.

Enrichment of Individuals Personality

Education renders a significant contribution in leading to enrichment in the

personality of the individuals. In order to achieve one’s goals and objectives, it is essential for
the individuals to have a pleasant personality. They need to inculcate the traits of morality

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and ethics and communicate with others in a polite and respectful manner. When the
individuals get enrolled in educational institutions at all levels from nursery schools to
university levels, they are not only taught academic subjects and concepts, but they are also
provided with information in terms of enrichment of their personality. One of the aspects that
is of utmost significance is, the individuals need to ensure they establish positive thinking and
not possess any kinds of ill feelings against anybody. The possession of negative feelings are
regarded as the major barriers within the course of enrichment of personality as well as in the
achievement of personal and professional goals. Therefore, it is essential for the individuals
to form positive viewpoints and perspectives to lead to personality enrichment.

Preservation and Transmission of Social Values

Preservation and transmission of social values are regarded to be of utmost

significance in the acquisition of education. Through the system of education, a process is
formed through which social values are transmitted to others. In educational institutions, the
instructors make use of number of methods that are used to preserve and transmit social
values. These include, group interactions, role plays, dance and musical performances, and
instructional strategies. The students are taught that they need to inculcate social values and
implement them within their daily lives within as well as outside the home. Through social
values, information is imparted to the individuals in terms of their rights and duties and how
to turn into productive citizens of the country. Furthermore, it is vital for the individuals to
generate awareness in terms of rights and duties towards family and community members.
The preservation and transmission of social values not only enable the individuals to form
effective terms and relationships with each other, but they are also able to achieve their
personal and professional goals.

Inculcation of Morality and Ethics

Through education, the individuals are able to inculcate the traits of morality and
ethics. In order to achieve the desired goals and objectives, it is essential for the individuals to
inculcate the traits of morality and ethics. It is vital for the individuals to be honest, truthful,
and decent in communicating with others as well as in the implementation of tasks and
activities. In educational institutions, when the students are listening to classroom lectures, or
communicating with fellow students in terms of academic concepts or are working on their
assignments and projects, they need to inculcate the traits of morality and ethics. In higher
educational institutions, when the individuals are working on research papers, projects and

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assignments, they need to work on their own. But professors and supervisors encourage
group discussions and individuals even work on research papers in the group of five or six.
Therefore, it can be stated that inculcation of morality and ethics are regarded to be of utmost
significance in performing well and generating the desired academic outcomes.

Development of Social Qualities

In educational institutions in urban areas, the individuals are generating information in

terms of development of social qualities. The social qualities include co-operation, assistance,
support and collaboration among individuals and communities. It is comprehensively
understood that individuals cannot live in seclusion, they cannot carry out certain tasks on
their own, particularly in learning difficult concepts and strategies. In such cases, it is vital for
them to work in collaboration and integration with others. In working in collaboration and
integration with others, it is vital for the individuals to develop effective communication
terms. Furthermore, the individuals need to accept each other and not discriminate on the
basis of factors, such as, caste, creed, race, religion, ethnicity, gender, age, and socio-
economic background. As in urban areas, in educational institutions at all levels, there are
differences among individuals on the basis of number of factors. One of the important social
qualities is tolerance. When individuals are required to communicate and learn from others,
they need to possess tolerance capacity and obey the instructions given to them by their
teachers, professors and supervisors.

Focus upon Knowledge and Experience

In urban education, the concepts of knowledge and experience are regarded to be of

utmost significance. Knowledge is referred to the information and understanding in terms of
various concepts. When the students will possess the essential knowledge only then they will
be able to enhance their career prospects. There are number of ways that are adopted by the
individuals to enhance their knowledge. These include, reading books, articles and other
materials, making use of technologies and internet and interacting with others. It is vital for
the individuals in educational institutions at all levels to interact with others in an effective
manner to augment their knowledge and competencies. In higher educational institutions,
particularly when the individuals are pursuing masters or doctoral programs, they are usually
given the jobs of teaching assistants. In such cases, they provide teaching to the students,
particularly when their professors and supervisors have assigned them the duties. In this

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manner, they are able to augment their experience. This experience will help them in
obtaining employment opportunities in educational institutions.

Development of Professionalism

The meaning of the term professionalism is, skill, competence, expertise and
proficiency. The primary objective of urban education is to develop professionalism among
the individuals, so they are able to illustrate competence, expertise and proficiency in the
implementation of various tasks and activities as well as in coping with problems and
challenges. Through education, the individuals are not only acquiring an understanding of
academic subjects, but they need to depict professionalism in their behaviour. When the
individuals possess a calm attitude and deal with various problems and difficulties in a
peaceful manner, it is stated that individuals have depicted professionalism in their attitudes
and behavioural traits. One of the aspects that is of utmost significance is professionalism
needs to be depicted in communicating with others. The individuals need to communicate
with each other in a polite and decent manner and exercise control on the feelings of anger
and frustration. Therefore, it can be stated that education renders a significant contribution in
the development of professionalism. Provided, it is up to the individuals to acknowledge the
professional skills and abilities and put them into practice.

Use of Technologies

In educational institutions in urban areas, the use of technologies is regarded to be of

utmost significance. Through the use of technologies, not only the students are able to
enhance their learning and acquire an efficient understanding of the academic concepts, but
they are also proving to be effectual to other members of the educational institutions in the
implementation of their job duties. The various types of technologies that are made use of in
educational institutions at all levels include, computers, lap-tops, scanners, mobile
technologies, photo-copiers and printers. The students, instructors as well as the other staff
members are making use of technologies on a large scale in carrying out their job duties. In
order to make use of technologies, it is vital for the individuals to possess the essential skills
and abilities. In some cases, professors and students get enrolled in short-term training
programs in order to augment their technical skills. Therefore, it can be stated that use of
technologies have proven to be beneficial to the individuals in not only the performance of
their job duties, but also in enhancing the system of education.

Organization of Seminars and Workshops

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 In educational institutions at all levels, the organization of seminars and workshops
have proven to be beneficial to the students as well as the educators and staff members to a
major extent. The seminars and workshops are usually organized on the basis of one
particular topic. The topics in terms of which individuals need to augment their knowledge
and information, are normally selected in the organization of seminars and workshops. In
seminars and workshops, directors and professors are even invited from other educational
institutions. They usually deliver speeches and give presentations in terms of related topics,
which may be useful to others. In higher educational institutions, the students and research
scholars are also provided with the opportunities of presenting papers. Therefore, it can be
stated that through seminars and workshops, the individuals are not only able to generate
information in terms of academic topics, but they are also able to hone their communication
and presentation skills. In the acquisition of higher education, the individuals also make visits
to other cities or countries to present papers and generate information in terms of other
universities.

Academic Honesty

Academic honesty is regarded as an important aspect that is focused upon in

educational institutions at all levels in urban areas. It means the individuals are required to
carry out their assignments, papers and projects through using their own ideas and
viewpoints. On the other hand, when they are using someone else’s ideas and viewpoints,
they are required to cite them and state them in the bibliography at the end of the research
paper or project. When the individuals are unaware of the concept of academic honesty, they
usually end up plagiarising. It is referred to making use of someone else’s ideas and
perspectives in one’s own work, without citing them. It is regarded as an academic offence.
Research has indicated that when individuals end up plagiarising, they even face expulsion
from the academic institutions. Therefore, one of the first and foremost aspect is, students,
belonging to all levels need to acquire an efficient understanding of academic honesty. In this
manner they will be able to carry out their academic assignments in a well-organized manner
and achieve the desired outcomes.

5.5 Higher Education in India

Higher education in India is provided by five groups of institutions, i.e. central, state,
private, deemed institutions and institutions of national importance. There are 52 such
institutions. They predominantly consist of the Indian Institutes of Technology, National

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Institutes of Technology and prominent medical colleges, including All India Institute of
Medical Science. There are 43 central universities, 312 state universities, 183 private
universities and 115 deemed universities in India as listed by the University Grants
Commission (UGC), the regulatory body for higher education. All the above university
groups are legally entitled to grant degrees. State universities are the only institutions that are
allowed to affiliate private and public colleges under them. However, these colleges are
allowed to function only within the individual federal state borders. Private colleges are
offering professional courses, which match the specific needs of the sector or industry, and
are often affiliated to state universities. It is difficult to estimate the number of colleges in
various federal states. However, the affiliated colleges, which are provided grants by the
UGC are listed on the website (Dhanuraj, & Kumar, 2015).

The system of higher education in India is one of the largest systems in the world. In
urban areas, there are establishment of colleges and universities, which are promoting
enrolment of students, irrespective of their nationalities, caste, creed, race, religion, ethnicity
and socio-economic background. In higher educational institutions, the individuals need to
formulate measures and programs to manage and administer the system of education in an
appropriate manner. The new regime under WTO is to bring about improvements in the
system of higher education (Higher Education in India, 2003). Higher education is very
important in the developing country like India. Through higher education, the individuals are
turning out to be professionals and they are augmenting their skills and abilities. The
expansion in higher education has been remarkable, ever since the country achieved its
independence (Chahal, 2015). Through getting enrolled in professional courses and
programs, there has been an increase in knowledge and competencies of individuals. The
individuals are making selection of number of fields within the course of pursuance of
professional programs. These are, medical, law, education, engineering, science and
technology, architecture, management, administration and so forth.

Higher education makes provision of opportunities to the individuals to reflect on the

critical, moral, cultural, economic and social issues that the humanity is undergoing. The
primary objective of higher education is to make provision of specialised knowledge and
augment the competencies of the individuals, so they are able to efficiently make use of their
knowledge and skills to sustain their living conditions satisfactorily and promote well-being
of their families and communities. The higher education renders a significant contribution in
the preparation of the individuals to cope with practical problems. It is essential for the

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individuals to become productive citizens of the country. They need to make use of their
educational qualifications to promote well-being of their families, communities and nation.
Therefore, it is vital for students in higher educational institutions to pay adequate attention
and make use of meaningful learning methods to generate the desired outcomes. The use of
technologies is regarded as indispensable in achievement of academic goals and objectives.

The role of higher education as the emerging scenario of knowledge economy is

crucial and multidimensional for any country in general and India in particular. The
educationists and the managers and administrators need to ensure they carry out the
management and the administrative functions in a well-organized manner. In the system of
higher education, there are seats reserved for the individuals, belonging to Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes. The members of the educational institutions
make provision of equal rights and opportunities to them, particularly within the course of
pursuance of academic goals. In the present existence, the individuals, belonging to all
categories and backgrounds have recognized the significance of education. The system of
higher education is in a well-developed state in urban communities. The individuals,
belonging to rural and tribal communities, who are not educated are sending their children to
urban communities to get enrolled in higher educational institutions. Hence, the significance
of higher education is acknowledged by all individuals, irrespective of background and
categories.

In the system of higher education, it is essential on the part of the educators to put into
practice the teaching methods and instructional strategies in such a manner that the students
are able to acquire an efficient understanding of the academic concepts. There are numerous
kinds of instructional strategies that are put into operation by the professors and supervisors
in higher educational institutions. The instructional strategies that are put into practice need to
be in accordance to the academic subjects and grade levels of students. These include,
providing verbal explanation of the concepts through lectures, giving presentations of the
concepts through technologies, encouraging students to participate by organization of
question and answer sessions, encouraging role play, promoting field work, encouraging
students to give presentations and putting into operation proper evaluation methods, which
would enable them to assess the performance of students. The commonly used assessment
methods in higher educational institutions are, class assignments, homework assignments,
tests, exams, presentations and participation in class discussions.

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 Higher education in India plays number of roles in the augmentation of skills and
abilities among individuals. In order to achieve the desired goals and objectives, it is vital for
the individuals to possess knowledge of various skills. These are time management skills,
decision making skills, conflict resolution skills and communication skills. Within the course
of pursuance of higher education, in some cases, individuals get engaged in either full-time or
part-time jobs. When they are in jobs, they need to implement proper time management
skills, so they are able to efficiently carry out their job duties as well as concentrate on their
studies. Therefore, it can be stated, higher education enables the individuals to implement
proper time management skills. Decision making is an integral part of the lives of the
individuals. When the individuals are making decisions, they need to ensure they prove to be
beneficial to them. Therefore, through higher education, the individuals are able to enhance
their decision making skills.

In some cases, conflicts and disagreements do take place among individuals. But they
need to ensure, they put into operation proper conflict resolution methods to bring an end to
the occurrence of conflicts and disagreements in a well-organized manner. In higher
educational institutions, the individuals are encouraged to work in groups, give presentations,
participate in class discussions and get engaged in tasks and activities that would enable them
to communicate with others and augment their communication skills. In higher educational
institutions, it is vital for the members to build amiable and pleasant terms and relationships
with each other to achieve the desired goals and objectives. When the individuals are to
pursue higher education, they usually need to migrate to other regions and cities. Therefore,
they have number of tasks and responsibilities to take care of. Hence, in this manner, they are
able to augment their skills and abilities to carry out their tasks satisfactorily. Hence, it can be
stated that higher education is indispensable in preparing the individuals to deal with practical
life situations and augment their knowledge, competencies and aptitude.

Suggestions for Leading to Improvements in Higher Education

The suggestions for leading to improvements in higher education come from

organizations, industries, educational institutions, educationists, scholars, and students. These
have been stated as follows:

Student-Centred Education and Dynamic Methods

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 The teaching methods that are implemented by the educators have to be in accordance
to the needs and requirements of the students. As it has been stated above that in higher
educational institutions, the students belong to various categories and backgrounds.
Therefore, the methods and strategies that are put into practice by the instructors should
facilitate their understanding. Methods of teaching through lectures will have to be
subordinate to the methods that would encourage the students to promote self-study,
communication with teachers and fellow students and organization of seminars and
workshops. Methods of distance education will have to be implemented to a major extent.

Examination Reforms

In the pursuance of masters and doctoral programs, the students are required to take
examinations usually at the end of each semester (Chahal, 2015). The main objective of
conducting examinations is to find out how much the students have learned. When the
students score well in examinations, they have understood the academic concepts in an
appropriate manner. On the other hand, when they have not scored well, they need to bring
about improvements in flaws and inconsistencies.

International Co-operation

Universities in India have been the primary conduit for the advancement and
transmission of knowledge through traditional functions such as, research, innovation,
teaching, human resource development and continuing education. International co-operation
has been gaining importance as another function (Chahal, 2015). With the increase in the
development of transport and communication, the global village is witnessing an increasing
emphasis on international co-operation and action to find satisfactory solutions to any types
of problems and challenges that have been taking place and higher education is one of them.

Enhancing Functioning of Universities

The directors, heads, educationists, staff members, researchers and students have to
work in co-operation and integration to augment the functioning of universities. In the
functioning of universities, there are number of aspects that need to be taken into account.
These are, implementation of appropriate teaching-learning methods and instructional
strategies, organization of seminars and workshops, maintenance of technologies,
infrastructure, civic amenities and facilities, putting into practice various methods, strategies
and procedures that would prove to be beneficial to the members of the institutions and

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ensuring the working environmental conditions are pleasant and amiable. In order to
implement these functions, the individuals need to possess adequate knowledge and
competencies and inculcate the traits of diligence, resourcefulness and conscientiousness.

Organization of Cross-Cultural Programs

In the organization of cross-cultural programs, the individuals are provided with

information that they need to make visits to other regions and cities in order to generate
awareness in terms of other cultures, traditions, religions, values, norms and principles. When
the individuals are pursuing higher education in terms of various subjects, such as, law,
medical, engineering, arts, science, technology, management, administration, architecture and
so forth, it is essential for them to augment their understanding in terms of other cultures as
well. Generation of information in terms of other cultures will facilitate in acquiring
information in terms of developments taking place and progression of human society.

Action Plan for Improving Quality

Academic and administrative audit must be conducted once in three years in colleges
by external professionals for improving quality in various aspects of academic activities. The
self-finance colleges must come forward for accreditation and fulfilment of the requirements
of accreditation. The universities and colleges should realise the need for quality education
and implement an action plan for bringing about improvements in the quality of education in
higher educational institutions (Chahal, 2015).

Technologies

It is vital to bring about improvements at all levels of education from time to time.
With the advent of modernization and globalization, the use of technologies in the system of
education at all levels have gained prominence. Through the use of technologies, the
members of the educational institutions are able to carry out their tasks and activities in a
well-organized manner. It is vital for the individuals to augment their knowledge and
competencies in terms of usage of technologies. The use of technologies have enabled the
individuals to carry out their tasks and functions efficiently and enhance the system of
education.

Personality Development

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 In higher educational institutions, emphasis need to be paid upon the personality
development of the students. In some of the university departments, there are organization of
short-term personality development courses. In some cases, after the completion of
Bachelor’s degree, the individuals do not go for masters and look for employment
opportunities. In order to get engaged in employment opportunities and achieve personal and
professional goals, it is essential for the individuals to focus upon the development of their
personalities. Through promoting development of personalities, the individuals are able to
enrich their lives.

Libraries

The educators, students as well as other members also make use of the library
facilities. Within the libraries, they make use of books, other reading materials and
technologies to augment their knowledge and understanding and achieve the desired
academic goals. In the libraries, there is a need to make provision of technologies, books
related to all subjects, documents, newspapers, and other reading materials. Furthermore, it is
vital to make provision of adequate furniture, civic amenities and infrastructural facilities for
the individuals. In this manner, they can make effectual use of the library facilities. The
library facilities are regarded as indispensable in augmenting the system of education.

Organization of Seminars and Workshops

The organization of seminars and workshops are regarded as indispensable for the
progression of the departments and enhancing knowledge and information of the members. In
higher educational institutions, when seminars and workshops are organized, the
educationists, professors and other individuals are even invited from other educational
institutions and organizations. Therefore, through the organization of seminars and
workshops, the individuals are not only augmenting their understanding in terms of various
topics, but they are able to socialize with others and enrich their overall system of education.
In some cases, the seminars and workshops are organized annually in the university
departments. If they will be organized on a frequent basis, improvements will take place in
the system of education.

5.6 Education in Rural Communities

The system of education in rural communities is not in a well-developed state. There

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are certain problems and challenges, which are proving to be impediments within the course
of pursuance of education in rural communities. There are number of factors in the system of
education, which are proving to be barriers within the course of achievement of academic
goals. These are lack of teaching-learning materials, under-developed teaching-learning
methods and instructional strategies, shortage of teachers, lack of extra-curricular and
creative activities, lack of technologies, infrastructure and civic amenities, seminars and
workshops are not organized, lack of transportation facilities, discriminatory treatment
against girls, lack of proper evaluation methods and the overall school environmental
conditions are not in a well-developed state. In order to enhance the system of education in
rural communities, there is a need to conduct an analysis of these factors. After conducting an
analysis, there is a need to formulate measures and programs that would enable the
individuals to bring about improvements in the system of education in rural communities.

Right to Education is the primary right of every individual. In India, more than 70
percent of the population resides in rural communities. Therefore, there is a need to bring
about improvements in the system of education. In rural communities, in some cases, the
individuals do not depict interest in making provision of education to their girls. They possess
the viewpoint that they need to eventually get married, so should be trained in terms of
management of household responsibilities and in taking care of the needs and requirements of
family members. There are formulation of programs, which are leading to changes in the
viewpoints of the individuals. Hence, in the present existence, the individuals, belonging to
rural communities have brought about changes in their viewpoints and perspectives and are
encouraging their girls towards acquisition of education. Therefore, in this manner, girls and
women, belonging to rural communities are moving towards acquisition of empowerment
opportunities. In rural communities, 87 percent of the schools are operated by the government
(Shahapur, & Omprakash, 2017).

As it has been stated above that in rural areas, the system of education is not in a well-
developed state. With the possession of adequate resources, improvements will be brought
about in the system of education (Social Classes in India. A Thesis, 1942). Hence, in order to
acquire education, individuals are migrating to urban communities. The individuals,
belonging to rural communities have recognized the significance of education to a major
extent. Even when the individuals are not educated, they aspire to provide good-quality
education to their children. Therefore, they are sending their children to educational
institutions in rural as well as in urban communities. In rural areas, the individuals are

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normally non-literates or possess just the basic literacy skills of reading, writing and
arithmetic. Therefore, when the individuals are well-educated, they are able to render a
significant contribution in promoting well-being of themselves, their families and
communities. The rural individuals have acquired a comprehensive understanding of the
viewpoint that they would be able to enrich their lives through acquisition of education.

Education as a Source for the Development of Rural Resources

When acquiring understanding in terms of development of rural resources, it is

essential to understand the meaning of rural development. The term, rural is generally
referred to the areas, which are characterised by non-urban style of life, occupational
structure, social organization, and settlement pattern (Chapter- I, Introduction n.d.). Within
the Indian framework, when emphasis is put on rural, focus is put upon the agricultural
sector, as rural economy is primarily agricultural economy. In rural areas, the individuals are
overwhelmed by the problems of poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment. Therefore, there
have been formulation of measures and programs to alleviate these problems and provide
opportunities to the individuals to acquire empowerment opportunities. In rural communities,
the individuals are imparted information that when they will make use of technologies and
innovative methods in the agricultural sector and farming practices, they will be able to
augment production. In rural communities, there have been establishment of training centres,
which are imparting knowledge and contributing in enhancing the skills and abilities of the
individuals in enhancing productivity and profitability.

Rural development is bringing about improvements in the quality of life of the

individuals. In order to acquire better livelihoods opportunities and make improvements in
their overall quality of lives, the rural individuals must be able to fulfil their needs and
requirements. They will be able to fulfil their needs and requirements, when they will bring
about up-gradations in materials, tools, equipment, infrastructure, employment opportunities
and system of education. Through acquisition of education, the rural individuals will be able
to generate awareness in terms of the measures and programs that are necessary to enhance
one’s living conditions. The development of resources is regarded as indispensable and they
can be developed through education. The education needs to be utilized by the rural
individuals as the instrument that would help them in generating adequate information in
terms of various areas. Furthermore, they will upgrade their competencies regarding coping

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with problems and challenges, make effective decisions and promote community welfare
(Chapter- I, n.d.).

Education needs to be connected with rural development through strong, social,

economic and pedagogic reasons (Chapter- I, n.d.). For promoting effective development, the
stakeholders need to possess adequate knowledge and information in terms of the areas that
are necessary to lead to progression. Education in rural communities need to make provision
of opportunities to the individuals to enhance their communication skills. As it has been
stated that rural individuals are residing in the state of backwardness. Therefore, in the system
of education, it is necessary to organize the teaching and learning methods in such a manner
that would enable the rural individuals to participate. Participation will help them in making
improvements in their communication skills and gain self-reliance and confidence.
Furthermore, after the completion of education, the individuals, belonging to rural
communities should be provided with counselling and assistance to acquire employment
opportunities. As the primary objective of rural individuals is to acquire employment
opportunities and sustain their living conditions in an appropriate manner.

In rural areas, it is vital for the individuals to keep the environment clean. As they are
dependent upon the natural environmental conditions for the fulfilment of their needs and
requirements. In rural households, there is scarcity of water, therefore, the individuals need to
depend upon the water bodies for obtaining water. Therefore, they need to be aware of the
measures to keep the water bodies clean. Curbing various forms of pollution, such as, water,
air and land are essential to preserve the natural environmental conditions. Hence, the system
of education need to impart information to them in terms of curbing various forms of
pollution and keeping the environment clean. The system of health care facilities also need to
be improved in rural communities. Therefore, the rural individuals obtain medicinal plants
and herbs from the natural environmental conditions to treat their wounds and health
problems. Therefore, the system of education should also impart knowledge to them in terms
of the measures that are needed to promote good health and well-being. The subject of health
education needs to be introduced in the system of rural education.

The most important task of education is to generate awareness among the individuals,
in terms of measures and programs that are needed to bring about development. In rural
communities, there is a need to bring about improvements in number of aspects. These
include, modes of transportation, roads, infrastructural facilities, civic amenities, medical and

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health care facilities and system of education. Therefore, when the individuals are educated
and aware, they will be able to acquire an efficient understanding of the programs that have
been formulated to promote rural development, as well as they will be able to generate
awareness in terms of needs of development. In order to promote development, it is vital for
the individuals to make efficient use of the resources and move in the right direction.
Furthermore, they also need to be aware of ways that would not lead to desirable results and
refrain from putting them into practice.

In bringing about improvements in rural education, school mapping is regarded as one

of the effectual strategies that needs to be put into operation. School mapping helps in
determining, where new schools need to be built (Moulton, 2001). In rural communities,
schools are usually situated at a distance. The condition of roads and lack of modes of
transportation are major impediments within the course of acquisition of education.
Therefore, there is a need to establish schools in areas, to which the students can easily
commute. Shortage of qualified and competent teachers are regarded as the major
impediments within the course of improvement in rural education. It is vital to recruit well-
qualified, experienced and competent teachers. As it is the primary job of the teachers to put
into operation appropriate teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies that may be
useful to the students. Furthermore, they need to possess an amiable nature and provide
efficient solutions to problems faced by students. Therefore, it can be stated that to bring
about improvements in the system of education, it is vital to recruit well-educated and
proficient teachers.

5.7 Measures to Improve Rural Education

The measures which need to be implemented to bring about improvements in rural

education have been stated as follows:

Management of Financial Resources

Management of financial resources is regarded as one of the aspects that is of utmost

significance. It is apparent that to achieve academic goals and make improvements in the
overall system of education, the individuals are required to possess adequate financial
resources. In rural schools, scarcity of financial resources is regarded as the major
impediment within the course of progressions. Therefore, in bringing about improvements in
rural schools, it is crucial to manage financial resources. When there will be sufficient

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finances, only then progressions will be made in the overall system of education, including,
infrastructure, furniture, teaching-learning materials, heating and cooling equipment,
restrooms and overall environmental conditions. In the management of financial resources, it
is vital to get engaged in appropriate planning. They should be invested in areas, which are
crucial to up-grade the overall system of education.

Development in Teaching-Learning Methods

The teaching-learning methods that are used in rural education are not in a well-
developed state, therefore, there is a need to make improvements in them. These need to be in
accordance to the grade levels of the students, academic subjects and concepts and academic
goals. It is the primary job of the instructors to ensure that they are making use of appropriate
teaching methods in imparting understanding in terms of academic concepts. On the other
hand, the students need to make use of appropriate learning methods, so they can acquire an
efficient understanding of the academic concepts. These need to be improved to augment the
overall system of education.

Improvement in Infrastructural Facilities

The infrastructural facilities in rural schools are not in a well-developed state. Within
the classroom settings, there are lack of proper furniture, heating and cooling equipment in
accordance to the weather conditions and even doors and windows. The students are required
to sit on the floor and in some cases, sitting on the floor impedes their concentration on their
studies. Lack of doors and windows within the classrooms impede the job performance of the
teachers as well as concentration of students on their academic learning. Particularly, during
heavy rainfall and dust storms, lack of doors and proper lighting are regarded as major
problems within the course of learning and achievement of academic goals. Therefore, in
order to make improvements in the system of education, it is essential to bring about
improvements in infrastructural facilities.

Improvement in Transportation Facilities

In rural areas, schools are located at a distance from the homes of the individuals.
Older students, who are studying in higher classes may in some way manage to get to school
through various means. They may make use of their bicycles or take buses or go in a group
with friends. On the other hand, younger students normally experience problems due to lack
of transportation facilities in attending schools. This puts more pressure on the parents to take

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their children to schools and bring them back home. Therefore, there is a need to bring about
improvements in transportation facilities, so students are able to attend schools. The schools
need to arrange for buses that would enable the students to come to schools and return back
home.

Development in Civic Amenities

In rural schools, lack of civic amenities is regarded as one of the major impediments
within the course of development of system of education and attainment of academic goals.
These include, clean drinking water, and restrooms. In schools, the members including,
teachers, staff members, and students are required to spend about six to seven hours in
schools. Therefore, it is essential to have these civic amenities. The students as well as the
other members of the schools usually carry their drinking water and meals to schools. But it
is vital to make provision of clean drinking water, especially during the summer season.
Therefore, it can be stated that development of civic amenities are regarded to be
indispensable in improving the school environmental conditions and leading to developments
in the system of education.

Development in Extra-Curricular and Creative Activities

The development in extra-curricular and creative activities are regarded as one of the
major aspects in leading to improvements in the system of education. Apart from academic
concepts, it is vital for the students to get engaged in extra-curricular and creative activities.
Participation in these activities not only stimulate the mind-sets of the individuals, but also
motivate them towards academic learning and in attending schools. The various types of
extra-curricular and creative activities include, artworks, handicrafts, dance, music, physical
activities, sports, role plays and so forth. The participation of children in these activities are
regarded as significant in making improvements in their communication skills, time
management skills, talents, proficiencies and aptitude. Therefore, it is of utmost significance
to bring about improvements in extra-curricular and creative activities in rural schools.

Recruitment of Qualified and Competent Teachers

In rural schools, there is a need to recruit qualified and competent teachers. The
teachers are vested with the responsibility of imparting knowledge in terms of academic
concepts to the students, helping them to achieve academic goals, providing solutions to their
problems, helping them to turn out into productive citizens of the country and enhancing the

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overall system of education. These factors can be achieved, when there will be recruitment of
qualified and competent teachers. When recruitment of teachers take place, there are certain
factors that need to be taken into consideration. These include, possession of appropriate
educational qualifications, effective communication skills, amiable nature and an
approachable attitude and traits of diligence, resourcefulness and conscientiousness. With the
possession of these factors, the teachers will be able to carry out their job duties satisfactorily
and enhance the system of rural education.

Usage of Technology

In rural schools, there is a need to make use of technologies in the teaching-learning

methods and in the implementation of other tasks and activities. The other tasks and activities
are referred to as office work. As the staff members too need to make use of technologies in
the implementation of managerial and administrative functions. In bringing about
improvements in the system of rural education, it is vital to make use of technologies in the
teaching-learning methods. When the teachers are providing information to the students in
terms of the academic concepts and are making use of internet, they will be able to provide an
enhanced explanation by showing pictures and images. On the other hand, when the students
are making use of technologies and internet, they will be able to acquire a better
understanding of the concepts and carry out their academic tasks in a well-organized manner.
Therefore, it can be stated that usage of technology will enable the individuals to achieve
personal and professional goals and lead to improvements in the overall system of rural
education.

Development of Appropriate Evaluation Methods

The evaluation methods are the methods that are used to assess the performance of
students in schools. The main objective of evaluation methods is to assess how much the
students have learned and whether they are putting into practice effective learning methods.
The common evaluation methods are, tests, exams, class assignments, homework
assignments, quizzes and so forth. In rural schools, the evaluation methods are not in a well-
developed state. The teachers are not making use of proper evaluation methods to assess the
academic performance of students. Therefore, they are unable to assess how their teaching
methods and instructional techniques are proving to be beneficial to the students. Therefore,
it is vital to develop appropriate evaluation methods and organize tests, exams, and give class
and homework assignments to the students on a regular basis. Use of appropriate evaluation

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methods would help the teachers in finding out how much the students have learned and
identify the limitations, which need to be improved.

Expansion of Schools

In rural areas, the number of schools are less. The lesser number of schools are not
considered effectual in bringing about improvements in the system of education. Therefore,
to augment the system of rural education, it is necessary to expand the number of schools.
When one is taking into account expansion of schools, there are number of factors that need
to be taken into consideration. These include, financial resources, human resources, location,
architecture of school, school building, number of classrooms, playground and other factors
that are vital in leading to improvements in the system of education. In rural areas, there
should be enough schools, which would facilitate acquisition of education among individuals
and enable them to transfer to schools in a manageable manner. Therefore, it can be stated
that expansion of schools is regarded as one of the major factors in leading to up-gradation in
the system of rural education.

Initiatives taken by the Government

The initiatives taken by the government to lead to improvements in the system of rural
education are stated as follows: (Sreekanthachari, & Nagaraja, 2013).

Lok Jumbish Project

The Lok Jumbish (LJ) project has 75 blocks covering approximately 12 million of the
population. LJ works in integration with the other government agencies, teachers, NGOs,
elected representatives and individuals in an interactive group effort to promote
universalization of primary education. It works on seven guiding principles. These are, a
process rather than a project approach, partnerships, decentralized functioning, participatory
learning, integration with the mainstream education system, flexibility of management and
creation of multiple levels of leadership committed to quality and mission mode.

Shiksha Karmi Project

The Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP) is being implemented since 1987 with assistance
from the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). The main
objective of this project is to promote universalization and qualitative improvement of
primary education in the remote and backward villages of Rajasthan with special focus upon

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girls. SKP has set up the Village Education Committee (VEC) in 2000 to promote the
participation of the community in primary education and encourage planning of villages. SKP
also runs prehar pathshalas schools of convenient timings. For the purpose of promoting
education among girls, there are organization of Angan Pathshalas in three blocks. The
program at present covers more than 1,50,000 students in more than 1785 schools and 3250
prehar pathshalas, involving more than 4271 Shiksha Karmis.

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan

The primary goal of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is that all children, belonging to
the age group of six to eleven years of age should complete primary education by the year
2007 and all children, belonging to the age group of six to fourteen years should complete
eight years of schooling by the year 2010. This initiative is applicable in the whole country,
with special emphasis put on the education of girls, education of Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes and children with special needs. The SSA centres are established in those
areas, which do not have any schools or where schools are located at a distance. The special
programs for girls include, girl education at elementary level, National Program for
Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL), Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya
(KGBV) and Mahila Samakhya Scheme.

District Primary Education Program

The District Primary Education Program (DPEP) was initiated in 1994, with the main
objective of universalization of primary education. The main features of this program are,
universal access, universal retention and universal achievement. The primary objective of this
program focuses upon the availability of primary education to each child. Once the child gets
enrolled in school, he or she should be retained. The children need to be provided with
assistance, so that the goals of education can be achieved. The major components of this
program are, construction of classrooms and new schools, opening of non-formal schooling
centres, establishment of early childhood education centres, recruitment of teachers and
providing education to disabled children. The program has been successful to a major extent
as 1,60,000 schools and 84000 alternative schools have been established under the program.
Work is going on in the construction of new buildings of 52,758 schools. The number of
disabled students, who have been enrolled in schools are 4,20,503.

National Program for Nutritional Support to Primary Education

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 The National Program for Nutritional Support to Primary Education was initiated in
1995. The primary objective of this program was to make provision of nutritious meals to the
students to up-grade their energy levels and to augment their concentration on their studies.
The initiation of this scheme led to an increase in the enrolment and retention of students in
schools. Under this scheme, the children, enrolled in schools are provided with nutritious
meals of 100 grams. By 1997-1998, around 110 million children have been covered under
this scheme. It is implemented for students, belonging to classes I to V.

Operation Blackboard

The scheme of Operation Blackboard was initiated in 1987 with the main objective of
bringing about improvements in the school environmental conditions. Another aim of this
scheme is augmenting and retaining the competencies among students. This scheme has
proven to be effectual to a major extent in bringing about improvements in the system of
primary education. During the initial stage, 5,23,000 primary schools have been covered.

5.8 Education in Tribal Communities

After the country achieved its independence in 1947, there were initiation of measures
and programs with the main objective of bringing about improvements in the conditions of
tribal communities. The tribes were designated as Scheduled Tribes to bring them at par with
the mainstream society. This can be implemented by making provision of good quality
education, and facilities for bringing about improvements in their economic status. The
political forces and the complexities of geographical, economic, social, political and other
factors have led to an increase in the number of Scheduled Tribes by prompting several non-
tribal groups to successfully claim the Scheduled Tribes status (Chapter 2. Review of
Literature, n.d.). Tribal population is an integral part of India (Nisha, & Asokhan, 2015).
Therefore, in order to lead to effective growth and development of the individuals,
communities and nation as a whole, it is necessary to up-grade the status of tribal individuals.
Education is regarded as the indispensable instrument to lead to up-gradation of tribal
communities.

In India, the Scheduled Tribes population represents one of the most economically
deprived, disadvantageous and marginalized communities. India has the largest tribal
population in the world. This constitutes 8.6 percent of the total population of the country.
Education is regarded as one of the most important instruments that would lead to up-

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gradation of communities within the country. Acquisition of education among tribal
communities render a significant contribution in enabling them to augment their skills and
capabilities to cope with problems and challenges. It helps in the implementation of tasks and
functions in a well-organized manner and contributes in the up-gradation of one’s living
conditions. Education is regarded as an important avenue for improving the social and the
economic conditions of tribal communities. Literacy and educational attainment are regarded
as powerful indicators leading to socio-economic development of deprived, marginalized and
economically weaker sections of the society (Sahu, 2014).

In the present existence, the tribal communities are in a state of backwardness. Low
literacy skills and illiteracy are regarded as the major factors in causing backwardness.
Therefore, in order to alleviate backwardness and enable them to become part of the
mainstream society and promote better livelihoods opportunities, it is necessary to acquire
education. The low educational status among tribal communities are regarded as major
impediments within the course of participating in the process of development and augmenting
their understanding in terms of measures and programs that would lead to their well-being
and progression. It is widely acknowledged that the educational background of the tribal
communities are in a deprived state as compared to rest of the population (Sahu, 2014),
hence, it is vital to conduct an analysis of the factors that how lack of literacy skills are
proving to be unfavourable to them in enhancing their living conditions. It is crucial to
formulate laws and procedures, which would lead to augmentation of system of education in
tribal communities and enable them to achieve desired goals and objectives.

The Constitution of India has assigned certain provisions, which aim to provide
education to the tribal communities. These special provisions were adopted through the
amendment of the Constitution in 1951 and a special clause was added to article 15(4). The
tribal communities have their own language. Due to language barriers, they interact within
their own communities and are unable to interact with the mainstream society. In the year
1961, the literacy rate among tribal communities was 8.5 percent. In the same year, the
literacy rate among women was less as compared to men and accounted for 3.2 percent.
Observing the status of tribal communities and with the main objective of leading to their
progression, the Government of India, initiated an innovation scheme with the main objective
of promoting education. This innovation scheme is the establishment of ashram schools. The
concept of ashram schools initiated in the third plan in all the scheduled areas throughout the
country. The main objective of ashram schools is to promote education in a satisfactory

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manner to the tribal individuals, particularly, who are deprived and marginalized
(Brahmanandam, & Babu, 2016).

In addition to ashram schools, there were construction of hotels for boarding and
lodging of tribal students in scheduled areas. These special measures were introduced to
ensure adequate developments in the system of elementary education. It is vital for the tribal
communities to realise that education should be provided to the children from the stage of
early childhood. From the stage of early childhood, when children get enrolled in schools,
they will be able to render a significant contribution in the creation of the foundation for
learning. Furthermore, there were initiation of measures to bring about improvements in the
system of education in tribal communities. But in spite of the efforts, the literacy rate was
only 11.39 percent in 1971. The main factors that were highlighted are, high rate of
absenteeism, dropping out of schools prematurely and seasonal migration by tribal children
(Brahmanandam, & Babu, 2016). Research studies have indicated that tribal individuals in
some cases experience problems, such as, lack of financial resources, inadequate modes of
transportation, distance of schools from homes and inadequate teaching-learning methods and
instructional strategies, due to which they drop out from schools prematurely.

The Dhebar Commission of 1960 identified various reasons that caused educational
backwardness among tribal communities. The major reasons were, the school environmental
conditions were not in a well-developed state and teaching-learning methods that were
implemented were not suitable to the tribal individuals. In addition, there were lack of
infrastructural facilities and civic amenities. Therefore, due to lack of these facilities and
appropriate methods, the tribal communities are encountering major barriers within the
course of achievement of academic goals and objectives. The Dhebar Commission made
recommendations in leading to improvements in the system of tribal education. These were,
bringing about improvements in the teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies,
providing free textbooks and reading materials, introducing the mid-day meal scheme with
the aim of providing nutritious meals to students to up-grade their energy levels and bringing
about improvements in the overall environmental conditions of the schools. In addition, the
commission also suggested timings and vacations in schools that are suitable to tribal cultural
and social life (Brahmanandam, & Babu, 2016).

The Kothari Commission (1964) has also highlighted that emphasis need to be put
upon up-grading the system of education among tribal communities. Hence, with the

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initiation of these measures, there were improvements taking place in the system of education
in tribal communities. In this manner, the tribal communities are able to recognize the
significance of education. The 2011 census data indicate that educational development of the
scheduled tribes is quite uneven among different states. The data indicates that some states
with higher concentration of tribal population have been doing well. They are Mizoram (91.5
percent), Nagaland (80 percent), Manipur (77.4 percent) and Meghalaya (74.5 percent).
Whereas, some states with more number of tribal habitations continue to perform low. They
are, Jharkhand (57.1 percent), Madhya Pradesh (50.6 percent), Orissa (52.2 percent),
Rajasthan (52.2 percent) and Andhra Pradesh (49.2 percent) (Brahmanandam, & Babu,
2016).

Policies and Programs

A number of employment oriented and development programs for the tribal

communities have been introduced. As it is comprehensively understood that tribal
individuals are dependent upon the natural environmental conditions for their survival.
Furthermore, they have their own traditions, cultures and norms on the basis of which their
lives are centred. Therefore, the main objective of policies and programs is to generate
awareness among them in terms of significance of education and advancements taking place.
The major programs are the Integrated Rural Development Program, the Prime Ministers
Rozgar Yojana (PMRY), Training of Self-Employment for Rural Youth and the IRDP
scheme. These programs are necessary for rural individuals living below the poverty line.
The others are for both rural as well as urban youth. All these schemes are implemented in
the state by the District Rural Development Agencies in collaboration with the commercial
and co-operative banks. The PMRY was initiated in October 1993 to deal with the problem of
educated individuals, who are unemployed. Therefore, PMRY also relates to the setting up of
the self-employment ventures through industries and services (Chapter – VI. Awareness on
Tribal Welfare Schemes, n.d.).

The provision of compulsory training to entrepreneurship development is a salient

feature of the scheme of PMRY. In order to take up employment opportunities in various
fields, it is essential for the individuals to up-grade their skills and abilities. When the tribal
individuals need to enhance agricultural productivity or increase the production of handicrafts
and artworks, they need to acquire information in terms of modern, scientific and innovative
methods. For this purpose, it is vital for the individuals to get enrolled in training centres and

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up-grade their skills and abilities. The tribal individuals, who have not been enrolled in
schools before or have dropped out prematurely are also provided with the opportunities to
hone their competencies. This would enable them to generate a source of income to lead to
improvements in their living conditions. Therefore, it can be stated that initiation of training
programs have proven to be beneficial to the tribal communities.

Starting from the first five year plan (1951-1956), the financial resources have been
allocated by the Government for bringing about developments in tribal communities.
Towards the end of the plan, there were initiation of 43 special Multipurpose Tribal
Development Projects (MTDPs). During the third five year plan (1961-1966), the
Government of India, adopted the strategy of converting the areas with more than 66 percent
of tribal concentration into the Tribal Development Blocks (TDB). By the end of the fourth
five year plan (1969-1974), there was an increase in the number of TDBs within the country
to 504. In 1972, the Tribal sub-plan strategy (TSP) was put into operation by the Ministry of
Education and Social Welfare. The TSP has two main objectives, to promote socio-economic
development of the tribal communities and protection against exploitation. It was generally
implemented in the areas where the Scheduled Tribes population was more than 50 percent of
the total population (Sahu, 2014).

The PESA (Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 in fact has made it
mandatory for the states, having a concentration of Scheduled Tribes to make provision of
rights and opportunities to the tribes regarding the decision making processes and formulating
measures in leading to development of their communities. A centrally sponsored government
scheme of ashram schools exclusive for the children belonging to tribal communities from
elementary to higher secondary levels was initiated during 1970s. One of the factors that is
proving to be a major barrier is education in ashram schools is in a deprived state. The
Janshala program is the collaborative effort of the Government of India and five United
Nations agencies, including UNDP, UNICEF, UNESCO, ILO and UNFPA. Janshala program
is the community based primary education program, which has the main objective of making
primary education available and accessible to deprived, marginalized and economically
weaker sections of the society. Special focus is put upon girls, children belonging to deprived
and marginalized sections of the society, and children with special needs (Sahu, 2014).

The tribal communities are recognized to be among the most deprived and
marginalized sections of the Indian society. They are unaware regarding policies and

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procedures and are implementing their own traditional methods and procedures in the
sustenance of their living conditions. There have been initiation of policies and programs that
are aimed at bringing about improvements in their socio-economic conditions. In this regard,
a particular reference has to be made in terms of the sub-plan, which came into existence as
the main strategy from the fifth five year plan (1974-1978). The elementary education is
regarded as the main priority in the tribal sub-plan. Since primacy was accorded to
elementary education, a comprehensive policy approach to education was adopted in the
tribal sub-plans giving equal importance to quantitative and qualitative aspects of education
(Sujatha, n.d.).

A second important element in the policy towards the education of the tribal
communities came with the recommendations of the National Policy on Education (NPE) in
1986, which specified certain features, which have been stated as follows: (Sujatha, n.d.).

Priority will be accorded to opening of primary schools in tribal communities.

The development in teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies is regarded

to be of utmost significance. The students will be able to acquire an efficient understanding of
the academic concepts, when these methods will be in a well-developed state.

The major focus is put upon up-grading of the skills and abilities of tribal youth as
they are to take up teaching in tribal communities. When the youth will possess adequate
knowledge and information in terms of teaching tribal students, this would also provide
solutions to the problem of shortage of teachers in schools.

The ashram schools and residential schools will be established in tribal communities
on a large scale.

Incentive measures will be formulated for the tribal communities, taking into
consideration, their needs and requirements.

The distinctive feature of this policy is its recognition of heterogeneity and diversity
in tribal communities. The policy also proposed the transformation of the structure of primary
education with special emphasis put upon making improvements in accessibility to tribal
areas. The policy has also focused upon the significance of instruction through the mother
tongue for promoting effective teaching and encouraging the incorporation of locally relevant
content and curriculum, apart from putting emphasis upon the localized production of
textbooks in local dialects. Based on these considerations, the norms for establishing the

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primary schools were initiated in accordance to the tribal communities to have access to
education. For instance, the state of Andhra Pradesh has gone to the extent of establishing
schools in habitations, where the number of school going children account for 20. The state
of Madhya Pradesh has steadily experienced a decline in the population size norms in order
to open schools in communities with the population of 200. There are number of tribal
communities, where there are not any schools (Sujatha, n.d.).

5.9 Schemes for Education for Tribal Children

Promoting education among the tribal children is the area of major concern and for
the accomplishment of this purpose, there have been introduction of major schemes for the
education of tribal children. Some of these schemes have origin in the policies adopted at the
all-India level, and therefore, have similarity across countries, while others are state
government initiatives. The schemes in Maharashtra can be categorised into four kinds:
residential schools in the form of ashram schools or modified forms, hostel for the tribal
students, studying in various schools, scholarships and other forms of support and transfers
that make provision of support and assistance in the promotion of schooling and vocational
and other forms of training for tribal children (Reviewing the Status of Education, 2017).
These have been stated as follows: (Reviewing the Status of Education, 2017).

Ashram Schools

Ashram schools are the residential schools that initiated specifically for tribal
children. The establishment of ashram schools took place after the country achieved its
independence in 1947. These schools have their roots in the pre-independence phase. There
were two strands within the ashram schools that existed in the pre-independent India. One
was motivated by the thoughts of political thinkers, like, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi,
Rabindranath Tagore and Vinoba Bhave. The ashram schools are the civil society initiated
residential schools for tribal and dalit children. However, these were few in number and were
found throughout the country. Another kind of school that was established by religious-
organization backed NGOs with the purpose of refining and integrating tribal communities
into the Hindu fold or in some cases by Christian missionaries to bring them into the fold of
Christianity. The Ministry of Tribal and Social Welfare, Government of India, initiated
ashram schools, not only for tribal children, but also for dalit children, known as Harijans
Vidyalayas in many states in 1960s.

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 Maharashtra also has its schemes of providing funds to ashram schools, known as
ashramshalas. The Government of Maharashtra (GOM) has invested in both establishing own
ashram schools and ashram schools complexes and schemes that provide grants-in-aid to the
non-governmental organizations for their effective functioning. In the recent past, there have
been initiation of schemes for the junior colleges linked with ashram schools. It provides
infrastructural facilities to higher classes after the completion of secondary school education.
In the present, there are 123 junior colleges attached to secondary schools. The state has also
introduced another scheme of model schools for Scheduled Tribe communities. It is
introduced on the lines of Narvodaya Vidyalaya, a central government-funded scheme of
residential schools for children in rural areas. These two kinds of schools have the main aim
of making provision of education to the tribal children, where admissions are based on merit.

Hostel for the Tribal Students

The main objective of establishing hostel for the tribal students is one of the important
ways to motivate them towards the pursuance of higher education. In order to pursue higher
education, such as, Bachelors, Masters or Doctoral programs, the tribal individuals need to
migrate to urban communities. Therefore, in urban areas within the course of pursuance of
higher education, these individuals are required to live in hostels or rented accommodation.
Hence, it is necessary to establish hostel facilities, so the individuals belonging to tribal
communities would not experience any problems in the pursuance of education. When
measures and programs are initiated to bring about improvements in the system of education,
it is necessary to promote developments in hostel facilities as well. In the hostel facilities, the
main aspects that need to be taken into consideration are, proper infrastructure, civic
amenities and other facilities, rooms should contain proper furniture, cafeteria should provide
nutritious meals and the overall environmental conditions should be in a well-developed
state.

Government hostels that are operated by the Tribal Development Department (TDD)
have been started at district, tehsil and division in order to encourage tribal students to pursue
studies. In the state of Maharashtra, the number of hostels account for 500. The hostels,
where the number of tribal students account for 50,000 and 40 percent of them are girls. The
admissions of the tribal students in higher educational institutions are on the basis of merit.

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Therefore, the inculcation of the traits of diligence, resourcefulness and conscientiousness
lead to desired outcomes.

Scholarship and Allowance Related Schemes

The scholarship and allowance related schemes have been classified into various
categories:

1. Travel and maintenance allowance provided for the physically challenged

Scheduled Tribe students, studying in classes eight and twelve. The travel
allowance account for Rs. 100 per month and the maintenance allowance account
for Rs. 500 per month. Whereas, the students, who are enrolled in professional
courses in private unaided colleges, Rs 100 per month is limited to 10 months per
student.
2. Golden Jubilees pre-matric scholarship for the state tribal students, which has the
main objective of causing reduction in the drop-out rates of students at the
primary level. Introduced in 2010-2011 for the tribal students, studying in private
schools. This scheme provides for Rs. 1000 for students studying in primary
classes (I-IV), Rs. 1500 for students in the upper primary classes, (V-VIII) and Rs.
2000 for students studying in secondary classes (VIII-X).
3. Cash awards are provided to meritorious tribal students studying in classes X and
XII. The first three students, i.e. three boys and three girls at the state level are
awarded Rs. 35000, Rs. 25000 and Rs. 15000 respectively in classes X and XII.
Besides these, Rs. 1000 is also given to the students. The Divisional Education
Board also has provision of some cash awards.

Vocational Training in Tribal Areas

In the tribal sub-plan (TSP) areas, major emphasis has been placed upon the

vocationalization of education at the X-XII stage and the development of facilities in the
secondary school certificate (SSC) examination. In addition, the in-service training programs
are conducted for the teachers in private-aided and ashram schools from time to time. Spread
across eight locations in the state, these centres make provision of five to ten days of training
in all subjects. In the present existence, it is essential for the tribal individuals to acquire
computer training. As acquisition of computer skills would help the individuals to get

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enrolled in higher educational institutions and pursue academic goals. Research has indicated
in higher educational institutions, it is essential for the individuals to make use of
technologies in acquiring an efficient understanding of the concepts, preparation of reports,
assignments and projects and communicating with their supervisors, professors and fellow
students. Therefore, vocational training in terms of computer education has proven to be
beneficial to the tribal communities to a major extent.

In vocational training, there are number of other activities as well, which needs to be
taken into account. These include, training in terms of carpentry, painting, electric work,
repair work, plumbing, welding and so forth. These areas are regarded as significant in the
maintenance of the buildings. When the tribal individuals acquire vocational training in terms
of these areas, they are able to find employment opportunities. In most cases, they migrate to
urban communities, where they are able to find work in some organizations or companies or
they make visits to households and generate a source of income through utilization of their
skills and abilities. Therefore, it can be stated that vocational training has proven to be
beneficial to the tribal communities in sustaining their living conditions in a better way.

Recommendations

The recommendations for bringing about improvements in tribal education have been
stated as follows:

Initiation of Literacy Campaigns

The initiation of literacy campaigns are regarded as indispensable to make provision

of information among the tribal individuals in terms of significance of education (Sahu,
2014). The tribal individuals need to be aware in terms of the fact that irrespective of their
occupations, they need to work towards augmentation of their educational skills. The tribal
individuals, who have not been enrolled in schools before or have dropped out prematurely
are the ones, who have generated information in terms of significance of education. The
instructors provide them with the basic literacy skills of reading, writing and arithmetic, as
well as make them realize that through acquisition of education, they will be able to carry out
their tasks and activities in a well-organized manner.

Attitude of the Tribal Parents

Research has indicated that in some cases, the attitude of the tribal parents is not
positive towards making provision of education to their children, especially girls (Sahu,

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2014). They possess the viewpoint that girls should be trained in terms of implementation of
household responsibilities as, they need to get married and school education is not meant for
them. There is a need to bring about changes in the viewpoints and attitudes of the tribal
parents, so they encourage their girls towards acquisition of education. Counselling and
guidance sessions are organized for the tribal individuals to make them realise the
significance of education. Equal opportunities should be provided to both girls and boys in
the acquisition of education.

Implementing Appropriate Instructional Strategies

In tribal schools, the instructional strategies are not in a well-developed state. The
students are unable to acquire an efficient understanding of the academic concepts. Therefore,
there is a need to make improvements in instructional strategies. When the instructional
strategies are put into practice, it needs to be ensured they are in accordance to the academic
concepts and needs and requirements of the students. For instance, when the teachers are
teaching mathematics, they need to ensure, they provide written explanation on the
blackboards and provide efficient understanding of the concepts to the students. Therefore,
the instructional strategies need to be put into operation in an appropriate manner to bring
about improvements in the system of tribal education.

Implementing Appropriate Teaching-Learning Materials

Implementation of appropriate teaching-learning materials is regarded to be of utmost

significance in helping students to achieve academic goals and make improvements in the
system of tribal education. The various types of teaching-learning materials are, textbooks,
articles, internet, technologies, and other materials, which are used to provide adequate
understanding of the academic concepts to the students. In tribal schools, the teaching-
learning methods are not in a well-developed state, due to which teachers are unable to carry
out their job duties satisfactorily and students experience challenges within the course of
achievement of their academic goals. Therefore, to lead to improvements in the system of
education, it is necessary to implement appropriate teaching-learning materials.

Encouraging Extra-Curricular and Creative Activities

In tribal schools, it is vital to encourage extra-curricular and creative activities. The

tribal individuals also earn their living by the production of handicrafts and artworks apart
from agriculture. Furthermore, music and dancing are also an integral part of their culture.

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Therefore, when they are provided with information in terms of various methods of
production of handicrafts and artworks and are provided with information regarding musical
and dance performances, they are able to develop motivation towards attending schools and
acquisition of education. In this manner, the introduction of extra-curricular and creative
activities also leads to increase in the enrolment and retention of students in schools.

Recruitment of Qualified Teachers

Teaching is a difficult job. It is the job of the teachers to provide adequate

understanding of the academic concepts to the students and help them to achieve academic
goals. The teachers need to possess efficient knowledge in terms of the subject areas, they are
teaching. Furthermore, they should possess an amiable nature and an approachable attitude
and provide effective solutions to the problems and challenges, experienced by students.
Apart from the implementation of their job duties in a satisfactory manner, the teachers need
to render a significant contribution towards accomplishment of the goals and objectives of the
schools and make improvements in the system of education. Therefore, recruitment of
qualified teachers is one of the essential aspects in enhancing the system of tribal education.

Stipends and Scholarships

The tribal individuals usually are residing in the conditions of poverty. Lack of
financial resources are regarded as major impediments within the course of acquisition of
education. Due to lack of financial resources, the tribal individuals experience problems in
migrating to urban areas and getting enrolled in higher educational institutions. Hence,
stipends and scholarships need to be provided to the tribal students in the pursuance of higher
education. It is comprehensively understood by the tribal communities that through
acquisition of good-quality education from reputed educational institutions, they will be able
to acquire employment opportunities and sustain their living conditions in an appropriate
manner. Therefore, stipends and scholarships will provide them financial assistance that
would help them in the pursuance of their goals and objectives.

Information in terms of Modernization and Globalization

The tribal individuals need to be provided with adequate information in terms of

modernization and globalization. With the advent of modernization and globalization,
improvements are taking place in various spheres. These include, education, employment
opportunities, science and technology, management, administration, agriculture, farming

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practices, engineering, medical and health care facilities and so forth. The individuals, in
rural and tribal communities, who are employed in the agricultural sector and farming
practices are making use of technologies and modern and innovative methods. Therefore, in
the system of education, it is important that tribal students should be provided with adequate
knowledge and information in terms of modernization and globalization.

Encouraging Education among Girls

In tribal communities, girls are normally trained from the initial stage in terms of
implementation of household responsibilities and in taking care of the needs and
requirements of family members. When the individuals are engaged in the production of
handicrafts or artworks, their girls provide assistance. Due to these factors, they are
discouraged from attending schools and acquiring education. The tribal individuals need to be
made aware of the fact that they should provide education to their girls as well. Through
acquisition of education, they will be able to acquire empowerment opportunities and
contribute efficiently in promoting well-being of their families and communities.

Monitoring and Evaluation

In the system of education, monitoring and evaluation are regarded as important

aspects, which need to be taken into consideration. These include, maintenance of attendance
registers, initiation of appropriate teaching-learning materials and instructional strategies,
introduction of proper evaluation methods and making provision of appropriate
infrastructure, civic amenities and facilities that are necessary in augmenting the system of
education. It is vital for the school administrators to conduct monitoring and evaluation on a
regular basis, which would help them to identify the limitations and bring about
improvements. The main objective of educational institutions is to ensure the students learn
well and are able to acquire an efficient understanding of the academic concepts. For this
purpose, it is vital put into practice proper evaluation methods to assess the performance of
the students. In this manner, improvements can be brought about in the teaching-learning
methods and instructional strategies.

5.10 Conclusion

Education is an important instrument that has proven to be beneficial to the

individuals in number of ways. Through the acquisition of education, the individuals are able
to carry out their tasks and activities in a well-organized manner and learn to cope with

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various problems and challenges. The individuals, belonging to various communities,
categories and backgrounds have recognized the significance of education. They are making
efforts to enhance their educational skills. In urban communities, the system of education is
in a well-developed state as compared to rural and tribal communities. In urban areas, the
higher educational institutions are well-developed, which are promoting the enrolment of
students, belonging to various categories and backgrounds. In urban areas, in educational
institutions at all levels, the teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies are in a
well-developed state. Furthermore, there are usage of technologies in the implementation of
tasks and activities. In addition, well-developed infrastructural facilities, civic amenities and
qualified and competent human resources are rendering a significant contribution in
augmenting the system of education.

In rural and tribal communities, the individuals normally are living their lives on the
basis of their own cultures, and traditional viewpoints and perspectives. They are
overwhelmed by the problem of illiteracy. But they have recognized the significance of
education and are encouraging their children towards its acquisition. In rural and tribal
communities, the system of education is not in a well-developed state. There are number of
limitations regarding teaching-learning methods, teaching-learning materials, teachers, and
overall school environmental conditions. There is a need to identify these limitations and
formulate measures and programs, which may contribute effectively towards bringing about
improvements in the system of education. In order to augment their educational skills and
abilities, the individuals, belonging to rural and tribal communities are migrating to urban
communities to get enrolled in educational institutions. Hence, the individuals, belonging to
various communities, categories and backgrounds have realised that to sustain their living in
an appropriate manner, they need to augment their educational skills.

In the present existence, an important point that needs to be taken into consideration
is, improvements need to be brought about in the system of education at all levels. The major
aspects that need to be taken into consideration are, teaching-learning methods, instructional
strategies, teaching-learning materials, infrastructural facilities, technologies, civic amenities,
extra-curricular and creative activities, seminars and workshops, well-qualified and
competent teachers and the overall environmental conditions within the educational
institutions should be pleasant and amiable. The directors, educators, staff members and
students need to work in collaboration and integration with each other in the achievement of
educational goals and objectives. Finally, it can be stated that when the members of the

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educational institutions are taking into account these factors, they will be able to render a
significant contribution in the achievement of academic goals and enriching the system of
education.

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 6

Economy of India
In order to promote development of the communities and nation, it is indispensable to
take into consideration the economic development of the country. In leading to economic
development, there are number of aspects that need to be taken into consideration. These
include, science and technology, infrastructure, telecommunications, power supplies, water
supplies, transportation, organizations, agriculture, industries, environmental conditions and
providing effective solutions to societal problems of poverty, illiteracy and unemployment.
When the concept of economic development is taken into consideration, it is vital to conduct
an analysis of the factors that are the major impediments. When the analysis has been
conducted, effective measures need to be put into operation to bring about solutions to
problems and challenges. Economic development of the country is a continuous process.
With advancements taking place, changes are brought about, which may lead to economic
development, which may be beneficial to the communities and nation.

The Indian economy has accumulated development experience spanning a little more
than six decades. There are some changes that have taken place within the country, which
focuses upon the fact that the economy’s fundamentals are strong. First, the current rate of
savings and investments have reached levels that even ten years ago would have been
suspended as the pipedream for the country. On this important dimension, India is a part of
the world’s fast growing economies. Since the indicators are some of the strongest correlates
of growth and do not fluctuate widely, they express their viewpoints and perspectives in a
well-organized manner for the medium-term growth prospects of the country. In the past two
decades, there has been an increase in the working population of the country. The arrival of
India’s corporations in the global market place and formal indicators of the sophisticated
corporate culture that many of these companies exhibit also land to the optimistic prognosis
for the economy in the medium to long run (Unit 1. Growth and Structure of the Indian
Economy, n.d.).

In the medium term, it is reasonable to expect that the economy will go back to the
robust growth path. To begin with, there has been a revival in investment and private
consumption demand. Secondly, the exports have recorded impressive growth. Furthermore,
the infrastructural facilities, including railway, transport, power supplies, water supplies,

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telecommunications, and more recently, but to a lesser extent, civil aviation have shown a
noteworthy progress. The constructive capital market conditions with improvement in the
capital flows and business operations as per the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) business
expectations survey, are also encouraging. Finally, and even though it is too early to convey,
if this is a trend, the manufacturing sector has been showing a buoyancy rarely seen before.
There is also a substantial pick-up in corporate earnings and profit margins. Over the past
half-decade or so, India has shown that it can withstand the economic recession to have tested
the world since the 1930s (Unit 1. Growth and Structure of the Indian Economy, n.d.).

When the country achieved its independence in 1947, the economy of India was
primarily agrarian. The individuals were employed in the agricultural sector and farming
practices to enhance their living conditions. The individuals were overwhelmed by the
conditions of poverty and backwardness. After the country achieved its independence, India
had to employ the land that has been used previously for the production of food, and to
cultivate cotton and jute for the mills. In India, more than 70 percent of the individuals reside
in rural areas. Rural economy has been rendering a significant contribution towards overall
economic growth and social growth of the country. India is predominantly an agricultural
economy. There is a need to bring about improvements in the agricultural sector. In the
present existence, the rural economy in India and its subsequent productivity growth is
predicted to a major extent in leading to development of 700 million strong rural population
(Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

In rural areas, the lives of the individuals are influenced by number of factors. These
include, poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, and seclusion. Agriculture is the major source of
their livelihoods. In the agricultural sector, their major aim is to enhance productivity and
profitability. In order to bring about improvements in productivity and profitability, the
farmers and agricultural labourers need to make use of modern, scientific and innovative
methods and strategies. Therefore, for this purpose, they are getting enrolled in training
centres to augment their understanding in terms of technical and innovative methods and
ways that are necessary to enhance productivity and profitability. One of the factors that is
disadvantageous is, the farmers and the agricultural labourers are not employed throughout
the year. Research has indicated that they do not have work in some months. The income of
the farmers is meagre and they normally experience problems in affording two square meals
in a day. Therefore, there is a need to bring about improvements in agricultural production
and status of farmers.

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 The other sector is the non-rural sector. The non-rural sector is the industrial sector. In
urban as well as in rural communities, there have been development of industries. With the
establishment of large scale and small scale industries, there have been an increase in the
number of employment opportunities for the individuals, belonging to urban and rural
communities. These individuals are employed in skilled as well as in unskilled occupations.
Research has indicated that individuals, belonging to rural communities, usually possess
either low levels of literacy skills or no literacy skills at all. Therefore, they even seek
employment opportunities in unorganized sector. In industries, the individuals are even
employed in hazardous occupations. These include, plantations, mining, diamond polishing,
gem cutting, lock industries, silk weaving and so forth. When the individuals are employed in
these industries, they are required to undergo the training program and work under the
supervision of an expert. The reason being, the jobs are hazardous and the workforce need to
take precautions in terms of performance of job duties. The development of industries have
rendered a significant contribution in the development of the country’s economy.

6.1 Concept of Economic Development

Economic development is being defined as the process of increasing the degree of

utilization and bringing about improvements in the available resources of the country. This
leads to an increase in the improvements in economic welfare of the community by
stimulating the growth of national income. The progression has to be assessed by references
to two separate indicators, namely, the indices of production and national income and of the
economic welfare of the community. The former covers what may be designed as the growth
aspect of development. The economic welfare indicator, on the other hand, puts emphasis
upon the pattern of allocation of resources and of the distribution of income among different
groups and classes of the community, in a sense, it combines the equity and the growth
aspects of development (Unit 1. Growth and Structure of the Indian Economy, n.d.).

In promoting economic growth, the various types of growth processes have been
stated as follows: (Unit 1. Growth and Structure of the Indian Economy, n.d.).

Jobless Growth

The jobless growth implies the growth processes, which does not create additional
jobs or which causes a decline in the existing job opportunities. In other words, the
individuals are experiencing challenges in the acquisition of employment opportunities.

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When there will not be jobs, it is apparent that individuals will experience problems in the
acquisition of employment opportunities.

Ruthless Growth

The ruthless growth focuses on the growth profile, which aggravates inequalities in
the system. Inequalities are referred to the dissimilarities and differences. It is apparent that
there will be differences, but it needs to be ensured that inequalities and differences do not
impose any disadvantageous or unfavourable effects.

Futureless Growth

Futureless growth is the growth which creates non-sustainability due to environmental

degradation. This is mainly applicable in rural and tribal communities, as they are dependent
upon the natural resources for the sustenance of their living conditions. When there will be
environmental degradation, it is apparent that individuals and communities will certainly
experience problems in the sustenance of their living conditions. The environmental
degradation effects individuals, belonging to urban communities as well. As maintenance of
environmental conditions, planting trees and spreading greenery and curbing various forms of
pollution are regarded as significant in preserving environment and sustaining one’s living
conditions in an appropriate manner.

Voiceless Growth

Voiceless growth implies the growth process, which does not contribute in making
improvements in the income of the deprived, marginalised and economically backward
sections of the society. These individuals have the main objective of acquiring jobs, so they
are able to sustain their living conditions in an appropriate manner. When these individuals
are unable to bring about improvements in their income, it is termed as voiceless growth.

Rootless Growth

Rootless growth implies the growth process, which imposes barriers within the course
of progression of cultural roots and traditional lifestyles of the society. In rural and tribal
areas, as it has been stated above that individuals and communities have their own traditional
norms, cultures, values and beliefs. These normally impose impediments within the course of
their progression. Therefore, the rootless growth is the growth which refrains cultural roots
and traditional lifestyles from assuming a major form.

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 6.2 New Economic Policies – Liberalization, Privatization and
Globalization

New Economic Policy

In the 1990s, the Government of India, with the main objective of providing solutions
to economic problems and challenges formulated new economic policies. In July 1991, when
the devaluation of Indian currency took place, the government began to make decisions in
terms of new economic policies. These policies pertained to different aspects of the economic
field, they had one thing in common. The economic constituent was to reorient the Indian
system towards the global market. It is in this framework that the Government launched its
new economic policy, which comprises of three important features, liberalization,
privatization and globalization. Liberalization of the economy is referred to liberate it from
direct and physical control that has been imposed by the Government. Economic reforms
were based on the assumption that marten forces could guide the economy in an effective
manner than the Government (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Main Objectives of New Economic Policy

The main objectives of New Economic Policy (NEP) 1991 have been stated as
follows: (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

1. The main objective was to lead Indian economy into an arena of globalization and
to give it a new drive on market orientation.
2. The NEP intended to bring down the rate of inflation and to remove the
imbalances in payment.
3. It intended to move towards higher economic growth rate and to build sufficient
foreign exchange reserves.
4. Achievement of economic stabilization and to promote market economy by
removing the barriers.
5. Permission of international flow of goods, services, capital, technology and
human resources without any restrictions.

In the beginning of the middle of 1991, the Government has made some changes in

terms of the policies, concerning trade, foreign investment, exchange rates, industry, fiscal of
fairs and so forth. The various elements when put together, constitute the economic policy

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which marks the transformation that has taken place. The last quarter of the 20th century has
been a movement in the economic policy reforms in the developing world. One country after
another is moving towards liberalization, often imposed by the international financial
institutions. This wave of reform had been preceded by the quarter-century of the state, which
has directed efforts towards promoting economic development. During this time, the goals of
economic self-reliance and import substitution industrialization were the assurance strategies
in the less developed countries. These goals seem particularly justified, given the long
experience of these countries with colonialism and the agricultural nature of the economies.
However, all these seemed to be overtaken by the subsequent flow of liberalization (Indian
Society and Social Change, 2011).

Liberalization

The term ‘liberalization’ in this framework refers to economic liberalization.

Economic liberalization constitutes one of the basic elements of the NEP, which was
launched by the Indian Government in the middle of 1991. The other important aspects of the
policy are privatization of the public sector, globalization and market friendly state.
Liberalization is the major thrust of the NEP. The essence of this policy is that greater
freedom needs to be given to the entrepreneur in any industry, trade or business and the
Government control be reduced to a minimum. The main objective of the process of
economic liberalization is to set business free and to set on commercial lines. The individuals
normally form the viewpoint that commerce and business need not necessarily be carried out
within the fixed boundaries. In other words, the individuals have the liberty to carry out
business in international countries as well. The main objective is to eradicate all the problems
and difficulties that may arise within the course of carrying out trade and commerce within
national as well as within international countries (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

The major concept of liberalization is the recent wave of economic reform in the
developing world. It has been viewed as the necessary consequence of a changed world
economic system. The main aspect of the changed world economy is the element of the
heightened economic globalization, which provides new external challenges as well as
opportunities for development (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011). Within the country,
it is vital for the individuals, belonging to various communities, categories and backgrounds
to acquire the independence to carry out their own occupations, in accordance to their
interests, competencies and abilities. Right to practice the religion of one’s own choice, right

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to practice the occupation of one’s own choice, right to equality, right to constitutional
remedies, right against exploitation, right to education and cultural and educational rights are
the fundamental rights that all citizens practice within the country.

Concept of Economic Liberalization

The concept of liberalization focuses upon the removal of unrequired controls and
restrictions. Efforts are made to create an environment, in which the industrial and the
business enterprises may carry out its tasks and functions in a smooth manner and render an
effective contribution towards social and economic development. It is vital to understand that
liberalization is not referred to as an uncontrolled economy. It is primarily referred to the
removal of obstacles and restrictions within the course of development. The removal of
restrictions on economic transactions may involve procedural changes, such as, changing the
procedure of licensing of imports, foreign investment and domestic investment. The
legislative changes, such as the repeal outdated legislation and promoting into existence
various regulatory authorities such as, SEBI, IRAI, TRAI, CERC, SERC and so forth
(Chapter-3. Economic Liberalization in India, n.d.).

Economic liberalization involves the major transformation in the development

strategy. It takes away from minimising the reliance on international division of labour
towards progressive integration with the global economy and aggressive participation in it. It
takes away from the overextended and public sector in commercial activities towards the
clearly focused public sector, in which the main areas of education, health care and security
are taken into consideration. It takes away from the direct control regime of licence permit
towards the play of the functioning markets. The new strategy is based on the diagnosis that
persistent poverty has been the outcome of inadequate expansion of productive employment
opportunities and unequal distribution of income and wealth. In its concept, economic
liberalization imposes upon the markets and state to play the mutually reinforcing roles rather
than any kinds of challenges that have impeded their functioning in the past (Chapter-3.
Economic Liberalization in India, n.d.). It is vital to identify the challenges and provide
useful solutions.

Main Features of the Policy of Liberalization

The main features of the policy of liberalization have been stated as follows: (Indian
Society and Social Change, 2011).

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 1. Lessened Government control and freelance to private enterprises.
2. Capital markets opened for private entrepreneurs.
3. Simplification of licensing policy.
4. Opportunity to purchase foreign exchange at market prices.
5. Right to make decisions on an independent basis in terms of the market.
6. Providing better opportunities for completion.
7. Liberty in the realm of business and trade.

Brief Evaluation of Liberalization

From the Indian point of view, it is difficult to conduct an analysis of the areas that

are transformed through the process of economic liberalization. Whether the process of
liberalization has proven to be effectual to the individuals, communities and nation as a
whole is not known to a larger extent. The process of liberalization has proven to be
beneficial, but there are some limitations as well, which need to be identified (Indian Society
and Social Change, 2011).

The Gains

Through the process of liberalization, free movement of goods and services has been
facilitated, which has led to progression of industries. Industrial organizations have now
become more efficient and well-organized. The exports within the country are on the
increase. Sectors such as, information technology and computer software are the ones, which
have experienced progress to a major extent (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

The Limitations

The process of liberalization has some limitations as well. The economic reforms
including liberalization were introduced. A sudden and proper background was not formed to
take complete advantage and to experience all the consequences (Indian Society and Social
Change, 2011).

Liberalization in India

After the country achieved its independence in 1947, it adopted the path of economic
planning for the economic and social development of the nation. The formulation of five year
plans are regarded as the major channels towards promoting development in various areas.
Within the course of time, it was realised that the economic system of the country was

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influenced by number of barriers and restrictions, which impose obstacles within the course
of leading to development. It was realised that the areas of economic development and social
welfare cannot be achieved, until and unless, the barriers, and restrictions are removed.
Furthermore, the entrepreneurs need to be provided with complete independence to carry out
their functions. In concern of this aspect, there were several steps taken in this direction.
These are, de-reservation of industries in the public sector, abolition of industrial licensing,
freedom of production according to demand, abolition of phased manufacturing programs,
removal of mandatory convertibility clause, removal of investment controls on large business
houses, automatic approval for foreign technology agreements, permission is not required for
the hiring of foreign technicians, automatic approval for foreign equity and dis-investment of
government shareholding (Chapter-3. Economic Liberalization in India, n.d.).

When the programs and measures are effectively put into operation, they can render a
meaningful and worthwhile contribution in augmenting economic liberalization of the
country. There are two striking features of mainstream analysis of the economic reforms
program in India in 1991. The first which is evident not only in official government
publications particularly in English language financial press is the generally un-supported far
by and large have been successful, so both in achieving the medium term goals of structural
adjustment and in the preparation of the economy for carrying out its tasks and operations in
an appropriate manner in the new globalized environment (Indian Society and Social Change,
2011).

Privatization

Privatization is the managerial approach that has attracted the interest of many
individuals. These include, academicians, politicians, Government employees, working
individuals and so forth. Privatization has an adverse impact on employee morale.
Furthermore, it leads to generation of fear of dislocation and apprehensiveness pertaining to
accountability and quality. Privatization has been criticized by experts and professionals,
making it more or less a provocative decision that calls for diligent scurrying by the decision
makers in the assessment of the pros and cons attached to the concerned policy. In India,
privatization has been accepted with the lot of resistance and has been dormant initially
during the inception period of economic liberalization within the country. Privatization is also
regarded as one of the aspects of the NEP (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

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 Privatization is referred to as the process that causes a reduction in the participation of
the state and public sector in the economic activities of the nation. The activities in the
privatization process of the mixed economy includes, decentralization of the transfer of
ownership of productive assets to the private sector; entry of the private sector industries into
the areas that are exclusively reserved for the state sector or which are considered as
exclusive monopolies of the state and limiting the scope of the public sector or no more
diversification of the existing public sector undertakings (Indian Society and Social Change,
2011).

Objectives of Privatization

The main objectives of privatization have been stated as follows: (Indian Society and
Social Change, 2011).

1. The process of privatization has been activated with the main objective of
bringing about improvements in the industrial efficiency and to facilitate the
inflow of foreign investments.
2. It also wants to make the public sector undertakings robust, able, effective and
efficient organizations. It recommends the change in the role of the government
from that of the owner-manager to that of the controller and regulator.
3. It intends to show the efficient utilization of all types of resources, including
human resources.
4. Privatization insists on the Government to concentrate on areas, such as,
education, administration and infrastructure and to give up the responsibility of
looking after the functioning of business industries. It is expected to carry out the
function of reinforcement of capital market by putting into operation the
appropriate trade policies.

Privatization in India

In India, the wave of privatization was generated during the eighties. It became more

authoritative, when Rajiv Gandhi assumed office as the Prime Minister of India. The issue of
privatization in India has to be understood within the framework of conducting an analysis of
the problems and difficulties that the country is experiencing. The major problems and
difficulties are, limitations in the public sector industries, scarcity of financial resources,
defective system of competition, labour problems on continuous basis and so forth. In order

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to lead to economic development, more importance was given to the public sector on which
the Government had its control. The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 also gave
importance to the public sector industries. The growth of the public sector assumed
importance in the Indian economy. It contributed to employment opportunities, capital
formation, development of infrastructure, increase in exports over the years and to many
other areas (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

One of the unfortunate points is this has been unsuccessful in many areas. It has been
unsuccessful in generating adequate surplus to support sustained growth. The public sector
has also encountered problems and difficulties in obtaining consistent profits, fulfilling labour
demands and interests, encouraging industrial researchers, causing reduction in the cost of
production, achievement of technical expertise and in successfully facing the competition at
the hand of the private sector. A search for new policies was an important aspect that needs to
be taken into consideration. Gradually, the new industrial policy began to take shape. The
essence of this policy is marketed forces and these must be allowed to contribute in the
shaping of the economy (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Advantages of Privatization

The advantages of privatization have been stated as follows: (Indian Society and
Social Change, 2011).

1. Efficiency, absence of political interference, quality service, systematic marketing

and use of freedom technology.
2. Accountability.
3. Innovation.
4. Research and Development.
5. Infrastructure.

Arguments in Favour of Privatization

The arguments in favour of privatization have been stated as follows: (Indian Society

and Social Change, 2011).

1. Privatization is regarded as significant to rejuvenate the enterprises, which are

owned by the state.
2. It is necessary to face global competition.

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 3. It is needed to generate more employment opportunities in future.
4. It is assisting and supportive in the mobilization and investment of resources.
5. It helps in the progression of human resources. Their talents and skills are
recognized and they are augmented, so they can render an important contribution
in the generation of desired outcomes.

Arguments against Privatization

The arguments against privatization have been stated as follows: (Indian Society and

Social Change, 2011).

1. Profitability alone should not become the sole yardstick to measure effectiveness.
Apart from profitability, there are number of aspects that need to be taken into
consideration. These include, implementation of modern, scientific and innovative
methods, effective growth and development of human resources, providing them
opportunities to depict their talents, competencies and aptitude and so forth.
2. The role of public sector undertaking from the socio-economic perspective cannot
be ignored. The financial resources should be sufficient. The scarcity of financial
resources is regarded as the major impediment within the course of
implementation of tasks and functions.
3. Protection of the interests of the deprived, marginalized and socio-economically
backward sections of the society. In order to lead to operative growth and
development, it is essential to take into consideration, the needs and requirements
of these sections.
4. Price-fixing policy in this case is not profit-oriented.
5. The argument has been prevalent that the private sector is more efficient as
compared to the public sector. This is not a fact and there is a need to bring about
transformations in this viewpoint. With advancements taking place in various
areas, the improvements have been taking place in the public sector as well.

The experiment of privatization has been taking place in the European countries and

has been given much publicity in the media. The privatization programs that have been
implemented in Britain, Mexico, and the previously East India Company have been
successful. This success has been a source of inspiration for many nations to adopt
privatization. India is one of them. The economists differ from each other in their viewpoints

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and perspectives. It has however comprehensively recognized that privatization could achieve
notable success only if it is backed by the political authority, implemented by the bureaucracy
in an efficient manner and is implicitly acceptable. Privatization is a complicated process and
its management and administration in an efficient manner is a knowledgeable undertaking
(Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Globalization

Globalization is one of the crucial aspects of the new economic policy launched in
1980s and 1990s. The introduction of new economic policy has made the economy outward
oriented, such that its activities are to be governed by both the domestic markets and the
world markets. The general usages of the terms of globalization are interaction and
interdependence among countries, and integration of the world economy. The term
globalization was first coined in 1980s. But even before the emergence of globalization, there
were interaction among nations. But in the modern days, globalization has initiated all
spheres of life, such as, economy, education, technology, cultural phenomenon, social aspects
and so forth. The term ‘global village’ is also frequently used to highlight the significance of
globalization (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Globalization of production refers to the integration of economic activities by units of

private capital on awaked scale. In simple terms, globalization is referred to as the integration
of economic activities of the country with the world economy. In simple words, globalization
is referred to as the process of increasing economic integration and economic
interdependence between countries in the world economy. The word globalization is used to
sum contemporary world order. Its impact is directly visible in the economic field. In the
process of globalization, there are social, cultural, and technological exchanges across the
border (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Steps in Globalization

The steps in globalization have been stated as follows: (Indian Society and Social
Change, 2011).

1. The need for corporate sector to proceed towards globalization. The Indian
corporate sector has to take the lead and initiative in bringing about globalization
of the economy. In the process of globalization, the organizations and institutions

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 need to acquire an efficient understanding of the changes that are taking place in
social, cultural, economic, political, technological and other spheres.
2. It needs to promote the competitiveness of the Indian producers. In order to
succeed in the global markets, competitiveness of the Indian producers needs to be
improved.
3. The adoption of pioneering methods and approaches are regarded as
indispensable. When changes are brought about in the strategies, it needs to be
ensured that the change realities of the global environment detect that the Indian
firms must be able to function in a well-organized manner.
4. The formation of the favourable environment is regarded as indispensable in the
implementation of the process of globalization. The world class companies need
to undergo a change and generate awareness in terms of various aspects.
5. Establishment of new organizations and institutions and formulation of measures
and programs are regarded as indispensable in the process of globalization. The
main objective of these organizations, institutions, measures and programs are to
put into operation modern and innovative methods. Furthermore, the tasks and
activities need to be dedicated towards promoting welfare of the individuals and
communities.
6. The need for rules and regulations is regarded as indispensable. As in
organizations, institutions, and other places, tasks and activities are carried out in
accordance to the rules. Hence, in order to promote the globalization process in an
effective manner, the formulation of rules and regulations is important. The rules
need to be in accordance to the global and financial norms.

India’s Perspectives towards Globalization

The origin of globalization in India need to be analysed in terms of the economic

changes that are taking place in the country in the last decades of the 20th century. In the year
1991, the definite move began to take place towards globalization. During this time period,
the country found itself in the middle of the series balance of payment crisis and was bailed
out by the IMF. In addition, the World Bank offered programs of stabilization and structural
adjustment, which were accepted by the countries. The liberalization and globalization of the
Indian economy are the major components of the package of the reforms adopted and
implemented following the crisis situation in 1992 (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

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 The concept of globalization is used on a frequent basis to provide the description of
changes that are taking place in economic, political and cultural processes. The development
of globalization in India as which traditionally had quite a developed pre-industrial base trade
and market. The market and the trade relation continue to be located in the local culture even
in the present existence. Furthermore, the economic policies of the country up to the 1980s
has been that of import substitution and protectionism. The political globalization within the
country ends up with the discussion on the survival and weakening of the nation states.
Another issue relating to globalization is that of political ethnocentrism (Indian Society and
Social Change, 2011).

Advantages of Globalization

The advantages of globalization have been stated as follows: (Indian Society and
Social Change, 2011).

1. Globalization promotes better and faster industrialization. The flow of industrial

units from developed to developing countries provides rapid speed of industries,
thus leads to global industrialization. In this manner, it leads to overall balanced
development.
2. The flow of capital takes place and investors get advantage of better returns from
this capital.
3. Speed of production facilities throughout the world. The production units give
cost competitive and wider availability of manufactured goods. In other words,
through globalization, improvements are brought about in the production and
manufacturing of goods.
4. The organizations, institutions and individuals are making use of technologies on
a wider scale. The use of technologies have promoted the implementation of tasks
and activities in a manageable manner.
5. Increase in conception takes place due to the effective use of technologies and
there is an increase in the demand of goods and services.
6. In the implementation of the process of globalization, the individuals need to
develop global thinking. Development of global thinking and a constructive
outlook will render a significant contribution in the effective implementation of
the process of globalization and generating the desired outcomes.

Disadvantages of Globalization

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 The disadvantages of globalization have been stated as follows: (Indian Society and

Social Change, 2011).

1. Globalization discourages domestic industry and business. With advancements

taking place in technologies and large scale production delights of other countries
domestic trade and industries is thriving.
2. Problem on the labour front. The process of globalization needs to job lay-offs and
exploitation of human resources. This is especially applicable in under-developed
countries.
3. Through globalization, differences take place between rich and poverty stricken
on a comprehensive basis. The rate of unemployment and decline in the income
level of the lower strata of the society lead to widening of the gap between rich
and poor on a large scale.
4. Transfer of national resources is carried out in globalization. The developed
countries tend to establish factories in underdeveloped countries, which may lead
to commercial exploitation.

In the present existence, globalization is being challenged around the world. In the

effects of globalization in India, to the path of developmental at a more rapid rate than ever
before. It is a fact that globalization brings in its wake enquiry to a major extent, mass
impoverishment and misery (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011). This leads to
widening of the gap between the developed and the developing countries. When one conducts
research on the process of globalization, one is able to understand that it is unfavourable to
developing and under-developed countries. But when the countries form this perspective that
with the advent of globalization and modernization, they are able to bring about
improvements and lead to progressions in various fields and areas. These include, education,
medical and health care, management and administration, and so forth. Therefore, it can be
stated that globalization has proved to be advantageous to the country.

6.3 Urban Economy

Urbanization is referred to the transformation that takes place from the traditional

rural economy to the industrial one. It is a long-term process. India is experiencing

transformations in urban areas. The major changes that are taking place are in the
infrastructural facilities, roads, transportations, telecommunications, power supplies, water

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supplies, educational institutions at all levels, organizations, industries and so forth. With the
improvements taking place in these facilities, there are developments taking place in the
country’s economy. The process of urbanization is spread in an uneven manner across the
countries, with the states in the west and the south are being urbanized in a better way as
compared to those in the north and in the east. This has various implications for these states
abilities to grow further, capture the greater amount of funding from the central government
and thereby leading to a greater divergence in future. The distribution of urban population
across size classes of cities reveals that the proportion of the population living in class I cities
and large and medium sized villages has been increasing since the country achieved its
independence (Revi, Koduganti & Anand, 2014).

Migration between the rural and urban areas is an important strategy for the reduction
in rural poverty, particularly when the productivity differentials between rural and urban
areas is high. In addition to the direct linkages between rural and urban areas, such as
remittance flows, there are other indirect linkages between urban and rural economy, such as,
increase in the demand for the agricultural products and rural non-farm employment. These
factors also have a significant impact for causing a reduction in the rural poverty within the
country. In order to lead to an increase in the rate of migration, there is a need to focus on
certain aspects. These include, generation of employment opportunities, bringing about
improvements in housing accommodation, and infrastructural facilities, promoting social
security among the individuals and so forth (Revi, Koduganti & Anand, 2014). When
improvements are brought about in these areas, there is not only an increase in the migration
rate of individuals, belonging to rural and tribal communities to urban areas, but also an
augmentation of urban economic structure.

In order to examine the trends of urban and rural population growth, there is
utilization of the concept of Urban Rural Growth Differential (URGD). This concept has been
used in policy documents to acquire an efficient understanding in terms of the development
of urban economy. It was carried out as early as in the 1980s based on the pioneering work of
Rakesh Mohan and the Planning Commission Task Forces on Housing and Urban
Development. In India, the post-independent period was an agrarian period. The agricultural
sector was the major contributor towards national output and the generation of employment
opportunities. There was a transformation towards industrialization for self-sufficiency in the
1950s. Measures and programs were formulated towards leading to an increase in
industrialization. The expansion of industrialization was regarded to be rendering a

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significant contribution in leading to effective growth and development of urban economy
(Revi, Koduganti & Anand, 2014).

The development of urban economy is borne out of the fact that as a city state, each
had developed out of the capital city, from where political, economic and cultural functions
of the state were carried out and thereby making the existence of the state entirely dependent
on it. During the medieval period, the emergence of new towns and cities took place under
the direct initiative of the Muslim rule. The emergence of such urban centres is a common
feature of India, where the economic conditions have been stable over a long period of time,
which may be even decades. If not for the past few centuries, from the inception of the
colonial rule in the century in mid-eighteenth century, the conditions of urban centres have
not been in a well-developed state (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

The role of urbanization in the process of economic growth and social change is of
utmost significance. There has not been much research conducted on the role of urbanization
in promoting economic development of the country. The urban areas within the country have
a high density of population. The individuals, belonging to rural and tribal communities are
also migrating to urban areas to acquire education, employment and better livelihoods
opportunities. This is one of the factors that lead to high population density in urban areas.
The question that arises is how to integrate the economy of the cities to national economy. It
needs to be taken into account that the Government of India formulated number of measures
and programs that have the main objective of bringing about development of the economic
structure. The research programs committees of the planning commission sponsored socio-
economic surveys in 21 Indian cities, which revealed rapid increase in the growth of
population during 1941-1951 (Indian Society and Social Change, 2011).

Urbanization is the part of the development process. It contributes to economic

development in two ways, i.e. urbanization and industrialization. These two take place
simultaneously and are positively correlated with each other. The living conditions of the
individuals in urban areas has a significant impact on the sterility rates, and urbanization
contribute in bringing down the rates of fertility and mortality (Indian Society and Social
Change, 2011). As it has been stated above that in urban areas, there has been an increase in
the population. The pace of urbanization varies among states. Urbanization is a natural
consequence of economic changes that takes place as the country progresses. This is
manifested in the increasing contribution of urban sector to national income. Urbanization

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and economic development of urban areas is primarily concerned with the development of
system of education, educational institutions, organizations, employment opportunities,
infrastructural facilities, health care and medical facilities and so forth.

In the overall growth and expansion of the urban economy, as well as the changes in
the structure of the economy since 1970-1971, based on the data from the national accounts
statistics. In the development of the economy, the main aspects that need to be taken into
consideration are, development in the production and manufacturing processes, infrastructure,
communications, technologies, construction, trade and real estate and business service
sectors, largely situated in the cities. Since the 1970, structural transformation in the economy
has taken place. The share of the agricultural output began to decline from almost half of total
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to less than 20 percent in 2011-2012. There have been
improvements taking place in various sectors. The manufacturing sector has been growing in
terms of output, and its share in the economy has been stagnant to about 15 to 16 percent of
GDP. This is because of the more rapid growth that is taking place in the service sector (Revi,
Koduganti & Anand, 2014). Hence, developments are taking place in urban economy with
the developments taking place in trade and business, banking and finance, communications,
transportations, infrastructure and so forth.

Factors Influencing Development of Urban Economy

In the development of urban economy, developments need to be brought about in

certain factors. These include, infrastructure, trade and commerce, communication systems,
education, banking and finance, transportation, employment opportunities, human resources
development, entrepreneurship and natural resources. These factors have been stated as
follows:

Infrastructure

The development in the infrastructural facilities is regarded to be of utmost

significance. These include development of telecommunications, power supplies, water
supplies, roads, modes of transportation, radio, public services and broadcasting. There is a
direct correlation towards bringing about developments in infrastructure and augmenting
urban economy. When improvements will take place in the infrastructural facilities, the
individuals will be able to carry out their tasks and functions in an appropriate manner.
Furthermore, they will render a significant contribution in the augmentation of productivity

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and generating the desired outcomes. There have been formulation of plans and programs,
which are aiming at bringing about developments in the infrastructural facilities.

Trade and Commerce

Trade and commerce are regarded as important areas in India, since ancient times.
The individuals, irrespective of their categories and backgrounds are engaged in trade and
commerce. Trade and commerce are regarded as vital aspects in leading to development of
the economy and generating a source of income. The individuals are engaged in the trade of
goods as well as services. When they are engaged in the manufacturing of goods, they need to
make use of modern, scientific, technical and pioneering methods. The goods produced
should be worthwhile to the customers. On the other hand, when the individuals are engaged
in the production of services, they need to ensure that the services prove to be beneficial to
the individuals and communities. Therefore, it can be stated that the activities of trade and
commerce need to get implemented in the well-organized manner to contribute to the
development of the urban economy.

Communication Systems

In order to bring about developments in the urban economy, it is necessary to bring

about progressions in the systems of communications. It is comprehensively understood that
one cannot work in isolation, it is necessary for the individuals to bring about improvements
in the communication systems. Communicating with others enables the individuals to
generate information in terms of various factors. Communication may take place in a verbal
or written manner. Verbal communication may take place through the use of phone or face to
face. Whereas, written communication may take place through letters, notices, technologies
and so forth. In urban areas, the individuals are making use of technologies to a large extent
in communicating. The individuals are normally well-educated and competent in terms of
usage of technologies. Hence, it can be stated, developments in communication systems will
render an indispensable contribution in augmenting economic development.

Education

Education is regarded as an instrument that is of utmost significance in generating

awareness and augmenting the understanding of the individuals in terms of various factors
that are necessary to lead to economic development. In urban areas, the system of education
is in a well-developed state at all levels. The educators are making use of appropriate

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teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies. Furthermore, the use of technologies
is contributing towards enrichment of the system of education. Apart from well-developed
teaching-learning methods, instructional strategies and technologies, there are provision of
infrastructural facilities, civic amenities and overall environmental conditions are in a well-
developed state. The individuals migrate from rural and tribal communities as well to get
enrolled in educational institutions in urban areas. Therefore, it can be stated that
developments in the system of education is rendering a significant contribution towards
development of urban economy.

Banking and Finance

A bank is a financial institution that provides banking and other financial services to
their customers. A bank is an institution that makes provision of fundamental banking
services, such as, accepting deposits, providing loans, helping the customers to make
investments and providing assistance in the management of financial resources. The role of
banks and financial institutions in promoting economic development is to remove the
deficiency of capital by stimulating savings and investment. In the implementation of any
plan of economic development, capital occupies the position of strategic importance.
Economic development of sizable magnitude cannot be promoted, unless there is an adequate
degree of capital formation. In the advantageous implementation of the functions of savings
and investments, the scarcities of capital gets alleviated. A sound banking system mobilizes
the small and scattered savings of the community, and makes them available for investment
in productive enterprises (Seth, n.d.).

Transportation

Urban productivity is dependent to a major extent on the efficiency of the

transportation system to move labour, consumers, and freight between multiple origins and
destinations. Furthermore, they transport terminals, such as, ports, airports and railways are
located within urban areas, contributing towards the implementation of important tasks and
activities. In urban areas, there have been developments taking place in the modes of
transportation. When improvements are to be made in the modes of transportation, it needs to
be ensured, they are suitable to the public, belonging to various age groups and categories.
Improvements have taken place in bus services, metro trains and the auto-rickshaws available
in urban areas, which may facilitate transportation of the individuals from one place to
another, within the same region. With advancements taking place in technologies, the

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individuals are able to order cabs online and facilitate transportation. Therefore, it can be
stated improvements in the transportation facilities have led to improvements in urban
economy.

Employment Opportunities

The creation of employment opportunities are crucial for promoting economic

growth. In most of the developing countries, there is a high level of unemployment and
under-employment. The introduction of modern and scientific methods in the implementation
of tasks and functions leads to expansion in productivity and profitability. In addition, they
are also able to overcome the key problems within the course of development. The main
question that arises in this case is, how creation of employment opportunities contribute
towards economic growth. When more and more individuals would acquire employment
opportunities, it leads to a higher rate of spending on the part of consumers. This proves to be
beneficial to other businesses, who are dependent upon consumer sales to stay open and pay
the vendors. Recruitment and selection of employees for small businesses can achieve these
effects on a small scale and lead to an increase in financial resources circulating within the
marketplace. Therefore, it can be stated that employment opportunities render a significant
contribution in promoting economic growth.

Human Resources Development

Human resources development can lead to an increase in the per capita income of the
country through the increased formation of human capital. In promoting development of
human resources, the first and foremost step is to provide them with appropriate training, so
they are able to carry out their job duties in a satisfactory manner. The human resources need
to augment their knowledge base and competencies to generate the desired outcomes.
Imparting of adequate knowledge and information can bring about improvements in the
productivity of the individuals and therefore, can lead to an increase in per capita income.
Human resources contribute in not only economic growth, but towards development of the
country. When human resources learn to make effective use of their skills and abilities in
making use of technologies, machines and other equipment, they are able to lead to an
increase in productivity and per capita income.

Entrepreneurship

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 Entrepreneurship is the process of designing, initiating and operating new business.
At the initial stage, the business is the small business. The individuals, who create these
businesses are called entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship is regarded as one of the most
important input in the economic development of urban areas as well as the country as a
whole. The role of the entrepreneur is to stimulate the economic activities by the
entrepreneurial decisions. The primary job duties of the entrepreneur is to supply the risk
capital as a risk taker and carries out the function of monitoring and controlling business
activities. Entrepreneurship plays an influential role in promoting economic growth and
living standards of the individuals. Entrepreneurs create organizations that make provision of
employment opportunities to millions of individuals. They convert the resources into
products and services with the main objective of bringing about improvements in the overall
quality of lives of the individuals. Therefore, this is one of the major aspects in promoting
economic growth.

Natural Resources

The preservation of natural resources and natural environmental conditions are

regarded to be indispensable in the expansion of urban economy. The individuals, belonging
to all communities need to generate information in terms of the measures that are necessary
to preserve the natural resources. The environmental conditions need to be clean and
individuals need to curb various forms of pollution, i.e. air, water, land and sound. In the
expansion of the economic structure and in sustaining the living conditions of the individuals,
it is necessary to preserve the natural resources. There have been formulation of measures
and programs, which are aiming towards preservation of the natural environmental
conditions. It is vital that the individuals, belonging to rural and tribal communities need to
be made aware in terms of the measures to preserve the natural resources. Furthermore, the
communities should not exploit the natural resources and make use of them in an effective
manner. Therefore, it can be stated, when individuals will make efficient use of natural
resources, preserve the environmental conditions and keep them clean, they will be able to
augment economic structure.

6.4 Rural Economy

India is predominantly a rural economy. As per the 2011 Census, 68.8 percent of the

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country’s population and 72.4 percent of the workforce resided in rural areas. However, the
steady transition to urbanization over the years is leading to the decline in the rural share of
the population workforce and GDP of the country. Between 2001 and 2011, India’s urban
population increased by 31.8 percent as compared to 12.18 percent increase in the rural
population. More than 50 percent of the increase in urban population during this period was
attributed to the rural-urban migration and reclassification of rural settlements into urban.
Population projections indicate that India will continue to be predominantly rural till the year
2050, after which there will be an expansion in the urban economy. In rural areas, the
agriculture is the prime sector of rural economy and rural employment. The transition in
composition of output and occupation from agriculture to more productive non-farm sectors
is considered as an important source of economic growth and transformation in rural and the
overall economy (Chand, Srivastava & Singh, n.d.).

The contribution of rural areas to the economy of India for the period 1970-1971 to
2011-2012 is viewed from the share in the national output and in employment. The rural
areas employed 84.1 percent of the total workforce and produced 62.4 percent of the total net
domestic product (NDP) in 1970-1971. Subsequently, the rural share in the national income
declined severely till 1999-00. Rural share in total employment also witnessed a decline but
its pace did not match with the changes in its share in national output or income. The
declining contribution of rural areas in national output without a commensurate reduction in
its share in employment implies that the major portion of the overall economic growth of the
country came from the capital-intensive sectors in urban areas without generating significant
employment during the period under consideration. The difference between the rural share of
output and employment increased from 22 percentage points in 1970-1971 to 28 percentage
points in 1999-00. After 1999-00, growth rate of the rural economy picked up the pace and
reached at par with the growth rate of the urban economy (Chand, Srivastava & Singh, n.d.).

The major changes in terms of rural economy were observed in the manufacturing
sector. Between 1970-1971 and 2011-2012, the share of rural areas in output of
manufacturing sector doubled and exceeded the manufacturing production in urban areas.
Rural areas contributed 51.3 percent of manufactured output in the year 2011-2012.
However, the increase in the rural share of the output did not observe any increase in the rural
share of employment in the manufacturing sector. On the contrary, the rural share in the total
manufacturing employment declined by 4.1 percent. The manufacturing sector was shifting to
rural areas, without any increase in employment opportunities. In the same period, the share

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of rural areas in the construction sector output increased by 5.5 percentage points. In the case
of the services sector, rural areas were not in a well-developed state, as compared to urban
areas. In rural areas, the services output accounted for 25.9 percent in the country in 2011-
2012. These changes indicate that rural employment has risen on a much faster rate in
relatively low paid construction activities (Chand, Srivastava & Singh, n.d.).

In rural areas, more than 70 percent of the population resides and agriculture is the

main occupation of the individuals. The individuals are engaged in the agricultural sector
and farming practices to generate a source of income to sustain their living conditions in an
appropriate manner. Apart from agriculture and farming practices, there are number of
various occupations as well in which the rural individuals are engaged. These include
production of handicrafts, artworks, food items, weaving, pottery making, rearing of
livestock, small businesses like, grocery shops, restaurants, tea stalls, mobile repair shops,
schools, training centres, medical and health care centres and so forth. In order to enhance
productivity in the agricultural sector and in production of artworks, handicrafts, pottery
making, weaving and in implementing one’s tasks and activities in an efficient manner, it is
essential for the individuals to generate awareness in terms of modern, scientific and
innovative methods. Therefore, the implementation of scientific and pioneering methods will
lead to enhancement in productivity and profitability.

Research has indicated that in rural areas, there have been establishment of training
centres, which are providing knowledge to the rural individuals in terms of utilization of
modern, scientific and technical methods in their tasks and activities. For instance, the
agricultural labourers and farmers are joining training centres to acquire knowledge in terms
of technologies to be used in the agricultural sector and farming practices. Whereas, artisans
and craftsmen join training centres to augment their skills and abilities in terms of their job
duties. Their enrolment in training programs depend upon their occupations. Therefore, it can
be stated that rural individuals need to augment their skills and abilities in terms of carrying
out their job duties in a well-organized manner and generating the desired outcomes. Rural
individuals normally are non-literates or possess low literacy skills. When they get enrolled in
training centres, the teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies need to be in
accordance to their occupations, skills and abilities. It needs to be ensured that they benefit
from the training programs.

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 When the rural individuals are engaged in the production process, they need to be
aware of the marketing strategies. Apart from the marketing strategies, they need to acquire
information in terms of consumer needs and requirements. The production processes need to
be based on consumer demands. In order to bring about improvements in urban economy,
there is a need to focus on number of aspects. These include, infrastructure, technologies,
roads, transportation, power supplies, telecommunications and the natural environmental
conditions. When these facilities will be in a well-developed state, the rural individuals will
be able to render an important contribution in promoting development of rural economy.
There have been formulation of measures, programs and schemes, which are aiming at
promoting development of rural communities. Research has indicated that rural individuals
are making use of digital technologies and these are proving to be beneficial and meaningful
to them in making improvements in their living conditions.

In rural areas, the problems of illiteracy and backwardness are the major impediments
within the course of leading to up-gradation of rural economy. In promoting development of
the economic structure, it is vital for the rural individuals to augment their understanding in
terms of various factors. Acquisition of education and development of skills are regarded as
significant aspects in promoting economic development. They need to be aware and at least
possess the basic skills of reading, writing and numeracy. Furthermore, it is vital for them to
possess adequate information in terms of usage of technologies. In order to augment literacy
skills among rural individuals, and develop their skills and abilities, there have been
establishment of training centres in rural areas. These are making use of effective teaching-
learning methods and instructional strategies. Furthermore, there are trainers, who are
contributing effectively towards the job duties of providing knowledge to the individuals in a
well-organized manner. Therefore, it can be stated that when the rural individuals will
possess the basic literacy skills and augment their understanding in terms of various areas,
they will be able to promote economic development.

Features of Rural Economy

The concept of economy deals with production, distribution and consumption of

material goods and services. Material goods are produced with certain means, raw materials,
technology and labour. Individuals form contacts and work with each other for the
organization of production. Produced goods are distributed among various sections of the
society. Furthermore, the society also fulfils the need to different kinds of services. In the

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case of rural economy, land is regarded as the primary means of production. In addition,
village and cottage industries also have been traditionally an important part of the rural
economy. A cottage industry is the home-based industry, which generally produced finished
goods (Unit 10. Rural Economy, n.d.). The features of rural economy have been stated as
follows: (Unit 10. Rural Economy, n.d.).

Land Reforms

After the country achieved its independence, there were introduction of various land
reforms. These were introduced to bring about changes in the agrarian structure for the
establishment of the prosperous and egalitarian society. The overall impact of the land
reforms was not satisfactory. Small tenants were evicted from land in large number and
forced into an exploitative system of share-cropping to a major extent. They received much
less protection and suffered more as compared to the bigger ones. The landlords continued to
dominate. Since independence, the national government amended the Constitution 13 times
to incorporate 277 land laws in the ninth schedule in favour of land reforms. The latest was in
1995, the 78 amendment of the Constitution to incorporate 27 land laws in the ninth schedule.
According to the government reports, since the inception of the ceiling laws, the total
quantum of land declared surplus in the entire country till 2001 is 73.66 lakh acres. Out of
this about 64.95 acres have been distributed to 55.84 lakh beneficiaries, of whom about 36
percent belong to Scheduled Castes and around 15 percent belong to Scheduled Tribes.

The Green Revolution

The process of green revolution includes the processes of implementing biological

and mechanical innovations in agriculture begun in the middle of 1960s. In the beginning, it
covered the states of Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. Gradually, it has penetrated
into certain areas of some other states. In these areas, the cultivator use high yielding variety
of seeds, high amounts of fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides, abundant supply of water for
irrigation, and use of modern agricultural technologies that are rendering a significant
contribution in augmenting productivity. Therefore, it can be stated that when the rural
individuals are making use of modern, scientific and technical methods in enhancing
production, they are able to bring about green revolution. The major benefits of green
revolution in India were experienced primarily in the northern and north western India
between 1965 and early 1980s. The program lead to a substantial increase in the production

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of food-grains, mainly wheat and rice. The eighth five year plan aimed at making high-
yielding varieties available to the whole country and more productive strains of other crops.

Agricultural Sector

Rural economy has been dominant within the country since ages. Agriculture is its
base, which provides food for the whole population and raw materials for the industries in
rural and urban areas. Agricultural sector is the major source of generation of income and
formation of better livelihoods opportunities for the rural individuals. The economic survey
of 1999-2000 acknowledged that the overall employment growth in the agricultural sector
declined from 2.75 percent in 1972-1978 to 2.37 percent in 1988-1994, even while the survey
reiterated that the higher growth of the economy could be sustained only if agriculture and
allied activities grow at an average annual rate of four percent. Agriculture constituted 40
percent of the national income. In 1991, the agriculture and allied activities constituted the
single largest i.e. almost 33 percent contributor of GDP. Though in the year 2001, the income
from agriculture and allied activities has declined by 24.9 percent, but still makes a
significant contribution to the export.

Pastoral Economy

The rural economy is also termed as the pastoral economy. In this case, the function
of rearing of livestock is regarded as important. In rural communities, the individuals are
involved in the task of cattle rearing. In addition, cows, goats, sheep and horses were also
domesticated. The individuals obtain items, such as milk from cows, wool from sheep and so
forth. In making use of these raw materials, they produce various items, which they sell and
generate a source of income. In the farms, cultivation took place by means of the plough
driven by oxen. Research has indicated that rearing of livestock renders a significant
contribution in the augmentation of their livelihoods opportunities. In the effective growth
and development of pastoral economy, the individuals need to ensure they are well-aware and
possess the competencies and abilities to manage their livestock in an efficient manner.

Handicrafts and Artworks

The production of handicrafts and artworks are also regarded as an integral part of the
rural economy. When the individuals, particularly rural women are confined within the
houses and need to manage the household responsibilities, they usually get engaged in the
production of handicrafts and artworks. On the other hand, there are rural individuals, who

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are artisans and craftsmen. In the operative production of handicrafts and artworks, the
individuals need to possess adequate knowledge and augment their competencies and
aptitude. In the past, the artisans and craftsmen were making use of traditional methods in the
production of items. But in the present existence, with advancements taking place, they are
acquiring training to generate information in terms of modern and innovative methods and
are making use of them to enhance production. Therefore, it can be stated that role of artisans
and craftsmen are also regarded as significant in enhancing rural economy.

Trade and Commerce

Trade and commerce are regarded as indispensable factors in promoting enrichment

of rural economy. When the individuals are employed in the agricultural sector or are
engaged in the manufacturing and production of handicrafts and artworks, they need to be
efficient and generate information in terms of marketing strategies. It is apparent and is
comprehensively understood that in order to augment productivity and profitability, the
individuals need to market their products. Furthermore, the individuals need to generate
information in terms of consumer demands. The production of those items need to be
encouraged, which would be worthwhile and meaningful to the consumers. In rural
communities, both long distance inter-region trade and local trade were carried out. Long
distance trade primarily dealt with high value goods. On the other hand, local trade is the
trade that took place between towns and villages. The individuals, belonging to urban
communities obtain their food items and raw materials for the manufacturing of goods.
Hence, trade and commerce render a significant contribution towards expansion of rural
economy.

Community Development Project

The community development project was initiated in 1952. The major focus of this
project was to lead to economic development and the overall development of the whole
community. In order to bring about development, it is vital for the individuals to participate
in an appropriate manner. The main areas that have been covered are, improvements in
agriculture, animal husbandry, village and small industries, health and sanitation, social
education and so forth. However, its experiences showed that the advantages of development
were enjoyed by the wealthy and upper classes more than the small and marginal farmers and
agricultural labourers. This strategy of development brought about changes in the early
1970s. The growth with social justice was the main aim and programs were designed to

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benefit the special target groups, i.e. small and marginal farmers and agricultural labourers,
belonging to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women. Since the early 1970s, a
number of programs were initiated. These are, Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA),
agency for Marginal Farmer and Agricultural Labourer (MFAL), Integrated Rural
Development Program (IRDP), National Rural Employment Program (NREP), Rural
Landless Employment Guarantee Program (RLEGP), Training Rural Youth for Self-
Employment (TRYSEM) and Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY). Furthermore, Khadi and
Village Industries Commission (KVIC) were set to promote rural village industries.

Reform Measures

The reform measures such as, fiscal deficit, reduction of subsidies, devaluation of
rupee, export orientation and reduction of agricultural credit imposed detrimental effects
upon the deprived, marginalized and economically weaker sections of the society. The major
consequences were recognized in terms of food security, which relates with production,
distribution and cost of food-grains. In the introduction of reform measures, major focus was
put upon providing solutions to the problems experienced by deprived and underprivileged
sections of the society. There has been introduction of measures and programs, which are
focusing on bringing about improvements in the status of rural individuals. Furthermore,
emphasis was put upon enhancing the agricultural sector and farming practices. It is vital to
bring about solutions to the problems of poverty and backwardness. When the individuals are
bringing about solutions to these problems, they are able augment the economic structure as
well as bring about progressions in their overall living conditions.

Rural Industries

Rural industries render a significant contribution in the development of the country. It

is generally understood that the economy in rural industrialization not only raises the per
capita income and living conditions of the individuals by providing gainful employment
opportunities. Furthermore, they contribute in leading to reductions in income disparities
between rural and urban areas. The promotion of rural industries provides opportunities for
the utilization of resources with the main aim of serving the needs and requirements of the
individuals. The establishment of rural industries have become one of the major economic
and social goals, focused upon the development of rural economy. Rural industrialization
facilitates transformation in the workforce from the primary to the secondary sector.
Industrialization leads to promotion of the economy in the fundamental manner by putting

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emphasis upon agriculture into a more advanced industrial economy. Industrialization in rural
communities is regarded as one of the important aspects in augmenting rural economy. Rural
industrialization may be considered as an aspect of spatial diversification of industries and is
treated as a part of the problem of the location of the industries in general. The major role of
rural industries in augmenting rural economy is by providing employment opportunities to
individuals (Chapter – I. Rural Industrialization in India, n.d.).

Establishment of Businesses

In the establishment of business, improvements do take place in the economic

structure. In rural communities, there are number of individuals, who are engaged in own
businesses, such as, setting up of own tea stalls, grocery shops, barber shops, restaurants,
electronic repair shops and so forth. Research has indicated that in some cases, rural youth
augment their skills in terms of various areas, such as, carpentry, plumbing, electric work,
repair work, painting and so forth. They usually get enrolled in vocational training
institutions to pursue a program in terms of the areas of their interests. Hence, the
development of skills and abilities will render a significant contribution in terms of helping
them to acquire employment opportunities. Acquisition of employment opportunities as well
as establishment of own businesses by the rural individuals are considered as important
factors in leading to progression of the economic structure.

6.5 Tribal Economy

The tribal individuals are the oldest ethnological segment in the Indian population.
The existence of these tribal communities within the country has been recorded long before
the penetration of the Aryan speaking individuals, who came to India, following some ethnic
upheaval or change in the climate of central Asia. The scientists trace the origin of the Indian
tribal communities to the roots of the proto-astroloid and the mongoloid. The tribal
communities with pro-astroloid root form the major group, who came from the basis of the
Mediterranean Sea and settled in the north eastern part of the country. A later swarm of
Aryan groups in the mountainous regions of the south of Hindu-Kush and the Indo-Gangetic
plains led many of these simple tribal communities to search for the inhospitable regions,
which lacked the facilities and amenities of daily life. The tribal communities reside in hills,
mountainous regions and forests for centuries. Being the early settlers within the country,
they have tried to retain the traits of primitivism (Chapter- I. Tribal Economy, n.d.).

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 The tribal communities constitute 8.2 percent of the total population of India. Though
they are called by different names in different parts of the country. They have in common
number of socio-economic and cultural characteristic features. In the socio-economic
structure of the Indian society, the tribal communities are residing in the state of
backwardness. Their lives are influenced by their own traditions, values, cultures and beliefs.
They are normally non-literates and agriculture is the major occupation of the tribal
communities. The perpetual indebtedness and alienation of lands aggravated their misery and
inflicted their peace and happiness. The revolts of the tribal communities in pre and post
independent India have their roots in the inhuman exploitation of tribal communities
(Chapter- I. Tribal Economy, n.d.).

In order to ensure social, economic and political justice to the tribal communities, the
Constitution of India envisioned that the state shall provide protection to the tribal
communities from all forms of exploitation and to formulate measures in leading to their
welfare. The subject of development of tribal communities has drawn the attention of
planners, politicians, academicians, administrators and philanthropists. During the era of
planning, there have been evolvement of many strategies and measures by the central and
state government. These strategies and measures, have the main objective of leading to well-
being of tribal communities and effective growth and progression of tribal economy
(Chapter- I. Tribal Economy, n.d.).

Due to residing in the conditions of backwardness, the tribal communities have their
own norms, cultures, traditions and beliefs. These aspects have a major influence upon their
lives. Agriculture and farming practices are the major sources of livelihoods of tribal
individuals. Apart from these, the tribal communities, who are residing near the coastal
regions carry out the task of fishing. The tribal communities, who are residing in the forests
are dependent upon the forests products to sustain their living conditions in an appropriate
manner. They are normally hunters and gatherers. They get engaged in these activities to
meet their daily needs and requirements as well as to obtain materials to produce goods,
which they market to generate a source of income. Therefore, it can be stated that the
occupations, tasks and activities of the tribal communities are dependent upon the
environmental conditions in which they reside. In order to sustain their living conditions
satisfactorily and to augment their economic structure, it is necessary to preserve the natural
environmental conditions.

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 In order to preserve the natural environmental conditions, it is vital for the tribal
communities to generate awareness in terms of the factors that are essential to maintain the
natural environmental conditions. One of the factors that is of utmost significance is to curb
various forms of pollution and avoid exploitation of resources. The various forms of pollution
that need to be prevented are, air, water and land. Water is normally obtained from the water
bodies, therefore, it is of utmost significance to keep the water bodies clean. As contaminated
water can lead to number of health problems and illnesses. Research has indicated that tribal
communities obtain various materials, such as wood, honey and other materials from the
forests. These are used in the production of goods, which they sell to generate a source of
income. Hence, it can be stated that the development of the tribal economy is based on
collecting materials from the natural environmental conditions and making use of them in the
manufacturing of products.

The tribal individuals are skilled in the production of artworks and handicrafts. They
are engaged in various types of paintings and artworks. These paintings and artworks are
used for selling for the purpose of generating a source of income as well as for decorating
their homes. There are paintings, which are done by the tribes for bringing about good luck
and prosperity in their own homes. In order to produce handicrafts and artworks, the tribal
individuals obtain materials from the forests. They are provided training and information by
their family members. The children are trained from the initial stage in terms of making visits
to forests and collecting materials. This particularly applies to boys. Whereas, both girls and
boys are trained in terms of production of artworks and handicrafts from the initial stage.
They normally acquire training from their family members. In the present existence, with
advancements taking place in technologies, the tribal individuals are making use of modern,
scientific and technical methods to augment productivity. Therefore, production of artworks
and handicrafts are an integral part of tribal economy.

In order to augment the economic structure, there is a need to bring about

improvements in the environmental conditions of the tribal communities. The tribal
communities are non-literates or in some cases, possess low literacy skills. Therefore, there is
a need to bring about improvements in the literacy skills of tribal communities. For this
purpose, there is a need to augment the system of education. Promoting enhancement of the
system of education would render a significant contribution in up-grading tribal economy.
Furthermore, the tribal individuals obtain medicinal herbs and plants from the natural
environmental conditions to treat their wounds and illnesses. Hence, there is a need to bring

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about progressions in the medical and health care facilities. Improvements in health care and
medical facilities would render a significant contribution in enhancing the economic
structure. Improvements in the economic structure of the tribal communities would help them
to alleviate seclusion and backwardness and help them in integrating with the mainstream
society. Integration with the mainstream society and generating awareness in terms of
modern, scientific and innovative methods would render an important contribution in
enhancing tribal economy.

Types of Tribal Economy

The types of tribal economy have been stated as follows: (Discuss the Different
Modes of Tribal Economy, 2016).

Hunters and Food Gatherers

The hunting and gathering have been the basic activities of the tribal individuals with
the main objective of sustaining their living conditions. These activities have been prevalent
among the tribal communities since ancient times. The reason being, these communities were
residing in forests, hence, they had to depend upon them to fulfil their needs and
requirements. In these activities, the tribal individuals make visits to forests and collect food.
They hunt wild animals and birds as well as obtain fruits and vegetables from the forests. The
nomadic primitive tribes like the Andamanese, Onge, Jarwa, Kadar, Kharia, Lodha and so
forth are included in this category as far as their subsistence economy is concerned. They
normally live at a distance from rural-urban lifestyle and possess a simple type of social
organization.

Permanent Settled Cultivators

The permanent settled cultivators are the tribal communities, who are engaged in
permanent settled agriculture. Agriculture and farming practices are regarded as major
occupations of the tribal communities, which are leading to enhancement of their livelihoods
opportunities. The tribes of Oraon, Munda, Gond, Bhumji, Ho and Santhal are efficient
cultivators in the present. They practice wet cultivation by the transplanting method. They are
not aware of modern methods, use of technologies, artificial irrigation and other scientific
methods, which may lead to enhancement in productivity. They are aware of the method of
crop rotation. They work in their own fields as well as the fields of others as share croppers.
The major part of the tribal population are engaged in the agricultural sector. In search for

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employment opportunities, these landless agricultural labourers participate in seasonal
migration to the neighbouring states. The social and religious organizations of these
agricultural tribal communities are much developed and complex to a major extent. The
traditional council of elderly individuals has to perform a significant role of maintaining
societal norms, principles and standards.

Pastoral Individuals

The Bhotia tribes of Almora and the Toda of the Nilgiri hills of South India live on a
pastoral economy. They do not practice hunting, fishing, agriculture and so forth. They also
reside at a distance from the sophisticated modern world and possess a social structure, which
is not in a very well-developed state. These tribes need to bring about improvements in social
structure. Their major concern is to generate awareness in terms of the aspects, which are
necessary to sustain their living conditions in an appropriate manner as well as to bring about
improvements in their economic structure. The major activity in which they are engaged in is
rearing of livestock, mainly cows and buffaloes. In the rearing of cows and buffaloes, they
usually produce milk products, such as, butter, cheese etc. These products are being
exchanged to obtain the commodities which may enable them to fulfil their daily needs and
requirements.

Shifting Hill Cultivators

The tribal communities of Gond, Naga, Kharia, Juang, Riang, Khasi, Garo and Savara
practice this type of cultivation by the slash and burn method. It is known by different names
in different areas. The tribes in Assam call it Jhum, Gond call it Podu and so forth. A hilly
forested tract is selected for this purpose. It needs to be abandoned after the three successive
cultivating seasons as this soil is likely to lose its fertility. The plants, shrubs and
undergrowth’s are cut down and left for dying for a time period of one month. After that they
are set on fire. The ashes serve as auto-manure to the soil. On the onset of monsoon, the soil
is likely to get loosened by making use of a simple digging stick or hoe. The seeds of
different kharif crops, millet’s like Bajra, Jowar, Kurthi, pulses, potato, tobacco and sugar-
cane are not grown in this type of cultivation. It could provide support on a partial basis, but
not entirely. These tribal communities are required to find out some other vocations as
supporting the source of subsistence.

Sedentary Cultivation and Animal Husbandry

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 Sedentary cultivation is referred to as the type of agriculture in which the farmers
grows crops to meet his own requirements and not much is left for sale in the market. This is
not an advanced type of cultivation and is generally practiced by the tribal individuals along
with animal husbandry. The major tribes adopting these professions are, Tharu, Maghi Khasa,
Bhoksa, Kol and Bhotias in Uttar Pradesh. In Jharkhand, the tribes are, Munda, Ho, Oraon,
Tamaria, Korwa and Santhal. In West Bengal, the tribes are, Santhal, Polia and Bhumji. In
Chattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, the tribes are, Parja, Bhatra, Baija and Gond. In Tamil
Nadu, the tribes are, Badaga, Irula, Parga and Malydi. In Andhra Pradesh, the tribes are,
Badaga, Koya, Irula and Kota. In the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat, the tribes are, Bhil,
Dubla, Raiwari, Barali, Koli, and Dhamalia. In Rajasthan, the tribes are, Bhil, Garasiya and
Meena. Therefore, it can be stated that the tribes practicing sedentary cultivation and animal
husbandry are found in number of states throughout the country.

Fishing

Fishing is one of the major activities of the tribal communities, which is put into
operation to sustain one’s living conditions. The tribal individuals residing near coastal
regions practice fishing. Fishing is regarded as an integral part of the food habit since the
time immemorial for the tribes. The fishes are available in abundance during rainy season.
Art and science of fish harvesting has been evolved by the communities of fishermen and
passed on from generation to generation. Traditional knowledge and practices are regarded as
significant in carrying out the activity of fishing. Study and documentation of traditional
knowledge of techniques and methods to local conditions is needed to keep live for the next
generation. During the rainy season, many types of fishing net, fishing gears and bamboo
frames are commonly used in running as well as stagnant water. It is used in small to large
flow of water for individuals to collective form of fishes (Adikant, Nag & Patil, 2011).

Manual Labouring Group

When the tribal communities experience economic hardships to a major extent, they
usually experience problems in finding employment opportunities. In such cases, they
experience detrimental effects to a major extent. Research has indicated that these individuals
have the major objective of acquiring employment opportunities to sustain their living
conditions in an appropriate manner. In such cases, they even work as unskilled manual
labourers. A substantial portion of the tribal individuals has turned into landless labouring
class owing to economic hardships, which they are experiencing in the present existence.

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They are dedicated towards earning their livelihoods opportunities by working as manual
labourers. Work as manual labourers are carried out in various settings. These include, land,
farms, construction sites and so forth. One of the positive aspects is, in order to acquire
employment opportunities as manual labourers, it is essential for the individuals to be
physically strong and healthy. When the tribal individuals are engaged in tasks and activities
to sustain their living conditions, such as, hunting and gathering, agriculture and farming
practices and so forth, they are able to augment their competencies and abilities to work as
manual labourers, enhance their living conditions and make improvements in the economic
structure.

Artisans and Craftsmen

The tribal communities are engaged in the production of artworks and handicrafts to a
major extent. They consider these tasks as one of the activities that are necessary to sustain
their living conditions in a satisfactory manner. Some of the tribal communities are still
retaining their traditional crafts along with the principle sources of subsistence. The Naga and
the Khasi are skilled in the production of coloured hand-loom products and the Lohar are
regarded as traditional ironsmiths. With the marginal profits in their traditional specialized
crafts, these tribal communities are at present, taking resort to other types of jobs as well. The
mixed pattern of economy reflects back in an adverse manner upon their social system. In the
present existence, tribal communities are also making use of modern, scientific and
pioneering methods in the production of handicrafts and artworks. It is comprehensively
believed by the tribal communities that use of tools, equipment and machines can be used to
augment production processes. One can lead to an increase in productivity when one makes
use of machines, tools equipment and technologies.

Cultural Performances among Tribal Communities

The tribal communities consider cultural performances as their major sources of

livelihoods. They are well-trained in terms of dance and musical performances. In tribal
communities, they get trained in terms of these performances from the initial stage. Every
tribe has ideologies and practices, which make them different from each other. Indian folk
and tribal dances are simple and they are performed to get pleasure from them. Dancing and
musical performances are the part of daily life and religious rituals. The folk dances have
eternal forms and rhythm. The organization of cultural performances takes place among tribal
communities on several occasions, such as, births of children, marriage ceremonies, festivals

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and so forth. From the initial stage, the tribal individuals provide efficient knowledge and
information to their children in terms of cultural performances. In addition, there have been
cases of tribal communities, who are utilizing their talents and skills to generate a source of
income. The cultural performances among tribal communities are regarded as an integral part
of tribal economy and they are playing an important role in up-grading the tribal economy.

Urban Industrial Workers

The tribal individuals have the main objective of sustaining their living conditions. In
order to sustain their living conditions in a well-organized manner and to acquire
employment opportunities, it is necessary to search for employment opportunities. But one
factor that is of utmost significance is, the individuals need to obtain employment
opportunities on the basis of their skills and abilities. In the present existence, the tribal
individuals are migrating to urban areas to acquire education as well as employment
opportunities. The tribal communities are recognising the significance of education. They
have generated awareness in terms of significance of education. Even when the individuals
are not educated, they are aspiring to provide good quality education to their children. With
the acquisition of good quality education and training, the tribal individuals are getting
employed in industries and in this manner, they are rendering a significant contribution in up-
grading economic growth.

Measures Promoting the Development of Tribal Economy

The tribal communities are in a state of backwardness. It is necessary to recognize the

needs of these communities and alleviate their backwardness. In order to lead to effective
growth and development of the country, it is essential to focus upon the development of tribal
communities. As it has been comprehensively understood that tribal individuals are residing
in forests, hilly and mountainous regions. They have their own cultures, viewpoints,
perspectives and beliefs, on the basis of which their lives are centred. It is crucial for the
development of the tribal communities, as well as effective growth and development of the
nation that they need to get integrated with the mainstream society. For achieving this
objective, it is necessary to formulate measures and programs, which are geared towards
promoting their well-being and goodwill. When the programs are formulated, the first and
foremost step is to conduct an analysis of the areas, which need to be improved. Furthermore,
it needs to be ensured that the programs prove to be beneficial to the tribal communities.
These have been stated as follows: (Chapter 4.2. Scheduled Tribes, n.d.).

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1. The formulation of programs (1951) are carried out with the special focus on
tribal communities.
2. Adoption of Panchsheel (1956), i.e. five guiding principles for leading to the
development of tribal communities.
3. The initiation of Multi-Purpose Tribal Development Blocks (1961) for the
intensified development of the Scheduled Tribes.
4. The introduction of special methods and approaches (1974) to ensure flow of the
population proportionate funds from the other development sectors for the tribal
communities.
5. The introduction of poverty alleviation programs (1985) were for at least 50
percent of the tribal to overcome the conditions of poverty and backwardness.
Furthermore, focus was put upon the expansion of infrastructural facilities in tribal
areas.
6. Setting up of the special financial institutions, i.e. Tribal Co-operative Marketing
Development Federation (1987) and National Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes Finance and Development Corporation (1989).
7. Ensure participatory development of Scheduled Tribes at the grassroots levels
involving PRIs and Gram Sabhas as per the 73rd and 74th amendment of the
Constitution (1993) and the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) PESA
Act, (1996).
8. A major shift in the approach from welfare to development and to the
empowerment of the tribal communities (1997). In addition, the setting up of the
exclusive Ministry of Tribal Affairs (1999) and instituting a separate National
Scheduled Tribes and Development Corporation (2001).
9. The special commitment of the National Policy on Education, 1986 (revised in
1992) to improve the educational status of the tribal communities. There have
been initiation of incentives and interventions to bring about improvements in the
accessibility of the tribal communities, who are residing in remote and secluded
regions.
10. The National Health Policy, (1983) put emphasis upon making improvements in
the health conditions of the tribal communities. There have been implementation
of health care programs with the main objective of bringing about improvements
in the health conditions of the tribal individuals.

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 6.6 Conclusion

In order to lead to effective growth and development of the communities and nation, it
is crucial to take into consideration the economic development of the country. In leading to
economic development, there are number of aspects that need to be taken into consideration.
These include, education, law, medical and health care, management and administration,
science and technology, infrastructure, telecommunications, power supplies, water supplies,
transportation, organizations, agriculture, industries, environmental conditions and providing
meaningful solutions to societal problems of poverty, illiteracy and unemployment. In the
1990s, the Government of India formulated new economic policies. When the formulation of
new economic policies took place, the main objective was to provide solutions to economic
problems and challenges. In July 1991, when the devaluation of Indian currency took place,
the government began to make decisions in terms of new economic policies.

The term ‘liberalization’ in this framework refers to economic liberalization.

Economic liberalization organises one of the basic elements of the NEP, which was initiated
by the Indian Government in the middle of 1991. Privatization is also regarded as one of the
aspects of the NEP. Privatization is referred to as the process that causes a reduction in the
participation of the state and public sector in the economic activities of the nation.
Globalization is one of the crucial aspects of the new economic policy launched in 1980s and
1990s. When the areas of effective growth and development of the economy is taken into
consideration, it is necessary to take into account urban, rural and tribal economies. In India,
urban economy is in a well-developed state. The improvements, which have taken place in
infrastructural facilities, transportation networks, power supplies, water supplies, system of
education, medical and health care facilities and so forth are rendering an effective
contribution in the development of urban economy.

In rural economy, the individuals are primarily engaged in the agricultural sector and
farming practices. Apart from these, they are engaged in the production of handicrafts,
artworks, food items and so forth. The rural economy is not in a well-developed state and
individuals are residing in the conditions of poverty and backwardness. But there have been
formulation of programs and measures, geared towards progression of rural economy. In
tribal communities, the individuals are residing in forests, coastal regions, hilly and
mountainous regions. They are residing in the state of seclusion and backwardness. The main
activities in which they are engaged in to sustain their living conditions are, hunters and food

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gatherers, permanent settled cultivators, pastoral individuals, shifting hill cultivators,
sedentary cultivation and animal husbandry, fishing, manual labouring group, artisans and
craftsmen, cultural performances among tribal communities and urban industrial workers. For
promoting up-gradation of tribal communities, there have been formulation of measures and
programs. Finally, it can be stated, with the formulation of measures and programs and with
the advent of modernization and globalization, there have been improvements taking place in
the economic structure of urban, rural and tribal communities.

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 7

Status of Women in India

In India, women have often been a subject of admiration by the individuals, both
nationals as well as internationals. Women play an important role towards not only their
family, but also community. In order to render a significant contribution towards family,
household and community as a whole, women need to generate awareness in terms of various
aspects and augment their skills and abilities. For this purpose, it is apparent that they will
need support and assistance from their family members. In Indian society, the place of
women was primarily confined within the home and her role is limited towards management
of household responsibilities, child development and taking care of the needs and
requirements of other family members. In some communities, women were prohibited from
participating in decision making matters and were meant to obey the rules formed by the
male members of the households. In this manner, they are regarded as subordinate to men.

The status of women within the Indian society have changed from time to time. The
social, cultural, economic, political and religious factors are the ones that are having an
impact upon the status of women. In the present existence, improvements are taking place in
the status of women. They are getting enrolled in educational institutions to acquire
professional degrees, they are acquiring employment opportunities and in this manner
attaining empowerment. Women are employed in various fields, such as, law, medical,
education, management, administration, engineering, science, technology and so forth. It is
comprehensively believed in all communities, when women will be provided with the
opportunities to augment their status, they would render an effective contribution towards
promoting well-being of their families, communities and nation as a whole. Women in India
have not only acquired empowerment opportunities, but they are making use of them to
augment their status and promote welfare of their families, communities and nation as a
whole.

7.1 Status of Women in Ancient India

A historical understanding of status of women in early Indian society shows a

declining trend in the position of women. In ancient India, were regarded as subordinates to
men and were not provided with equal rights and opportunities as their male counterparts.

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Their role was confined merely within the households. In the ancient Indus valley civilization
of India, evidences show the worship of mother Goddess. Hence, the veneration for the
mother is evident during that period. During the Rig Vedic period, it is believed that the
position of the wife is honoured and the position of women is acknowledged, particularly in
the performance of religious ceremonies. Education of girls was given significance regarding
marriage. The brides were given rights to select their own consorts, which was known as
‘Swayamvara’. In the Rig Vedic society, the system of dowry was unknown. Monogamy was
the general practice though Bigamy was also in practice, but it is limited to the aristocratic
classes. Women were respected in their houses and participated in the sacrificial offerings of
their husbands (Status of Women in India, 2017).

The women were expected to bear sons, since sons are expected to continue the
lineage. Remarriage of widows was permitted under certain conditions. Female mortality
maintained a high standard although the same degree of fidelity was not expected from the
husband. In this period, divorce was not practiced. The Rig Veda states that the widow had
the right to remarry the husband’s brother. The Rig Veda recognized the right of inheritance
of unmarried daughters on the property of their father, but married daughters were exempted.
The religious ceremonies were increasingly conducted by the priests resulting in the
weakening of the women’s eminent position within the household at a later stage (Status of
Women in India, 2017). Within the households, when there were performance of religious,
cultural or social ceremonies, the women rendered an equal participation as their male
counterparts.

In all patriarchal societies, during that age, the birth of girls was not regarded as
auspicious. The reason being, individuals aspired to have sons. They possessed the viewpoint
that male members are the assets, they would contribute in the continuation of the lineage,
promote well-being of their families and communities and would perform the last rites. On
the other hand, girls and women are regarded as liabilities and would not lead to well-being
and goodwill of their families and communities in any manner. A woman was considered as a
commodity which could be kept on bet and could be sold or purchased. But women are also
known during this period to co-operate with their husbands in the implementation of tasks
and functions. Marriage was considered as the religious sacrament. A woman was considered
unfit for independence at any time as she required protection throughout her life (Status of
Women in India, 2017).

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 In the Age 600 BC to 320 AD, marriage between the same castes were preferred
although inter-caste marriages were prevalent. Of the eight forms of marriage prescribed by
the Dharma-Sutras, the Arsha form of marriage was most prevalent. The girl’s father has the
right to make the selection of the bridegroom. According to Nearchus, the men marry without
giving or taking dowries. But the girls, as soon as they are marriageable are brought forward
by their fathers and exposed in public to be selected by a person, who is skilled in some form
of physical activity. This indicates a modified form of Swayamvara. Lowering of the age of
marriage affected their education and culture in an adversarial manner. Emphasis has been
put upon the physical chastity of women, which discouraged widow remarriage, divorce and
the practice of Sati. There is also evidence that women were active in such public economic
activities as wage-labour as well as serving temple dancers, courtesans and court attendants.
During the early part of the period, there were educated and held an admirable and
praiseworthy position in the family and society (Status of Women in India, 2017).

Women also received training in arts, painting and military. Buddhists and Jain nuns
renounced the world for the sake of spiritual salvation. Jain texts refer to Jayanti, who carried
on the discussions with Mahavira himself and later became a nun. Upanayana ceremony was
reduced to only a formality. Manu laid down that marriage was equal to Upanayana, while
Yajnavalkya took the step of prohibiting Upanayana ceremony for girls. The wife, who used
to perform Vedic sacrifices was denied the right to do so. The practice of Sati was prevalent
among the individuals, belonging to warrior class. Women courtesans were not looked down
by the religious leaders or kings. Courtesans were trained in poetry and music as well as the
skills of sexual pleasure and were esteemed members of the society. The literary evidence of
the Gupta age proves that girls, belonging to high families and also the ones residing in
hermitages read works on ancient history and legend. Girls, belonging to royal families were
also trained in terms of singing and dancing (Status of Women in India, 2017).

The only aspect in terms of which the position of women improved was in the sphere
of proprietary rights. As society began to discourage widow remarriages, there began to arise
a class of childless widows, who needed money to sustain themselves. Due to the lowering of
the age of marriage, girls were not educated as before. Lack of educational qualifications led
to a decline in their position within the society. The girls were not given rights to make
selection of their life partners. The status of women during the pre-Vedic period was not
clear. It is believed that pre-historic man, who lived in the Paleolithic age was a nomad. Food
gathering was the chief occupation. Culture and civilization are the attributes of the Neolithic

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man, who became a food producer leaving slowly the style of food gathering. Individuals
began to settle down on the river valleys. Indus valley civilization which was the first known
civilization within the country is stated to have flourished in the 25th century B.C. (Status of
Women in India, 2017).

During this civilization, historical evidence shows that the individuals worship the
natural forces and divine references were mostly feminine. There are reasons to believe that
in pre-historic India, gender discrimination was non-existent. Polyandry was common in
matriarchal communities of pre-historic India. The role of father in child birth was not known
and women were believed to be the masters of home commanding the respect of children and
youth. Many old civilizations of the world were matriarchal. The pre-historic communities
were dependent upon the natural environmental conditions for the sustenance of their living
conditions. Hunting and food gathering were the primary economic activities on which the
individuals were dependent. Hence, it can be understood that both men and women had an
equal participation in the sustenance of their living conditions (Status of Women in India,
2017).

During the Vedic period, women were provided with respect and opportunities in
domestic life. The primary role of women were recognized in terms of child development.
Women were provided with opportunities to offer sacrifices along with their husbands.
Family was regarded as a single economic unit without any specialisation or gender-based
division of labour. Both men and women could participate equally in all political, economic,
cultural, social and religious activities. This period began to witness improvements in the
status of women in terms of education, religious rights, freedom of movements and so forth.
Gradually, a transition was seen from the matriarchal to the patriarchal order of society. In
the later Vedic period, the social and political freedom was curtailed. The lives of women
began to get confined within the house and they were provided with rights to manage the
household responsibilities and look after their family members (Status of Women in India,
2017).

7.2 Status of Women in Medieval India

In the early medieval period, the status of women were regarded as inferior to men.
Their duty was to follow the norms and rules, formulated by their husbands. Furthermore, the
marriageable age of the girls was lowered, thereby, prohibiting them from acquisition of
education and taking pleasure in various types of childhood activities. Research has indicated

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that during this period, the girls were skilled in terms of fields, such as, arts, painting, music
and poetry. As far as the institution of marriage is concerned, girls were given away by their
parents, between the ages of six and eight or between their eighth year and attending puberty.
In some cases, girls upon obtaining approval from their parents opted for a Swayamvara
ceremony. Remarriage was allowed under certain conditions, when the husband has deserted
or died or adopted the life of a recluse (Status of Women in India, 2017).

The position of women declined with the invasion of the country. The Muslim period
witnessed a decline in the status of women. During this period, the women were meant to
remain within purdah. The prevalence of the purdah system has an effect upon their
education. Furthermore, the women became more dependent upon men for their tasks and
activities. Polygamy was also practiced among the Hindus of higher class. On the other hand,
the practice of child marriage has an impact upon the living conditions of girls. Due to the
prevalence of this practice, there was an increase in the number of child widows. The practice
of sati was encouraged. The women, who did not practice sati were looked down upon by the
society. They were regarded as inferior and were not treated with respect and courtesy (The
Position of Women during the Medieval Period, n.d.).

Sankaracharya lived during the eighth century. The first Muslim invasion also took
place in this century. Sankaracharya had taken leadership of the Hindu society. He
participated in the evolvement of Hindu society. He put emphasis upon the supremacy of
Hinduism to experience the religion of Buddhism. He focused on giving equal status to
women. India experienced the second invasion by the Muslims during the eleventh century.
The country was conquered by Mohmmad Ghazni. From this time till the middle of the
eighteenth century, India experienced the breakdown of the social institutions, the
disturbance within the traditional political structure and economic depression. All these had
an impact on the social life of the individuals, particularly women. However, during the
fifteenth century, Ramanujacharya organized the Bhakti movement. The movement brought
new trends in the social and religious life of Indian women. Saints like Chaitanya, Nanak,
Meera, Kabir, Ramdas, Tulsi and Tukaram propagated in favour of women’s right to
worship. The Bhakti movement opened the gate of religious freedom to women. This in turn
led to social independence. First, the purdah system was abolished and this provided
opportunities to women to participate in various tasks and activities within as well as outside
the home (The Position of Women during the Medieval Period, n.d.).

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 The improvements came about in the status of women due to their participation in
religious functions. The participation of women in religious functions helped them in
augmenting the feelings of pleasure and contentment. The saint could not leave his family to
become an ascetic without the consent of his wife. This put emphasis upon the significance of
wife in a Grihasthashrama. The women were entitled to education through reading of
religious books. Therefore, the Bhakti movement has a positive effect upon the status of
women. But the economic status of women could not be up-graded. The women were
dependent upon their male counterparts for the sustenance of their living conditions (The
Position of Women during the Medieval Period, n.d.).

During the period of East India Company, many social reformers such as Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar and Jyotiba Phule had formulated reforms to bring
about improvements in the status of women within society. Peary Charan Sarkar had firstly
started girl’s school in Calcutta in 1847. Under this period, only with the help of Governor
Bentinck, Raja Ram Mohan Roy had succeeded in abolishing the sati system from India. Due
to the efforts made by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, one has succeeded in introducing the concept
of widow remarriage. Many women social reformers, such as, Pandita Ramabai and other at
that time also started movement of freedom against society for the protection of woman. Rani
Lakshmibai is known to have rendered a significant participation in the struggle for
independence against the British rule. During this period, there were many women, who
specialized in martial arts as well. Though women were skilled and capable, but it is
unfortunate that during this period, women were not treated with respect as compared to male
counterparts (Chapter 2. Status of Women in Ancient, Medieval and Modern Period, n.d.).

In the medieval period, the status of women was in a deprived state. The women did
not even have the right to claim the share in the property (Chapter 2. Status of Women in
Ancient, Medieval and Modern Period, n.d.). Within the household, they were trained in
terms of the implementation of household responsibilities and in taking care of the needs and
requirements of their family members. From the stage of early childhood, they were trained
in terms of implementation of household responsibilities. Research has indicated that in some
cases, primarily among artisans and craftsmen, women are engaged in the production of
handicrafts and artworks. They are trained from the initial stage in terms of these areas, so
they can assist their parents in augmenting productivity. Therefore, it can be stated that apart
from implementation of household responsibilities, girls are imparted training in terms of
production of handicrafts, artworks, food items and so forth.

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 Within the households, men were meant to make all the decisions related to
management of various tasks and activities. The women were meant to obey all the rules and
regulations and were not allowed to express their ideas and perspectives. In the medieval
period, the Indian women experienced the practices such as child marriage, dowry system,
purdah and sati system. The challenge of Islamic aggression also made the Hindu India
defensive and introverted causing a desperate return to the traditional Hindu beliefs and
practices. This leads to constraints in the status of women. Therefore, during the medieval
period, Indian women lost their earlier status and were at the lowest level (Halli & Mullal,
2016). Gradually, with the implementation of reforms, there have been abolition of the
practices of child marriage, sati, dowry system and purdah system. With the abolition of these
practices, improvements began to take place in the status of women.

7.3 Status of Women in Modern India

After the country achieved its independence in 1947, revolutionary changes began to

take place in the status of women. Cultural and structural changes cause reduction in the
exploitation of women to a major extent and provide equality of opportunities to women in
various fields. The women have left the secured domain of their own home and are now in
the battle of life. They make use of their competencies and abilities to promote better
livelihoods opportunities and sustain their living conditions in an appropriate manner. The
female activists also united over the issues as female infanticide, gender bias, women’s
health, women’s safety and women’s literacy (Mainwal, 2014).

Government Initiatives for Women

Numerous legislative measures have been enacted by the Government to up-grade the
status of women in India. These are stated as follows: (Mainwal, 2014).

1. The Employees State Insurance Act, 1948.

2. The Plantation Labour Act, 1931.
3. The Family Courts Act, 1954.
4. The Special Marriage Act, 1954.
5. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.
6. The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 with amendment in 2005.
7. Immoral Traffic Prevention Act, 1956.
8. The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (Amended in 1995).

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 9. Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961.
10. The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971.
11. The Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act, 1976.
12. The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976.
13. The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006.
14. The Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1983.
15. The Factories Amendment Act, 1986.
16. Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition), Act, 1986.
17. Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987.
18. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005.
Apart from the legislative provisions, a number of welfare schemes and programs,

both at the central and the state levels have been administered by different departments and
ministries. Some of these have been stated as follows: (Mainwal, 2014).

1. Mahila Samridhi Yojana (MSY), 1993.

2. Indira Mahila Yojana, 1993.
3. Swadhar, 1995.
4. Support to Training and Employment Program for Women (STEP), 2003.
5. Ujjawala, 2007.
6. Dhanalakshmi, 2008.
7. Sabla Scheme, 2010.
8. National Mission for Empowerment of Women (NMEW), 2010.
9. Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP).
10. Women Development Corporation Schemes (WDCS).
11. Indira Priyadarshini Yojana.
12. SBI Stree Shakti Schemes.

Therefore, a number of efforts have been made for women’s social, economic and

political benefits, yet they have never been effective to bring about changes in the situation
(Mainwal, 2014). After independence, the Indian government also promoted education
towards building of a better society. The Constitution of India which was introduced in 1950,
also included a number of important provisions towards promoting women’s welfare, such as,
Article 15(3) empowered the state to take special provisions for promoting welfare and
development of women and children. Article 16 promulgated non-discrimination in public

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employment on grounds of gender. Article 45 imposed direct responsibility for providing
education on the state. After independence, the first major step towards a comprehensive
review of the education system was the establishment of the University Education
Commission or the Radhakrishnan Commission. It was the first organization to review the
education system within the country. It submitted its report in 1949. The other organization
was Secondary Education (Mudaliar) Commission in 1952-1953 and the National Committee
(Durgabai Deshmukh) on Women’s Education in 1958-1959 (Chapter 3, Women’s Studies,
n.d.).

The recommendations of the Hansa Mehta Committee on differentiation in curricula

for boys and girls in 1964 were endorsed by the Indian Education Commission (1966).
Kothari Commission was followed by the National Policy on Education, which came only in
1986 with its plan of action. Both documents were revised further in 1992. The National
Policy on Education (NPE) adopted by Parliament in 1986 for the first time prescribed a new
role for the national educational system of providing education for women’s equality through
the revision of the curriculum, the reorientation of teachers and planners and direct
involvement in leading to women empowerment. The National Policy on Education (NPE)
was adopted by Parliament in May 1986. This has reiterated the view that women’s studies
involved a three-fold thrust of teaching, research and extension within the university system.
The NPE had put emphasis upon the need to gear the entire system of education to a positive
role in leading to empowerment of women (Chapter 3, Women’s Studies, n.d.).

In India, the National Commission on the status of women was organized in 1972.
The main objective of this commission was to examine the status of women within the
country and the problems, they are experiencing. In response to the UN’s call for action and
as a result of the findings of the Committee on the status of women in India, the Government
of India drew up a draft national plan of action for women. This accorded priority to the need
for purposive research in the areas of education, health care, medical facilities, welfare and
employment opportunities. The plan put emphasis upon the need for research, to facilitate the
designing of appropriate development and welfare programs for the women, belonging to
deprived, marginalized and economically weaker sections of the society. The plan put
emphasis upon the need for research in terms of women, belonging to disadvantaged sections
of the society. These women are unfavourably affected due to the occurrence of changes
(Chapter 3, Women’s Studies, n.d.).

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 In modern India, emphasis was put upon the education of women. It was believed that
through acquisition of education, women will be able to stand out for themselves. In urban
areas, there were establishment of educational institutions and training centres, which are
encouraging the enrolment of women, irrespective of factors, such as, caste, creed, race,
religion, ethnicity, occupation, age and socio-economic background. In rural and tribal
communities as well, even when the individuals are not educated, they are getting their
children enrolled in schools, particularly girls, so they can render a significant contribution in
promoting well-being of their families and communities. Educated women can contribute
effectively in carrying out various tasks and activities in a satisfactory manner. These include,
child development, management of household responsibilities, job duties, decision making
processes, management of conflicting situations and disputes and so forth. In modern India,
measures and programs are being formulated to promote education among women.

After the women have acquired education, they need to make use of their educational
skills and abilities in promoting better livelihoods opportunities. They need to acquire
employment opportunities and generate a source of income, so they are able to live effectual
lives. In modern India, women are getting engaged in number of fields, such as, education,
health care and medical, engineering, management and administration, science and
technology, architecture, and so forth. Women are acquiring good education and are even
migrating to foreign countries to get enrolled in higher educational institutions. In modern
India, the widows are also treated with respect and courtesy. Women and girls are provided
with equal rights and opportunities as their male counterparts. Therefore, these are regarded
as important factors that may lead to up-gradation in the status of women.

7.4 Girl Child

Girl child is the future of every nation. In order to lead to effective growth and
development of the country, it is vital to focus on upbringing of girl children. Girl children
should be provided with affection, love, warmth and concern. Furthermore, they should be
provided with good-quality education and their participation should be encouraged in social,
cultural and religious activities. Within the home, it is vital to create an environment, which
would enable them to concentrate well on their studies and attain the desired outcomes. In the
country, the prevalence of the practices of female infanticide, female foeticide, female genital
mutilation, son idolization, early marriage and dowry are the major impediments within the
course of progression of girls. In India, discriminatory practices have had a negative impact

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upon the health and well-being of girl children, resulting in a high mortality rate (Chapter-I.
Introduction, n.d.).

As per 2001 census, it is believed that every year 12 million girls are born in India.
But it is unfortunate that only 1/3rd of them survive. The major causes for the high rate of
mortality are, some are killed through the practice of female foeticide, some through the
practice of female infanticide, some die due to ill health and some due to inadequate
nutrition. The survival of girls till their 15th birthday is less (Chapter-I. Introduction, n.d.).
This is unfortunate that girls in India have experienced discriminatory treatment in terms of
number of aspects. These include, acquisition of education, employment opportunities,
participation in social, cultural and religious functions, intake of diet and nutrition and health
care and medical facilities. Research has indicated that in rural areas, girls were treated as
liabilities. They were discouraged from acquisition of education and from the stage of early
childhood were trained in terms of the implementation of household chores. It was believed
that they are to eventually get married and in their marital homes, education would not be of
any use to them, but they need to be skilled in terms of management of household
responsibilities.

It is unfortunate that girl children, who account for half of the children population and
are mothers of tomorrow are in most cases exploited. They are not provided with the basic
requirements of food, clothing, shelter, education, nourishment and so forth. Hence, lack of
these factors are regarded as major impediments within the course of their growth and
progression. This situation is mainly prevalent in rural areas, particularly, where the birth of
girl children are not appreciated. Therefore, it is of utmost significance to bring about
changes in the viewpoints and perspectives of the rural individuals. They need to appreciate
the birth of the girl children and make provision of equal rights and opportunities to them as
their male counterparts. Furthermore, they need to be aware of the fact that women too can
play an important role in leading to well-being of their families and communities, provided,
they need to be given equal rights and opportunities and there should not be any type of
discrimination on the basis of any factors.

In order to lead to effective growth and development of the girl child, there are
number of factors that need to be taken into consideration. These are, education, health care
and medical, diet and nutrition, participation in social, cultural and religious activities,
formation of pleasant and amiable environmental conditions within home, providing them

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equal rights and opportunities, enhancing their communication skills, inculcating the traits of
morality and ethics, encouraging their participation in decision making processes and
encouraging them to get engaged in employment opportunities. Education is an instrument
that makes provision of knowledge and contributes efficiently in augmenting the
competencies and aptitude among the individuals, so they can attain better livelihoods
opportunities and sustain their living conditions in a well-organized manner. It is essential for
the individuals to not only possess the basic literacy skills of reading, writing and numeracy,
but they also need to generate awareness in terms of various areas, so they are able to live
effectual lives. Education helps the individuals to achieve personal and professional goals in a
well-organized manner.

Health care is regarded to be of utmost significance. The reason being, when the
individuals will maintain good health, they would be able to render a significant contribution
towards the implementation of tasks and activities and performing their job duties
satisfactorily. In order to maintain good health, there are number of factors that need to be
taken into consideration. These include, consumption of healthy diet and nutrition, getting
engaged in physical activities, making visits to medical doctors or health care centres in cases
of any health problems and illnesses, having positive thinking, constructive approach towards
life and generating awareness in terms of aspects that need to be put into operation to cope up
with the psychological problems of stress, anger, depression and trauma. It is vital for the
individuals to obtain a healthy and nutritious diet on a daily basis to obtain the energy. Girls
should be provided with food items, which should boost their energy levels and provide them
with the necessary nutrients to maintain good health and well-being.

Participation of girls should be encouraged in social, religious and cultural activities.

Besides taking care of health care needs and requirements of girls, it is essential to encourage
them to participate in social, cultural and religious activities. The reason being, participation
of girls in these activities in will help them to gain more confidence and bring about
improvements in their communication skills. Research has indicated that from the stage of
early childhood, parents train their girls in terms of number of extra-curricular and creative
activities such as, dancing, singing, role playing, sports, physical activities, artworks and
handicrafts. They are making use of their skills in participating in these activities. In some
cases, they are also able to contribute in generating a source of income, particularly when
they are assisting their parents in the production of artworks and handicrafts. Therefore, it can

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be stated that participation of girls should be encouraged in these activities to help them in
enriching their lives.

Formation of pleasant and amiable environmental conditions within home is also

regarded as one of the major aspects in augmenting the status of girl children. Research has
indicated that girl children were mistreated and exploited in their natal homes. Due to this
experience, they develop vulnerability and apprehensiveness in communicating with the other
individuals within as well as outside the home, acquiring education and participating in
various activities. Therefore, it is indispensable to create pleasant and amiable environmental
conditions within home. The parents need to provide care and support to their girls. When
they will feel that their parents are encouraging, they will be able to develop motivation to
acquire education, augment their skills and abilities and render a significant participation in
various tasks and activities. Furthermore, within homes, it is essential to make provision of
facilities and materials, which would facilitate in the achievement of goals and objectives.
For example, when they are studying, it is essential to provide technologies and learning
materials, which would help them in the achievement of academic goals.

The girls should be provided with equal rights and opportunities as compared to their
male counterparts. It is comprehensively understood that parents want best for their children.
When the children are young, parents make decisions for them, particularly regarding their
education, participating in other tasks and activities and so forth. It is necessary for the up-
gradation of girls that they need to be encouraged to express their ideas and viewpoints.
Furthermore, they should not be confined within home and encouraged to attend schools,
socialize and participate in social, cultural and religious activities. The girls should not feel
that they are being discriminated against. It is important to provide them equal rights and
opportunities within as well as outside the home. In educational institutions, particularly in
co-education, participation of girls should be encouraged in the organization of various
programs and activities. The provision of equal rights and opportunities will help them in
augmenting their status, acquiring empowerment opportunities and promoting their well-
being.

The parents need to work effectively towards enhancing their communication skills.
The girls should be encouraged to socialize and form a social circle. They need to be
encouraged to form a circle of friends and get engaged in play activities. In this manner, they
are not only able to augment their social circle, but also get encouraged to enhance their

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communication skills. In order to live effectual lives, it is essential for the individuals to
enhance not only verbal but also written communication skills. It is essential for the
individuals to inculcate the traits of morality and ethics, irrespective of age groups, categories
and backgrounds. The individuals need to be honest, truthful, polite, decent and principled
within home with family members as well as outside the home with other individuals. The
parents need to provide training to their girls to inculcate the traits of morality and ethics, so
they are able to bring about improvements in their overall quality of lives.

The girls need to be encouraged to make their own decisions. The decisions are made
in case of major areas as well as minor areas. In the case of minor decisions, the individuals
usually make decisions on their own. Whereas, in the case of major decisions, they usually
seek ideas and suggestions from others. It is important that girls should be provided with
independence to make selection of their own career prospects. Which field, they are
interested in, what kinds of employment opportunities and work, they are interested in doing
and so forth. In such cases, the parents need to make provision of independence to their girls.
When they are provided with independence, it is important that they also need to ensure that
their parents are satisfied with their decisions.

Research has indicated that girls, belonging to deprived, marginalized and

economically weaker sections of the society usually get engaged in work to sustain the needs
and requirements of their family members. They are normally engaged in jobs, such as selling
of items. The parents are engaged in the manufacturing of items and their children, both girls
and boys are engaged in selling. The children, both girls and boys assist their parents in the
production and manufacturing of items. In some cases, they are employed in tea stalls,
eateries or shops. After their school hours, when they are engaged in production and
manufacturing and selling of items, they feel pleasurable and contended. In some cases, the
money that they earned get spend in the management of the household responsibilities,
whereas in other cases, they may spend the money on themselves, by purchasing clothing,
food items or other materials of their interest. Therefore, it can be stated that working at home
or getting employed in other places help them to generate a source of income, gain
experience and feel pleasurable and contented.

7.5 Crime against Women

Crime against women refers to many types of harmful behaviour directed at women
and girls because of their gender. It is rooted in unequal power relations between men and

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women in society and can be well understood within the gender framework. While gender is
a biological category, gender is a social construct and refers to comprehensively shared
expectations and norms within society regarding appropriate male and female behavioural
traits, characteristics and roles. Therefore, gender roles prescribe a strict division of labour,
wherein women are expected to perform the reproductive functions, participate in the
management of household responsibilities, child development, taking care of the needs and
requirements of the elderly family members and so forth (Violence against Women in India,
2004).

The construction of gender roles implies that women have far lesser access to
productive resources and decision making as compared to men, resulting in an unequal
balance of power. Unequal treatment and discrimination in child rearing and caring practices
in the family, male preference and denial of rights to health care and education to girls are
some of the factors that make women vulnerable and susceptible to various forms of
violence. In south Asia, violence against women and girls has been viewed along a
continuum of incremental discrimination that renders them vulnerable to criminal and violent
acts. Gender-based inequality exists in all stages within the lives of women, from infancy to
old age and manifests in the form of several acts of violence. The lifecycle approach of
violence against women attempts to examine the manifestations and forms of violence in the
lives of women and girls and highlights critical areas of their disempowerment (Violence
against Women in India, 2004).

Criminal and Violent Acts against Women and Girls

The various types of criminal and violent acts that have been prevalent against women
and girls in various societies throughout the country have been stated as follows:

Verbal Abuse

Verbal abuse is the act of forcefully criticizing, insulting, or denouncing the person.
The various aspects of verbal abuse are, name-calling, condescension, criticism, degradation,
manipulation, blame, accusations, withholding or isolation, arguments and threats. It is
characterised by severe anger and hostility. It is a destructive form of communication to
demean the self-concept of the individuals and to generate negative emotions. Verbal abuse
normally takes place out of the feelings of anger and frustration and when one possesses the
feelings of antagonism against each other. Girls and women have been subjected to this form

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of abuse within the households from their family members as well as outside the household in
educational institutions, employment settings, public places, market places and so forth. In
most cases, girls and women have been subjected to verbal abuse without any fault of theirs.
Verbal abuse may not cause physical injuries, but it may hurt the person psychologically.
Girls and women usually become apprehensive and vulnerable and develop hesitance in
communicating with others, when they experience verbal abuse.

Physical Abuse

Physical abuse is the abuse that involves physically hurting or causing bodily injuries
to the individuals. The various forms of physical abuse include, beating, hitting with an
object, pushing, punching, kicking, pinching, scratching, hair pulling and shaking. When
these acts are carried out with force, they may cause scars and injuries. The girls and women
have been subjected to physical abuse on a large scale in natal and marital homes. In natal
homes, when the family members do not appreciate the birth of the girl child or when they
are considered as liabilities, or when they have performed certain function, which is not in
accordance to the expectations of their family members, they are physically abused. Whereas,
in marital homes, they are physically abused out of the feelings of anger, frustration, and
antagonism. In marital homes, women are expected to carry out the household tasks and
activities. When their family members possess the viewpoint that their work is not in
accordance to their expectations, they are physically abused. Physical abuse impedes the
psychological approach of women and girls as well as cause physical pain. As a result, they
usually bring an end to communication terms with others.

Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment is defined as sexual advances or requests for sexual favours, which
are not welcome. Sexual harassment is defined by law and includes requests for sexual
favours, sexual advances or other sexual conduct. The conduct is made as a term or condition
of an individual’s employment, education, living environment or participation in university
community. The acceptance or refusal of such conduct is used as the basis or a factor in
making decisions affecting an individual’s education, employment, living environment or
participating in the university community. The conduct has a negative impact upon the
individual’s employment opportunities or academic performance or create an intimidating or
hostile environment. The cases of sexual harassment have been high in educational
institutions and employment settings. When women and girls have been subjected to sexual

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harassment in educational institutions or employment settings, they in some cases have even
dropped out and discontinued their work. Sexual harassment is one of the major criminal acts
that causes psychological problems among women and girls, particularly the ones, who have
been subjected to them.

Acid Attacks

Acid attack is the form of criminal act that is throwing acid upon the individuals with
the intention to disfigure, maim, torture or kill. Perpetrators of acid attacks throw acid usually
at the faces of victims. The intention of the attacker is to humiliate the victim rather than to
kill. The consequences of acid attacks are severe. It leads to damaging of the skin tissue,
sometimes dissolving the bones, may cause blindness, eye burns, permanent scarring on a
large scale on the face as well as other parts of the body, severe psychological problems, and
far-reaching social, psychological and economic difficulties. Research has indicated that
women and girls have been subjected to acid attacks on a large scale at the hands of obsessed
men. The primary cause has been, men have made to them marriage proposals and they
refused, as they wanted to focus upon their career prospects. Out of the feelings of anger and
frustration, they threw acid and made an attempt to ruin their lives. In the present, acid
attacks are reported in many parts of the world, though they are more common in developing
countries.

Grievous Hurt

Grievous hurt is the injury, which is severe and extensive, does not heal in a rapid
manner and causes permanent disfigurement or deformity. It is a hurt, which endangers life or
which causes the suffering to be during the space of twenty days in severe bodily pain and
unable to follow his ordinary pursuits. The following kinds of hurts only are designated as
grievous. These include, emasculation, permanent privation of the sight of either eye,
permanent privation of the hearing of either ear, privation of any member or joint, destruction
of permanent impairing of the powers of any member of joint, permanent disfiguration of the
head or face, fracture or dislocation of the bone or tooth. The girls and women, belonging to
deprived, marginalized and socio-economically weaker sections of society are the ones, who
have been subjected to grievous hurt. It has a major unfavourable impact upon their living
conditions. These individuals are normally residing in the conditions of poverty,
backwardness and possess low literacy skills or no literacy skills at all. Hence, due to
unawareness, anger and frustration, they may even impose grievous hurt upon women and

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girls as well as male members of the family. There are cases, when women have been
subjected to theft within the market places or within the course of travelling, thus
experiencing grievous hurt.

Domestic Violence

Domestic violence is the violence that is referred to as the problem of epidemic

proportions with the far-reaching consequences for individual victims, their children and
communities. It is a pattern of purposeful behaviour, directed at achieving compliance from
or control over the victim. Domestic violence results in death, serious injury and severe
medical and mental health issues for victims, their children, the perpetrators and others.
Domestic violence leads to health issues and imposes detrimental effects upon the mind-sets
of victims. It occurs normally in a relationship, where the perpetrator and victim are known to
each other. It occurs in both adult and adolescent intimate relationship. The victim and the
perpetrator may be dating, cohabiting, married, divorced or separated. The victims of
domestic violence not only deal with the particularities of a specific trauma (e.g. head injury)
and the fear of future assaults by a known assailant. But must also deal with the complexities
of an intimate relationship with the assailant. Many perpetrators believe that they are entitled
to make use of tactics to control their partners and mostly find social supports for those
beliefs (Ganley, n.d).

Trafficking of Children

Trafficking of children is a form of human trafficking and is defined as the

recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring and or receipt of the child for the purpose of
slavery, forced labour and exploitation. In rural areas of the country, the individuals are
residing in the conditions of poverty and backwardness. They have the main objective of
alleviating the conditions of poverty and generate a source of income to sustain their living in
a well-organized manner. They usually get lured by the promises that have been made to
them by professional criminals in terms of money and good job opportunities. Hence, they
send their children with them. The children, who are trafficked include both girls and boys,
usually ranging between the ages of seven to eighteen. They are mistreated to a major extent.
They are given very less to eat, are made to work long hours, are beaten and abused and are
subjected to physical and psychological pain on a large scale. This criminal act has a severe
effect upon the physical as well as psychological well-being of children, prohibits them from
acquiring education and participating in various other childhood activities.

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 Exploitation

Exploitation is referred to the act of treating someone in an unfair manner in order to

benefit from their work. It is the action of making use of individuals and benefitting. In natal
as well as marital homes, girls and women are in some cases exploited. They are compelled
to participate in tasks and activities, against their wishes, in which they do not feel
pleasurable. But when they are compelled and are unable to protest, they need to participate
in such tasks. The women also get subjected to financial exploitation by their family
members, particularly children. There have been cases, when parents provide good education
to their children. But upon completion of education, they do not get engaged in employment
opportunities, but exploit their parents for money to satisfy their needs and requirements.
Exploitation is a criminal act, which affects the mind-sets of the individuals in an
unfavourable manner. Furthermore, it causes psychological problems of stress, trauma and
depression. It normally takes place within the household and in some cases within
employment settings. As a consequence, the individuals may bring an end to the
communication terms with the doers and leave their jobs.

Rape

Rape is an act of sexual intercourse with an individual without her consent, through
force or the threat of force. In many jurisdictions, the crime of rape has been subsumed under
that of sexual assault. It also encompasses the acts that fall short of intercourse. Rape was
long considered to be caused by sexual desire. Women and girls have been subjected to rape
even at the hands of family members as well as other individuals outside the home. It is
unfortunate that girls, even below 10 years of age are experiencing this criminal act. When
the doers are revengeful, when they feel they need to cause distress among their parents, they
tend to get engaged in this criminal act. On the other hand, there have been cases regarding
young girls and young women, who are subjected to this criminal and violent act. As a
consequence, the health of the individuals get effected physically as well as psychologically.
It usually takes time for the victims to recuperate, and after they have recuperated, they are
able to get back to normal routine.

Arson

Arson is the criminal act of wilfully and maliciously setting fire to or charring
property and even human beings. Research has indicated that there have been cases of
women, who have been subjected to this criminal act as well. The criminal act of arson has

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taken place usually in marital homes. One of the common reasons of this is when girls are
unable to fulfil the dowry demands. There have been cases of women, who have been
subjected to arson, as they are unable to fulfil the dowry demands. When individuals in
marital homes possess strong desire for money, and other valuables, they impose harm upon
the girls, abuse them and even subject them to arson. The effects of arson are in some cases
major and in some cases minor. In some cases, the burns are not severe and may get healed in
a short period of time. Whereas, in other cases, the burns are severe and may even prove to be
fatal. Therefore, it can be stated that arson is a severe criminal act that may have a severe
impact upon the mind-sets of the victims as well as their family members in particularly natal
homes.

7.6 Empowerment Opportunities

Empowerment is defined as the process, which helps the individuals to assert their
control upon the factors, which have an impact upon their lives. Making provision of
empowerment opportunities to women means developing them as individuals, enabling them
to make improvements in their overall quality of lives in an effective manner, remain
politically active, economically productive, independent and are able to make intellectual
discussions in the matters, which have an effect upon their living conditions. Women
empowerment as a concept was introduced at the international women conference in 1985 at
Nairobi. It defined it as the redistribution of social power and control of resources in favour
of women. The United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNDFW) includes the
factors in the definition of women empowerment. It includes acquiring knowledge and
understanding of gender relations and the manners in terms of which changes can be brought
about in these relations. Another factor is development of self-worth, a belief in one’s ability
to secure the desired changes and the right to exercise control upon one’s life (Mokta, 2014).

In the acquisition of empowerment opportunities by women, it is vital for the

individuals within home as well as community to make provision of equal rights and
opportunities to women. In this manner, they are able to focus upon the tasks and activities
that would help them to acquire empowerment opportunities. These include, acquisition of
good quality education, participating in social, political, economic, religious and cultural
activities, participating in employment opportunities, providing ideas and suggestions in
terms of making of decisions and acquiring independence. The women should be encouraged
to express their viewpoints and should be given control over resources. The ideology of male

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dominations and women subordinations are regarded as the major impediments within the
course of empowerment of women. Therefore, within the households as well as outside the
households in educational institutions, employment settings and other areas, women should
be provided with equal rights and opportunities as compared to their male counterparts.

Women Empowerment in India

The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its

Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. The
Constitution not only grants equality to women, but also empowers the state to adopt the
measures in terms of positive discrimination in favour of women. Within the framework of
the democratic polity, the laws, policies and programs have aimed at promoting
empowerment opportunities among women in all spheres. It is comprehensively understood
that women need to be empowered, for leading to effective growth and development of
individuals, communities and nation as a whole. From the Fifth Five Year plan (1974-1978),
onwards there has been a marked shift in the approach to women’s issues from welfare to
development to empowerment. In recent years, the empowerment of women has been
recognized as the central issue in determining the status of women (Mokta, 2014).

In recent years, the empowerment of women has been recognised as the fundamental
subject in determining their status. India has also ratified various international conventions
and human rights instruments committing to secure equal rights to women. The main area
among is the ratification of the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women (CEDAW) in 1993. The National Commission for Women was set up by an
Act of Parliament in 1990 to safeguard the rights and legal entitlements of women. The Cairo
Conference in 1994 organized in UN on Population and Development called attention to
women’s empowerment as the main focus and UNDP developed the Gender Empowerment
Measure (GEM), which puts emphasis upon three variables that reflect participation of
women in society, i.e. political power, decision making, education and health. In 1995,
UNDP report was devoted to women’s empowerment and it declared that if human
development is not engendered, it is endangered. The Government of India declared 2001 as
the Year of Women’s Empowerment. The National Policy for the Empowerment of Women
was passed in 2001 (Mokta, 2014).

Women empowerment is regarded as one of the essential aspects in leading to

development of various spheres. These include, social, economic, cultural, political, and

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religious. Furthermore, in promoting well-being of the families, communities and nation, also
empowerment of women is regarded as an indispensable factor. When the women are
empowered, they will be able to carry out the function of child development in a well-
organized manner. As children are the future citizens of the country. Empowered women are
able to provide operative solutions in alleviating the problems of poverty, illiteracy, and
financial problems, particularly among the rural and tribal communities. Projects that are
aiming to make improvements in the living conditions of the poverty stricken cannot be
purposeful, unless women participate in their formulation and implementation as contributors
as well as beneficiaries. Empowerment opportunities helps in bringing about an increase in
the capabilities of women to contribute well towards economic growth and promote overall
development.

Objectives of Women Empowerment

The objectives of women empowerment have been stated as follows: (Mokta, 2014).

1. To identify the differences in the empowerment of women and development of

children and adolescents.
2. Formation of a national network of public, private and NGO centres for the
delivery of reproductive and child health services free to any client.
3. To form an enabling environment through convergence with the other programs.
4. To establish child care centres for working women, so they can leave their
children there, when they go to work and expansion of safe abortion care.
5. To make use of energy saving devices to reduce drudgery of women.
6. To identify the ways in which the effects of policies and programmatic
interventions to promote women empowerment have been measured.
7. To improve access to sanitation, cleanliness, drinking water, fuel, wood and
fodder for women.
8. To develop health management and health package at all levels.
9. To improve accessibility and quality of maternal and child health care services.
10. To identify the evidence in terms of how women’s empowerment affects
important development outcomes such as, health, education, fertility behaviour,
income levels and so forth.

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11. Supporting community activities package for women. These community activities
package help women to participate in social, economic, political, cultural, and
religious activities and bring about improvements in their overall quality of lives.
12. To improve and increase clinical and contraception delivery services.
13. To organize educational and empowerment opportunities for girls and women,
primarily belonging to deprived and socio-economically backward sections of the
society.
14. To provide training to the resource persons, animators and trainers for the
activities envisioned.
15. To conduct and promote experimentations and innovations and carry out research
in terms of programs and problems of promoting empowerment opportunities
among rural women.
16. To generate awareness in women for promoting their development. It is essential
for women and girls to hone their talents and competencies, so they can make use
of them to acquire empowerment opportunities, even when they are not educated.
17. To develop skills among women in terms of effectual decision making, providing
resolutions to conflicting situations in a peaceful manner, and time management
skills. Which will enable the women to assign priorities and take out sufficient
time for all tasks and activities.
18. To generate awareness among women that it is necessary for them to put into
operation modern, scientific and innovative methods in the implementation of
various tasks and activities.
19. Problems and difficulties are an integral part of lives of the individuals,
irrespective of categories and backgrounds. Women need to learn how to
effectively cope up with problems and difficulties. They need to formulate
measures that are necessary to provide solutions to problems and difficulties.
20. To promote integration of the socio-economic activities with concern for health
and in terms of protection of the environment. Furthermore, it is essential for them
to recognize the significance of education and work enthusiastically towards
augmentation of at least the basic literacy skills of reading, writing and arithmetic.

Characteristics of Empowered Women

The characteristics of empowered women have been stated as follows:

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 Acquisition of Education

When the women are empowered, they are able to make selection of the fields to
make their decisions in terms of acquisition of education. In the present existence, women
belonging to various categories and backgrounds have recognized the significance of
education. They have realized that with the acquisition of education, they will be able to
acquire knowledge and bring about improvements in their competencies and aptitude. With
improvements in competencies and aptitude, they will be able to sustain their living
conditions in a well-organized manner. It is comprehensively believed that acquisition of
education will enable the individuals to acquire empowerment opportunities.

Defining Interests, Values and Behaviours

The empowered women define their interests, values and behaviours in relation to
their own well-being. Individuals form interests, when they possess the viewpoint that
interests will be advantageous to them and lead to their well-being. They implement values
and carry out various types of behavioural traits at different points of time in accordance to
the situations. They have independence, because they claim their freedom from the existing
male hierarchies. In urban, rural, and tribal communities, they are provided with the
opportunities to define their own interests, values and behaviours, hence, these are considered
as important factors in acquisition of empowerment opportunities.

Maintenance of Equal Mindedness

The empowered women maintain equal mindedness. Maintenance of equal

mindedness is regarded as one of the important characteristics of empowerment. When the
women acquire empowerment opportunities, they are able to realise that they need to treat all
other individuals with respect and courtesy and not discriminate against anybody on the basis
of factors, such as, caste, creed, race, religion, ethnicity, education, occupation and socio-
economic background. They put into operation the duties, and roles that challenges the
dominance of the male members. They respond as equals and co-operate to work towards
common well-being. In other words, they are regarded and are given equal rights and
opportunities as compared to their male counterparts.

Making Decisions

Decision making is an integral part of the lives of individuals. They are required to
make decisions in terms of number of areas, which may be minor, such as making decisions

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in terms of what food items to prepare for lunch or making major decisions in terms of career
prospects. When decisions are made, it needs to be ensured that they are beneficial to the
individuals. Empowered women are able to make decisions in terms of various areas. They
have the autonomy to make decisions. In cases, when they feel they need to consult others,
they may seek ideas and suggestions from their family members or other individuals outside
the home.

Acquisition of Employment Opportunities

Empowered women are able to acquire employment opportunities and their

acquisition render a significant contribution in helping them to attain empowerment
opportunities. When women are engaged in jobs, they are not only able to generate a source
of income, but also are able to gain work experience, form a social circle, acquire other
benefits and incentives and attain empowerment opportunities. When women generate a
source of income, they are able to meet their needs and requirements and do not have to ask
for money from their family members, this is regarded as one of the indispensable factors in
the attainment of empowerment opportunities.

Promoting Community Welfare

Empowered women in most cases possess the viewpoint of carrying out such
activities, which would be in the welfare of community. In various communities, there are
individuals, particularly women and children, who belong to poverty stricken, deprived and
marginalized sections of the society. The women, who are educated and well-to-do make
provision of coaching classes free of cost to them. They also make donations of various
items, such as, clothing, blankets, furniture, heating and cooling equipment, food items and
so forth. When they belong to the medical profession, they provide medical treatment and
check-ups free of cost. In this manner, they are contributing towards promoting well-being of
disadvantaged and economically weaker sections of the society. Hence, promoting
community welfare is also one of the indispensable characteristics of empowered women.

Inculcating the Traits of Morality and Ethics

In order to live effectual lives, it is essential for the individuals to inculcate the traits
of morality and ethics. Empowered women, wholeheartedly realise that they need to inculcate
the traits of morality and ethics. These traits enable them to realize that they need to be
honest, truthful and sincere in the implementation of tasks and activities and in dealing with

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others. The inculcation of the traits of morality and ethics enables the individuals to carry out
the tasks in a well-organized manner and in generating the desired outcomes. Therefore, it
can be stated that morality and ethics are indispensable characteristics of empowered women,
which enable them to carry out the tasks in an appropriate manner and generate the desired
outcomes.

Management of Household and Family Responsibilities

Management of household and family responsibilities is regarded to be of utmost

significance, which women need to carry out. In traditional societies, when women were
subordinates to men, they were meant to follow their rules and norms. But with the
acquisition of empowerment opportunities, they are able to make effectual decisions in the
management of household and family responsibilities. The empowerment opportunities of
women enable them to exercise their own discretion in the management of household and
family responsibilities. They do not have to follow the rules imposed by male members of the
household in a rigid manner. Empowered women are able to make decisions in terms
management of household and family responsibilities.

Development of Motivation

The empowered women are able to develop motivation towards the implementation of
tasks and activities. When the individuals are engaged in the implementation of any kinds of
tasks and activities, it is vital for them to develop motivation. Development of motivation is
referred to the development of enthusiasm and stimulation. When women are empowered,
they are able to carry out certain tasks and activities satisfactorily. On the other hand, when
the women are compelled to carry out certain tasks and activities, against their wishes, then
certainly, they do not develop motivation. Therefore, development of motivation towards the
implementation of tasks and activities is also one of the important characteristics of
empowered women.

Maintenance of Health and Well-being

The empowered women are aware of the factors that need to be put into operation to
maintain health and well-being. When the individuals will be physically and psychologically
healthy, only then they will be able to carry out their tasks and activities in a well-organized
manner. In the maintenance of health and well-being, there are number of factors that need to
be taken into account. These include, diet and nutrition, participating in physical activities,

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carrying out one’s job duties well, maintenance of operative terms and relationships with
family members and other individuals, obtaining medical check-ups in cases of health
problems and illnesses and forming positive thinking. These factors are not only important in
the maintenance of good health, but also renders a significant contribution in the
strengthening of empowerment. Therefore, it can be stated that maintenance of good health
and well-being are important factors to achieve desired goals and objectives.

7.7 Role of Women in Promoting Well-being of Families and

Communities

Role of women in promoting well-being of families and rendering a significant

contribution in promoting community welfare is widely recognized. Educated women as well
as the women who possess low literacy skills or no literacy skills at all can render an
important contribution in promoting well-being of their families and communities. Even
when the women are not educated, they need to up-grade their competencies to promote well-
being of families and communities. Though there are differences in the roles of women,
which need to be implemented in promoting well-being of families and communities. One of
the important aspects is to up-grade the skills and abilities and conduct analysis of the
situations, which needs to be improved. Particularly in terms of the community, when one is
aiming to provide solutions to certain problems, it is essential to conduct analysis of the
problems that are turning out to be impediments within the course of well-being of
individuals.

Promoting well-being of the families is one of the aspects that is of utmost

significance on the part of women. Women need to play an important part in promoting well-
being of families in their natal and marital homes. When they are promoting well-being of
their families and communities, they need to take into account certain factors. These are,
when they are implementing certain methods and approaches, they need to ensure, they prove
to be beneficial to the individuals, they need to make effectual and worthwhile decisions,
make use of modern, scientific and innovative methods in the implementation of tasks and
activities, and put into practice meaningful ideas and suggestions. They need to take care of
the needs and requirements of the individuals and make provision of materials, goods and
services, which may prove to be advantageous to the individuals, within family as well as
community. Promoting well-being of families as well as communities leads to inculcation of
the feelings of pleasure and contentment among women as well as others.

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 Factors Promoting Well-being of Families

The factors promoting well-being of families have been stated as follows:

Management of Household Responsibilities

In various communities, urban, rural and tribal, women are vested with the authority
and responsibility to manage the household responsibilities. The women participate in the
decision making processes regarding the management of household responsibilities. In the
management of household responsibilities, there are number of aspects that need to be taken
into consideration. These include, electric work, repair work, painting, plumbing, carpentry,
gardening, preparation of meals, washing, cleaning, and management of financial resources.
Women normally are vested with the power and authority to carry out the household
responsibilities. In rural areas, they carry out various tasks and activities on their own.
Whereas, in urban areas, they either carry out various tasks on their own or hire helpers and
service providers. When they need to hire helpers and caregivers, women conduct an enquiry
and make the hiring decisions. There are cases, when the helpers and caregivers are less
skilled and need to be trained. Therefore, the women of the household are vested with the
responsibility of providing them training and managing the household responsibilities
satisfactorily.

Child Development

The function of child development is important and women are meant to carry out this
function. It is stated that educating a woman is educating the entire family. Through
education, women can acquire knowledge and generate awareness in terms of various areas
that are necessary to carry out the function of child development. In urban as well as in rural
areas, there have been establishment of training centres, which are providing educational
courses in terms of various areas, such as, computer skills, child development etc.
Furthermore, the individuals make use of technologies, internet, books, and other reading
materials to generate awareness in terms of factors necessary to carry out this function. In
leading to child development in an operative manner, it is vital to take into account various
factors. These include, education, health care, diet and nutrition, extra-curricular and creative
activities, outings, socialization, communication skills, morality and ethics, participation in
social, and cultural activities, and overall upbringing. Research has indicated that urban
women, who are well-educated may implement the factors that may lead to overall

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upbringing of their children in a better way. On the other hand, women in rural and tribal
communities carry out the function of child development in accordance to their customs,
practices and norms.

Needs and Requirements of Elderly Family Members

The women need to take care of the needs and requirements of elderly family
members as well. In old age, the individuals experience number of health problems and
illnesses. The vocabulary and usage of words begins to decline at the age of 70; they
experience visual impairments, hearing impairments, and changes take place in the physical
experience of the individuals. In old age, the individuals may or may not be ambulatory.
There are cases, when they need help and assistance even in carrying out the activities of
daily living of eating, bathing, dressing, toileting and transferring. The women, particularly
who are homemakers, need to focus upon the factors, which would lead to well-being of
elderly family members. These include, diet and nutrition, medical check-ups,
communicating with them in a polite and decent manner, treating them with respect and
courtesy, accompanying them to marketplaces, walks and other places and maintenance of
pleasant and amiable environmental conditions within the household. The measures and
approaches that are necessary to take care of the needs and requirements of elderly family
members vary in accordance to communities and backgrounds of individuals.

Management of Financial Resources

Finances is regarded as an indispensable aspect that is required in fulfilling the needs

and requirements of the individuals. These include, management of household
responsibilities, acquisition of education, health care, travelling and so forth. When the
individuals need to spend financial resources on any areas, they need to ensure, they spend
adequately. The individuals, belonging to various categories and backgrounds need to ensure,
they are financially strong. Management of financial resources is one of the important aspects
in promoting well-being of the families. In the management of financial resources, it needs to
be ensured that they should be spent on things, which are necessary. This particularly applies
to families, who possess limited financial resources. On the other hand, well-to-do families,
for whom, finances is not a problem may even spend financial resources on items, which they
do not require and make donations of various items to individuals, belonging to poverty
stricken, marginalized and economically weaker sections of the society. Women, belonging

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to urban and rural communities need to ensure, they manage the financial resources in an
operative and satisfactory manner.

Health Care and Well-being

The women are vested with the authority and responsibility of taking care of health
care and well-being of their family members. In taking care of health care and well-being,
there are number of aspects that need to be taken into account. These include, diet and
nutrition, participating in physical activities, creation of pleasant and amiable environmental
conditions within home, management of financial resources, getting engaged in employment,
in accordance to their interests and competencies, maintaining good terms and relationships
with family as well as community members, senior citizens need to obtain medical check-ups
on a regular basis, formation of positive thinking and a constructive outlook, learning to cope
with psychological problems of depression, stress and trauma, reinforcing one’s
communication skills and participating in social, economic, cultural and religious activities.
The participation of individuals in various activities is dependent upon their interests, needs
and requirements. The women need to impart understanding and generate awareness in terms
of these factors to other members of the family and render a significant contribution in
promoting good health and well-being.

Acquisition of Employment Opportunities

It is comprehensively understood that individuals acquire education to get engaged in

good employment opportunities. This would enable them to generate a source of income to
sustain their living conditions in an operative manner. The families, belonging to
marginalized and economically weaker sections of the society possess the viewpoint that
when they will get engaged in employment opportunities, only then they will be able to
promote well-being of their families. In the present existence, women, belonging to urban,
rural and tribal communities are getting engaged in various employment opportunities. In
urban areas, women are getting engaged in various fields, such as, education, law, medical,
science, technology, engineering, management, administration, architecture and so forth.
Employment in these fields help them to generate good income and make use of educational
skills and abilities. Whereas, in rural and tribal communities, agriculture is the main
occupation of the individuals. Apart from getting employed in the agricultural sector, they are
getting engaged in the production of artworks, handicrafts, food items and so forth. They

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market these items to generate a source of income. This shows that women work as
entrepreneurs and contribute significantly in promoting well-being of their families.

Supporting Family Members

In primarily rural communities, this viewpoint has been prevalent that girls and
women need to remain confined within the house and provide support and assistance to
family members. The girls were meant to stay within the house and provide support to family
members. From the stage of early childhood, they are trained in terms of implementation of
various household chores, such as, cleaning, fetching water, preparation of meals, taking care
of younger siblings and needs and requirements of elderly family members. When it is stated
that they need to provide support to family members, they normally provide them meals, take
care of their health, communicate with them effectively and listen to other needs and
requirements. Elderly members of the family usually need to go out for walks or to the
market places, hence, girls and women assist them in fulfilling their requirements. When
younger siblings are engaged in play activities, it needs to be ensured, they do not get hurt.
Therefore, it can be stated that providing support to family members is one of the effective
aspects in promoting well-being of the families.

Participation in Other Tasks and Activities

The other tasks and activities include, social, political, economic, cultural and
religious activities. Participation in these activities may be done on paid or honorary basis.
The girls and women, belonging to various communities are encouraged to participate in
these activities. When they will participate in these activities on paid basis, they will be able
to generate some income and pleasure and contentment among their family members. On the
other hand, when they are participating in these activities on honorary basis, they are able to
depict their competencies, augment their communication skills, generate awareness in terms
of various aspects and form a social circle. Research has indicated that when women
participate in these activities, they also are able to generate information in terms of various
areas, which would enable them to carry out various tasks, particularly in terms of promoting
well-being of families in a satisfactory manner. For instance, in social activities, women are
able to generate awareness in terms of the factors, which need to be implemented to provide
solutions to psychological problems of depression, trauma and stress. Therefore, it is
worthwhile to encourage the participation of women in other tasks and activities.

Development of Leadership Skills

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 Women are required to develop leadership skills in promoting well-being of their
families. It is the job of the leaders to effectively guide and lead others towards the right
direction. They make provision of help and assistance to the individuals to achieve personal
and professional goals. In the same manner, when women develop leadership skills among
themselves, they are able to satisfactorily guide and lead others in the right direction. This
may include, guiding their children towards making selection of appropriate career prospects,
and providing solutions to problems, experienced by other family members, including spouse,
parents, and siblings. Women in urban communities are able to put into operation, leadership
skills in an operative manner as compared to women, belonging to rural and tribal
communities. When women are putting into practice leadership skills, they need to ensure,
they create an amiable and pleasant environmental conditions within home. In some cases,
individuals do get engaged in some types of conflicting situations. In the case of conflicting
situations, it is vital to ensure that conflict resolution methods are put into operation in an
appropriate manner. Therefore, women impart efficient understanding to the individuals that
they need to form good terms and relationships with others within the household.

Development of Time Management Skills

In some cases, particularly when women are engaged in full-time jobs, they are vested
with number of job duties and responsibilities. In such cases, it is necessary for them to
implement proper time management skills. Time management skills enables the individuals
to assign priorities. When they need to carry out number of tasks as a part of their daily
routine activities, they need to ensure that tasks, which are important need to be carried out
first. The tasks, which are important are to be implemented first and tasks, which are not very
important are procrastinated. When women need to take care of the needs and requirements
of their family members, they may not attend social functions. Research has indicated that
when women need to take care of the needs and requirements of family members, manage
household responsibilities as well as get engaged in full time jobs, they need to develop time
management skills. Development of time management skills on the part of women as well as
inculcating them among other family members is regarded as one of the important factors in
promoting well-being of families.

Factors Promoting Well-being of Communities

Working towards promoting well-being of the communities is also regarded as one of

essential aspects. When the individuals have acquired good-quality education, are engaged in

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good employment opportunities, are generating a source of income to sustain one’s living
conditions, it is vital to contribute towards promoting well-being of the communities. In
urban communities, there are individuals, belonging to deprived, marginalized and
economically weaker sections of the society. These individuals need help and assistance in
leading better lives. Therefore, working towards promoting well-being of these individuals is
one of the important factors in promoting well-being of communities. On the other hand, in
rural and tribal communities, the individuals, belonging to poverty stricken and marginalised
families are high in number. There have been formulation of programs and measures that are
dedicated towards promoting well-being of these communities. The factors promoting well-
being of the communities have been stated as follows:

Providing Education

In the present existence, the individuals, belonging to deprived, marginalized and

economically backward communities are also recognizing the significance of education. Even
when the parents are not educated, they aspire to make provision of good-quality education to
their children. In urban communities, there have been cases of women, who are providing
free coaching classes for the children as well as adults. In rural areas, there have been
establishment of adult education centres, in which adults are encouraged to get enrolled,
particularly the ones, who have not been enrolled in school before or have dropped out
prematurely. In making provision of education to children and adults, they are provided
knowledge in terms of basic literacy skills of reading, writing and numeracy and they are also
imparted knowledge in terms of other concepts, which are meaningful. It is vital to ensure the
implementation of teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies in a well-organized
manner.

Making Donations of Items

Making donations of various items is considered to be one of the important aspects in

promoting community well-being. These include, food items, clothing, blankets, heating and
cooling equipment, furniture and so forth. Some of the items are expensive, which these
individuals cannot afford to purchase. Hence, when they are given such items, they feel
pleasurable. Research has indicated that in urban areas, there are individuals, who are
homeless and residing on the roadsides. Outside hospitals, individuals, who come from rural
areas are required to wait for medical treatment. The educated individuals, belonging to well-
to-do families and urban communities make donation of various items to these individuals.

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Therefore, it can be stated that making donation of items is also regarded as one of the
important factors in promoting well-being of communities.

Counselling and Guidance

Counselling and guidance are referred to important factors that are implemented by
both men and women. Counselling and guidance facilities are provided on paid as well as
honorary basis. These are in terms of number of aspects, including career counselling,
counselling in terms of psychological problems of depression, stress, anger and trauma,
counselling in terms of health care and making provision of ideas and suggestions in terms of
various aspects. In one’s life, individuals experience number of problems and challenges, in
some cases, they are perplexed and are unable to make decisions and in some cases, they are
unable to provide solutions to problems and challenges and need to acquire counselling
facilities. Therefore, counselling and guidance are regarded as meaningful and worthwhile. In
urban areas, women open up counselling centres and provide counselling and guidance
facilities. In rural areas also there are counselling and guidance facilities provided by medical
practitioners and health care specialists. When counsellors provide meaningful ideas and
suggestions, they are rendering a significant contribution in promoting community well-
being.

Social Work

Social work is referred to the work that is put into practice to promote well-being of
the society. When individuals possess the viewpoint that they have the resources and abilities,
they get engaged in social work in promoting well-being of communities. In urban as well as
in rural communities, there are women, who are involved in social work activities. Social
work is one of the effectual methods in promoting well-being of the communities. The
women are engaged in various types of social work activities. One of the common social
work activities is making provision of free coaching classes to individuals, belonging to
disadvantaged groups. When women belong to medical professions, they provide medical
treatment free of cost to these individuals or the individuals make payment on their own.
There are women, who also get engaged in extra-curricular and creative activities, such as,
production of handicrafts and artworks. When they produce these items, they either give them
as gifts or provide coaching classes to individuals, free of cost. Therefore, it can be stated,
social work has rendered a significant contribution in promoting well-being of the
communities.

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 Promoting Welfare of Women and Children

In India, throughout the country, women and children, particularly belonging to

disadvantaged communities are experiencing number of problems that are proving to be
impediments within the course of their progression. These are the problems of poverty,
illiteracy, unemployment, homelessness and crime and violence. There have been cases of
women, who have rendered a significant contribution in promoting well-being of these
individuals. For instance, women and children, who have been victims of crime and violence
are rescued by women. As it has been stated above, the problem of illiteracy is solved by
making provision of coaching classes, free of cost. Women have helped poverty stricken and
disadvantaged women to acquire employment opportunities or to hone their skills, so they
can work as entrepreneurs. In this manner, they are able to generate a source of income and
alleviate the conditions of poverty. When these individuals will be able to generate a source
of income, they will be able to afford rented accommodation. Therefore, implementing
measures to promote welfare of women and children are important factors in promoting
community well-being.

Implementing Skills Development Programs

Women work towards making provision of skills development programs particularly

belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-economically backward sections of the
society. Emphasis is put upon skills development programs in urban as well as in rural
communities. This can be explained with the help of an example. For instance, in rural
communities, there have been opening up of training centres, in which women are provided
with knowledge and their competencies are enhanced in terms of various areas. These
include, production of handicrafts, artworks, computer skills, food items and so forth. When
these women are able to augment their skills and abilities, they are able to make use of them
to sustain their living conditions in a well-organized manner. The women, belonging to
disadvantaged sections of the society are normally not literate. Hence, it is essential for them
to hone their skills, so they can bring about improvements in their overall quality of lives.

Development of Infrastructure

Infrastructural facilities are regarded to be of utmost significance in promoting well-

being of the communities. In the development of infrastructure, there are number of aspects
that need to be taken into account. These include, transportation, communication facilities,
roads, power supplies, water supplies and so forth. Through the development of these

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facilities, individuals are able to transfer from one place to another, they are able to
communicate with others in an effective manner, and are able to obtain access to power and
water supplies. These factors are regarded as indispensable in promoting well-being of the
communities. In urban areas, these facilities are in a well-developed state as compared to
rural and tribal communities. But in the present existence, there have been formulation of
programs and measures that are rendering a significant contribution in promoting
development of infrastructural facilities. In rural and tribal areas also, there have been
development of roads and transportation facilities, communication facilities, power supplies,
water supplies and so forth. Furthermore, there have been programs to generate awareness
among the individuals to keep the environment clean and free from various types of
pollution, i.e. air, water, land and sound.

Promoting Safety of Individuals

Safety is regarded as one of the indispensable aspects in promoting well-being of the

individuals and communities. In promoting safety of individuals, they are provided with
information in terms of various aspects. These include, keeping the doors and windows
locked, particularly when they are alone in the house. When the individuals need to go out,
particularly during the night, they need to be accompanied by family members or caregivers.
This applies particularly to women and elderly individuals. They are also made aware that
they should not respond to phone calls or doorbells of individuals, whom they do not know.
The women, belonging to urban communities, who are well educated are aware of the
measures that are necessary in promoting safety. Whereas, the women, belonging to rural and
tribal communities, need to be made aware in terms of the measures that are necessary to
promote their safety as well as safety of their families.

Opening Orphanages

Opening of orphanages is regarded as essential in order to make provision of support

and assistance to the children, who have lost their parents and do not have any means of
support and assistance. In these orphanages, they are provided with various types of support
services that would enable them to bring about improvements in their overall quality of lives.
In orphanages, it is vital to have trained and experienced staff members, who are contributing
towards promoting well-being of the individuals. They are provided with education, which
would enable them to hone their competencies and abilities. Furthermore, they are provided
with training in terms of various areas, such as, production of handicrafts, artworks, food

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items, etc. In other words, individuals are encouraged to participate in musical and dance
performances and roles plays are encouraged as well. When they reach adulthood, they are
provided with assistance to find employment opportunities as well. Acquisition of
employment opportunities would help the individuals in sustaining their living conditions in a
well-organized manner.

Helping Children with Special Needs

The children with special needs are the ones, who have a disability or a combination
of disabilities that makes learning or other activities difficult. Special needs children include,
those who have mental retardation. Mental retardation causes the individuals to develop more
slowly as compared to other children. Speech and language impairment, such as the problem
expressing themselves and understanding others. Physical disabilities, visual impairments,
hearing impairments, cerebral palsy or other conditions are the special needs that affect
children. Learning disabilities, which misrepresent messages from the senses. Emotional
disabilities, such as antisocial or other behavioural problems. Women, belonging to urban
communities, in some cases, open up coaching centres and provide help and support to
children with special needs. They implement teaching-learning methods and instructional
strategies that would prove to be beneficial to children with special needs. For instance, the
children with special needs are encouraged to participate in tasks and activities, which would
enable them to hone their communication, cognitive and intellectual skills. Therefore, it can
be stated that providing help and support to children with special needs are also regarded as
one of essential aspects in promoting community well-being.

7.8 Women in Rural and Tribal Communities

In India, the number of villages account for 6,40,867. In accordance to the 2011
census, the population of rural women, who are literate is 58.8 percent. In accordance to the
2007 Revision of World Urbanization Prospects by the United Nations, by the year 2050,
India would have the largest rural population in the world. There are several issues, which are
creating problems and difficulties in the lives of Indian women. These include, increase in
crime against women, corruption, poverty, illiteracy, lack of transparency in the official
functioning, and bureaucratic stresses (Bhattacharya, n.d.). In rural and tribal communities,
women are non-literates or possess low literacy skills. Agriculture is the main occupation of
women in rural and tribal communities. Apart from agriculture, women are engaged in the

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production of handicrafts and artworks, food items and so forth. They market them to
generate a source of income.

Research has indicated that women, belonging to rural and tribal communities
inculcate the traits of diligence, resourcefulness and conscientiousness. They are hard-
working and are able to get engaged in manual jobs for long hours. Management of
household responsibilities is one of the important tasks that women need to carry out. For the
preparation of meals and to fetch water, they need to go to distant places as well. When there
are not any means of transportation available, they walk down. They are trained from the
stage of early childhood in terms of management of household responsibilities. In the present
existence, these individuals have generated awareness in terms of significance of education.
Even when they have not been enrolled in educational institutions before or have dropped out
prematurely, they are aspiring to make provision of good quality education to their children.
They are sending their children to urban communities to get enrolled in higher educational
institutions, so they are able to promote better livelihoods opportunities.

In rural communities, women are discriminated against in some cases. The individuals
possess the viewpoint that girls are liabilities. They need to be trained in terms of the
implementation of household responsibilities and education is not meant for them. It was
believed that they have to eventually get married and in their marital homes, they would not
be able to make use of educational skills in any manner. On the other hand, male members
were regarded as assets. It was believed that male members would be able to promote well-
being of their families by acquisition of education and getting engaged in employment
opportunities. Hence, in some rural communities, there has been prevalence of gender
inequality. But in the present existence, there have been transformations taking place in the
viewpoints and perspectives of individuals and they are forming positive viewpoints in terms
of girls. The girls, belonging to rural and tribal communities, are getting enrolled in
educational institutions to acquire good quality education, so they are able to acquire
employment and empowerment opportunities, and are able to sustain their living conditions
satisfactorily.

The contributions made by rural women to the economy are different in number of
aspects. They are primarily engaged in agriculture and allied activities. They usually carry
out manual work, but it is unfortunate that their wages are not equal as compared to their
male counterparts. But there have been formulation of measures and programs, which focus

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upon the fact that women should be given equal wages for the same work done as males.
Besides being employed in industries, and agricultural activities, the women are engaged in
the production of handicrafts, artworks, pottery making, jewellery and so forth. By selling
these items, they are contributing in supplementing family income. When one is getting
engaged in the production of various items, it is vital that they need to possess the essential
skills. They are either provided with knowledge and information from their parents, or they
join training centres. It is vital to make use of modern, scientific and innovative methods in
the production of various items. Therefore, through making use of technologies, they are
bringing about improvements in productivity.

The women in these communities are augmenting their skills and abilities and are
acquiring empowerment opportunities. They are able to generate awareness in terms of
number of factors, such as, child development, diet and nutrition, health care and well-being,
management of household responsibilities, decision making, management of finances, taking
care of needs and requirements of elderly individuals, implementation of job duties within
employment settings, possession of leadership skills and inculcation of traits of morality and
ethics. These factors have enabled them to carry out their tasks and activities in a well-
organized manner and enrich their living conditions. The Government has also formulated
measures and strategies that are aiming at promoting well-being of women. The identification
of alternate economic activities are regarded as vital aspects in leading to empowerment
opportunities and promoting financial well-being.

The women, belonging to rural and tribal communities are residing in the conditions
of poverty and backwardness. Within their households, they experience lack of civic
amenities and facilities. In the cases of scarcity of water, they are required to fetch water from
the water bodies, or wells located nearby. Water is an essential resource and it needs to be
made use of in the implementation of number of tasks and activities. In order to acquire safe
water, it is vital to keep the water bodies clean. Rural and tribal women are provided with
information that they need to keep the water bodies free from all kinds of pollution. As
contaminated water can lead to number of health problems and illnesses. The other civic
amenity, which is regarded to be of utmost significance is electricity. In rural households,
through the availability of civic amenities and facilities, the individuals will be able to
promote enrichment in their lives. In some cases, they possess traditional viewpoints and
perspectives, and are unaware in terms of pioneering and technical methods. These are

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regarded as major impediments within the course of acquisition of empowerment
opportunities and promoting well-being.

It is essential on the part of rural and tribal women to augment their understanding in
terms of various aspects. These include, modern, scientific and innovative methods,
management of financial resources, child development, making effective decisions,
management of household responsibilities, taking care of needs and requirements of the
family as well as community members and so forth. The Government of India has made
provision of various schemes for women and facilities through the Constitution and
enactment of various programs and schemes that have the primary objective of promoting
well-being of women. There have been establishment of certain non-governmental
organizations, which have the primary aim of promoting empowerment opportunities among
women, belonging to rural and tribal communities. It is indispensable to implement measures
in terms of alleviating various problems, they are experiencing. These include, malnutrition,
illnesses and diseases, illiteracy, unemployment and discriminatory treatment.

Empowerment of Rural and Tribal Women

The empowerment of rural and tribal women is accelerated to the socio-economic

development of any community. The active participation of women is one of the
indispensable factors that renders a significant contribution in promoting economic
development of rural and tribal women. They work diligently and conscientiously in
contributing towards economic activities. The distribution of social and economic services is
crucial not only for promoting economic growth, but also for assuring social justice and
bringing about improvements in the overall quality of lives. In order to promote
empowerment of rural and tribal women, the various aspects that need to be taken into
account have been stated as follows:

Educational Status

Education is regarded as the key, which opens the door to life, develops humanity,
and promotes national and self-development. Education can be regarded as an operative tool
for promoting women empowerment. Through acquisition of education, individuals generate
information in terms of strategies and approaches that are necessary in the acquisition of
empowerment opportunities and in promoting better livelihoods opportunities. When the
women possess low literacy skills or no literacy skills at all, they usually experience

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problems and encounter challenges in the attainment of empowerment opportunities. On the
other hand, when women are well-educated and possess professional educational
qualifications in terms of various fields, such as, education, law, medical, health care,
engineering, management, administration and so forth, they possess efficient knowledge and
competencies in terms of acquisition of empowerment opportunities.

Education enables the individuals to differentiate between appropriate and

inappropriate. Educated women are able to adopt measures that are appropriate and would be
beneficial to them. They are able to understand that inappropriate measures would prove to
be disadvantageous to them and impose unfavourable effects. It is unfortunate that
educational levels among rural and tribal women are low. But measures and programs are
being put into operation to bring about improvements in the educational status of these
women. In rural communities, there have been establishment of adult education centres,
which are rendering a significant contribution in honing their educational skills.

Health and Nutritional Levels

It is vital for women to pay attention towards health care and nutritional levels. When
they will maintain good health, only then they will be able to render a significant contribution
towards implementation of various tasks and activities and promoting their well-being. There
is a direct correlation between intake of diet and nutrition and maintenance of good health. In
other words, health and nutrition are the two important basic needs that need to be met for
promoting empowerment of women in rural and tribal communities. These women
experience number of problems in health and nutrition. Malnutrition is one of the common
problems among women in these communities. They are residing in the conditions of poverty
and backwardness. Therefore, they find it difficult to meet their diet and nutritional
requirements.

In rural and tribal communities, medical and health care facilities are also not in a
well-developed state. In order to obtain medical treatment, these individuals migrate to urban
communities. As in urban areas, medical and health care facilities are in a well-developed
state. Medical and health care facilities are acquired by individuals, belonging to all age
groups, categories and backgrounds. Therefore, in rural and tribal communities as well,
measures are being put into operation to make improvements in medical and health care
facilities. The medical and health care facilities are not in a well-developed state in rural and

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tribal communities. Therefore, it is essential to formulate measures that may lead to
enhancement of health care and medical facilities in these communities.

Employment Opportunities

Employment opportunities are regarded to be of utmost significance in the attainment

of empowerment. Rural and tribal women are getting employed in numerous kinds of
employment opportunities. These include, agricultural sector, farming practices, cottage
industries, plantations, production units and so forth. In the present existence, there have been
an increase in the number of enrolment of these women in educational institutions and
training centres. Furthermore, these women are also getting employed in reputed and well-
paid jobs. They are turning out to be professionals and are employed in various fields, such
as, law, medical, education, science and technology, engineering, management,
administration and so forth. These women usually have the main objective of alleviating the
conditions of poverty and backwardness. Therefore, they possess the viewpoint that getting
engaged in employment opportunities would help them in alleviating the conditions of
poverty and sustaining their living conditions satisfactorily.

The rural and tribal women have understood that through the acquisition of good-
quality education and development of skills are regarded as indispensable factors in the
attainment of jobs. When the individuals are to get employed in unskilled and minority jobs,
they need to be physically strong. Whereas, when they need to get employed in reputed jobs,
they need to possess adequate educational qualifications and hone their competencies. When
they are engaged in employment opportunities, they need to ensure they are able to work in
accordance to the job expectations and retain their jobs.

Technological Empowerment

The lives of the individuals are dependent upon technological empowerment. There
have been advancements taking place in usage of technologies. Technology has advanced
with years and it has changed the ways, through which one is able to make purchases of
goods, carry out banking transactions, bring about improvements in the communication
processes, and so forth. Technological empowerment has enabled the individuals to achieve
the desired goals and objectives and bring about improvements in their overall quality of
lives.

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 The rate of technological empowerment is increasing with time. Society is looking to
create and develop easier ways to live and lengthen their lives. Internet is a massive source of
information that millions of individuals use and depend on daily basis. It has been
comprehensively understood that usage of technologies is regarded to be of utmost
significance in the implementation of job duties and in carrying out other tasks and activities.
In the present existence, individuals are making use of technologies in rural and tribal
communities. In rural areas, there have been establishment of training centres, which are
organizing training programs for individuals to hone their technical skills. There have been
utilization of digital technologies by them in the implementation of various tasks.
Furthermore, the elderly individuals, both men and women are making use of technologies
primarily for leisure and recreational purposes.

Decision Making and Gender Equality

Decision making and gender equality are important aspects that lead to empowerment
of women. Decision making is regarded as an integral part of the lives of the individuals. The
individuals are required to make decisions in their lives on daily basis. The decisions are
made in terms of minor as well as major aspects. When the individuals are making decisions,
they need to ensure, they are made to promote well-being. Empowered women make
decisions regarding various areas within or outside the house. When they are participating in
the decision making tasks and activities, they feel empowered. In traditional societies, when
women were subordinates to men, men were vested with the authority to make the decisions.
But with changes and advancements taking place, women are also provided with the authority
to make decisions.

Gender equality is considered as one of the essential aspects in promoting

empowerment opportunities among women. Within home, employment settings, educational
institutions and other areas, women should be provided with equal rights and opportunities as
compared to their male counterparts. Research has indicated that in employment settings,
women were discriminated against. They were not paid equally as their male counterparts, for
the same work performed. The prevalence of gender inequality is regarded as one of the
major impediments within the course of attainment of empowerment opportunities.
Therefore, in order to promote women empowerment, it is essential to augment gender
equality. In the present existence, there have been formulation of laws and policies within

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workplaces, which are contributing effectively towards making provision of equal rights and
opportunities to women.

Roles of Rural and Tribal Women in Different Spheres

The roles of rural and tribal women in different spheres have been stated as follows:

Economic Sphere

The rural and tribal women are primarily engaged in the agricultural sector and
farming practices. Apart from being employed in these sectors, they are engaged in other
activities as well, such as, pottery making, silk weaving, production of handicrafts, artworks,
or they are employed in various industries, such as, plantations, cottage industries, silk
weaving, lock industries and so forth. There are number of other areas as well in which these
individuals seek employment opportunities. These include, carpentry, plumbing, electric
work, repair work, painting and so forth. The women, belonging to rural and tribal
communities are courageous and robust by nature. They possess the capacity to get engaged
in manual jobs. In some cases, their earnings are not much. They are not sufficient to sustain
their living conditions adequately. In some cases, they are even required to remain
unemployed in some parts of the year. Therefore, it can be stated that employment in these
tasks and activities contribute in augmenting the economic status of the rural and tribal
women.

Social Sphere

Rural and tribal women are social by nature. Their interaction with individuals within
their communities is on a large scale. Socialization is regarded as an indispensable aspect
within the lives of the individuals. Through socialization, individuals generate awareness in
terms of various aspects. It is believed that individuals in some cases are unable to acquire an
efficient understanding of the concepts and other areas through using technologies or other
reading materials. Whereas, the process of socialization proves to be advantageous to them.
Therefore, it can be stated that socialization and focusing upon social sphere is of utmost
significance in bringing about improvements in the overall quality of lives. In order to carry
out the socialization process in a well-organized manner, it is essential to acquire knowledge
in terms of various aspects. These include, morality, ethics, communication skills and so
forth. From the initial stage, rural and tribal women inculcate the traits of morality and ethics
among their children, which would facilitate in the formation of an effective social circle.

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 Political Sphere

In rural and tribal communities, the participation of women is indispensable in the

management of household responsibilities. Political sphere is regarded to an important area.
In order to participate in political sphere, the women need to conduct an analysis in terms of
various aspects. It needs to be ensured that these aspects render a significant contribution in
meeting the desired objectives. One of the important aspects is, analysis needs to be
conducted in terms of various aspects that prove to be impediments within the course of
participation in political sphere. These are the problems of poverty, illiteracy, unemployment,
and malnutrition. When rural and tribal women are to get engaged in any tasks and activities,
they need to ensure, they possess sufficient resources and skills to carry out tasks in a well-
organised and satisfactory manner. Furthermore, it is vital for rural and tribal women to
generate awareness in terms of technologies. Therefore, possession of awareness in terms of
areas, which are deficient or underdeveloped will enable the political leaders to render an
operative contribution towards the process.

Religious Sphere

The role of rural and tribal women is comprehensively recognized. The women,
belonging to these communities normally possess the viewpoint that participating in religious
activities and worshipping the Almighty will render a significant contribution in enabling
them to fulfil their aspirations, and beliefs. In rural and tribal communities, women put into
practice beliefs and rituals. In some cases, they perform rituals by chanting of religious
hymns, whereas, in others, they keep fasts, and abstain from food and drinks and perform
rituals. Whereas, in other cases, they make visits to religious places and so forth. Tribal
communities normally worship stars, moon, rocks, rivers, mountains and so forth. Since they
are dependent upon the natural environmental conditions, they possess the viewpoint that
worshipping these would bring good luck. In some cases, the individuals live life of ascetics.
They give up all the material wealth, luxuries, financial and other resources and lead a simple
life. It has been found that leading this life generates peace and satisfaction within the mind-
sets of women.

7.9 Measures for Improvement in the Status of Women

It is of utmost significance to bring about improvements in the status of rural and

tribal women. There have been formulation of measures and programs, which are necessary

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in bringing about improvements in the status of women. When measures are being formulated
to bring about improvements in the status of women, one of the important aspects that needs
to be taken into account is, rural and tribal women need to be made self-sufficient. Assistance
is to be provided to them to acquire employment opportunities. Acquisition of employment
opportunities would enable them to acquire self-sufficiency. Poverty and scarcity of resources
are regarded as major impediments within the course of making improvements in one’s
status. In leading to improvements in the status of rural and tribal women, the main areas that
need to be taken into consideration are stated as follows:

Acquisition of Education

Education is regarded as an instrument that enables the individuals to acquire an

efficient understanding in terms of various concepts and areas. Through acquisition of
education, individuals are able to differentiate between appropriate and inappropriate. An
educated person is well aware of all the areas that are necessary in living effectual lives. The
literacy levels are low among women, belonging to rural and tribal communities. There has
been spread of awareness among them that acquisition of basic literacy skills of reading,
writing and arithmetic help them to enhance their living conditions. For instance, when
individuals are making use of financial resources in the management of household chores,
then too, they need to possess the basic literacy skills.

In rural communities, girls were discouraged from acquisition of education and were
trained in terms of the implementation of household chores. It was comprehensively believed
that in marital homes, women would not be able to make use of educational qualifications in
any way. Hence, it would be wastage of resources in making provision of education to them.
It is important to train them in the implementation of household chores and education is not
meant for them. But there have been transformations taking place in these viewpoints and
women, belonging to rural and tribal communities are also acquiring education. The women
are even migrating to urban areas to get enrolled in higher educational institutions and
promote better livelihoods opportunities. Therefore, it can be stated that education is one of
the essential aspects in bringing about improvements in the status of women.

Employment Opportunities

Acquisition of employment opportunities are regarded as one of the major objectives

of individuals. Individuals acquire education, so they can make use of their knowledge and

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competencies to sustain their living conditions. Women, belonging to rural and tribal
communities are primarily employed in the agricultural sector. Furthermore, they also work
as entrepreneurs and are engaged in the production of handicrafts, artworks, food items and
so forth. Apart from these, women are also migrating to other regions and are acquiring
employment opportunities in reputed educational institutions and organizations. This
indicates rural and tribal women are also generating sufficient information in terms of
attainment of not only minority jobs, but also in seeking reputed employment opportunities.

Acquisition of good-quality education will enable the women to acquire reputed

employment opportunities. These women have recognized the significance of education.
They possess the viewpoint that acquiring good-quality education and augmenting
competencies and aptitude will enable them to acquire well-paid jobs. Well-paid employment
opportunities will not only enable them to sustain their living conditions in a well-organized
manner, but they are also able to acquire promotional opportunities. It is vital to formulate
laws and measures that would provide assistance to women to acquire employment
opportunities and enhance their living conditions. Research has indicated that women,
belonging to these communities experience problems in the acquisition of employment
opportunities. Therefore, formulation of measures and programs would prove to be beneficial
to them.

Participation in Productive and Meaningful Activities

Women, particularly belonging to deprived, marginalized and economically weaker

sections of the society need to be encouraged to participate in productive and meaningful
activities. Productive and meaningful activities are referred to the activities, which enable the
individuals to get engaged in some productive tasks, which would lead to well-being. There
are numerous types of productive and meaningful activities, which women need to get
engaged in. These include, acquisition of education, employment opportunities, working for
well-being of the community, social work and so forth. In order to participate in productive
and meaningful activities, the women need to possess the interest and enthusiasm that would
encourage them to participate in these activities.

Participation in productive and meaningful activities contributes in enhancing the

lives of the individuals. It is apparent that in rural and tribal communities, women should be
encouraged to participate in productive and meaningful activities. Research has indicated that
women, who are primarily social workers and are dedicated towards bringing about

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improvements in the lives of women, belonging to disadvantaged groups organize skills
development programs for them. In these programs, training is provided to augment skills
and abilities of women, so they are able to get engaged in productive and meaningful
activities. The skills development programs focus upon number of aspects. These include,
production of artworks, handicrafts, food items, computer skills and so forth. Focusing upon
enhancement of skills and making effective use of them in enriching ones lives are vital
aspects in improving the status of women.

Equal Rights and Opportunities

It is of utmost significance to make provision of equal rights and opportunities to

women. Equal rights and opportunities need to be made available to them within as well as
outside the household. Within the household, it is vital for the parents to make provision of
equal rights and opportunities to the girls as compared to their male counterparts. It is
essential to regard them as assets and not treat them as liabilities. The girls can also render a
significant contribution in promoting well-being of their families and communities. On the
other hand, in other places, such as, educational institutions and employment settings, it is
vital to make provision of equal rights and opportunities to the girls and encourage their
participation in all tasks and activities.

Equal rights and opportunities are important for individuals to enrich their overall
quality of lives. Recognising that women have minority status in terms of employment
opportunities, legal rights, educational system, political power and the position of influence
of religious bodies. The women tend to react to their cultural image by limiting their
aspirations and by forming low evaluations of their own capabilities. In the present existence,
there have been changes taking place within the society affecting the role of both men and
women. Women, belonging to various categories and backgrounds are provided with equal
rights and opportunities, so they are able to acquire empowerment opportunities and sustain
their living conditions satisfactorily.

Access and Control Financial Resources

Women should be allowed to exercise control over financial resources. Financial

resources are regarded as important aspects that need to be managed efficiently. The
individuals are different from each other in terms of number of aspects. These include, caste,
creed, race, religion, ethnicity, occupation and socio-economic background. There are
individuals, who are financially strong. On the other hand, there are individuals, who are not

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financially strong and possess limited resources. In such cases, they need to spend finances
adequately and not spend money on things, which they do not require. Within the household,
it is essential to provide this right to women to access and control resources. Women provide
knowledge to their children as well to spend financial resources adequately.

Research has indicated that women, belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-
economically backward sections of the society, need to be generated awareness in terms of
management of financial resources. Due to living in the conditions of poverty, these women
have the main objective of alleviating their financial problems and acquire employment
opportunities, so they are able to bring about improvements in their overall quality of lives.
Therefore, in order to access financial resources, it is essential for women to acquire
employment opportunities. When they work hard and possess the determination, they are able
to acquire employment opportunities, but it is essential for them to ensure they access and
control financial resources in a wise manner.

Health Care and Well-being

Health care and well-being are regarded as essential aspects in order to live effectual
lives. When the individuals will possess good health, they will be able to participate in
various tasks and activities. In rural and tribal areas, the individuals are dependent upon the
natural environmental conditions for the sustenance of their health care and well-being. They
obtain medicinal plants and herbs from the forests in order to treat their wounds and health
problems. But in the present existence, the individuals, belonging to these communities have
realised that modern and scientific medical treatment is more effective as compared to
traditional methods. There have been improvements taking place in medical and health care
facilities in rural and tribal communities as well. In most cases, these individuals are
migrating to urban communities to acquire medical treatment, as the medical and health
facilities in urban areas are in a well-developed state.

In order to promote health care and well-being, there are number of factors that need
to be taken into consideration. These include, diet and nutrition, participation in physical
activities, establishing positive thinking, managing body weight, formation of pleasant and
amiable environmental conditions within home, maintaining good terms and relationships
with family as well as community members, managing psychological problems of stress,
anger, trauma and depression, performing one’s job duties in a well-organized manner,
obtaining medical check-ups on regular basis and taking medications on regular basis, this

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applies primarily to elderly individuals and those, who experience health problems and
illnesses. Therefore, women need to possess sufficient knowledge regarding maintenance of
good health, as they would be able to contribute well towards promoting good health and
well-being of their family members.

Participation in Social, Cultural and Religious Activities

Women and girls need to be encouraged to participate in social, cultural and religious
activities. Social, cultural and religious activities are the activities that encourage women to
hone their skills and abilities. Furthermore, they are able to augment their communication
skills and work towards promoting well-being of the communities. Social activities are the
activities, which are primarily dedicated towards socialization. For instance, in urban as well
as in rural areas, there are women, who organize coaching classes that are geared towards
honing educational skills of individuals, including children as well as adults. On the other
hand, women from medical background are putting into practice social work activities that
are dedicated towards providing medical and health care facilities to individuals, primarily
belonging to disadvantaged sections of the society.

Cultural activities are the activities that focus upon rendering a significant
contribution towards promoting well-being of the community. In cultural activities, emphasis
is put upon organization of musical and dance performances as well. Apart from these,
individuals get engaged in role play activities. In the organization of functions or in
celebration of festivals, cultural activities are organized. Whereas, religious activities are the
activities that are dedicated towards providing services to the Almighty. These include,
participating in religious programs by singing religious hymns, reading religious scriptures,
giving religious sermons, possessing religious beliefs and performing rituals. The girls are
trained from the initial stage in terms of significance of these activities. Therefore, it can be
stated that participating in social, cultural and religious activities are of utmost significance in
bringing about improvements in the status of women.

Making Provision of Amenities and Facilities

Women and girls need to be provided with amenities and facilities in their homes as
well as in other places, including educational institutions and employment settings. In the
present existence, there have been improvements taking place and there have been provision
of infrastructure, civic amenities and facilities in rural homes. It is necessary to make
provision of infrastructure, civic amenities and facilities, so one is able to concentrate well

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upon their tasks and functions. In educational institutions, when they are learning, the
provision of proper furniture, heating and cooling equipment in accordance to the weather
conditions, clean drinking water and appropriate teaching-learning materials will help the
individuals to concentrate well on studies. On the other hand, in employment settings as well,
it is essential to make provision of appropriate infrastructure, amenities and facilities, so one
is able to carry out their job duties satisfactorily.

Within the home, environment should be created, where girls and women are treated
with respect and courtesy. They should be encouraged towards acquisition of education.
Good-quality education will help the individuals to acquire employment opportunities.
Research has indicated that women, belonging to rural and tribal communities are bringing
about improvements in their overall quality of lives through making provision of civic
amenities and facilities, particularly within their homes. This factor is rendering a significant
contribution in promoting enhancement of their living conditions and helping them to achieve
personal and professional goals.

Elimination of Abuse and Mistreatment

Research has indicated that women, belonging to deprived, marginalized and

economically weaker sections of the society are experiencing various forms of abuse and
mistreatment. This is prevalent in urban areas as well, but in rural areas, it is more common.
These are experienced at the hands of family members, caregivers and community members.
The various forms of abuse and mistreatment include, verbal abuse, physical abuse, neglect,
financial exploitation, grievous hurt, and sexual harassment. Experiencing these forms of
abuse is detrimental and have effects upon the physical as well as psychological health
conditions of women. As a consequence, they experience setbacks and are unable to
concentrate on their tasks and activities. Therefore, in order to bring about improvements in
the status of women, it is crucial to eliminate various forms of abuse and mistreatment.

Women and girls have experienced abuse and mistreatment in employment settings as
well as in educational institutions. This has enabled them to even drop out of schools or
discontinue their employment. Thus, their career prospects get impeded in this manner.
Hence, it is essential for the individuals within home as well as outside home in educational
institutions and employment settings to formulate measures and policies to treat women with
respect and courtesy and make provision of equal opportunities to them. Elimination of abuse
and mistreatment will enable the women to attain empowerment opportunities, achieve

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personal and professional goals and bring about improvements in their overall quality of
lives.

Inculcation of Morality and Ethics

There have been cases of women, who adopt unlawful means to bring about
improvements in their financial position and overall status. They even get engaged in
criminal acts, such as, theft and robbery. These women fail to realize that one needs to earn
their living and bring about improvements in their financial position, through inculcating the
traits of morality and ethics. Understanding the traits of morality and ethics will enable the
individuals to incur the traits of diligence, resourcefulness and conscientiousness, so they are
able to attain personal and professional goals. The women provide knowledge in terms of
morality and ethics to their children from the stage of early childhood. In some cases, they are
able to implement these traits throughout their lives. Whereas, in other cases, they forget
these traits and get engaged in unlawful acts. Therefore, in order to bring about improvements
in the overall quality of lives, it is essential to inculcate the traits of morality and ethics.

In educational institutions as well as within employment settings, this is

comprehensively known that individuals need to be aware of all the methods and strategies
that are essential in the implementation of job duties. But besides knowledge and awareness,
it is necessary to inculcate the traits of morality and ethics. These traits will be beneficial to
the individuals in number of ways. They will help them in forming good terms and
relationships with others, develop effective communication, time management and decision
making skills, implement peaceful conflict resolution methods and work efficiently towards
the achievement of organizational goals. Therefore, it can be stated, morality and ethics can
render a significant contribution in bringing about improvements in the status of women.

7.10 Conclusion

In India, status of women within the country has been subject to number of changes.
In the early medieval period, women were regarded as inferior to men. Their main duty was
to follow the norms and rules, formulated by their husbands. Furthermore, the marriageable
age of the girls was lowered, thereby, prohibiting them from acquisition of education and
taking pleasure in various types of childhood activities. Research has indicated that during
this period, the girls were skilled in terms of areas, such as, arts, painting, music and poetry.
After the country achieved its independence in 1947, revolutionary changes began to take

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place in the status of women. Ethnic, mechanical and organizational changes cause reduction
in the exploitation of women to a major extent and provide equality of opportunities to
women in various fields.

Within the country, there have been practices of female foeticide and female
infanticide. The girl children were regarded as liabilities and it was believed that they would
not contribute towards promoting well-being and would not yield any returns on investment.
The practice of child marriage was prevalent and girls were not encouraged to acquire
education. But within the course of time, improvements began to take place and importance
was given to girl children. Within the country, there has been prevalence of crime and
violence against women. Women are not treated with respect in various areas, including
educational institutions and employment settings. But there have been initiation of programs
and schemes that are dedicated towards promoting well-being of women.

Research has indicated that women, belonging to rural and tribal communities
inculcate the traits of diligence, resourcefulness and conscientiousness. They are hard-
working and are able to get engaged in manual jobs for long hours. There have been
formulation of measures and programs, which are focusing upon improving the status of
women. In leading to improvements in the status of women, the main areas that need to be
taken into account are, acquisition of education, employment opportunities, participation in
productive and meaningful activities, equal rights and opportunities, access and control
financial resources, health care and well-being, participation in social, cultural and religious
activities, making provision of amenities and facilities, elimination of abuse and mistreatment
and inculcation of morality and ethics. It is vital to ensure the implementation of these factors
in urban, rural and tribal communities. When these factors are taken into consideration,
improvements will take place in the status of women.

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 8

Status of Dalits and Untouchables in India

In accordance to the 1991 census, there were about 138,200,000 dalits in India and
they constituted about 16.5 percent of the entire population within the country. The 2001
census has now been completed. The total population has risen to more than one billion. But
the total population of dalit is still not known. Dalit “oppressed” is the name, which the
people, belonging to those castes at the bottom of India’s caste hierarchy have given
themselves. Formerly, they were known as untouchables, the reason being, their presence was
considered to be polluting to a major extent. The official label for them has been Scheduled
Castes, because, if their caste is listed on Government schedule, the members of the caste
become eligible for a number of affirmative action benefits and protection. Dalits seek to
overcome the injustices and indignities forced upon them so as to gain the equality and
respect hitherto denied them. Dalits share a common condition and should therefore unite in a
common struggle for dignity, equality, justice and respect under common name (Webster,
2001).

8.1 Historical Background of Dalits

Indian society is characterised by a high degree of structural inequality, stratification

and hierarchy associated with caste, ethnicity, religion, class, other group identities and
institutions of social exclusion. The inherent structure and functioning of these institutions
leads to exclusion, which in turn leads to deprivation, poverty and discrimination of a
substantial section of the Indian population in multiple spheres. The caste system is one of the
perplexing mysteries of the country. The caste system, which has existed more than 3000
years was developed by the Brahmin priest caste in order to maintain their superiority. The
caste system was classified into four distinct classes. These are, Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmins are the highest varna and are the priests and arbitrators in
the matters of religion and the society. Kshatriyas are the warriors and rulers. Vaishyas are
traders and merchants and Shudras are the cleaners and sweepers (Chapter-II. The Setting,
n.d.).

Dalits have been exploited and tortured for centuries. They are now considered as the
socially degraded members of the society. This is evident from the information in daily

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newspapers about the atrocities committed by them. There have been efforts made to bring
about improvements in the status of dalits within the Indian society. But efforts are made
towards bringing them into the mainstream society. Dalits do not belong to the pyramid of
castes and are therefore known as outcastes. They are the untouchables. Dalits are not
considered as the part of human society, but, instead are considered something less than
humans. The dalits perform menial and degrading jobs. Caste rules hold that dalits pollute
higher caste people with their presence. Dalits are the individuals, who are powerless. It is
accepted by everyone that the reality of the oppression proceeds not merely from the material
deprivation, they suffer in the absence of economic, educational and political power resources
(Chapter-II. The Setting, n.d.).

Meaning of Dalits

Dalit is the term that has become synonymous with the untouchable. It is the name,
which has been selected by many untouchables. The individuals, who are politically aware
have chosen for themselves. The root of the word dalit is found in both Hebrew and Sanskrit.
It refers to the individuals, who are socially, religiously, politically and economically
oppressed, exploited and deprived. In India, the word dalit is used to refer to the individuals,
to describe a person, who comes from any lower caste, even though the technically authentic
dalits are kept outside the caste system as worthless to make an entry into the social and
religious life of the society. They are generally considered to be socially polluted,
economically deprived and politically powerless. They are not allowed to touch caste Hindus
and are treated as ‘untouchables’ (Chapter-II. The Setting, n.d.).

The term ‘dalit’ is inclusive of all the oppressed and exploited sections of the society.
The term ‘dalit’ is inclusive of all the meanings, such as, downtrodden, disadvantaged,
underprivileged, deprived, abused, humble, submissive and so forth. The term ‘Scheduled
Castes’ was first used by the British government in the Government of India Act, 1935. Prior
to this, some of these castes were included within the depressed classes. This category has
been used for the first time in the beginning of this century (Chapter-II. The Setting, n.d.).

The name ‘dalit’ means oppressed and it highlights the persecution and discrimination
that has been experienced by 250 untouchables on a regular basis. First used within the
framework of caste oppression in the 19th century, it was popularized in the 1970s by the
untouchable writers and members of the revolutionary dalit panthers. The name of panthers
was inspired by the black panthers of the United States. The term dalit has come to replace

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harijan. It is the name that has been given to untouchables by Gandhi, much like the black
power movement in the United States led to the replacement of the labels coloured. For some
activities, dalit is used to refer to all of India’s oppressed individuals, whether Hindus,
Muslims, Christians, tribal minorities or women. Dalits are found throughout the country,
South Asia and among the Indian population around the world (Chapter-II. The Setting, n.d.).

Although the Indian Constitution guarantees fundamental rights and freedom to all
Indians, dalits are abused in a systematic manner. Dalits are poverty stricken, deprived and
are in a socially backward state. In such cases, the most basic needs of food, housing
accommodation, shelter and safety are not fulfilled. They also cannot access good-quality
education and employment. The systematic denial of the basic human rights, results in the
lack of education, food, health care and economic opportunity. Thereby, keeping dalits in
perpetual bondage to the upper castes. Untouchables are the out-castes individuals,
considered impure and polluted on a large scale. Prejudice defines their lives, particularly in
rural areas, where close to three-quarters of Indians reside. The dalits experience
discriminatory treatment to a major extent. They are made to sit on the floor, they are
prohibited from entering the temples, made to eat and drink in separate utensils and even
experience criminal and violent acts to a major extent (Chapter-II. The Setting, n.d.).

Among the many changes that have taken place within the country in the past two
decades, there have been transformations taken place in the status of dalits. The social
dynamics of self-assertion of the so-called lower castes is one of the most significant factors
in leading to their progression. There are various profound social changes that are taking
place that have an effect upon the core of the Indian society. It’s most important and
unambiguous character, the caste system is under immense pressure, which can be
ascertained in two different ways. Firstly, the caste system of regulated hierarchized
relationships has been virtually destroyed by a series of far-reaching developments. These
include, developments of the widespread market relations and the political manoeuvring
nurtured by fifty years of universal franchise. Secondly, the decline of caste boundaries as a
system governing and ordering the patterns of relations between patrons and clients. This has
not necessarily weakened the caste per se, revealing a specifically Indian social contradiction
(Chapter-II. The Setting, n.d.).

Strategies adopted by Dalits

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 Dalits have adopted four strategies, both historically and currently with the main
objective of attaining the ends. These strategies have been stated as follows: (Webster, 2001).

The Dalit Political Strategy

The first and the foremost has been the dominant political strategy of gaining power
as an end in itself. If one has power, others come to the person to seek ideas and suggestions.
In other words, a person with power and authority has the right to control the functioning of
other individuals. He exercises authority and influences the workings of the organization as a
whole. Power enables the individuals to exercise greater economic and educational
opportunities in an appropriate manner. When the individuals possess the resources, they are
able to exercise power and authority, acquire education and reinforce their financial status.
However, dalits have been divided over whether to pursue political power independently of
other castes or in alliance with the members of the other castes and communities, whose
interests and ideals are close to their own.

In the present, there are dalit members of the Parliament and of the State Legislative
Assemblies, as well as dalit party workers. This is virtually in all the major political parties,
including the Prime Minister’s Bhartiya Janta Party, which in the traditionalist Hindu
ideology is quite anti-dalit. There are also exclusively dalit political parties at the regional
level. The dalit debate within and between the various parties over whether to get whatever
share of power dalits can through whatever alliances are more expedient or to maintain
pressure from outside on those in power by maintaining some ideological and programmatic
unity among the dalits themselves. Dalits are rendering an effective participation in the
political sphere.

Economic Strategy

The economic status of dalits is in deprived state. They are not financially strong and
are mostly engaged in minority jobs. Dalits are residing in the conditions of poverty to a
major extent. They are dependent upon the dominant castes to earn better livelihoods. In most
cases, they are employed in the agricultural sector or urban labour. Therefore, many dalits
have sought economic independence to a major extent. It is both as an end in itself and as a
means to other ends. In order to enhance one’s economic status, it is essential to get engaged
in employment opportunities. Dalits are engaged in minority jobs, which are not well-paid.
During the past decade, a good number of international development agencies, both religious
and cultural have adopted this strategy by funding a variety of grassroots.

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 Dalit organizations are engaged in a range of community development activities.
These activities put emphasis on such things, as small-scale industries, providing training in
terms of new skills, educating dalits in terms of how to take advantage of government
development assistance and developing co-operatives. The task is massive. More than 75
percent of dalit population is still residing in rural and remote communities. Therefore, within
rural communities, it is necessary to make provision of opportunities to them to augment their
financial position. They also experience opposition within each village from the members of
the dominant castes, who want to keep dalits as an impoverished and dependent source of
inexpensive labour. Improvements need to be made in the skills development programs.

The Social Strategy

The third strategy is the social strategy, which has two components. Education is one
of the crucial aspects that enables the dalits to identify the meaning and significance of social
strategy. If dalits become literate and augment their communication skills, they will possess
the abilities to enhance their skills and abilities, so they can move beyond unskilled labour
and get engaged in jobs, where they are able to earn more money and gain greater respect.
The other area is making lifestyle changes, which get rid of those practices, which are
considered low or polluting and substituting those of the higher castes instead. In enhancing
their position, they need to bring about changes in their lives. These include, quitting certain
jobs, such as, cleaning the sewers and giving up eating meats. Therefore, the main aim of
social strategy is to augment educational skills and bring about changes in their living
conditions.

The social strategy was adopted by the Christian missions over a century ago. It is still
dominating upon the dalits and put emphasis upon bringing about improvements in their
status. In the present existence, there are churches, which are not only giving priority to the
dalits in some of their institutions of formal education. Furthermore, developments are also
taking place in the job-oriented and non-formal educational projects to enhance the
development of skills. The social strategy has also undergirded much of the affirmative action
policy, built into the Constitution of India. When the dalits will get educated, they will be
able to acquire good job opportunities and enhance their class and social status.

The Religious Strategy

The moderate form of religious strategy involves reform from within one’s own
religious tradition. For example, some of the Hindu sects have renounced caste hierarchy and

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some of the individuals aim to bring about improvements in the status of dalits. The more
fundamental religious option, however has been conversion to another. For example, since
the past 125 years, many dalits have been converted to Christianity. Majority of the Indian
population within the country is dalits and a considerable portion of them have turned into
Buddhists. Adopting a religion has enabled them to bring about improvements in their overall
quality of lives. Religious strategy has enabled the individuals to develop positive thinking
and a constructive approach towards life. Development of religious beliefs, viewpoints and
perspectives help the dalits to achieve their goals and objectives.

Research on dalits has indicated that possession of religious beliefs and perspectives
also enable them to form this viewpoint that with the blessings of the Almighty, they will be
able to bring about improvements in their lives. In order to uplift their status, there are
number of factors that need to be taken into consideration by dalits. These include, education,
good employment opportunities, skills development, health care and well-being and bringing
about improvements in their overall quality of lives. There is prevalence of the viewpoint
among them that possession of strong religious beliefs will render a significant contribution
in helping them to achieve their goals and objectives in a well-organized manner. Therefore,
it is important to focus upon enhancement of religious strategy.

8.2 Dalit Movements and Organizations in India

The problem of untouchability and exploitation of dalits in the social, economic and
political spheres has been a reality of the Indian society. Various efforts have been made so
far by the visionaries in this direction by launching movements and forming the organizations
to highlight and find solutions to the problems of dalits within the country. As a result, one
can observe a constant growth of awareness among dalits, who have begun to assert their
identity and demanding their due share in power. In this case, an attempt has been made to
take into consideration various dalit movements and organizations within the country. If one
looks at the history of dalit movements that have been organized in various parts of the
country, it is clear that the number of socio-political organizations, struggles and various
types of activities of dalits had emerged out of different socio-economic and political
conditions in the past to bring about improvements in their conditions (Chapter – II.
Historical Background of Dalits, n.d.). The important dalit movements have been stated as
follows: (Chapter – II. Historical Background of Dalits, n.d.).

Ad-Dharm Movement

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 The beginning of the 20th century witnessed a series of political developments which
interalia led to the formation of movements in different parts of colonial India. The main
objective of these movements was to liberate the so-called untouchables, so they could lead a
life of dignity and equality with the so-called twice born. The Ad-Dharm movement was one
of the most important movements of dalits, initiated in 1925, under the direction of Mangoo
Ram and other depressed class leaders. The first organizational meeting of the Ad-Dharm
took place in Jallandhar in 1925. The contribution of Ad-Dharm movement was crucial, it
made provision of support and assistance to the dalits to seek social recognition through the
process of cultural transformation on one hand and spiritual regeneration on the other. It
carved out a new identity and gave them a new name. The Ad-Dharm movement succeeded
in raising the consciousness among the underprivileged and disadvantaged sections of the
society. One of the aspects that is unfortunate is, this movement was unsuccessful in bringing
about a change in attitude of the upper castes. Dalits continued to experience discrimination
and oppression.

Independent Labour Party (ILP)

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar made an attempt to wrest space for the liberation of religious,
social, economic and political realms. In 1936, he gave the political movement a specific
focus by establishing the Independent Labour Party. This was the first political party of the
dalits. This was necessary, because the existing political parties, dominated primarily by
upper castes were capable neither of representing the interests of the Scheduled Castes nor
fighting for their cause. The absence of any political party, which could represent dalits in the
first election of 1937 encouraged Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to establish Independent Labour Party.
It was intended to put emphasis upon the cause of the workers and to advance the welfare of
labouring classes and of depressed, poverty stricken and underprivileged sections of the
society as well.

All India Scheduled Caste Federation (AISCF)

In 1942, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar founded an All India Scheduled Caste Federation, a
political organization for the dalits. He reformulated his political plans. He reformed a new
political party, the AISCF. The main objective of this political party is to bring about
improvements in the status of dalits and untouchables. With the objective of securing political
rights and representation for the dalit individuals, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar established the AISCF
at an All India depressed classes conference in Nagpur in July 1942. The AISCF, being a

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rival organization to the Congress, used to constantly challenge the Congress claim to
represent the interests of the dalit communities. In the initial stage, the main area was
Mumbai, but within the short period of time, it spread all over India. The primary objective of
AISCF was to unite the dalits and struggle against untouchability.

Republican Party of India (RPI)

The Republican Party of India came into existence out of the All India Scheduled
Caste Federation by changing the latter’s name. The RPI was the first political party formed
by the post Ambedkar leadership in India on October 03, 1957. The RPI accorded the
acceptance to the fundamental principles of the Indian Constitution, such as, justice, freedom,
equality and brotherhood for the citizens of the country. The objective of the party was to
organize the oppressed and to struggle against the atrocities committed on dalits in order to
get their disabilities alleviated. It took up number of issues that appealed to dalits. The RPI
did some good work, and focused on providing solutions to the problems of dalits. The RPI
rendered a significant contribution in the formation of worker’s organizations, student’s
organizations, women’s organizations and so forth. After a certain period of time, the party
split into many groups. The splits in the RPI had no ideological basis but they were due to
clash of personalities and personal political ambitions. Hence, the party failed to recognize
and address the root causes of the problems of dalits.

Dalit Panther Movement

The disintegration of RPI led to discontentment among dalits and dalit youth in
particular. The dalit youth came forward and took up the task of bringing all the dalits on a
single platform and mobilize them for struggle against civil rights and justice. This gave rise
to the Dalit Panther Movement in Maharashtra, 1970. The fundamental factor that is
responsible for the movement of dalits within the country was the repression and terror under
which the oppressed dalits continued to live in rural communities. The programs of the dalit
panther movement was incorporated into the manifesto published nearly one year after the
formation of the Dalit Panther Movement. The Panther leaders were not successful in making
provision of proper leadership to the movement and their slogans. This movement took
initiative on the problems of reservation and other concessions granted to the dalits in various
parts of the country. But the whole leadership of Panther Movement has in mobilizing the
dalits to a major extent.

Backward and Minority Communities Employees Federation (BAMCEF)

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 In the early 1970s, Kanshi Ram emerged as a dynamic leader after Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar. He rendered a significant contribution in the establishment of dalit organizations,
which are contributing effectively in promoting up-gradations of dalit individuals. With the
assistance of educated individuals from Pune and Delhi. One organizes the All India
Backward and Minority Community Employees Federation (BAMCEF) in 1973 and aspired
to give it an All India dimension in the next five years. For some years, the BAMCEF has
been working in an informal manner until Kanshi Ram launched it formally on 6 December,
1978 in Delhi. The BAMCEF, consisting of government employees did not launch rallies but
only held seminars. In the political field, the main function of BAMCEF was to supply the
funds and dedicated workers to the Bahujan Samaj Party, which was founded in the early
eighties.

Dalit Soshit Samaj Sangharsh Samiti (DS-4)

Although BAMCEF was regarded by some as a pool of brains, talents and funds. It
kept a low profile because of service rules and restrictions on public employees. For the
furtherance of this objective, Kanshi Ram proceeded to set up a new organization known as
the Dalit Soshit Samaj Sangharsh Samiti on December 06, 1981. The main objective of this
organization was to generate awareness among dalits. The DS-4 consisted mostly of students,
professionals, such as, doctors, lawyers, educationists, who are unemployed, and who are
provided with local leadership. The DS-4 was initially conceived as a non-political
organization, but it soon turned into a political organization. The DS-4 tested the political
water by contesting the election of Haryana Assembly in 1982, Delhi Metropolitan Council
and Corporation in 1982 and also of the Jammu & Kashmir Assembly election in 1983. None
of the DS-4 candidates won in these elections. But it encouraged the dalits and the dalit
leaders to strive for exercising some political power.

Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)

The rise in the political standing of any party can be equated with the rise of the
political fortunes of its leaders. Having gained political experience and making use of
BAMCEF and DS-4 as base organization. Kanshi Ram made the decision to lay the
foundation of political party, the BSP on April 14, 1984 on the birth of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to
fulfil the political aspirations of the dalit individuals. The party adopted Ambedkar’s ideology
and soon turned out to be the political voice of the dalits within the country. BSP gave new
hope to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in creating a strong platform in the Indian

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politics under the leadership of their own political leaders. The BSP leaders in the beginning
believed that any seat sharing arrangement with its rival political parties might weaken its
attitude and bearing on the depressed classes. BSP has been successful in a rather short span
of time in arousing the marked political consciousness among the poverty stricken,
marginalized and economically weaker sections of the society. The BSP commands
considerable influence among the dalits living in urban and rural areas of the country. Dalits
were the traditional vote bank of the Congress and now they seem to have transformed the
affiliation from the Congress and other upper caste parties.

8.3 Factors Contributing to Difficult Situations of Dalits

The major factors that contribute to difficult situations of dalits have been stated as
follows:

Practice of Untouchability

The practice of untouchability has been prevalent among the dalit communities to a
major extent. Primarily the ideology of purity and pollution has enabled to practice
untouchability against the individuals. Dalits were regarded as impure. Due to this, they
experienced untouchability and were discriminated against to a major extent. They were not
allowed to enter various places. These include, hotels, restaurants, religious places and other
public places. They were not allowed to take part in public processions and experienced the
denial of resources, facilities and civic amenities. As it is comprehensively understood that
water is the basic necessity of the individuals. They were even forbidden to make use of tap
water and tank water, and this made their conditions difficult. These individuals were not
allowed to render a contribution or participate in social, political, economic, religious and
cultural activities. The dalits were regarded as uneducated and due to the factors of illiteracy
and unawareness as well, the practice of untouchability was high among them.

Atrocities

Among the dalit communities, women have been subjected to many kinds of
atrocities. The violent and criminal acts, such as, verbal abuse, physical abuse, sexual
harassment, rape, murder, discriminatory treatment and deprivation from certain rights and
opportunities. There have been large number of individuals, belonging to Scheduled Caste
communities, who have been subjected to arson. Experiencing of criminal and violent acts
lead to apprehensiveness and vulnerability within the mind-sets of the individuals. The

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feelings of vulnerability and apprehensiveness are regarded as major barriers within the
course of speaking out for themselves to attain empowerment opportunities and to alleviate
various forms of criminal and violent acts. Apart from the Civil Rights Act, the Parliament
also enacted the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989
to prevent the atrocities against the members of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
to provide special courts for the trial of such offences.

Discrimination in Acquisition of Education

Education is regarded as one of the indispensable instruments that may lead effective
growth and development of the individuals. Through education, the individuals are able to
generate awareness in terms of various factors that are needed to live effectual lives. In India,
the system of education is the second largest in the world. There have been number of
improvements taking place in the system of education. One third of the population within the
age group of seven and above are illiterate. The dalits communities experience a high rate of
illiteracy. These individuals experienced discriminatory treatment in terms of acquisition of
education. There have been implementation of various measures regarding the inclusion of
excluded dalits. Within the schools, dalits continue to experience social discrimination and
this discriminatory treatment became apparent in the official curriculum as well as in the
hidden curriculum of the schools. Hence, lack of education and even the basic literacy skills
are the major difficulties within the course of up-gradation of dalits.

Social and Cultural Segregation

The discriminatory treatment that has been practiced universally and exclusion
included social and cultural segregation. It has been practiced in various forms to lead to a
decline in any kind of social interaction with dalits. Endogamy has expressed through the
widespread preventions of dalit and non-dalit marriages. Social segregation lengthens the
domain of worship and religious rituals with separate churches and priests, being almost the
norm among dalit Christians and not infrequent among dalit Muslims. Some of the
procedures are common to both dalit Christians and dalit Muslims. Economic exploitation
and occupational segregation are common and generally associated preparations. Though it
was less prevalent than the segregations or marriage prohibitions. Untouchability that is
considered to be appropriate is sometimes experienced, but is not prevalent and its systems
differ to a major extent.

Occupational Structure

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 When acquiring an understanding of the occupational structure of the dalit
individuals, it is apparent that dalits are engaged in minority jobs, which are not sufficient to
sustain their living conditions in an appropriate manner. The minority jobs are not regarded
as high paying jobs. In rural areas, dalit Muslims are primarily employed in the agricultural
sector. Whereas, in urban areas, these individuals are engaged in minority jobs, such as,
cleaning, sweeping, and removing waste materials. There are major differences in terms of
the occupations of dalits and individuals, belonging to other castes. The dalits experience
discriminatory treatment to a major extent. The utensils in which, they are given food and
water are different and are sometimes even broken. Their jobs are regarded as impure and the
individuals, belonging to upper castes maintained distance with them to a major extent. The
low status and low occupational structure are the major factors that lead to discriminatory
treatment against dalits.

Discrimination in Employment Opportunities

The employment opportunities of the dalits are considered impure to a major extent.
The various kinds of employment opportunities that dalits have been engaged in are,
cleaning, sweeping, removing waste materials, rag picking and so forth. These jobs are
considered as polluted. When the dalits are engaged in these jobs, they are regarded as
impure. They are not allowed to enter the houses and are kept at a distance. Due to
engagement in low jobs, they are not provided with the opportunities to look for other
employment opportunities. Due to employment in polluted jobs, the dalit individuals
experience discrimination in terms of acquisition of other employment opportunities. It is
comprehensively understood that to acquire good employment opportunities, the individuals
need to possess appropriate educational qualifications and augment their competencies and
aptitude. The individuals, belonging to dalit communities are not provided with the
opportunities to hone their skills and aptitude, therefore, they are unable to acquire reputed
employment opportunities and experience discriminatory treatment.

Discrimination in Wages

The individuals, belonging to dalit communities are paid low wages as compared to
non-dalit workers. It is apparent that jobs of picking up the rags and cleaning will not be high
paying as compared to other reputed jobs of teaching or providing medical and health care
facilities. Involvement in low paying jobs and getting low wages are barriers within the
course of betterment of livelihoods opportunities. The job duties of dalits are hard. As in most

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cases, they are involved in manual work. Besides getting engaged in manual jobs and
working diligently, the wages that are paid to them are considered low. Wages and pay are
regarded as the sources that determine and contribute an important part in determining the
living conditions of dalits. When there are differences in the pay for similar kind of work, it is
regarded as an unfair practice. These individuals are underrepresented in better paid and high
status work. They are disproportionately concentrated among those, who are getting lower
wages within the informal sector.

Standards of Living

Acquisition of education and employment opportunities are regarded as vital factors

in enhancing the living standards of individuals. Dalits are discriminated against from
acquisition of education as well as from getting engaged in reputed employment
opportunities. Therefore, involvement in low paying and impure jobs lead to low standards of
living. With concern to dalits, most of the jobs that are given by the modern Indian state
correspond to the position that has been authorised to them in the Hindu Social Order. Dalits
are grossly represented as sweepers and sanitary workers in various departments of the
central ministries, central public undertakings, public sector banks, financial institutions, state
governments, local municipal governments, other offices and so forth. The percentage of dalit
sweepers to the local sweepers in various departments of the central government ranges from
55 percent to 75 percent. Therefore, it can be stated that getting engaged in polluted jobs lead
to low standards of living among dalits. They are overwhelmed by the problems of poverty,
illiteracy, and unemployment, which are compelling them to reside in deprivation.

Discrimination in Rights and Opportunities

In order to live effectual lives, the individuals need to have equal rights and
opportunities. The important areas that individuals need to concentrate upon in bringing
about improvements in their living conditions are education, employment opportunities,
health care and medical facilities, housing accommodation, diet and nutrition, and other
factors that are necessary in bringing about improvements in their overall quality of lives.
The dalit individuals are experiencing discriminatory treatments and are residing in poverty.
Discrimination in the case of rights and opportunities are regarded as major impediments
within the course of bringing about improvements in their overall living standards. For not
only the development of dalit individuals, but also for the progression of the country, it is
indispensable to make provision of rights and opportunities to dalits.

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 Low Social Status

Dalits have had a low social status in the traditional social structure. The dalit
communities have struggled to a major extent to bring about improvements in their status.
But deprivation of rights and opportunities are regarded as major barriers within the course of
bringing about improvements in their overall quality of lives. Adoption and popularization of
the term dalit reflects upon their increasing awareness of the situation and their greater
assertiveness in demanding their legal and constitutional rights. In the past, they were
regarded as polluted to a major extent. Hindus considered their presence to be impure. The
impure status was considered to be related to the historic hereditary occupations that Hindus
considered to be polluting. The impure status was related to their historic hereditary
occupations that Hindus considered to be “polluting”or debased, such as, working with
leather, removing human and animal carcasses and other impure work.

8.4 Recognition of Dalits as Exploited Class

The Hindu society is governed by the four-fold varna system of Brahmana, Kshatriya,
Vaishya and Shudra. The vast proportion of individuals known as ‘panchamas’ or exterior
antayajas were fell outside the purview of the Varna system. They have been called as
‘untouchables’ for a long period in the history of India. The Hindu social organization was
traditionally divided into two substrata, known as ‘Dwija’ and ‘Ekaja’. The Dwija comprises
of three higher varnas, i.e. the Brahman, the Kshatriya and the Vaishya. On the other hand,
the Ekaja or Shudra were consisted of the lower castes that are meant to serve the Dwija and
are thus placed lower in the social order. The whole system was known as chaturvarna
vyavastha or four-fold division of the society in which large masses of individuals, belonging
to a number of other castes to find their place within this schematic structure. They are
therefore, called as Panchama or Chandala, Avarna, Antyaja and so forth (Chapter-II. The
Exploitation of Dalits, n.d.).

Caste gives its directions for recognition, acceptance, consecration and sacramental
dedication and vice versa of a human being on his appearance in this world. It has its laws for
social, and religious rights, privileges and occupations. Apart from these, the other areas that
have been taken into consideration are, instructing, training and educating, for obligation,
duty and practice for divine recognition and so forth. The caste system is based on the sound
economic principle. The division of labour is the principle, which ensures efficiency of
production. Among the dalit communities as well, individuals need to generate awareness in

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terms of the fact that they need to work diligently, conscientiously and resourcefully to
generate the desired outcomes and to carry out their job duties and responsibilities. The caste
system is based on the sound economic principle, in which the division of labour has been
given emphasis. The institution of caste itself originated to lead to an increase in
specialization and to make a smooth economic life (Chapter-II. The Exploitation of Dalits,
n.d.).

The caste system has also been responsible for preserving the purity of blood among
the various groups of Hindus. Each caste made rigid rules for marriages. Inter-caste
marriages are particularly forbidden and in this manner, India has been able to preserve the
racial purity to a major extent. Untouchability is regarded as the major curse of the caste
system. The upper castes do not regard the lower castes as Shudras or even as human beings.
They are treated with contempt. Their shadow defiles the upper castes. The upper castes
possessed the viewpoint that their status and position within the society would get polluted, if
they come in contact with the lower caste individuals. The upper caste consider the touch of
the lower caste as unbearable. They were not allowed to touch the utensils, clothes and water
of the upper castes. They were made to sit on the floor and were not even allowed to make an
entry into temples as well as other places of the upper castes (Chapter-II. The Exploitation of
Dalits, n.d.).

During the Medieval period, the dalits are not free from almost the same disabilities.
In Manusmriti, the practice of the caste system was religious institution, treated by God. The
Shudras were vested with the responsibilities to provide services to the three other caste
systems. The marriages are supposed to take place within castes only. The Kautilya’s
Arthashastra, also reveals that the individuals will get heaven and everlasting happiness by
following the principle of Svadharma. The existence of occupational groups shows that the
economic structure of society was based on agriculture, arts, crafts, labour and so forth.
Dharmasutras also makes provision of numerous information in terms of the slaves, who are
employed in family works (Chapter-II. The Exploitation of Dalits, n.d.). The Hindu
Lawmakers treated them as the most deride individuals. They are regarded as the individuals,
who are engaged in polluted jobs. These individuals are even required to live in the company
of animals, such as, dogs, pigs and donkeys.

While judging the dalits to be untouchables and depriving them of all the
opportunities of earning their livelihoods through distinguished resources and economic

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independence and affluence. The same Hindu code of conduct not only positioned the
Brahmins at the apex of the caste ladder and thereby ensured them high social status but also
freed them from many conditions that the lower caste individuals have to adhere to and
ensured them of various opportunities for their economic prosperity. The fact that the
scriptures highlighted that the dalits should consume only the food that has been left out, use
only broken utensils, wear old clothes, use old and broken furniture, dwell outside the
periphery of the villages, their houses are made up on tin sheets, they should not collect
wealth and their resources should be only dogs and donkeys and should wander from one
place to another on regular basis. These conditions made provision of no scope to dalits to
lead a dignified life. As a result, they are living in a deprived state.

In India, dalit women have experienced various challenges in the implementation of

productive and reproductive roles within their families. The major factors that are proving to
be impediments within the course of implementation of these roles and promoting well-being
of their families and communities are, access to key productive sources, illiteracy, political
participation and empowerment, violence, trafficking and sexual exploitation against women,
and women’s access to justice. It is apparent that in order to live effectual lives, it is
necessary for the individuals to obtain justice in the implementation of various tasks and
activities. The dalit individuals are in a deprived state, therefore, they experience problems in
obtaining justice in the implementation of tasks, which would lead to up-gradation in their
overall quality of lives. Therefore, it can be stated that all these factors indicate that dalits are
exploited class. In order to promote well-being of the individuals, communities and nation, it
is vital to formulate measures and programs that would bring about improvements in their
overall quality of lives.

8.5 Measures to Promote Up-gradation of Dalit Women

The measures to promote up-gradation of dalit women have been stated as follows:

Development and Social Influence

In leading to development and social influence, it is essential to provide rights to these

individuals, particularly women. Research has indicated that dalit women are not only non-
literates and unaware, but are residing in the conditions of backwardness to a major extent. It
is of utmost significance to encourage these women towards empowerment opportunities in
order to lead to their up-gradation. Few of dalit women were elected representatives. They

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were able to exert any substantial influence in the panchayats to ensure development benefits
within the communities. Though these women mainly put forward their interests and have the
main objective of bringing about improvements in their overall quality of lives. Only 18.5
percent of dalit women presidents are of the viewpoint that they have a say in the
implementation of development schemes. Dalit are in the present existence, creating this
viewpoint to represent the developmental problems to the Government. Women need to be
elected, as they can render a significant contribution in activities, such as, settlement of
disputes, work towards projects, such as, water roads, housing, infrastructure and so forth.
Women should be provided with the opportunities for development and social influence.

Influence on Allocation of Resources

The allocation of resources is regarded as one of the aspects that is of utmost

significance in promoting up-gradation of individuals and communities. The main resources
that are regarded significant are, human resources, financial resources, infrastructure,
transportation facilities, and housing accommodation. The participation of dalit women was
low in the making of decisions, development and welfare funds, as well as, dominant caste
male monopolization of the panchayat resources and benefits. Resources are considered
indispensable for the survival of the individuals. Research has indicated that the individuals,
particularly women belonging to dalit communities are residing in the conditions of poverty
and backwardness. Therefore, they have the main objective of acquiring jobs, so they are able
sustain their living in a well-organized manner. With the availability of resources, the
individuals are able to fulfil their needs and requirements. Financial resources are regarded as
significant, as individuals are able to sustain their living conditions satisfactorily.

Interactions with Government Officials

Socialization and interactions are regarded as important aspects that enable the
individuals to not only generate awareness in terms of various aspects, but they are also able
to augment their communication skills. In interacting with the government officials, the dalit
women will be able to speak in terms of problems and challenges, they are undergoing. The
government officials are the individuals, who are in leadership positions and vested with the
power and authority to bring about improvements in their standards of living. They formulate
laws, measures and programs that are aimed to bring about improvements in the status of
dalits. The government officials were complicit in strengthening dominant caste male power
by implementing the role of neutral facilitator regarding the political participation of dalit

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women. Some of the government officials suggested that they have sole jurisdiction over the
issues. Dalit women elected representatives brought to them only concerned development
schemes and funds. Therefore, the interaction with the government officials of the dalits,
enable them to speak in terms of the areas and factors that need to be improved, so effective
growth and development can be brought about in their livelihoods opportunities.

Social Empowerment

Social empowerment of dalit women are regarded as one of the indispensable factors
that lead to up-gradation of their status. In leading to social empowerment, dalit women need
to be educated in terms of various aspects. These include, social benefits, awareness in terms
of existing social problems within the community, maintenance of good image within the
community, participating in the decision making processes, promoting education and skills
development among children, from the initial stage and taking care of the health care needs of
the individuals. It is stated that educating a woman means educating the entire family.
Whether women belong to upper class families or dalit communities, they are vested with the
responsibility of managing household responsibilities, making wise decisions, carrying out
the function of child development, inculcating the traits of morality and ethics among them
and maintaining good terms and relationships with the relatives and community members.
These are some of the vital aspects that render a significant contribution in leading to social
empowerment of dalit women. Through social empowerment, these women can participate
effectively in social, religious, economic, cultural and political activities.

Empowerment of Dalit Women through Education

In India, the individuals, belonging to various categories and backgrounds have

recognized the significance of education. They have possessed the viewpoint that through
acquisition of education, they will be able to not only augment their competencies, but
acquire understanding in terms of other aspects that are necessary to enrich one’s lives. Dalit
women too have recognized the significance of education. Even though when they are not
educated, they are focusing upon providing good-quality education to their children. But in
the present existence, opportunities are provided to dalit women as well to augment their
educational skills and competencies. As these are considered important in making wise
decisions, achieving personal and professional objectives and bringing about improvements
in their overall quality of lives. When education is to be provided to them, it is necessary to
make use of appropriate teaching-learning methods, teaching-learning materials and

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evaluation procedures. The evaluation procedures help in determining how much the
individuals have learned and the areas, which need to be improved. When these women
acquire education, they will be able to differentiate between appropriate and inappropriate
and sustain their living adequately. Therefore, it can be stated that education is one of the
indispensable instruments in leading to empowerment of dalit women.

Emancipation of Women

In some cases, dalit women are compelled to remain confined within the house. They
are in a miserable state and are discouraged from participating in any tasks and activities.
This is regarded as one of the major impediments within the course of acquisition of
empowerment opportunities and to lead to their effective growth and development. There is a
need to formulate laws, measures and policies that are aimed at up-grading the status of dalit
women and emancipating them from deprivation and misery. Participation of dalit women in
politics is one of useful measures in bringing about improvement in their socio-economic
status. The dalit women have been subjected to criminal and violent acts on a large scale.
These are the acts that not only have an effect on their health, psychologically but also
physically. Therefore, it can be stated that it is of utmost significance to encourage their
participation in social, economic, political, religious, and cultural activities. Furthermore,
they should be treated with respect and courtesy. There should be prevalence of the viewpoint
that when these women are emancipated, they will render a significant contribution in
promoting well-being of themselves, communities and nation as a whole.

Getting Organized as Dalit Women

Research has indicated that dalit women have generated awareness among them that
they need to take a separate stand to enhance their position within the society. As it has been
stated above that there are formulation of laws and measures that are aimed at bringing about
improvements in the status of dalits. But it is crucial on the part of dalit women to generate
awareness in terms of various factors that are impediments within the course of acquisition of
empowerment opportunities. Furthermore, they need to implement useful solutions towards
problems and challenges. On the basis of the stand, the dalit women will be able to create
their own identity, image, struggle for their rights and provide solutions to problems and
challenges that they are experiencing. The National Federation for Dalit Women (NFDW)
was initiated by dalit women themselves to carry out various types of tasks and activities to
promote positive changes. These changes include, legal action against the caste based

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atrocities, political, social and economic empowerment of dalit women and building self-
confidence and leadership skills.

Elimination of Crime and Violence

The prevalence of crime and violence is regarded as one of the major barriers within
the course of up-gradation of dalit women. The dalit women have been subjected to various
types of violent and criminal acts. These include, verbal abuse, physical abuse, sexual
harassment, rape, grievous hurt, trafficking, domestic violence and exploitation. When dalit
women experience these acts, they not only get effected physically but also psychologically.
This is apparent that when individuals are effected in a negative manner, physically and
psychologically, they will not be able to take into consideration the measures and approaches
that would lead to their up-gradation. Hence, in order to progress in life and lead to up-
gradation, it is essential to maintain good health physically as well as psychologically. The
dalit women experience these acts within as well as outside the homes in public places. The
prevalence of the feelings of animosity and antagonism are the major ones that have led to
degradation of dalit women. In order to enable them to acquire empowerment opportunities
and promote up-liftment, it is necessary to eliminate crime and violence against dalit women,
so they are able to stand for themselves and lead to up-gradation in their status within the
society.

Encouraging their Participation in Productive Activities

Research has indicated that dalit women are non-literates to a major extent. But they
aspire to augment their skills and abilities, so they are able to implement some productive
activities, which may be beneficial to them in bringing about improvements in their overall
quality of lives. The productive activities in which dalit women are engaged in include,
working as construction labourers, manufacturing handicrafts and artworks, pottery making,
making jewellery and other decorative items and so forth. In rural areas, they are in most
cases employed in the agricultural sector and farming practices. In order to participate
efficiently in productive activities, the dalit women need to augment their competencies and
aptitude. In rural as well as in urban areas, there have been establishment of training centres,
which are providing training to these women in terms of development of competencies and
aptitude. Research has indicated that in the present, when these women are engaged in the
production processes, they are making use of modern, scientific and pioneering methods.

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Therefore, it can be stated that participation in productive activities of dalit women is an
important aspect in up-grading their status.

Health Care and Well-being

It is comprehensive that for all individuals to carry out their tasks and activities in an
appropriate manner and generate the desired outcomes, they need to take care of their health.
When individuals will maintain good health, they will be able to get engaged in productive
tasks and activities. In order to take care of one’s health, it is essential for the individuals to
take into account various factors. These include, diet and nutrition, obtaining medical check-
ups on regular basis, getting engaged in physical activities, forming positive thinking,
maintaining good terms and relationships with other individuals within as well as outside the
home, learning to cope with psychological problems of stress, trauma and depression,
participating in tasks and activities that would generate pleasure and contentment, and getting
engaged in income-generating activities. Participating in activities that would help dalit
women to generate a source of income is satisfying to a major extent. As it is believed on a
large scale that when individuals will have a good source of income, they will be able to
promote their well-being. Therefore, maintaining good health and well-being is also an
important aspect in up-grading the status of dalit women.

8.6 Meaning and Significance of Untouchability

Untouchability in its literal meaning is referred to the practice of ostracizing a

minority group by segregating them from the mainstream by social custom or legal mandate.
The term is commonly associated with the treatment of the dalit communities in the Indian
sub-continent, who were considered as “polluting”. But this term has been loosely referred to
as other groups, such as, the Cagots in Europe and the Al-Akhdam in Yemen. Traditionally,
the groups characterised as untouchables were those, whose occupations and habits of life
involved the occupations, which were regarded as polluted. These include, fishermen, manual
scavengers, sweepers and rag-pickers. Untouchability has been outlawed in India, Nepal and
Pakistan. However, this concept has not been defined in an appropriate manner. The origin of
untouchability and its historicity are still debated. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar possessed the
viewpoint that untouchability has been prevalent within the country since 400 C.E. Around
70 percent of the population reported for not participating in this practice and this is
considered as a positive signal.

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 Untouchability is referred to the practice, which is abolished and considered to be
forbidden by law. Practicing of untouchability is considered to be an offence and is
punishable by law. Defensive separation is regarded as one of the essential strategies through
which Constitutional objectives, like social and financial equity can be secured to the women,
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Defensive separation implies inclination given in
admission to open and instructive foundations and in a comprehensive daylight work to the
weaker areas of the general public, including women, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes. With the prevalence of the system of untouchability, women, Scheduled Castes, and
Scheduled Tribes are in a deprived state. In other words, these are the individuals, who
undergo detrimental effects and the practice of untouchability is one of the primary causes
(Gayathri, 2017).

The investigation on defensive discrimination is essential since more than 70 percent

of the populace is living in the towns and the advancement of the nation relies on the
provincial improvement. It is unusual for the state to provide financial assistance to women,
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. So the Constitutional producers have received such
a variety of arrangements by giving reservation in instruction and business. The gatherings of
the individuals have been neglected to acquire the total organic products. So it is unavoidable
to bring systematization by the administration to give the products of reservation to the
individuals, who really required and bar the forward class from reservation (Gayathri, 2017).

Untouchability necessarily indicates the relations between the caste Hindus at one
hand and the so called untouchables on the other. Untouchability as a relational phenomenon
implies the strained relations between the two groups of upper castes and untouchables. The
individuals, belonging to upper and middle classes looked upon untouchables with disdain.
On the other hand, untouchables regarded the classes, superior to them as dominating,
superior and authoritative. Sometimes these strained relations reflect in the attitude of
prejudice and antagonism. The individuals, belonging to upper and middle classes possessed
the viewpoint that their position and status within the society would not be enhanced, when
they would be in touch with untouchables. This is one of the important reasons that
untouchability has been prevalent within societies (Meaning, Nature, n.d.).

8.7 Factors Responsible for Untouchability

The Hindu religion is regarded as the unique religion, which confers the status upon

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the individuals at the time of birth. It has declared some of the groups as untouchables and
withdrawn. These individuals have been segregated from the other groups of society. The
factors that are responsible for untouchability have been stated as follows:

Deep-Rooted Caste System

Untouchability in the Indian social structure has its roots in the caste system. In
acquiring an understanding of the caste system, the main castes are, Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas, and Shudras. Untouchability is by-product of the caste system. In order to acquire
an efficient understanding of untouchability, without knowing the origin of caste system is
impossible. Therefore, in order to acquire an understanding of the factors that are responsible
for the origin of untouchability, one needs to know the origin of the caste system. There are
number of theories that lead to origin of the caste system. These are, traditional theory,
Brahmanical theory, racial theory, occupational theory, Ketkar’s theory and Hutton’s theory
of Mana (Chapter- II. Factors Responsible for Untouchability, n.d.).

The traditional theory views the caste system as a normal and natural system. It has
two versions, mythical and metaphysical. The mythical version regards four varnas as four
castes. The castes have emerged from different parts of the Brahma’s body. Brahmins came
from the head, Kshatriyas from the arms, Vaishyas from the thighs and Shudras from the feet.
The metaphysical version explains the fixed version hierarchy and other characteristics of the
caste. In the Brahmanical theory, the caste system in the Hindu originated and developed
because of Brahmins. In the racial theory, there were clash of cultures and contact of races
crystallized castes in India. Occupational theory states that mechanical and technical skills
occupation passed on from generation to generation. Ketkar traces the origin of caste from
the early tribes and psychological prejudicial tendencies of human beings. Hutton has put
emphasis upon the primitive conception of Mana in the formation of Castes. Mana is the
mysterious impersonal power that is attached to individuals, objects, things and places
(Chapter- II. Factors Responsible for Untouchability, n.d.).

Religious Factors

Hindu society accepted Vedas as religion. The Vedas have assigned the highest place
to the Brahmins and lowest to the Shudras. In this manner, the feelings of high and low got
religious sanction. The individuals, belonging to various categories and backgrounds began to
acknowledge that castes in the society are classified as high and low. Religious texts put
emphasis upon morality and ethics. It is vital for individuals, belonging to various categories

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and backgrounds to acquire an efficient understanding of morality and ethics. In the Hindu
society, there are individuals, belonging to various categories and backgrounds. They differ
from each other in terms of number of factors, such as, caste, creed, race, religion, ethnicity,
age, gender, occupation, and socio-economic background. In spite of these differences, the
individuals need to take into consideration important factors that are necessary to enrich
one’s lives.

The factors necessary in enriching one’s lives include, possessing constructive

viewpoints regarding others, not possessing any kinds of ill feelings or feelings of animosity
and antagonism, providing help and assistance to the needy and poverty stricken, believing in
Almighty and offering prayers, inculcating the traits of morality and ethics, illustrating
diligence, resourcefulness and conscientiousness in the implementation of tasks and
activities, depicting honesty and righteousness and dealing effectively with others. The
individuals need to ensure that their actions do not prove to be unfavourable to others. The
individuals, belonging to upper castes needed to ensure that they make provision of equal
rights and opportunities and not discriminate against the individuals, who are considered
untouchables. But untouchables were discriminated against to a major extent and were not
allowed to enter the temples and other places of worship of upper castes. Therefore, this is
considered as one of the major factors that gives rise to untouchability.

Occupational Factors

As it has been understood that the individuals, belonging to various castes are
engaged in various types of occupations. The Brahmins were the teachers and priests, the
Kshatriyas were rulers and warriors, Vaishyas were traders and merchants and Shudras were
cleaners and sweepers. The untouchables are the classes, who were engaged in impure jobs
and due to which their status was regarded as polluted. Due to participation in low
occupations, the untouchables experienced discriminatory treatment to a major extent. The
individuals, belonging to upper castes were kept at a distance from untouchables.

Occupation is regarded as one of the indispensable aspects that lead to untouchability.

It is comprehensively understood that the individuals are identified by their occupation. For
instance, when someone is engaged in teaching jobs, he is a teacher and the primary job duty
of the teacher is to impart knowledge and information to the individuals. On the other hand,
when individuals are engaged in impure jobs, they are regarded to be in a state of pollution.
In the present existence in urban areas as well, when cleaners make visits to the houses of the

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individuals to perform their tasks of cleaning, they are given food and water in separate
utensils, they usually sit on the floor and communicate with others, in whose homes they are
employed. Therefore, it can be stated that occupation is one of the indispensable factors that
gives rise to untouchability.

Social Factors

The practice of untouchability has been originated in some social factors as well.
Social conventions and customs shared the burden of maintaining the untouchability of the
untouchables, recognized by the religious and racial causes. Social resolutions are influential
to a major extent that even the members of the untouchable caste did not possess the right to
violate the customs of untouchability. In the Hindu Law of 24th December 1932, it was
written about the puradvannon caste established in the Tinnereli district of Madras that they
are not only considered untouchables, but even unpresentable and cannot leave their dwelling
places in the day time, the reason being, there is a fear of their defiling the other castes.

They wash their clothes at might. When the individuals, belonging to upper castes
went to meet them, they came out only appeal and when they came, their entire body was
unsteady. This indicates that the individuals, belonging to untouchable communities, feel
apprehensive and vulnerable in communicating with the individuals, belonging to upper
castes. In this way, the racial, religious and social factors are the major ones among many
causes of the origin of untouchability. All these factors have rendered a significant
contribution in leading to untouchability. All these have had a hand in the custom of
untouchability and it would be difficult to remove untouchability as long as unawareness and
ignorance in these spheres continue to exist. Therefore, it can be stated that in terms of social
factors as well, the practice of untouchability continue to exist.

Lack of Education

Lack of education is regarded to have a negative impact on the practice of

untouchability. In other words, when the educated individuals practice untouchability, they
are not making effective use of their knowledge and abilities to eradicate this practice. In
educational institutions at all levels, students are imparted knowledge in terms of morality
and ethics. In the Indian society, there has been prevalence of caste system. There are
differences between castes in terms of various factors, such as, norms, values, principles,
occupations, beliefs and standards. But it is important for the individuals, especially
belonging to upper communities and those, who possess leadership positions to make

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provision of equal rights and opportunities to them. The individuals, belonging to lower
castes, who are engaged in impure jobs, should be provided with the opportunities to augment
their status.

In households in urban areas, when individuals make visits to the homes of the
individuals to carry out the jobs of cleaning or sweeping, they are kept at a distance.
Generosity is depicted by giving them meals. But meals are given in separate utensils.
Though these factors are still prevalent, but it needs to be ensured that these individuals are
communicated with in an effective manner. The significance of education is recognized by
individuals, belonging to all categories and backgrounds. It needs to be ensured that
individuals make effective use of their education and competencies in making provision of
equal rights and opportunities to all, communicating effectively and treating others with
respect and courtesy. In other words, educational skills and abilities need to be utilized to
eradicate untouchability.

8.8 Victims of Untouchability

Reference to untouchability would not be completed unless the victims of

untouchability are identified. The word ‘untouchables’ appears at the first census report 1911,
where the Hindu population has been divided into three categories, i.e. Hindu, Animists,
Tribals and depressed classes, which are known as untouchables. The untouchables are
known as outcastes, panchamas, depressed classes, adi-Hindus, exterior classes, Scheduled
Castes and so forth. In accordance to the International Webster New Encyclopaedic
Dictionary, untouchability means ‘a member of the lowest caste in India, whose touch was
regarded as impure and a defilement by Hindus of higher caste. Untouchable is the name of
comparatively recent origin, which is applied generically to the persons in the lowest classes
of the Hindu society. It implies that they cannot be touched by the orthodox Hindus of higher
castes, without contamination, but the idea among Hindus themselves is that the untouchables
cannot touch others, without making them impure (Meaning, Nature, n.d.).

According to instructions of the Government of India for taking the 1931 census,
depressed classes are those, who are required to experience ostracism to a major extent. The
areas that depict ostracism are, they are denied entry into the temples, they have the right to
use separate wells, are not allowed to sit inside the school house, but would have to remain
outside or which experience social disabilities. These disabilities vary in different parts of the
country. In south India, they are much more severe than elsewhere. At the same time, the

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castes, which belong to these classes are generally known and can in most parts of the
country be taken into consideration (Meaning, Nature, n.d.). There is a need to formulate
measures and programs to promote up-gradation of untouchables.

In order to identify the castes as untouchables, there are number of aspects that need
to be taken into consideration. These have been stated as follows: (Meaning, Nature, n.d.).

1. Whether the caste or class in question can be served by clean Brahmana or not.
2. Whether the caste or class in question can be served by barbers, water-carriers,
tailors and so forth, who serve the caste Hindus.
3. Whether the caste or class in question causes pollution of the individuals,
belonging to upper castes by close contact or vicinity.
4. Whether the caste or class in question is one from whose hands a caste Hindu can
take water.
5. Whether the caste or class in question is debarred from using public conveniences,
such as, roads, ferries, wells or schools.
6. Whether the caste or class in question are debarred from making an entry into the
temples and other religious places.
7. Whether in the case or ordinary social intercourse as well as educated members of
the caste or class in question will be treated as equal by high caste men of the
same educational qualifications.
8. Whether the castes or classes in question are merely depressed on account of its
own ignorance, illiteracy or property, and for that, would be subjected not to any
social disparity.
9. Whether it is depressed on account of the occupation followed and whether but for
that occupation, it would not be subjected to any kind of social disability.
10. Whether these castes are discriminated against to a major extent by the upper
castes and due to discriminatory treatment, they are denied certain rights and
opportunities.

Untouchability has been abolished by the Constitution of India under Article 366(24),

as “Scheduled Castes means such castes, races or tribes or parts of or groups within such
castes, races or tribes, as are deemed under Article 341, to be scheduled for the purposes of
this Constitution. Article 341 states (1) The President may with respect to any State or union
territory and where it is a state, after consultation with the Governor thereof, by public

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notification, specify the castes, races or tribes or parts of or groups within castes, races or
tribes which shall for the purpose of the Constitution be deemed to be Scheduled Castes in
relation to the state or Union Territory as the case may be (Meaning, Nature, n.d.).

Parliament may by law include in or exclude from the list of Scheduled Castes
specified in the notification issued under clause I. Any caste, race or tribe or part of the group
within any caste, race or tribe, but save as aforesaid a notification issued under the said clause
shall not be varied by any subsequent notification. Article 341 and Article 366(24) both refer
to castes, races and tribes as Scheduled Castes. Such specification is to be made after
consultation with the concerned governors. Such castes can be made publicly known by
public notification and the Parliament is empowered to include in or exclude from the list of
Scheduled Caste any caste, race or tribe. Therefore, Article 341 merely laid down the
procedure of preparing the list of Scheduled Caste any caste, race or tribe (Meaning, Nature,
n.d.).

It is necessary to see whether the meaning assigned to Scheduled Castes under clause
(24) of Article 366 of the Constitutions and under the Constitution (S.C.) Order, 1950 has
been accepted for the purpose of the protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955, the answer would
be affirmative, as it has been specifically said so under Section 2(db). Due to the lack of the
definition of “untouchable” and acceptance of the meaning of Scheduled Caste as assigned to
it the Constitution (S.C.) Order 1950, under the Protection of the Civil Right Act, 1955, the
Scheduled Castes converted to Christianity and Buddhism do not derive complete benefit of
the said Act, although for practical purposes as caste-men their position remained as it was
before their conversion (Meaning, Nature, n.d.).

For the purpose of the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 there was a mention in the
Bill under Section 2 clause (f) that “untouchable means a member of the Scheduled Caste as
defined in clause (24) of Article 366 of the Constitution, and includes any other person who
by custom or usage is regarded as an untouchable by any community or section thereof. As
inquiry is conducted into the history of the list of Scheduled Castes, specified and enclosed as
the ninth scheduled to the Government of India Act, 1935. It was due to untouchability, the
special name of the Scheduled Castes came into existence. Therefore, it can be stated that the
individuals, who were once recognized as broken men, were later on called as depressed
classes, exterior castes and untouchables, and who are now legally known as Scheduled

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Castes or the converts to other religions are referred to the possible victims of untouchability
(Meaning, Nature, n.d.).

8.9 Recommendations to Eradicate Untouchability

In spite of Governmental and non-Governmental steps, there has been prevalence of

untouchability in various parts of the country. In the present existence as well, the
individuals, belonging to upper castes discriminate against the individuals, belonging to
lower castes and are engaged in impure occupations. Untouchability is regarded as the major
social problem, which needs to be eradicated in order to bring about progression of the
individuals, communities and nation as a whole. It is of utmost significance for the
individuals, especially belonging to poverty stricken, deprived and marginalized sections of
the society to generate awareness in terms of the recommendations to eradicate
untouchability. These have been stated as follows: (Gayathri, 2017).

Significance of Education

Education is not only considered significant for acquiring knowledge and enhancing
competencies of the individuals, but it is also regarded as an important instrument in enabling
the individuals provide equal treatment to all the individuals and eradicate the practice of
untouchability. Efforts need to be made for the spread of education among the individuals,
particularly, belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-economically backward section
of the society. Research has indicated that it is among these individuals that the practice of
untouchability has been common. Hence, it is vital to generate awareness among these
individuals in terms of providing equal rights and opportunities to others. Additionally, the
courses of action ought to be made by the Government for the spread of general and
specialized education among the Harijans. Assistance is provided in the form of grants,
books, bags, reading materials, stationary and so forth.

Economic Facilities

The financial state of the untouchables still keeps on being despondent. Harijan up-
liftment would remain a devout expectation and the length of their financial position stays
unaltered. Consequently, they ought to be given professional preparation in different
specialities and specialized attitudes and monetarily ought to be helped to begin less scale and
house businesses of their own. Lack of financial resources among the Harijans must be
expelled through open doors for beneficial business and changes in the economic well-being.

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These individuals need to be helped with provision of land, water system offices, supply of
bullocks, agrarian instruments, seeds and excrements, improvements in the provincial
bungalow, advancement of interchanges, agreeable social orders and so forth are useful from
number of aspects in making improvements in their financial position. In this manner, for the
destruction of untouchability, all the monetary offices ought to be given to the untouchables.

Housing Facilities

The housing facilities are regarded to be of utmost significance in sustenance of living

conditions in an adequate manner. In the present existence, Harijans live in the slums, which
are in a deprived state. Furthermore, they are segregated from the residential areas of the
higher castes. Deprived housing facilities are regarded as major factors that not only have an
effect upon their health conditions, but also morality and ethics. Therefore, Harijans need to
be provided with adequate housing conditions to bring about improvements in their living
conditions. When programs and measures are being formulated to bring about improvements
in the housing facilities of the individuals, they are able to bring about progressions in their
living conditions. It is vital to provide housing accommodations to the homeless Harijans. In
addition, it is essential to make provision of financial assistance for the repairing of new and
old houses.

Employment Facilities

Employment opportunities are regarded to be of utmost significance in bringing about

improvements in the living conditions of the individuals. It is necessary to provide assistance
to these individuals to look for employment opportunities in accordance to their skills and
aptitude. For bringing about improvements in the living conditions of the Harijans, they need
to get engage in jobs, generate a source of income and sustain their living conditions
satisfactorily. For bringing about changes in the way of life of Harijans and others in reverse
classes, Government is formulating measures and programs that are focusing upon
developing skills and abilities, providing employment facilities and bringing about
improvements in their overall quality of lives. When the Harijans are engaged in employment
opportunities, they need to ensure, they render a wholehearted contribution and put in
dedication and hard-work. In addition, it is vital for them to inculcate the traits of morality
and ethics.

Liberation from Polluted Occupations

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 Harijans are engaged in polluted occupations. Their participation in polluted
occupations is regarded as a major impediment within the course of up-gradation of their
living conditions. Furthermore, due to involvement in polluted occupations, they also were
prohibited from entering various places as the upper castes. Therefore, in order to bring about
improvements in their status, it is essential to liberate them from participation in polluted
occupations. Participation in polluted occupations prohibits Harijans to interact with the
mainstream society. The other castes possess this viewpoint that interaction with the
individuals, involved in polluted occupations would pollute their status. Socialization is
regarded as one of the essential aspects that leads to effective progression of the individuals
and communities. Therefore, when Harijans would get liberated from polluted occupations,
they would be able to develop interaction with the mainstream society. Furthermore, they
would augment their knowledge, competencies and aptitude.

Abolition of Caste System

Caste system is the root cause of the origin of untouchability. In the caste system, the
individuals, belonging to upper castes regarded the individuals, who are involved in impure
occupations as untouchables. The untouchables are forbidden from making an entry into the
places, which are visited by the upper castes. They are kept at a distance, are made to sit on
the floor, made to eat and drink in separate utensils and their occupations are impure. In the
present existence as well, the individuals, who are engaged in impure occupations, such as,
cleaning, sweeping, removing human and animal carcasses are regarded as untouchables. In
order to bring about improvements in the status of the Harijans, it is essential to abolish the
caste system. The abolition of the caste system is regarded indispensable for the eradication
of untouchability and considering all individuals as equals.

Encouragement of Inter-Caste Marriages

Encouragement of inter-caste marriages is one of the operative means for the

eradication of untouchability. By the inter-caste marriages, not only two persons of different
castes but their families too shall be united. Therefore, for the abolition of the caste system
and for the eradication of untouchability, it is essential to encourage inter-caste marriages.
The encouragement of inter-caste marriages enable the individuals to form connections and
terms with each other. The individuals will learn to accept the others and treat them with
respect and courtesy. Furthermore, encouragement of inter-caste marriages will encourage the
individuals to accept the factors, such as, caste, creed, race, religion, ethnicity, occupation

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and socio-economic background. Though there have been formulation of measures and
programs that may encourage inter-caste marriages, but still in the present existence,
individuals are prohibiting inter-caste marriages. But the encouragement of inter-caste
marriages is regarded as one of the indispensable aspects in eradicating untouchability.

Propaganda against Untouchability

Public awareness is necessary to eradicate untouchability. For the annihilation of

untouchability, publicity ought to be tirelessly co-ordinated by the Government and other
social associations against this fiendishness through the comprehensive communications of
correspondence, such as, radio, television, daily paper and so forth. Every instructive
organization ought to likewise work towards this path. As a result, the sentiments of
untouchability discover no place in the psyches of individuals and it is naturally destroyed.
Throughout the country, among the individuals, belonging to all communities, categories and
backgrounds, awareness need to be generated that untouchability is regarded as one of the
societal problems that prove to be a major impediment within the course of bringing about
improvements in their status. Therefore, it is vital for the individuals to be aware that
untouchability is regarded as one of the severe problems that needs to be eradicated and equal
rights and opportunities need to be provided to all, irrespective of caste, creed, race, religion,
ethnicity, education, occupation, age, gender and socio-economic background.

Effective Communication

Effective communication is regarded as one of the essential aspects in bringing about

up-gradation in the status of Harijans and abolishing untouchability. Through effective
communication, they are provided with information in terms of various factors that are
necessary in bringing about improvements in their overall quality of lives. Research has
indicated that Harijans are in most cases unaware of various methods and approaches that are
necessary in bringing about improvements in their overall quality of lives. They are not sure
in terms of the strategies that need to be put into operation to provide solutions to various
kinds of problems and challenges that they are experiencing. In order to augment
communication skills of Harijans, it is necessary to make provision of some education and
enhance the basic literacy skills of reading, writing and numeracy. Hence, effective
communication can also render a significant contribution in eradicating untouchability.

Organization of Seminars

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 In rural and remote areas, the individuals are residing in the conditions of poverty and
backwardness. They are non-literates and are employed in the agricultural sector to a major
extent. In these areas, as well as in urban areas, there are Harijans. Organization of seminars
is regarded as one of the essential aspects that are rendering a significant contribution in
generating awareness among individuals in terms of bringing about improvements in their
overall quality of lives. In the seminars, speeches are given by experts and professionals that
are competent and aware of various areas. They deliver speeches, so Harijans are able to
acquire an efficient understanding in terms of various factors that would help them to sustain
their living conditions in a well-organized manner. They need to be made aware that one
should not discriminate against each other and make provision of equal rights and
opportunities. Not only in rural areas, but seminars are organized in urban areas as well to
generate awareness among Harijans in terms of various factors and to provide solutions to
their problems.

8.10 Access to Education by Dalits and Untouchables

The discriminatory treatment against the dalits and untouchables within the
educational system is a comprehensive problem in the caste-affected countries. Alienation,
social exclusion and physical abuse transcend all levels of education from nursery schools till
the university level. Illiteracy and drop-out rates are high among these communities. There
are number of social and physical factors that are responsible for high drop-out rates. The
major causes that lead to a high drop-out rate among dalits and untouchables are stated as
follows:

Lack of Financial Resources

In order to acquire good-quality education, financial resources are regarded to be of

utmost significance. In the acquisition of education, there are number of aspects that need to
be taken into consideration. These include, books, stationary, reading materials,
transportation costs, and so forth. The individuals, belonging to dalit and untouchable
communities are engaged in polluted and low paying jobs. They do not possess adequate
resources to meet the expenses related to education. Therefore, lack of financial resources are
major barriers within the course of acquisition of education. Research has indicated, even
when the children belonging to these communities are enrolled in schools, due to lack of
financial resources, they get compelled to drop out, before their educational skills are honed.

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Therefore, it can be stated that lack of financial resources are regarded as one of the major
causes of high drop-out rate.

Poverty and Backwardness

The conditions of poverty and backwardness are high among these communities.
When they are residing in the conditions of poverty and backwardness, they form the main
objective of alleviating these conditions by getting engaged in jobs. In this manner, they do
not recognise the significance of education and as a result these individuals are non-literates
on a large scale. Due to the prevalence of the conditions of poverty and backwardness, these
individuals are unable to recognize the significance of education. They do not possess
adequate resources that would enable them to get enrolled in educational institutions and
enhance their educational skills and abilities. Therefore, it can be stated that conditions of
poverty and backwardness are barriers, which may not only prohibit the individuals from
getting enrolled in educational institutions, but also compel them to drop out prematurely.

Inadequate Teaching-Learning Methods

In rural areas, the system of education is not in a well-developed state. There are
number of factors that are responsible for this. These include, inadequate teaching-learning
methods, lack of teaching-learning materials, lack of infrastructure and facilities,
inappropriate evaluation methods, lack of extra-curricular and creative activities,
inappropriate attitude on the part of the teachers, discriminatory treatment, particularly
against girls, lack of transportation facilities, the teachers as well as the students experience
problems in achieving academic goals and the overall environmental conditions of the
schools are not in a well-developed state. Therefore, due to these factors, the individuals are
unable to augment their educational skills and abilities. Inadequacy in the teaching-learning
methods is one of the major barriers within the course of acquisition of education. In other
words, when the teachers will not put into operation, the teaching-learning methods in an
appropriate manner, they will be unable to augment the knowledge and abilities of students
and carry out their job duties in a well-organized manner.

Lack of Teaching-Learning Materials

Teaching-Learning materials are the materials that are used to implement the
teaching-learning processes. It is the job duty of the teachers to put into practice appropriate
teaching materials in accordance to the needs and requirements of the students, their subjects

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and grade levels. On the other hand, learning methods are the methods that are put into
operation by the students to augment their skills and abilities and achieve academic goals. In
schools in rural areas, the teaching-learning materials are not in a well-developed state. Due
to this factor as well, there is a high drop-out rate among individuals. As it has been stated
above that individuals, belonging to dalit communities are residing in the conditions of
poverty and backwardness, hence, they are unable to make provision of adequate teaching-
learning materials, which would facilitate acquisition of education. Therefore, lack of
teaching-learning materials are crucial factors that lead to high drop-out rates.

Discriminatory Treatment

In educational institutions, the girls, belonging to dalit communities experience

discriminatory treatment to a major extent. The discriminatory treatment is primarily
reflected in their activities. When there are organization of tasks and functions in schools,
male students are primarily encouraged towards participation in tasks and activities. These
may be related to academics, extra-curricular and creative activities and so forth. Whereas,
girls are in some cases discouraged from participation and as a result experience
discriminatory treatment. Furthermore, girls have even experienced violent and criminal acts
such as, sexual harassment, verbal abuse, physical abuse and acid attacks. Due to the
prevalence of these factors, the girls usually drop out of schools, before their educational
skills are honed. Therefore, it is indispensable in educational institutions to make provision of
equal rights and opportunities to all individuals, irrespective of caste, creed, race, religion,
gender, age, educational qualifications, occupation and socio-economic background.

Lack of Understanding of Significance of Education

The individuals, belonging to dalit communities are unable to recognize the

significance of education. As they are engaged in impure jobs, they possess the viewpoint
that in their jobs, they would not be able to make use of educational skills and abilities in any
manner. For instance, in the job of cleaning the sewers, they would not be able to obtain the
opportunities to make effective use of their skills and abilities. Hence, they usually form the
viewpoint that they need to work diligently and resourcefully to make money. They look for
jobs to earn some money, so they can sustain their living conditions satisfactorily. Therefore,
it can be stated that these individuals lack the understanding in terms of significance of
education. But in the present existence, there have been transformations taking place in the

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viewpoint of individuals and they are recognising the significance of education. They feel
educational skills would help them to acquire reputed employment opportunities.

Strict Attitude on the Part of Teachers

In some schools, in urban as well as in rural communities, teachers possess a strict

attitude. Research has indicated that teachers have even implemented acts of physical abuse
and verbal abuse upon students, due to which they have even been suspended from schools.
When the students possess the viewpoint that teachers are strict, they do not treat students
with respect and courtesy, they drop out from schools, before their educational skills are
honed. Therefore, in order to retain students, it is not only essential for the teachers to
implement teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies in an appropriate manner,
but they also need to treat students with respect and kindness. Before the organization of tests
and exams, they should provide them sufficient time for preparation and for the completion
of lengthy assignments. When the teachers treat students, particularly belonging to dalit
communities with respect and kindness, they develop motivation towards studies and are able
to acquire an efficient understanding of the academic concepts.

Lack of Interest in Studies

The students, belonging to dalit communities usually lack interest in studies. Research
has indicated that they are unable to acquire an efficient understanding of academic concepts.
This is apparent that when they will not be able to understand the academic concepts, they
will be unable to score good grades. When students experience setbacks in their academic
performance, they will not be able to achieve academic goals and objectives satisfactorily.
Hence, they experience lack of interest in studies. Research has indicated that in rural areas,
schools are located at a distance from homes and the means of transportation are also not in a
well-developed state. In this way, the students experience problems in transferring from home
to schools and in returning back home. Therefore, when they encounter impediments within
the course of acquisition of education and getting enrolled in schools, they do not tend to
develop interest in studies.

Inability to Participate in Creative Activities

In rural areas, in schools, the organization of extra-curricular and creative activities is

not in a well-developed state. Research has indicated that individuals, belonging to these
communities generally develop interest in creative activities, but in schools, they are not been

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provided with the opportunities to depict their skills and abilities. Creative activities are
regarded as an integral part of education. Participation in these activities stimulate the mind-
sets of the students and motivate them towards learning. When there are not any provision of
creative activities, when students are not provided with the opportunities to depict their skills
and abilities in various areas, such as, dance, music, artworks, handicrafts, role playing, they
usually do not feel motivated towards acquisition of education. Therefore, lack of
opportunities and inability to participate in creative activities is one of the important causes
that compel them to drop out of schools, prematurely.

Motivation towards Acquisition of Employment Opportunities

The individuals, belonging to dalit communities and poverty stricken, deprived and
marginalized sections of the society have the main objective of alleviating the conditions of
poverty and backwardness. In order to achieve this objective, they need to get engaged in
employment opportunities. Even when these individuals are engaged in minority and low
paying or polluted jobs, they feel contented that they are making use of their competencies
and abilities and working diligently towards sustenance of their living conditions. They are
generating income through their work. In the present existence, they have recognized the
significance of education and possess the viewpoint that through acquisition of education,
they will be able to acquire knowledge and augment their skills and bring about
improvements in their living conditions. Therefore, it can be stated that motivation towards
acquisition of employment opportunities is one of the major factors leading to discontinuation
of education and dropping out prematurely.

Measures to Promote Education among Dalits and Untouchables

The levels of education are low among dalits and untouchables. In order to lead to
their effective growth and development, there is a need to formulate measures to promote up-
gradation of dalits and untouchables. The measures to promote education are regarded
indispensable, as education is one of the vital instruments that facilitates enrichment of the
lives of the individuals. These have been stated as follows:

Enrichment of Teaching-Learning Methods and Instructional Strategies

In educational institutions at all levels, it is essential to implement effective teaching-

learning methods and instructional strategies. There are certain factors that need to be taken
into consideration, these include, grade levels of students, academic concepts, subjects and

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academic goals. The educators need to be well-equipped in terms of teaching-learning
methods and instructional strategies. In other words, it is crucial for them to augment their
knowledge and competencies. Within the classroom setting, when the educators are
instructing and imparting knowledge in terms of academic concepts, they need to ensure, they
implement appropriate teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies. The main
objective of these is to ensure that students acquire an efficient understanding of the academic
concepts and subjects and develop motivation towards learning. These are considered vital in
augmenting the system of education as well as in promoting education among untouchables
and dalits.

Implementation of Teaching-Learning Materials

Teaching-learning materials are regarded to be of utmost significance in enabling the

individuals to acquire an efficient understanding of the academic concepts. When the
educators are imparting instruction to the students, they need to put into operation appropriate
teaching materials. Whereas, when the students are learning or working on assignments and
projects or preparing for tests, they need to ensure they implement appropriate learning
materials. The various types of teaching-learning materials are, textbooks, notes, articles,
charts, graphs, maps, other reading materials and technologies. In the present existence,
internet has been used to a major extent in acquiring an efficient understanding of the
academic concepts. The educators are making use of it to prepare for lesson plans, whereas,
students also make use of it to augment their knowledge in terms of academic concepts.
Therefore, implementation of effective teaching-learning materials is one of the crucial
aspects in augmenting the system of education and encouraging dalits and untouchables
towards acquisition.

Promoting Means of Transportation

As it has been stated above that in rural areas, schools are located at a distance and
individuals experience problems in transferring from their homes to schools. The rural
individuals are primarily employed in the agricultural sector and farming practices. They
experience problems in taking their young children to schools and bringing them back home.
Therefore, in order to encourage these individuals towards acquisition of education, it is
essential to bring about improvements in the means of transportation. Another important
aspect is, the schools in rural areas need to promote means of transportation. There should be
school buses, which would pick up students from bus stops located nearby their homes and

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after the school hours, they would take back students to their homes. Therefore, it can be
stated that improvements in transportation networks would facilitate acquisition of education
among dalits and untouchables.

Providing Equal Rights and Opportunities

In educational institutions in rural as well as in urban communities, the dalits and

untouchables have been discriminated against. The discriminatory treatment that has been
prevalent is primarily against women and girls. It was believed that they possessed low skills
and abilities and would be unable to render a significant contribution in any tasks and
activities. Therefore, there is a need to bring about a change in this perspective. In
educational institutions as well as in other places, equal rights and opportunities need to be
provided to women and girls, particularly belonging to dalit communities. When equal rights
and opportunities need to be provided to them, they will be able to develop motivation
towards studies and there will be an increase in the enrolment rate. Therefore, it can be stated
that equal rights and opportunities to dalits and untouchables will facilitate acquisition of
education among them.

Development of Infrastructure and Other Facilities

In educational institutions, it is essential to bring about improvements in infrastructure

and other facilities. In rural schools, the infrastructure and other facilities are not in a well-
developed state. These include, classrooms, furniture, restrooms, clean drinking water,
technologies, electricity, heating and cooling equipment in accordance to the weather
conditions and the overall environment. It is of utmost significance for promoting
development of infrastructure and other facilities for achieving the academic goals and
objectives satisfactorily and for enhancing the overall system of education. The members of
the educational institutions feel pleasurable and contented within the school environment. All
the members of the school, including, educators, staff members and students will be able to
concentrate upon their tasks and functions and generate the desired academic outcomes.
Therefore, it can be stated that development of infrastructure and other facilities are regarded
to be of utmost significance in promoting education among dalits and untouchables.

Development of Skills

One of the important measures to promote education among dalits and untouchables is
development of skills among them. The important skills that need to be taken into account

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are, conflict resolution skills, decision making skills, communication skills and time
management skills. In the cases of occurrence of conflicts and disagreements, it is essential
for the individuals to put into operation, peaceful conflict resolution methods. In other words,
individuals should settle their conflicts and disagreements peacefully. Decision making is
regarded as an integral part of lives of the individuals, therefore, it is vital for them to
implement decision making skills in an appropriate manner. Communication skills are vital
for the individuals to develop to get engaged in various tasks and to achieve the desired
outcomes. One cannot carry out any tasks in isolation, therefore, it is vital for the individuals
to augment communication skills. Time management skills are the ones, which enable the
individuals to carry out certain tasks and activities in a well-organized manner. The
individuals assign priorities and first carry out the task which is most important. Therefore, it
can be stated that knowledge in terms of these skills would not only enable dalits and
untouchables to acquire education, but also achieve personal and professional goals.

Augmenting Technical Skills

In the present existence, it is indispensable to augment one’s technical skills to carry

out one’s tasks and activities satisfactorily. In educational institutions, in some cases, the
students are unable to acquire an efficient understanding of the academic concepts. Hence,
when they need to augment their understanding they make use of the internet. In addition,
there have been apps, which are facilitating adequate understanding of academic concepts
and enable them to achieve the desired academic outcomes. In rural areas as well, there have
been initiation of training centres, which are contributing effectively in augmenting technical
skills of rural individuals. Research has indicated that dalits and untouchables are making use
of mobile phones and computers. In the present existence, they have recognized the
significance of education and are even getting enrolled in higher educational institutions.
Therefore, bringing about improvements in technical skills is one of the indispensable factors
in acquisition of education.

Promoting Skills Development Programs

The skills development programs are the ones that focus upon augmenting the skills
and abilities of the individuals. It is vital to promote skills development programs. These
programs have the main objective of honing the skills and abilities of the individuals, so they
can make operative use of them in sustaining their livelihoods. There are number of areas in
terms of which individuals augment their skills. These include, arts and crafts, plumbing,

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carpentry, electric work, repair work, painting, gardening, cooking, driving and so forth. The
individuals make selection of the fields in accordance to their interests and abilities. For
instance, when an individual develops interest in production of handicrafts and artworks, they
may join training centres, where they are provided with knowledge in terms of production of
various kinds of handicrafts and artworks. In educational institutions too, creative activities
are focused upon. Therefore, it can be stated that initiation of skills development programs
are regarded to be of utmost significance in encouraging dalits and untouchables towards
acquisition of education.

Organization of Workshops and Seminars

Organization of workshops and seminars is regarded as an integral part of education.

Normally, workshops and seminars are organized in terms of a particular topic or academic
concept. When the educators feel that students need to augment their knowledge and
understanding in terms of particular area, the workshop and seminar is organized. In
workshops and seminars, educators are even invited from other educational institutions and
they give speeches and presentations. Furthermore, the students are provided with the
opportunities to participate and present papers. In this manner, they are able to augment their
presentation and communication skills. In some educational institutions, the organization of
workshops and seminars take place annually, whereas, in other cases, they are organized once
in six or three months. Therefore, it can be stated that organization of workshops and
seminars are vital aspects in encouraging dalits and untouchables towards enhancing their
educational skills.

Formulation of Rules

In educational institutions, formulation of rules is one of the factors that is of utmost

significance in enhancing the system of education. When rules are formulated, it needs to be
ensured, they are contributing significantly towards enhancing the system of education. Rules
are related to number of aspects, these are, timings, behavioural traits, class schedule,
providing equal rights and opportunities to all, laws against sexual harassment and so forth.
Morality and ethics are important traits that all the members of the educational institutions are
required to put into operation. In order to carry out their job duties in a well-organized
manner and augment the system of education, it is necessary to communicate with each other
in an appropriate manner. It needs to be ensured that dalits and untouchables are not
discriminated against on the basis of any factors and should be given equal rights and

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opportunities. Therefore, it needs to be ensured, rules are formulated in an appropriate
manner, which may encourage dalits and untouchables towards acquisition of education.

8.11 Welfare Measures for Dalits and Untouchables

In India, throughout the country, there has been prevalence of dalit population and
untouchables. It is vital to focus upon their development in order to lead to effective growth
and development of the communities and nation as a whole. Welfare measures are regarded
to be of utmost significance in order to lead to their up-gradation. The welfare measures need
to be taken into account in terms of areas, which have been stated as follows:

Protect the Rights of the Elderly Individuals

Rights are referred to the privileges that contributes in promoting well-being of the
individuals. When individuals have certain rights, they are able to lead a fulfilled life and
achieve personal and professional goals. The protection of rights of the elderly individuals,
belonging to dalit communities is an important aspect in promoting well-being. The elderly
individuals, who are above 80 years of age need care and assistance. Hence, it needs to be
ensured that elderly individuals are given certain rights and privileges. The important rights
are, right to vote, right to ensure security, right to protection and so forth. These rights would
render a significant contribution in promoting well-being of the elderly individuals and they
would feel protected.

In the climate, where the human rights field has become specialized to a large extent,
the elderly individuals, belonging to dalit communities are able to benefit. The perception of
old age is that rights should be protected of elderly individuals. As it is comprehensively
understood that in old age, individuals experience various types of health problems and
illnesses. Vocabulary and usage of words, begin to decline at the age of 70 and in some cases,
individuals are not ambulatory and even need assistance to carry out the activities of daily
living. Therefore, when they are provided with rights, they feel protected and are able to
sustain their living conditions satisfactorily.

Ensure Financial Security

Financial security refers to peace of mind, when the individuals are not concerned
regarding their income being enough to cover the expenses and to enhance their overall living
conditions. It is vital for the individuals to have sufficient financial resources to meet their
daily needs and requirements. It is also necessary to save enough money for future. In order

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to sustain their living conditions in a well-organized manner, it is necessary to take into
consideration various areas, i.e. education, health care and medical, housing and shelter, diet
and nutrition and meeting daily expenses. When the individuals will possess sufficient
financial resources, only then they will be able to ensure financial security and bring about
improvements in their living conditions.

The dalits and untouchables need to be aware of the fact that it is essential for them to
ensure financial security. There have been initiation of schemes to promote financial security
of these individuals. Microfinance is the category of financial services that are aimed to
provide assistance to individuals and small businesses, who lack access to conventional
banking and related services. Microfinance includes microcredit, the provision of small loans
to poverty stricken individuals, savings and checking accounts, microfinance and payment
schemes. The initiation of the scheme of microfinance has been beneficial to individuals,
belonging to poverty stricken, deprived and marginalized sections of the society. Hence, this
scheme has been effective in ensuring financial security.

Promote Well-being

In promoting well-being, there are number of aspects that need to be taken into
consideration. These include, education, health, peace, morality and safety. When the
individuals acquire education, they are able to augment their knowledge and competencies,
necessary to enrich one’s lives. Health is important. When the individuals possess good
health, they will be able to carry out their job duties adequately. Peace is necessary for
promoting well-being of individuals, communities and nation as a whole. When the
individuals will have peace of mind, they will carry out their tasks wholeheartedly. Morality
enables the individuals to depict righteousness, honesty and decency in implementation of
tasks and activities as well as in dealing with others. Safety is important in promoting well-
being. One needs to feel safe and secure to promote well-being and enrich one’s lives.

The dalits and untouchables are in a deprived state. Measures need to be formulated to
promote their well-being. When formulating measures and schemes and generating
information among them, it is essential to put emphasis upon the above stated five factors.
The dalits and untouchables are normally non-literates or possess low literacy skills.
Therefore, when they are well-aware of these five aspects, they will be able to lead to
enhancement of their lives. In the present existence, dalits and untouchables are generating
information in terms of these aspects and are rendering a significant contribution in

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promoting well-being. These aspects will help them to achieve their personal and
professional goals.

Adequate Diet and Nutrition

Diet and nutrition is regarded as an important aspect in achieving or maintaining a

good state of health. Generally, a balanced diet contains adequate proportions of
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, calcium and minerals. These are essential in
promoting good health of the individuals. Lack of essential nutrients may cause illnesses and
health problems. The human body is an adaptable organism, and a wide range of dietary
patterns and food intake can lead to good health and nutritional well-being. The lifestyles of
the individuals and social and cultural backgrounds determine to a major extent, which diet to
consume. For instance, when the individuals are engaged in manual jobs, it is essential for
them to consume nutritious diet, so they can obtain the required energy.

The dalits and untouchables are residing in the conditions of poverty and
backwardness to a major extent. Due to these conditions, they are experiencing problems in
meeting their nutritional requirements. But in the present existence, there have been measures
that are contributing efficiently in the fulfilment of the dietary requirements. For instance,
free meals are provided on daily basis in religious places, such as, temples, and gurudwaras.
When these individuals are engaged in jobs, which give them less pay and do not even have
proper housing accommodation and are residing on the streets, they are dependent to a major
extent upon the provision of free meals. Free meals are also provided to these individuals by
wealthy individuals at least once a week or month. Hence, these measures are supportive to
dalits and untouchables in fulfilling their nutritional requirements.

Medical and Health Care

Medical and health care facilities are regarded as indispensable for the individuals,
belonging to various age groups, categories and backgrounds. The dalits and untouchables are
subjected to many disadvantages in the accessibility of medical and health care facilities.
Among these individuals, utilization of medical and health care facilities tend to be lower and
mortality rates tend to be higher than among the members of the higher castes. In order to
make provision of medical and health care services to dalits and untouchables, there have
been introduction of schemes. One of the most recent government-sponsored initiatives to
improve health care access to dalits includes a state-government-funded health insurance
scheme called the Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY). RSBY allows the beneficiaries

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to make a selection between public and private hospitals and enables the hospitals compete
for their clients and patients.

The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) includes, the scaling up of the public
spending of two to three percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by 2012 for the
vulnerable sections of the population in main geographic areas. Furthermore, an increased
flexibility of the central and state funds, particularly among the health care facilities that
involve the local governing bodies. In rural areas too, there have been initiation of health care
and medical facilities. In urban areas, as well as in rural areas, there are also establishment of
health care facilities, where medical treatments are provided free of cost. The individuals,
belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-economically backward sections of the society
cannot afford medical treatment, hence, they would certainly benefit from these schemes.
Therefore, it can be stated that programs and schemes have contributed significantly in
making provision of medical and health care facilities among dalits and untouchables.

Protection to Life and Property

Every individual enjoys a fundamental human right which are enshrined in every
constitution which includes, the right or freedom to life and to own property. Research has
indicated that the rate of homelessness is high among dalits and untouchables. These
individuals migrate from rural areas to urban areas to look for better opportunities to sustain
their living conditions satisfactorily. Their jobs are low paying, which may not enable them to
afford housing accommodation and end up being homeless. Homelessness is regarded as one
of the major impediments within the course of protecting one’s life and property. Therefore,
it is indispensable to formulate measures and schemes that would alleviate homelessness and
protect life and property. These individuals feel unsafe to a major extent, particularly in terms
of protection of life and property and the major causes are homelessness and lack of financial
resources.

There have been instances, when the dalits and untouchables receive various types of
threats and mistreatments in terms of their life and property. When they are residing on the
streets or roadsides, they feel threat to their lives due to weather conditions, particularly, cold
and rainfall. These individuals have experienced abuse and exploitation for property, wealth
and finances. Even though they are engaged in minority and low paying jobs, but when they
will have protection of life and property, they will generate pleasure and satisfaction.

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Therefore, it can be stated, protection of life and property is regarded as one of the important
aspects in promoting well-being of dalits and untouchables.

Psychological Well-being

Psychological well-being of the individuals is also considered an important aspect in

promoting well-being of dalits and untouchables. In promoting psychological well-being, it is
vital to manage the psychological problems of anger, trauma, depression and stress. The
dalits and untouchables are struggling hard to make ends meet. Due to lack of financial
resources, they are required to give up hopes and aspirations. Hence, due to lack of financial
resources, inability to carry out certain tasks and activities and lack of awareness, they
experience psychological problems. Psychological problems are regarded as major barriers
within the course of promoting psychological well-being. Therefore, it is vital for these
individuals to be aware in terms of the measures, necessary to promote psychological well-
being.

In medical and health care centres, the medical practitioners and health care
specialists are providing medical treatment to these individuals, particularly in the case of
health problems and illnesses. In addition, when they experience any types of psychological
problems, then too they obtain ideas and suggestions from medical doctors and health care
specialists. In order to carry out ones tasks and activities in a well-organized manner and
make improvements in the overall quality of lives, it is essential to implement solutions to
psychological problems. Therefore, when these individuals are able to find solutions to
psychological problems, they are able to promote psychological well-being.

Counselling and Guidance

Research has indicated that individuals, belonging to dalit communities are unaware
of various aspects, which are necessary to bring about improvements in the overall quality of
lives. Counselling and guidance are regarded as important facilities that are provided by
experts and professionals to guide dalits and untouchables in an adequate manner. These
individuals normally seek counselling and guidance in terms of areas, such as, education,
employment opportunities, psychological problems and providing solutions to various
problems, influencing their lives. In urban as well as in rural areas, there are counselling and
guidance facilities provided by medical and health care specialists as well as professional
counsellors. In counselling and guidance, the counsellors need to ensure that they provide

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appropriate solutions to the problems experienced by dalits and untouchables, which may be
beneficial to them.

Research has indicated that counselling and guidance facilities have really proven to
be beneficial to these individuals. For instance, when they experience problems in
understanding academic concepts, or acquiring employment opportunities to bring about
improvements in their financial position, or in alleviating psychological problems of stress,
trauma, depression and anger, they seek ideas and suggestions from counsellors. The ideas
and suggestions that are provided by counsellors need to be implemented in an appropriate
manner. When these individuals will put into operation the ideas and suggestions, they will
be able provide solutions to their problems and promote well-being. Therefore, it can be
stated that counselling and guidance facilities are regarded important in promoting well-
being.

Safety and Security

In order to promote well-being, safety and security are regarded as important aspects.
The dalits and untouchables need to be provided with information that is necessary in
promoting safety and security. There are number of factors that need to be taken into account.
These include, keeping the doors and windows locked, particularly, when alone at home, not
answering doorbells to unknown individuals, not answering unknown phone calls, not
responding to strangers, the elderly individuals should be accompanied by family members or
caregivers when going outside homes, individuals need to wear proper attire and make use of
equipment, such as, walking sticks or wheel chairs, particularly when they are not ambulatory
and need to go outside the homes, women should not travel alone during the night time,
electric appliances need to be used carefully, one should be skilled and work carefully in the
kitchen and elderly individuals should take help and support from helpers and caregivers,
when they need to get an object kept high in the shelf. Therefore, there is a need to take
precautions within as well as outside the home to promote safety and security.

In rural areas, there have been organization of speeches by individuals, who are
providing knowledge to these individuals in terms of various aspects that are necessary to
promote safety and security. Putting into operation the approaches to promote safety and
security are crucial for well-being of dalits and untouchables. When they will be safe and
secure, they will be able to not only maintain physical and psychological health, but also
carry out various tasks and functions in a well-organized manner and bring about

386
improvements in their overall quality of lives. Therefore, it can be stated that safety and
security are significant aspects in promoting well-being.

Participation in Social, Political, Economic, Religious and Cultural Activities

The dalits and untouchables are encouraged to participate in social, political,

economic, religious and cultural activities. In order to promote well-being, it is essential for
the dalits and untouchables to participate in these activities. Participation in these activities
will prove to be beneficial to them in terms of number of aspects. These include, augmenting
a social circle, enhancing communication skills, depicting one’s skills and abilities,
generating awareness in terms of various areas, augmenting creative skills, alleviating the
feelings of apprehensiveness and vulnerability, promoting well-being of the community,
generating awareness in terms of ways of up-grading financial position, developing
leadership skills and abilities to carry out the managerial functions of planning, organizing,
directing, co-ordinating and controlling and learning to cope with problems and challenges.
Therefore, it can be stated that participation in these activities help them in bringing about up-
gradations in their overall quality of lives.

It is essential to alleviate the conditions of backwardness and isolation in order to

promote well-being. When these individuals are residing in isolation and backwardness and
are practicing their own traditional customs, and beliefs, they will experience problems and
challenges in up-gradation. They will also remain unaware in terms of modern and innovative
methods. Therefore, it is vital for the dalits and untouchables to participate in social, political,
economic, religious and cultural activities. In this manner, they will be able to augment their
understanding in terms of advancements taking place and modern, scientific and innovative
methods. Therefore, participation in these activities are regarded as indispensable in not only
enhancing ones understanding but also in promoting well-being.

8.12 Conclusion

Dalits are the individuals, who have been victims of the caste system, which is the
basic structure of Hinduism. They comprise a significant portion of all the religions of India.
These religions are, Hinduism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity and Buddhism. The primary
purpose was to bring an end to caste-based discriminations, untouchability and atrocities that
they experience as Hindu untouchables or lower castes. The dalits have experienced number
of problems and challenges in terms of various aspects that are necessary in living an

387
efficient life. These are in terms of acquisition of education, employment opportunities, jobs,
wages, social interactions, political participation, housing and health. These are important
aspects, necessary to enrich the lives of the individuals. When the individuals will experience
problems in terms of these aspects, they would certainly encounter impediments within the
course of sustenance of their living. Hence, it can be stated that dalits have experienced
discriminatory treatment to a major extent.

The employment of dalits in impure jobs are regarded as major aspects that are
barriers within the course of their up-gradation and they also experience social ostracism to a
major extent. The various types of polluted jobs that dalits have been employed in are,
cleaning, sweeping, removing the carcasses of humans and animals and so forth. Hence, due
to impure occupations, they are prohibited from entering temples and other places. These
factors clearly highlight that they are in a depressed condition. The dalits experienced
discriminatory treatment to a major extent by the individuals belonging to upper and middle
classes. They were unable to acquire education, get engaged in employment opportunities or
participate in social, cultural, political, economic and religious activities. They experienced
social ostracism on a large scale.

The prevalence of discriminatory treatment against dalits and untouchables are

regarded as major barriers within the course of their up-gradation. Therefore, in not only
leading to effective growth and progression of these individuals, but also for the development
of the community and nation, it is essential to formulate measures and programs aiming at
up-gradation of dalits. In order to lead to up-gradation of dalits and untouchables, there are
number of aspects that need to be taken into consideration, these include, education,
economic facilities, employment facilities, housing facilities, liberation from polluted
occupations, abolition of caste system, encouragement of inter-caste marriages, propaganda
against untouchability, effective communication and organization of seminars. Education is
regarded as one of the important instruments, which should be encouraged and measures need
to be formulated to promote welfare of dalits and untouchables. Finally, it can be stated,
when the individuals, who are in leadership positions and possess power and authority
recognize these factors, they will be able to render a significant contribution in up-grading the
status of dalits and untouchables within the society.

388
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