Zoology Endocrinology (Unit-2)

By – Lect.
Pratikshya Mishra
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ZOOLOGY 5th SEMESTER
DSE-1 : ENDOCRINOLOGY
Unit 2: Epiphysis, Hypothalamo-hypophysial Axis
 Structure of pineal gland-
Definition of pineal gland-
The pineal gland is an endocrine gland present at the geometric center of the
brain that is essential in the circadian cycle of sleep and wakefulness of the
body.
 Since the gland is present at the posterior area of the cranial fossa in the
brain, it is also known as the epiphysis cerebri.
 The pineal gland occurs in all vertebrates, and it has been studied that
pineal-like organs can also be found in non-vertebrate animals like insects.
 It is a photo-neuro-endocrine gland that secretes hormones and other

compounds like serotonin, melatonin, and N-dimethyltryptamine.
 The most important and notable function of the pineal gland is the
production of melatonin which is produced in a rhythmic pattern.
By – Lect. Pratikshya Mishra
 The rhythmic pattern of melatonin production by the pineal gland is often
used as a marker of the phase of the internal circadian clock.
 The activity of the gland is influenced by the light received by the retina,
which is then converted from the neural input into endocrine output by the
pineal gland.
 The pineal gland has also been called ‘The Third Eye’ due to the
histological similarities between the pineal gland and the lateral eyes of
amniotic vertebrates.
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(Pineal Gland)
Structure of Pineal Gland-
 The pineal gland is a tiny pine cone-shaped gland that hangs from the roof
of the third ventricle of the brain.
 The pineal gland is a secretory neuroendocrine organ that is highly

vascularized and weighs about 100-150 mg.
 The size of the pineal gland in vertebrates is associated with the

environment, and geographical locations as the glands tend to be larger in
the vertebrates living in harsh environments.
 The secretory cells of the pineal gland are called pinealocytes that are
arranged in the form of compact cords and clusters.
 In between the cells are calcerous bodies that are prone to calcification,
the risk of which increases with age.
 The calcareous deposits are also called acervuli and are used as the most
distinguishable radiographic characteristics of the pineal gland.
 The deposits are assumed to be formed by the combination of the

polypeptide secreted by the pinealocytes and calcium accumulated
interstitially.
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 The pinealocytes in humans have a prominent nucleus and a granular

cytoplasm. The cytoplasm also contains cytoplasmic processes that
terminate into fenestrated capillaries.
 Besides, the extracellular space of the gland is occupied by neuroglia that

surrounds pinealocytes and peripheral patches.
Hormones of Pineal Gland-
 The exact function and secretions of the gland are still unknown; however,
the most important secretory product produced by the gland is melatonin.
 Melatonin is an amine-derived hormone formed from serotonin. The

release of melatonin by the pineal gland occurs in a rhythmic pattern where
the levels rise and fall depending on the diurnal cycle.
 The synthesis of melatonin is stimulated by darkness by utilizing the post-

ganglion beta-adrenergic sympathetic fibers of the cervical sympathetic
ganglia.
 The precursor of melatonin is tryptophan which is hydroxylated by the

pinealocytes into 5-hydroxytryptophan in the presence of hydroxylase.
 The most important effect of melatonin is to coordinate with the diurnal

rhythms in the body by stimulating the hypothalamus.
 Besides, several studies have indicated that melatonin can have

antigonadotrophic effects in children.
 Other effects of the hormone include downregulation of thyroid

secretion, hypothermic, sleep induction, and hypotension by stimulating
norepinephrine levels.
Function of Pineal Gland-
The following are some of the functions of the pineal gland;
1. The hormone produce by the gland is essential for the regulation of

the circadian or diurnal cycle of the body.
2. The gland functions as a mediator between the nervous system and

the endocrine system as the ganglion on the gland help to convert the photo
input from the eyes into neural output.
3. In the case of other mammals like rodents, the pineal gland

influences the action of different drugs like antidepressants and cocaine.
Function of Pineal gland in reproduction and biological rhythms -
Function of Pineal gland in reproduction-
 The hormonal activity of the pineal gland is influenced by both the dark-
light cycle and the seasonal cycle, causing it to play an important role in
the neuroendocrine control of reproductive physiology.
 This is especially evident in seasonally breeding animals, in which
reproductive function is clearly influenced by seasonal variations in the
duration of night and day. Humans are not seasonal breeders.
 Nevertheless, seasonal fluctuations have been described in human
reproduction, and the pineal gland also appears to exert an important role
in the neuroendocrine regulation of human reproductive physiology.
 There is evidence that the epiphysis is involved in the control of sexual

maturation.
 In rats, the maternal pineal appears to influence the gonadal and genital
development and function of offspring; this hypothesis has yet to be
confirmed in humans.
 The pineal apparently influences human reproductive function not only at
the hypothalamic-pituitary level, by inhibition of the hypothalamic
pulsatile secretion of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone, but also at the
gonadal level, where melatonin receptors have also been found.
 In addition, melatonin is reported to increase serum prolactin
concentrations in both rats and humans. It has been suggested that
melatonin is involved in the control of menstrual cyclicity.
Function of Pineal gland in biological rhythms -
 Melatonin is a hormone that’s mainly produced by your pineal gland. The

importance of pineal melatonin in humans is not clear, but many
researchers believe it may help to synchronize circadian rhythms in
different parts of your body.
 Circadian rhythms are physical, mental and behavioral changes that follow
a 24-hour cycle. These natural processes respond primarily to light and
dark.
 Your pineal gland releases the highest levels of melatonin when there’s
darkness and decreases melatonin production when you’re exposed to
light. In other words, you have low levels of melatonin in your blood during
the daylight hours and peak levels of melatonin during the nighttime.
 Because of this, melatonin has often been referred to as a “sleep
hormone.” While melatonin is not essential for sleeping, you sleep better
when you have the highest levels of melatonin in your body.
 Melatonin also interacts with biologically female hormones. Research has

shown that it helps in regulating menstrual cycles.
 Melatonin can also protect against neurodegeneration, which is the

progressive loss of function of neurons. Neurodegeneration is present in
conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.
 Structure of hypothalamus, Hypothalamic nuclei and

their functions-
 The endocrine system in our body is made of several types of glands that
secrete chemical messengers called hormones. These hormones circulate
and transmit information from a group of cells to another, or between
tissues and organs.
 The most important glands that comprise the endocrine system include
the thyroid, pituitary, the adrenals and the hypothalamus glands. The
hypothalamus hormones directly control and regulate a wide variety of
bodily processes.
What is Hypothalamus?
The hypothalamus is a tiny gland located towards the base of the brain and lies
above the pituitary gland. The function of hypothalamus in the brain is a vital
one; it forms a direct link between the endocrine system and the nervous
system through the pituitary gland.
Location of Hypothalamus
 The hypothalamus is a small organ located in the brain that controls

secretions from the pituitary gland which sends hormones to different
organs.
 The brain is a mass of nervous tissue at the front end of an organism that
functions as the "command and control system" of our body.
 The human brain is classified into three different main parts: the
forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain.
 The hypothalamus is part of the forebrain and is at the base of the

thalamus bordered on the sides by temporal lobes and optic tracts. It
includes many centers that control not only our body temperature, but
also our daily activities.
Structure of Hypothalamus-
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The hypothalamus has a somewhat complex structure and comprises three

regions. Each of these is made up of different kinds of nuclei. These nuclei are
groups of nerve cells or neurons that carry out many important functions, such
as secreting hormones.
The Parts of Hypothalamus are:
1. Anterior region or Supraoptic region
2. Middle region or Tuberal region
3. Posterior region or Mammillary region
Anterior Region
The anterior region is also known as the supraoptic region. The supraoptic part
is made of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei. These nuclei mostly
secrete hormones that interact with the pituitary gland to form more
hormones.
The anterior region secretes some essential hypothalamus hormones. These are:
1. Vasopressin
Vasopressin is also known as the antidiuretic hormone or ADH. It modulates the

levels of water in the body.
2. Oxytocin
The hormone oxytocin regulates several emotional responses and behaviour such
as recognition, sexual arousal, excitement and trust. It also controls some parts
of the reproductive system, such as lactation and childbirth.
3. Thyrotropin-releasing Hormone (TRH)
The TRH signals the pituitary gland to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone or

TSH.
4. Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone
The CRH stimulates the pituitary to secrete the adrenocorticotropic hormone

or the ACTH. The ACTH signals the secretion of stress hormone which is known
as cortisol.
5. Somatostatin
Somatostatin stops the pituitary gland from secreting some specific hormones.
6. Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
GnRH causes the pituitary to secrete reproductive hormones like FSH and LH.
The anterior region also helps maintain the body’s circadian rhythms and body
temperature.
Middle Region
Also known as the tuberal region, this middle region of the hypothalamus is
mostly made up of the ventromedial and arcuate nuclei. The ventromedial
nucleus helps to regulate appetite, and the arcuate plays a role in secreting
GHRH or the growth hormone-releasing hormone. It is responsible for the
proper growth and development of a body.
Posterior Region
Known as the mammillary region, the posterior region consists of the posterior
hypothalamic nucleus and the mammillary nucleus. It helps control and stabilize
body temperature and is also believed to play a role in memory and cognition.
Hypothalamic nuclei-
The hypothalamus is a bilateral collection of nuclei divided into three

zones surrounding the third ventricle and the mammillary bodies.
Generally, the periventricular zone nuclei regulate the endocrine
system, and the medial and lateral nuclei regulate autonomic and
somatic behavior.
 The dorsomedial and ventromedial nuclei are found around the mid-medial
section of the hypothalamus. The former nucleus is located inferiorly to
the latter nucleus. The posterior nucleus is directly superior to the
mammillary nucleus, which is found in the mammillary bodies.
 There are eleven major nuclei in the hypothalamus

 Hypothalamic nuclei are located within these specific regions and areas. It
is found in all vertebrate nervous systems. In mammals, magnocellular
neurosecretory cells in the paraventricular nucleus and the supraoptic
nucleus of the hypothalamus produce neurohypophysial hormones, oxytocin
and vasopressin.
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Functions of Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus connects to various parts of the central nervous system. It is

connected to the brainstem, the part of the brain that carries information
from the peripheral nerves and spinal cord to the upper part of the brain. The
brainstem
contains parts of the midbrain and hindbrain. The hypothalamus is also

connected to the peripheral nervous system. With these connections, the
hypothalamus can affect many autonomic or involuntary functions.
Besides the hypothalamus hormones, the hypothalamus also features osmotic

sensors that react to concentrations of chloride, carbon dioxide, potassium and
sodium. These osmotic sensors signal the kidneys to store or release water
depending on their respective levels. The role of hypothalamus is an essential
one and includes these following activities:
 Maintaining sleep cycles
 Connects the nervous and endocrine systems
 Balances body fluids
 Regulates blood pressure and heart rate
 Autonomic function control
 Maintains homeostasis, such as regulating body temperature, appetite and

body weight, heart rate and blood pressure, etc.
 Motor function check
 Eating and Drinking
 Emotion control
Disorders of Hypothalamus
Besides these, the hypothalamus secretes hormones that are involved in many
other functions such as appetite and thirst control. Optimum levels of
hormones in the bloodstream are necessary for the body to function properly.
Low or high levels of a particular hormone could lead to hypothalamus disorders.

These include:
 Insomnia
 Frequent urination
 Infertility
 Fluctuations in appetite and thirst
 Unusually high or low blood pressure
 Diabetes insipidus
It is important to eat a balanced diet and ensure that the hypothalamus is

healthy and functional.
 Regulation of neuroendocrine glands-

 A substantial volume of scientific evidence has been accumulated
demonstrating that biological aging is associated with functional deficits
at the cellular, tissue, organ, and system levels. Although several theories
have been proposed to explain these changes, as well as the increased risk
of disease with age, no single explanation has adequately accounted for
the diversity of physiological changes associated with age.
 The concept that deficiencies in the neuroendocrine system contribute to

aging evolved from studies indicating that
(1) The endocrine system has an important role in developmental
processes,
(2) hormones have an important trophic and integrative role in maintaining

tissue function, and
(3) hormone deficiency results in deterioration of tissue function.
 The neuroendocrine system is composed of the hypothalamus and pituitary

gland and is under the influence of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides
that regulate hypothalamic releasing and hypothalamic release inhibiting
hormones secreted into the blood vessels that connect the hypothalamus
and pituitary gland.
 The release of these hypothalamic hormones influences the secretion of

anterior pituitary hormones that subsequently regulate tissue function.
 The hypothalamus and pituitary gland have the capacity to detect humoral
secretions (hormones secreted) from target tissues and adjust hormone
production to maintain an optimal internal "milieu" appropriate for normal
function.
 It is well-established that the neuroendocrine system has a critical role

in integrating biological responses and influencing:
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(1) cellular protein synthesis and general metabolism through the release
of growth hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), respectively,
(2) reproductive function through the release of luteinizing hormone (LH),

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), prolactin, and oxytocin, and
(3) plasma electrolytes and responses to stress through regulation of the

hormones vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, or ADH) and
adrenocorticotropin (ACTH).
 In addition, the hypothalamus also has an important role in the

integration of parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system activity,
and can thereby influence a wide variety of functions, including heart
rate, blood pressure, vascular responses, and glucose metabolism.
 The hypothalamus has been implicated in the regulation of biological

rhythms by its interactions with hypothalamic nuclei.
 More recently, the regulation of fat metabolism and food intake has been
shown to be regulated through the hypothalamus by its response to the
protein, leptin.
 It should be noted that the classification of hormones and their primary

function presented here is an overly simplistic view of the
neuroendocrine system, since critical interactions occur among these
hormones that contribute to the coordinated regulation of cellular and
tissue function.
 Although the specific etiology of age-related changes in the

neuroendocrine system is unknown, it has been proposed that cellular and
molecular alterations in specific subpopulations of neurons within the
hypothalamus and pituitary, and/or supporting structures within the brain,
contribute to the decrease in tissue function.
 Some of the alterations may be related to loss of neurons or synapses,

genetic errors, and/ or the production of free radicals, all of which lead
to progressive aberrations in neurons and contribute to neuroendocrine
aging.
 As a result, the neuroendocrine theory of aging is unique when compared

to other theories of aging in that the neuroendocrine alterations are, in
many cases, not considered the primary causative factors of biological
aging, but rather are considered to be mediators of aging that are
initiated by cellular changes in specific subpopulations of neurons or
systems that closely interact with hypothalamic neurons.
 Three classic examples of age-associated changes in neuroendocrine

regulation, and the resulting consequences for tissue function, help
emphasize the importance of this system in the development of the aging
phenotype.
 First, with increasing age there is a decline in growth-hormone secretion

that results in a decrease in insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1)
production in the liver and other tissues.
 The loss of these anabolic hormones contributes to the general decline in

cellular protein synthesis, skeletal muscle mass, immune function, and
cognitive ability in rodents, nonhuman primates, and humans.
 The decrease in growth-hormone release from the pituitary gland results

from impaired release of growth-hormone-releasing hormone and
increased release of somatostatin (an inhibitor of growth hormone) from
hypothalamic neurons.
 Second, decreased secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

from hypothalamic neurons results in a decline in luteinizing hormone.
 This is the primary factor in the loss of reproductive cycles in the female
rodent, and, in conjunction with the loss of ovarian follicles, contributes to
the decline in estrogen levels in women. These latter changes result in
atrophy of secondary reproductive tissues and have been implicated in the
post-menopausal loss of bone and cognitive function.

 Decreased GnRH secretion in the male also contributes to a decrease in

LH and androgen levels and to the corresponding loss of skeletal muscle
mass and reproductive function. Finally, increased secretion of ACTH and
the adrenal hormone, cortisol, in response to stress have been reported to
contribute to atrophy and/or loss of neurons, as well as age-related
decline in cognitive function.
 These latter findings have contributed to the hypothesis that increased

levels of glucocorticoids contribute to brain aging.
 Although other mechanisms are possible, the alterations in the secretion

of hypothalamic hormones with age have been traced to deficiencies in
the secretion of brain neurotransmitters.
 For example, the activity of dopamine and norepinephrine decreases with

age, and both acute and chronic procedures used to increase levels of
these neurotransmitters in aged animals have been shown to restore some
aspects of neuroendocrine function.
 Studies have shown an increase in growth hormone release and a

restoration of some aspects of reproductive function in older animals in
response to the L-Dopa, dopamine and norepinephrine precursor.
 These findings have led investigators to conclude that a decline in

neurotransmitter activity is a contributing factor in the neuroendocrine
decline that accompanies aging. Nevertheless, the possibility that
interactions with other hypothalamic peptides, the loss of neurons, or
intracellular changes within hypothalamic neurons contribute to the loss of
function cannot be excluded.
 In fact, the inability of hypothalamic neurons to compensate for the age-

related alterations in circulating levels of hormones supports the concept
that the normal feedback mechanisms that occur within the hypothalamus
are impaired in aged animals.
 Whether these altered feedback mechanisms are related to the

deficiencies in neurotransmitters or result from other aberrations within
the aging neuroendocrine system remain to be established.
 Nevertheless, deficits in the regulation of these critical hormonal

systems contribute to deterioration of tissue function and undoubtedly
are an important factor in age-related disease and disability.
 Feedback Mechanism in Hormones
The conditions inside the hormones are altered in response to a stimulus. The
hormones are responsible for regulating the internal body temperature. A
feedback mechanism tends to speed up or inherit a procedure. Among most of
the hormones, this loop usually provides negative feedback.
Negative Feedback Mechanism
 Negative feedback mechanism occurs when the original effect of the

stimulus is less by the output.
 Negative feedback mechanisms smoothen things when they start

becoming too extreme. Example of a negative feedback mechanism is the
thyroid gland that is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism.
 The hormone secreted by the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland

to release thyroid stimulating hormone.
 In turn, the thyroid stimulating hormone triggers the thyroid gland to
release its hormones.
 When there is an increase in the thyroid levels, the hormones put a hold
on the secretion of TRH by the hypothalamus and secretion of TSH by the
pituitary gland by the feedback mechanism.
 The hormone secretion by the thyroid gland is inhibited without the

stimulation of TSH.
 The thyroid hormone levels fall very low.
 The secretion insulin by the pancreas is also being controlled by the

negative feedback mechanism.
Positive Feedback Mechanism
 It takes place when the original effect of the stimulus is enhanced by the
output.
 The conditions become extreme in this mechanism.
 When milk is secreted by a mother’s mammary glands that is an example

of a positive feedback mechanism.
 While suckling, the nerve sends signals from the nipple to stimulate the
pituitary gland to secrete prolactin.
 In turn, prolactin triggers the mammary glands to secrete milk.
 As the baby suckles more milk, more prolactin is secreted and more milk is
produced.

 What are Hormones?
The essential chemicals that are secreted from our body for the smooth
functioning of the body are called Hormones. These chemicals are secreted
from a gland known as the Endocrine Glands which are distributed throughout
the body. These chemicals control many functions like physiological and
psychological. Hormones are very important for maintaining a balance in the
body.
 What are the Functions of Hormones
Some of the important functions of hormones are the following -
 It helps in food metabolism.
 It helps in the growth and development of the body
 Helps in controlling the thirst and hunger.
 Maintaining body temperature.
 Regulating mood and cognitive functions.
 Initiating and maintaining sexual development and reproduction.
 Give a List of Important Hormones
 Estrogen- Also, termed as the sex hormone in women, this hormone helps
in bringing out puberty, prepared the uterus and body for pregnancy and also
helps in regulating periods. As the level of estrogen changes in women during
menopause, they might feel a little uncomfortable.
 Progesterone – This hormone is also a female sex hormones which
functions for the regulation of the menstrual cycle leading to pregnancy and
embryo genesis.
 Cortisol – This is the hormone that is present in our body and shows
symptoms when we are tensed, called the Stress Hormones. This hormone
increases the blood sugar, increases the heart rate and makes the body shiver.
 Melatonin – Primarily circadian rhythm or sleep cycles are controlled by

this hormone.
 Testosterone – The feeling of sex that is caused during pubery in men is

caused by Testosterones. muscle mass growth, and strength, increase in bone
density and facial hair growth, all are controlled by this hormone in men.
 What is the pituitary gland?

 The pituitary gland is located in the brain and is an endocrine gland. This
means that it produces chemicals called hormones.
 Hormones are chemical messengers which help different organs in the
body communicate with each other.
 The pituitary gland is one part of a messenger system.
 The pituitary gland helps to control your body's functions by releasing
hormones into your bloodstream.
 These hormones are transported in your blood to their target. Here they
usually cause the release of a second hormone.
 The target can either be specialised endocrine glands or other types of
body tissue such as groups of cells.
 The pituitary gland is sometimes called the master gland because it
controls several other hormone-releasing glands. Some of the glands the
pituitary gland controls are the thyroid gland, the ovaries, the testicles
(testes) and the adrenal glands.
Where is the pituitary gland located?
About the size of a pea, the pituitary gland is found at the base of the brain,
behind the bridge of your nose. The pituitary gland is very close to another part
of the brain, called the hypothalamus.
The pituitary gland has two main parts:
 The part of the pituitary gland at the front, called the anterior pituitary.
 The part of the pituitary gland at the back, called the posterior pituitary.
These two parts release different hormones which are aimed at different parts
of the body.
There is also a section between the two main parts, called the intermediate
part, which releases a single hormone. The final part of the pituitary gland is
the stalk, which connects the posterior pituitary to the hypothalamus.
How does the pituitary gland work?
 Your body is in a constant state of change. Your heart rate, blood

pressure and body temperature all change in response to what you do and
your surroundings.
 Your body has systems that constantly monitor these and other vital
functions. Not only must these systems monitor changes, they must also
respond to the changes and help the body to restore balance.
 Some of these systems involve the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.
The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are part of several loops or
circuits. The loops include other glands.
 The hormones produced by each gland complete the loops by travelling in
the bloodstream between them.
 The hypothalamus receives information from many sources about the basic
functions of your body. It uses the information it receives to help
regulate these functions.
 One of the ways the hypothalamus does this involves controlling the
pituitary gland. The hypothalamus does this by using its own hormones to
communicate with the pituitary gland.
 Among the information monitored by the hypothalamus is the level of
various hormones in the blood. The hypothalamus has special cells which
receive information from the body indicating how much of each hormone is
present in the bloodstream.
 When these hormones drop below a particular level this stimulates the
hypothalamus to release hormones. These hormones travel to the pituitary
gland, acting as the signal to the pituitary gland to produce one or more of
its hormones. The hormones produced by the pituitary gland are released
into the bloodstream.
 The bloodstream transports the pituitary hormones to other endocrine
glands, such as the thyroid gland.
 The pituitary gland hormones may then stimulate their target endocrine
glands to produce their own hormones. These locally produced hormones
do the actual work of regulating your body.
 Take the example of the control of thyroid hormones from the thyroid
gland in your neck. The hypothalamus produces a hormone called
thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH).
 TRH travels to the pituitary gland and stimulates it to release thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH).
 TSH travels to the thyroid gland and stimulates it to release thyroid
hormones, T3 and T4. When levels of T3 and T4 get high enough, levels in
the bloodstream are detected by the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus
then knows to stop releasing more TRH.
 This last part of the loop is called negative feedback and prevents
hormone levels from rising too high.

The anterior pituitary produces hormones that regulate a wide range of bodily
activities, from growth to reproduction. Whether a hormone is released by the
anterior pituitary is governed by the hypothalamus. There are at least seven
different hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary. The posterior pituitary
produces just two hormones.
The anterior pituitary hormones
Hormone released Main target Function
Adrenocorticotrophic Adrenal Stimulates the adrenal glands to

hormone (ACTH) glands produce cortisol. Cortisol is important
in controlling your metabolism, blood
sugar levels and blood pressure. It is
also an anti-inflammatory agent and
helps your body to resist certain
stresses such as bleeding or fasting.
Follicle-stimulating Ovaries - Stimulates the ovaries to produce an

hormone (FSH) women egg (ovum) for fertilisation. Also
causes an increase in the hormone
Testicles oestrogen.
(testes) - Stimulates the testicles to produce

men sperm.
Growth hormone (GH) Many The most well-known effect in children

different is to increase height. In adults and
cells of the children it helps to control the amount
body of muscle and fat in the body. It also
helps to heal injuries and it promotes
your immune system.
Luteinising hormone Ovaries - Triggers ovulation - the release of an

(LH) women egg (ovum) ready for fertilisation.
Testicles -
men Stimulates cells in the testes to
produce testosterone.
Melanocyte-stimulating Brain (not The exact role in humans is unknown. It

hormone (MSH) known for may influence brain activity. When too
sure) much is present, it may cause darkening
of the skin.
This is also produced in the

intermediate part of the pituitary
gland.
Prolactin Breasts Together with other hormones,

prolactin stimulates the breasts to
produce milk. It is also found in women
who aren't pregnant. Men also have
prolactin but its function is not
understood well.
Thyroid-stimulating Thyroid TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to

hormone (TSH) gland produce its own hormones,
triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine
(T4).
These hormones help to control many

bodily functions, including heart rate,
temperature and metabolism.
The posterior pituitary makes and releases just two hormones
Hormone released Main target Function
Antidiuretic hormone Kidneys Decreases urine production. (It causes

(ADH) more water filtered by the kidneys to
be returned to the blood. This reduces
the amount of urine.)
ADH also causes a rise in blood
pressure.
Oxytocin Breasts and Stimulates contraction of the womb

womb during childbirth. Helps breasts to
(uterus) release milk.
 Hormones and their functions -

Hormones are the body's chemical messengers. They help tissues or organs to
do their work via travelling through the bloodstream. There are several types
of hormones that act on different aspects of bodily functions. Let us have a
look at the important hormones and their functions.

 Hormones are secreted in the body by several glands that are essential
for the growth, development, reproduction, etc.
 They are the chemical substances which coordinate the activities of living
organisms and also their growth. They are secreted by special tissues in
our body through endocrine glands.
 Different hormones have different effects on the shape of the body.

 Some of these hormones work quickly to start or stop a process and some
will continually work over a long period of time to perform their functions.

 They help in body growth, development, metabolism, sexual function,

reproduction etc.
 What happens to the body when these hormones will release in more or
less quantity. This article deals with the list of important hormones
necessary for our body functions.
Important hormones and their functions :
1. Hormones of Thyroid
Thyroid gland basically releases two hormones Triiodothyronine (T3) and
Thyroxine (T4), which helps in controlling the metabolism of our body. Further,
these hormones regulate weight, determines energy levels, internal body
temperature, skin, hair etc.
2. Insulin-
This hormone is released by the pancreas, a leaf-like gland located in the

abdominal cavity behind the stomach. It allows the body to use glucose or sugar
from carbohydrates in the food for energy or to store glucose for future use.
It helps in keeping blood sugar level from getting too high i.e. hyperglycemia or
too low i.e. hypoglycemia.
3. Estrogen
It is a female sex hormone released by the ovaries. It is responsible for the
reproduction, menstruation and menopause. Excess of estrogen in the female
body increases the risk of breast cancer, uterine cancer, depression, moodiness
etc. If the estrogen level is less in female body then it leads to acne, skin
lesions, thinning skin, hair loss etc.
4. Progesterone
Progesterone hormone is produced in the ovaries, the placenta when a woman
gets pregnant and the adrenal glands. It stimulates and regulates various
functions. It plays an important role in maintaining pregnancy. It helps body to
prepare for conception, pregnancy and regulates the monthly cycle. When
pregnancy doesn’t occur, progesterone levels drop and menstrual cycle occurs.
It also plays a role in sexual desire.
5. Prolactin
This hormone is released by the pituitary gland after childbirth for lactation,
which enables female to breastfeed. Levels of prolactin hormone rise during
pregnancy i.e. it also plays an important role in fertility by inhibiting follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).
6. Testosterone-
It is a male sex hormone. It is an anabolic steroid by nature which helps in

building body muscles. In males, it plays an important role in the development of
male reproductive tissues; testes and prostate. It also promotes secondary
sexual characteristics like increasing the mass of muscles and bones, growth of
body hair etc. If testosterone is secreted insufficient in men then it may lead
to abnormalities including frailty and bone loss.
7. Serotonin-
It is a mood-boosting effect hormone or also known as nature’s feel-good
chemical. It is associated with learning and memory, regulating sleep, digestion,
regulates mood, some muscular functions etc. Due to the imbalance of serotonin
in the body, brain does not produce enough of the hormone to regulate mood or
stress level. Low level of serotonin causes depression, migraine, weight gain,
insomnia, craving of carbohydrate etc. Excess level of serotonin in the body
causes agitation, stage of confusion, sedation etc.

8. Cortisol-
This hormone is produced by the adrenal gland. It helps you stay healthy and
energetic. Its main role is to control physical and psychological stress. In
danger condition, it increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiration etc. At
stressful times body secretes cortisol to cope up with the situation. High level
of cortisol consistently causes ulcer, high blood pressure, anxiety, high levels of
cholesterol etc. Similarly, a low level of cortisol in the body causes alcoholism, a
condition responsible for chronic fatigue syndrome etc.
9. Adrenaline-
Adrenaline hormone is secreted in the medulla in the adrenal gland as well as
some of the central nervous system’s neurons. It is also known as an emergency
hormone because it initiates the quick reaction which makes the individual to
think and respond quickly to the stress. It increases the metabolic rate,
dilation of blood vessels going to the heart and the brain. During a stressful
situation, adrenaline quickly releases into the blood, send impulses to the organs
to create a specific response.
10. Growth Hormone-
It is also known as somatotropin hormone. It is basically a protein hormone

having 190 amino acids which are synthesised and secreted by the cells called
somatotrophs in the anterior pituitary. It stimulates growth, cell reproduction
cell regeneration and in boosting metabolism. It is important in human
development.

 Hypothalamohypophyseal System-
 The hypophyseal portal system is a system of blood vessels in
the microcirculation at the base of the brain, connecting
the hypothalamus with the anterior pituitary.
 Its main function is to quickly transport and exchange hormones between

the hypothalamus arcuate nucleus and anterior pituitary gland.
 The capillaries in the portal system are fenestrated (have many small
channels with high vascular permeability) which allows a rapid exchange
between the hypothalamus and the pituitary.
 The main hormones transported by the system include gonadotropin-

releasing hormone, corticotropin-releasing hormone, growth hormone–
releasing hormone, and thyrotropin-releasing hormone.
Structure
 The blood supply and direction of flow in the hypophyseal portal system
has been studied over many years on laboratory animals and human
cadaver specimens with injection and vascular corrosion casting methods.
 Short portal vessels between the neural and anterior pituitary lobes
provide an avenue for rapid hormonal exchange.
 Specifically within and between the pituitary lobes is anatomical evidence

for confluent interlobe vessels, including venules providing blood from the
anterior to the neural lobe, and capillary shunts exchanging blood between
the intermediate and neural lobes.
 Such microvascular structures indicate moment-to-moment streams of

information between lobes of the pituitary gland.
 Results of other studies showed that the neural hypophyseal stalk and
ventromedial region of the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus receive arterial
blood from ascending and descending infundibular branches and capillaries,
coming from arteries of the superior hypophyseal arterial system.
 Small ascending vessels arising from the anastomoses that connect the
upper with the lower hypophyseal arterial system also supply blood to
hypophyseal vessels.
 Many of these branches are continuous between the proximal arcuate

nucleus and anterior pituitary, enabling rapid hormone exchange.
 Other evidence indicates that capillary perivascular spaces of the median

eminence and arcuate nucleus are contiguous, potentially facilitating
hormonal messages between systemic blood and the ventral hypothalamus.
Development-
 Proper hormone secretion is crucial for the growth of the

developing fetus. In order to allow a controlled hormone secretion in the
developing organs of the fetus, stimulating hormones must be exchanged
in the regulating structures in the brain in early stages of the
development.
 Hormone-exchanging blood vessels between the hypothalamus and the

pituitary gland, similar to those of the hypophyseal portal system, can be
observed in early developmental stages of the fetus.
 In the current literature, most research is conducted using mice as model

species. In such studies, development of the hypophyseal portal system
begins as early as 14.5 dpc (days post coitum).
 Two populations of pericytes arise from the mesoderm and
the neuroectoderm and form at the approximate location of the portal
system in what will eventually become the mature brain.
 Additionally, in research involving human fetuses it has been observed

that the hypophyseal portal system fully develops by week 11.5 of the
human fetal gestation period.
 This was determined by injecting a silicone rubber compound into

specimens of various stages of gestation.
 In a specimen at week 11.5, the median eminence and infundibular stem

contained the compound, suggesting the existence of the fully developed
portal system.
 Further research in this area would help determine whether or not

development could be complete at an even earlier stage.
Function-
 Peptides released near the median eminence from hypothalamic nuclei are
transported to the anterior pituitary, where they apply their effects.
Branches from the internal carotid artery provide the blood supply to the
pituitary.
 The superior hypophyseal arteries form the primary capillary plexus that
supplies blood to the median eminence. From this capillary system, the
blood is drained in hypophyseal portal veins into the secondary plexus.
 The peptides released at the median eminence enter the primary plexus
capillaries. From there, they are transported to the anterior pituitary via
hypophyseal portal veins to the secondary plexus.
 The secondary plexus is a network of fenestrated sinusoid capillaries that

provide blood to the anterior pituitary.

 The cells of the anterior pituitary express specific G protein-coupled
receptors that bind to the neuropeptides, activating intracellular second
messenger cascades that produce the release of anterior pituitary
hormones.
Hormones that rely on the hypophyseal portal system to indirectly mediate

their function by acting as a means of transportation from various nuclei of the
hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary.
 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): regulates the release of follicle

stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone from the anterior pituitary; this
pathway plays a critical role in reproductive activity and development
 Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH): regulates the release

of adrenocorticotropic hormone from the anterior pituitary; this cascade is
primarily responsible for stress responses
 Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH): regulates the release

of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary; as the name suggests, its
main function is to help control cell growth, metabolism, and reproduction
 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH): regulates the release of thyroid-

stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary; functions to mediate
various responses in the thyroid gland, including additional hormone synthesis
 Pituitary gland disorders-
Pituitary disorders generally occur when the pituitary gland is either too active
or not active enough. Often there is a discrete piece of pituitary gland which
leads to the problems, this is called a pituitary adenoma (if it is large it may be
called pituitary macroadenoma). These are usually benign, non-cancerous
tumours. Pituitary adenomas can cause problems through:

1. Releasing excess of one or more hormone.
2. Not releasing any hormones but pressing on the normal pituitary tissue
and thus interfering with normal function; and/or
3. Causing pressure on nearby structures - for example, pressing on the

nerve of the eye, leading to blurred vision or loss of part of the vision.
Conditions where the pituitary gland produces too much of one or more of its
hormones include:
 Acromegaly
 Cushing's syndrome
 Prolactinoma
Conditions where the pituitary gland fails to produce enough hormones include:
 Adult growth hormone deficiency.
 Diabetes insipidus.
 Hypopituitarism.
 Pituitary tumours.
 Tumours of, or injury to, the hypothalamus, having a knock-on effect on

the pituitary gland.
How are pituitary gland disorders diagnosed?
 The diagnosis usually involves hormone blood tests and also brain scans.
Hormone blood tests can be taken randomly for some hormones, but
others may require specialised testing with substances that should
provoke the release or prevent release in certain conditions.
 This may require attendance at a day unit

 and having several hormone blood tests throughout the day. Usually an
MRI scan of the pituitary gland is undertaken to look for pituitary
abnormalities - eg, pituitary adenoma or cysts.
What is the treatment for pituitary gland-disorders?
 This will depend upon the cause.

 If there is hormone deficiency then this may need replacement with
tablets.
 If a tumour is discovered as the cause of the problems then pituitary

surgery may be required.
 This is usually via the nose. If there is a pituitary tumour which is found
to be cancerous then radiotherapy may be needed after surgery.
 There may also be a need for lifelong hormone replacement following any
treatment.

Zoology Endocrinology (Unit-2)

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Zoology Endocrinology (Unit-2)

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ZOOLOGY 5th SEMESTER

Unit 2: Epiphysis, Hypothalamo-hypophysial Axis

 Structure of pineal gland-

Definition of pineal gland-

 It is a photo-neuro-endocrine gland that secretes hormones and other

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Structure of Pineal Gland-

 The pineal gland is a secretory neuroendocrine organ that is highly

 The size of the pineal gland in vertebrates is associated with the

 The deposits are assumed to be formed by the combination of the

 The pinealocytes in humans have a prominent nucleus and a granular

 Besides, the extracellular space of the gland is occupied by neuroglia that

Hormones of Pineal Gland-

 Melatonin is an amine-derived hormone formed from serotonin. The

 The synthesis of melatonin is stimulated by darkness by utilizing the post-

 The precursor of melatonin is tryptophan which is hydroxylated by the

 The most important effect of melatonin is to coordinate with the diurnal

 Besides, several studies have indicated that melatonin can have

 Other effects of the hormone include downregulation of thyroid

Function of Pineal Gland-

The following are some of the functions of the pineal gland;

1. The hormone produce by the gland is essential for the regulation of

2. The gland functions as a mediator between the nervous system and

3. In the case of other mammals like rodents, the pineal gland

Function of Pineal gland in reproduction and biological rhythms -

Function of Pineal gland in reproduction-

 There is evidence that the epiphysis is involved in the control of sexual

Function of Pineal gland in biological rhythms -

 Melatonin is a hormone that’s mainly produced by your pineal gland. The

 Melatonin also interacts with biologically female hormones. Research has

 Melatonin can also protect against neurodegeneration, which is the

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 Structure of hypothalamus, Hypothalamic nuclei and

 The hypothalamus is a small organ located in the brain that controls

 The hypothalamus is part of the forebrain and is at the base of the

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The hypothalamus has a somewhat complex structure and comprises three

The Parts of Hypothalamus are:

1. Anterior region or Supraoptic region

2. Middle region or Tuberal region

3. Posterior region or Mammillary region

Vasopressin is also known as the antidiuretic hormone or ADH. It modulates the

3. Thyrotropin-releasing Hormone (TRH)

The TRH signals the pituitary gland to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone or

The CRH stimulates the pituitary to secrete the adrenocorticotropic hormone

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6. Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

The hypothalamus is a bilateral collection of nuclei divided into three

 There are eleven major nuclei in the hypothalamus

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The hypothalamus connects to various parts of the central nervous system. It is

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contains parts of the midbrain and hindbrain. The hypothalamus is also

Besides the hypothalamus hormones, the hypothalamus also features osmotic

 Maintaining sleep cycles

 Connects the nervous and endocrine systems

 Balances body fluids

 Regulates blood pressure and heart rate

 Autonomic function control