PYC1501/Learning/OER/2022

Unit 5: Learning
Learning objectives
This learning unit will help you to:

 define the concept of learning

 understand the theories of learning
 explain the different types of learning
 explain the basic principles of classical and operant conditioning

5.1 Introduction

Learning is one of the most important aspects of human development. It allows us to change our
behavioural responses to stimuli and to function normally in our environments. Most human behaviours
are learned. Without learning, it would be difficult for us to perform any activity. This is because most of
what we do (such as speaking, writing, interacting with others) result from learning in our social
environment. After learning, we can do something that we could not do before, providing us with
enormous advantages to survive in a changing world (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013). In fact, learning
encompasses all that we are and all that we have today. Without learning, there would be no buildings,
no agriculture, no life‐saving medicines, and no human civilization (Ciccarelli & White, 2014).

In this unit we are going to learn about learning. How do people and animals learn? What are the
processes involved in learning? To answer these questions and others, this section discusses the classic
experiments that paved a way in learning about how people and animas learn. We also look at the theories
that explain learning from different perspectives. The different types of learning also form part of this
discussion.

5.2 Defining learning

Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge that results from
previous experience with certain stimuli and responses (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). It is important to
note that not all changes in behaviour are due to learning. Our behaviour may change as a result of

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maturation and, because of temporary conditions such as decreased motivation, illness or tiredness (Van
Deventer & Mojapelo‐Batka, 2013). This means that there are many factors, apart from learning, that can
affect behaviour.

5.3 Theories of learning

Psychologists have tried to explain why and how people learn. In this regard, they have conducted many
experiments on people and animal behaviours and developed some theories to explain the learning
processes. Although each theoretical orientation explains learning from a particular perspective, they all
agree that learning does take place under certain conditions.

5.3.1 Behaviouristic learning theories

John B. Watson was the first person to study how the process of learning affects behaviour, and he formed
the school of thought known as Behaviourism in the early 20th century. The original focus of Watson,
Skinner, and many other behavioural theorists was on observable, measurable behaviour. Anything
happening inside the subject’s head during learning was considered to be of no importance because it
could not be seen or measured directly (Ciccarelli & White, 2017). Therefore, the central idea behind
behaviourism is that only observable behaviours are worthy of research since other abstracts such as
moods or thoughts are too subjective (Heffner, 2014). From the behaviouristic perspective, three
assumptions are held to be true; Firstly, the focus of study should be on observable behaviour rather than
on internal cognitive processes. If learning has occurred, then some sort of observable external behaviour
should be apparent. Secondly, the environment plays a vital role in shaping learning and behaviour, not
the individual characteristics. Lastly, the principles of contiguity and reinforcement are central to
explaining the learning process (http://www.lifecircles‐
inc.com/Learningtheories/learningmap.html).These principles will be discussed in depth later.

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Figure 5.1: John Broadus Watson was the founder of Behaviourism in the early 20th century.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Watson

Although Skinner followed much of Watson’s research and findings, he believed that internal states could
influence behaviour just as external stimuli do (Heffner, 2014). Skinner believed that the ultimate goal of
education was to train individuals to exhibit behaviours that would ensure their personal survival, as well
as the survival of cultures and the species (http://www.lifecircles‐
inc.com/Learningtheories/learningmap.html) .The behaviouristic orientation has much influence to the
current educational practices, including adult education.

5.3.2 Cognitive learning theories

Since behaviourism dominated the field of psychology in the early 20th century by focusing on
observable behaviours, other psychologists became interested in how the mind influences behaviour
(http://www.lifecircles‐inc.com/Learningtheories/learningmap.html). Soon after the 1960’s, an
interest in cognition ‐ the mental events that take place inside a person’s mind while behaving ‐ began
to dominate the experimental psychology and the cognitive learning theories developed. Many
behavioural psychologists could no longer ignore the fact that mental processes (such as perceptions,
thoughts, feelings, insight, and expectations) clearly seem to influence observable behaviour.
Eventually, they developed a cognitive learning theory to supplement the more traditional theories of
learning (Ciccarelli & White, 2017; Coon, 2005). The Gestalt psychologists criticised behaviourism for
its reductionist tendencies and asserted that behaviourism depended too much on external behaviours
to explain learning. By the mid‐20th century, Gestalt theorists such as Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffka,

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and Lewin provided competition to behaviourism as the only accepted theory of learning
(http://www.lifecircles‐inc.com/Learningtheories/learningmap.html).

Figure 5.2: Wolfhang Kohler is one of the pioneers in the field of cognitive learning.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Köhler

The cognitive theorists focus on the acquisition of knowledge as an indicator of learning. For example, if
you study for many hours and yet still fail the psychology exam, this does not mean that you have failed
to learn. It may mean that other factors (such as anxiety or misunderstanding the questions) affected your
performance on the exams (Van Deventer & Mojapelo‐Batka, 2013). The cognitive theories assert that
people actively process information internally as they learn. Internal mental processes include inputting,
organising, storing, retrieving, and finding relationships between information. During the learning
process, new information is linked to old knowledge, schema and scripts (http://www.lifecircles‐
inc.com/Learningtheories/learningmap.html).

The cognitive theorist, Jean Piaget, was influenced by both the behaviourism and the Gestalt school of
thought. Piaget proposed that a person’s internal cognitive structures change as a result of developmental
changes in the nervous system, and as a result of being exposed to a variety of experiences in the
environment. Cognitive theories are quite diverse, but all are unified by the importance of the learner's
internal mental processes (http://www.lifecircles‐inc.com/Learningtheories/learningmap.html).

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5.3.3 Humanistic learning theories

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are amongst the theorists that have contributed to humanistic
perspective on learning. Humanism focuses on the potential for growth in the individual. Freud's
psychoanalytic approach to behaviour was a powerful influence on the humanistic learning theorists
(http://www.lifecircles‐inc.com/Learningtheories/learningmap.html).

Contrary to behaviourism, humanism rejected the notion that the environment determines learning. The
humanists believe that human beings are inherently good, they desire a better world for all, and they can
control their own destiny. Individual behaviour is a consequence of choice; people are active agents in
their own learning and lives, not helpless respondents to forces that act upon them. Humanists also
believe that motivation, choice, and responsibility influence the process of learning and that life
experiences are the central arena for learning (http://www.lifecircles‐
inc.com/Learningtheories/learningmap.html).

Figure 5.3: Abraham Maslow made a valuable contribution to humanist perspective on learning.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e0/Abraham_Maslow.jpg

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory (see figure 5.4 below) is based on the notion that experience
is the primary phenomenon in the study of human learning and behaviour. He placed emphasis on choice,
creativity, values, and self‐realisation (http://www.lifecircles‐
inc.com/Learningtheories/humanist/maslow.html).

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Figure 5.4: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory. https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html

Maslow’s theory is based on the following types of needs:

• Physiological needs ‐ are the primary drives for survival (e.g. water, food, sleep).
• Safety needs ‐ the needs for a safe and secure environment.
• Belongingness and love needs ‐ involve the desire to obtain and give affection and to
contribute to the groups and the society that we belong to.
• Self‐esteem needs ‐ the desire to develop a sense of self‐worth.
• Self‐actualisation needs ‐ the desire to utilise our potentials to the fullest.

Maslow also believed that meaningfulness and subjectivity were more important than objectivity.
According to Maslow, the purpose of learning is to bring about, among other things, self‐actualisation,
discovery of one's vocation or destiny, knowledge of values, realisation of life as precious, acquisition of
peak experiences, sense of accomplishment, and satisfaction of psychological needs
(http://www.lifecircles‐inc.com/Learningtheories/humanist/maslow.html).

5.3.4 Social learning theories

Later in the 1960's Bandura broke away from the behaviourist views and he separate observation of
another's behaviour from the act of imitation. He stated that an observer can learn by observing without
having to imitate what is being learned. The focus of social learning theories (also known as observational
learning) is the interaction between people as the primary mechanism of learning. Therefore, learning is

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based on observation of others in a social setting

(https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless‐psychology‐textbook/learning‐
7/introduction‐to‐learning‐45/defining‐learning‐191‐12726/).

Figure 5.5: Albert Bandura developed the theory of social observational learning.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Bandura

The social observational theory consists of four core elements or processes that contribute to learning by
observation. (These processes will be discussed later under observational learning). Bandura noticed that
children often learn by imitating the adults. Through the experiment of Bobo doll, Bandura learned that
children would attack the doll after viewing an adult (or a model) hitting the doll
(https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless‐psychology‐textbook/learning‐
7/introduction‐to‐learning‐45/defining‐learning‐191‐12726/).

Bandura’s theory includes a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviour
by watching other people. For example, children will learn not to lie when they observe their siblings being
punished for lying (Swartz et al., 2011). Therefore, witnessing someone being reinforced for a particular
behaviour increases the possibility of imitating that behaviour. Conversely, witnessing a person being
punished for the behaviour would reduce the likelihood to imitate the behaviour (Cacioppo & Freberg,
2013).

Before you continue with this unit, please do the following activity:

Activity 1 Which learning theory focuses on observable, measurable behaviour?

A. Humanistic theory
B. Cognitive theory
C. Social learning theory
D. Behaviouristic theory

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Answer The humanistic theory (option A) focuses on the unique qualities of people, and it
emphasises their freedom and the potential for growth. The cognitive theories (option B)
assert that people actively process information internally as they learn. Internal mental
processes include inputting, organising, storing, retrieving, and finding relationships
between information. The focus of social learning theories (option C) is the interaction
between people as the primary mechanism of learning. In this theory, learning is based
on observation of others in a social setting. The central idea behind behaviourism is that
only observable behaviours are worthy of research since other abstraction such as mood
or thoughts are too subjective and cannot be measured directly. Option D is the correct
answer.

5.4 Types of learning

Although the different types of learning are discussed separately here, they are clearly linked to some of
the theories discussed earlier, and some overlap among them. For example, there is an element of
cognitive learning in conditioning. Social learning may also be regarded as a form of cognitive learning. At
times, social learning also rests on the principles of operant conditioning (Coon, 2005). Therefore, in most
instances, more than one type of learning can operate simultaneously in the same situation (Cacioppo &
Freberg, 2013).

5.4.1 Associative learning

Associative learning occurs when a person (or an organism) forms an association among various stimuli
and responses (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). Understanding associative learning begins with noting what
happens ‘before’ and ‘after’ a response. The events that take place before a response are called
antecedents (antecedent means something that comes before another thing), and the effects that occur
after the response are called consequences. For example, Barbie is 4 years‐old and she has learned that
when she hears a car pulling into the driveway (antecedent), it means that Daddy is home and she runs to
the front door. The hug she gets (consequence) from her father reinforces Barbie’s tendency to run to the
door. This type of learning enables us to predict the future behaviour based on past experience (Cacioppo
& Freberg, 2013). In other words, if A happens then B is likely to follow. Therefore, to understand
associative learning, we have to pay attention to what happens before and after the incidents. Classical
and operant conditioning are the two popular types of learning by association.

o Classical conditioning: ‘One thing leads to another’

While studying the digestive processes in dogs, Ivan Pavlov (1849 ‐ 1936) noticed that the dogs did not
salivate only when they saw or smelt the food, but they also salivated when they heard the footsteps of
the person coming to feed them. This phenomenon caught Pavlov’s interest so, he developed an

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experiment to investigate it further. Classical (respondent) conditioning is a process by which the subject
learns to associate events, or stimuli, that frequently happen together and as a result of this, events can
be anticipated. It is based on what happens ‘before’ the subject responds. It begins with a stimulus that
reliably triggers a response (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). This fact can be described in terms of anticipation.
In other words, it is the anticipation of what will occur that leads to a response.

In its simplest form, classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus (S) acquires the capacity to evoke a
reflexive response (R). A reflex is an unlearned, involuntary response that is not under personal control or
choice. For example, because of pain, you reflexively withdraw your hand whenever you touch a hot
object. Your body shivers when you suddenly sense a very cold temperature. These are automatic reflex
actions that contribute to how we survive in our environments. Therefore, classical conditioning involves
the stimulus ‐ response (S ‐ R) connection (Coon & Mitterer, 2012).

Classical conditioning is based on the following elements:

• Unconditioned stimulus (US) ‐ is a stimulus that reliably produces a naturally occurring response
in an organism or subject (Schacter et al., 2012). Unconditioned means ‘unlearned’ or ‘occurring
naturally’. For example, in Pavlov’s experiment, the food is the unconditioned stimulus because
it naturally triggers salivation in dogs.

• Unconditioned response (UR) ‐ is an unlearned, innate, involuntary physiological reflex that is

elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). For example, the dog
salivates whenever it sees or smells the food. Therefore, salivating is an unconditioned response
because it happens naturally.

• Neutral stimulus (NS) ‐ is any stimulus that naturally does not elicit a response from the
organism. For example, the sound of a whistle, on its own, would not cause a dog to salivate.

• Conditioned stimulus (CS) ‐ is a previously neutral stimulus that has ‐ through conditioning ‐
acquired the ability to evoke a conditioned response in the subject (Weiten, 2013). In Pavlov’s
experiment, the whistle (which initially was a neutral stimulus that did not evoke any response
from the dog) has become the conditioned stimulus because after conditioning, it triggers a
response (salivation) in dogs.

• Conditioned response (CR) ‐ is a learned reaction or response to a conditioned stimulus (Weiten,

2013). For example, the dog’s salivation after hearing the whistle is now the conditioned (or
learned) response because the whistle has become the conditioned stimulus that triggers
salivation. These elements are presented in figure 5.6 below.

How was the experiment conducted?

Whenever Pavlov presented the food, the dogs would salivate. This is a normal, involuntary reflex. Pavlov
then blew the whistle (or rang the bell) and the dogs did not salivate. With repeated associations (or
pairing) of the food and blowing the whistle, the dogs eventually salivated at the sound of the whistle,

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without the food presented. At this stage, the neutral stimulus (the sound of the whistle) has become the
conditioned stimulus because it elicits a conditioned response in the dogs. When the dogs salivate at the
sound of the whistle without food presented, this process is called acquisition, because the dogs have
learned or acquired a new stimulus ‐ response pairing (Swartz et al., 2011). See the video on classical
conditioning at https://youtu.be/S6AYofQchoM (Note: Video not for assessment purposes).

Figure 5.6: The process of classical conditioning.

https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/7‐1‐learning‐by‐association‐classical‐conditioning/

The basic principles of classical conditioning

Classical conditioning is based on some principles that explain how learning takes place. Knowing these
principles will help you understand and differentiate classical conditioning from other forms of learning.

• Contiguity ‐ refers to the sequential occurrence or proximity of stimulus and response, causing their
association in the mind. This involves the pairing of conditioned stimulus (CS) with the unconditioned
stimulus (US). The closer in time the two events occur, the more likely they are to become associated with
one another. Conversely, as more time passes between the two events, the less likely that an association
would be formed (Swartz et al., 2011). In other words, if the conditioned stimulus (a whistle) occurs long
before the unconditioned stimulus (food) is presented, an organism may not form any association between
the sound of the whistle and the food.

• Acquisition ‐ refers to the period when the stimulus evokes the conditioned response. Pavlov argued that
the acquisition of a conditioned response depends on stimulus contiguity, or the occurrence of both
conditioned and unconditioned stimuli together in time and space (Weiten, 2013; Cacioppo & Freberg,
2013).

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• Extinction ‐ refers to the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when conditioned stimulus
(CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) are no longer paired together. In other words, the strength of (CS)
gradually decreases when it is presented alone and not followed by the (US) for a number of trails. For
example, after a certain period of time, the dogs stopped salivating when only a whistle was blown without
any food brought to them. During the extinction period, the conditioned response is not eliminated entirely,
but the conditioned stimulus loses its power to elicit a conditioned response (Swartz et al., 2011).

• Stimulus generalisation ‐ occurs when a new unconditioned stimulus (similar to the original stimulus)
elicits a response that is similar to the conditioned response (Swartz et al., 2011). In other words, after
conditioning, other stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus may also trigger the same response in a
subject. The greater the similarity between two or more stimuli, the more stimulus generalisation occurs.
For example, a child that is scared of puppies may also experience fear when he sees a teddy bear.

• Stimulus discrimination ‐ refers to the capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli and
responding accordingly (Schacter et al., 2012). According to Coon and Mitterer (2012), many children quickly
learn to differentiate voice tones associated with punishment from those associated with praise or affection.
Stimulus discrimination has an adaptive value because there are times when it is important to respond
differently to related stimuli (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011).

• Higher‐order conditioning ‐ occurs when a stimulus associated with the conditioned stimulus (CS) gain
the ability to elicit a conditioned response (CR) on its own (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013). For example, in
Pavlov’s experiment, the first conditioning occurred when the sound of a whistle (CS) produced salivation
(CR) in dogs. The higher‐order conditioning is a step further and occurs when the previous neutral stimulus
(NS) has become the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the new (NS) becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS)
that elicit a response similar to the original (US).

Figure 5.7: Higher‐order conditioning. Adapted from Ciccarelli and White (2014)

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Stage 1‐ a salivation response is conditioned to occur to the sound of the metronome (CS1). Stage 2 ‐ finger
snapping (NS) is repeatedly paired with the ticking of the metronome (CS1) until the dog begins to salivate
to the finger snapping alone (now CS2). This is called higher‐order conditioning because one (CS) is used
to create another higher (CS).

• Spontaneous recovery ‐ is the tendency for the conditioned response (CR) to reappear after being
extinguished even though there have been no further conditioning trials (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian,
2011). In one of his studies, Pavlov fully extinguished a dog’s conditioned response of salivation
to a tone and then returned the dog to the cage for a rest interval ‐ a period of no exposure to the
conditioned stimulus. Later when the dog was retested, the tone was sounded and the salivation
response reappeared (Coon & Mitterer, 2012; Weiten, 2013). Clearly, the ability of the
conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response was weakened, but not eliminated
entirely. Spontaneous recovery explains why people who have had a car accident may need many
slow, calm rides before their fear of driving extinguishes (Coon & Mitterer, 2012).

o Operant conditioning: ‘What is in it for me?’

Operant (or instrumental) conditioning refers to the kind of associative learning in which the
consequences that follow some behaviour increase or decrease the likelihood of that behaviour occurring
in the future (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). In operant learning, behaviours are strengthened through
reinforcement (or reward) but weakened through punishment (Swartz et al., 2011). In this type of
learning, an organism operates (hence, operant) on the environment to produce an outcome. The core of
operant conditioning is the effect of consequences on behaviour. Think back on the section on classical
conditioning: Learning a behaviour depends on what happens before the response. Conversely, in operant
conditioning, learning a behaviour depends on what happens after the response (thus, the consequence).
In a way, operant conditioning could be summed up as: ‘If I do this, then what is in it for me?’ See the
video on operant conditioning at: https://youtu.be/piM6C3pHsA8 (Note: Video not for assessment
purposes).

The study of how active behaviours affect the environment began more or less the same time as classical
conditioning. B.F. Skinner and Edward L. Thorndike conducted similar research using animals. Thorndike
conducted a research that focused on instrumental behaviours ‐ behaviours that require an organism to
do something or manipulate some element of the environment to learn something.

Laws of learning

Thorndike proposed three primary laws that explain the basic aspects of learning. These are:

• Law of readiness ‐ readiness means that the organism is ready and motivated to respond or act. This
condition of readiness has two effects ‐ satisfaction and annoyance. When an organism is ready to learn

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and is allowed to do so, it experiences pleasure. If it is ready to learn but is not permitted, it feels
annoyance. Conversely, when an organism is not ready to learn and is asked to learn, it feels annoyance.
If it is not ready to learn and is prevented from learning, it feels pleasure
(http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning‐meaning‐nature‐types‐and‐theories‐of‐
learning/652).

• Law of exercise ‐ this is also known as the law of frequency. Frequency refers to the number of repetitions
of learning. Thorndike believed that repeated exercising of a response strengthens its connection with the
stimulus. This relates to law of use and disuse, which explains that anything not in use will perish. Also, if
the response is not repeated, its bond with the stimulus becomes weak
(http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning‐meaning‐nature‐types‐and‐theories‐of‐
learning/652).

• Law of effect ‐ this law states that if some random actions are followed by a pleasurable consequence or
reward, such actions are strengthened and will likely occur in the future (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011).
Rewards always strengthen connections between stimuli and responses, while punishment weakens the
connections(http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning‐meaning‐nature‐types‐and‐
theories‐of‐learning/652).

The basic principles of operant conditioning

Just like classical conditioning, operant (instrumental) conditioning is also governed by some principles
that explain how the learning process occurs.

 Reinforcement ‐ it refers to any stimulus that strengthens or increases the probability of a response
(Heffner, 2014). There are two types of reinforcement, both of which encourage the repetition of the
desired behaviour. These are positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs
when something pleasant (or reward) is added to the situation (Swartz et al., 2011), and it increases
the frequency of a behaviour by providing a desired outcome. We all apply reinforcement every day,
without even realising that we are doing so. The compliments we give to people act as reinforcements
that strengthen their behaviour. Negative reinforcement involves the strengthening of a response
because it removes an unpleasant or unwanted stimulus (Weiten & Hassim, 2016). Pay attention to
the correct usage of the term ‘negative’. It does not refer to punishment, nor does it imply that
negative or bad behaviour is encouraged. Negative reinforcement strengthens a response that
removes an unwanted stimulus while punishment weakens a response. For example, your child is
embarrassing you in public by crying for a toy in the supermarket. Eventually, you buy the toy in order
to stop the nagging, crying behaviour.

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Figure 5.8: A supermarket showdown ‐ A common scene for many parents. Children have a way of embarrassing
their parents in public.
https://metrouk2.files.wordpress.com/2015/04/ad_167358352.jpg?w=748&h=498&crop=1

To the child, getting the toy is positive reinforcement because the child gets what she wants. To you,
buying the toy is negative reinforcement because you manage to remove an unwanted behaviour ‐ the
nagging, crying behaviour of the child. Do you see the difference?

 Punishment ‐ generally, punishment refers to adding something aversive (unpleasant) to decrease a

behaviour. Just like reinforcement, there are two types of punishment. These are positive and
negative punishment. Positive punishment occurs when an unpleasant stimulus (such as spanking) is
applied to reduce the likelihood of certain behaviours from taking place (Swartz et al., 2011). This is
also known as punishment by application. This is the kind of punishment that most people think of
when they hear the word punishment. However, this kind of punishment should be avoided because
it can easily escalate into child abuse (Ciccarelli & White, 2014).

Figure 5.9: Spanking is an example of punishment by application. (iparentnow.com)

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Negative punishment involves the removal of a pleasant stimulus, reducing the probability that the
behavior would be repeated in future (Swartz et al., 2011). This is also known as punishment by removal.

Figure 5.10: Negative punishment. This father is applying punishment by removal by

forcing his daughter to cut up her bank cards for overspending. Adopted from Ciccarelli and White (2014).

This kind of punishment is often confused with negative reinforcement. Negative punishment involves the
removal of something pleasant to the subject after the behaviour has occurred (Ciccarelli & White, 2017),
whereas negative reinforcement involves strengthening of a response to remove something
unpleasant or unwanted.

Problems with punishment

Although punishment can be effective in reducing undesirable behaviour, Ciccarelli and White (2014)
mentioned the following setbacks about punishment:

• Severe punishment may cause the subject to avoid the punisher instead of the behaviour being
punished, so the subject learns the wrong response.

• Severe punishment may encourage lying to avoid the punishment. This is not a desired response.

• Severe punishment creates fear and anxiety, emotional responses that do not promote learning.

• Hitting the child provides a successful model for aggression.

According to Ciccarelli and White (2014), to make punishment more effective, the following simple rules
may be helpful:

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• Punishment should immediately follow the undesired behaviour ‐ If the punishment comes long
after the behaviour, it may not be associated with that behaviour.

• Punishment should be consistent ‐ it should be administered every time the undesired behaviour
has occurred. Also, punishment for a particular behaviour should stay at the same intensity or
increase slightly but never decrease, otherwise the child will learn to ‘gamble’ with the possible
punishment.

• Punishment of the wrong behaviour should be paired, whenever possible, with reinforcement of the
right behaviour ‐ Pairing punishment with reinforcement teaches the desired behaviour rather than
just suppressing the undesired one.

Schedules of reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement is a programme according to which reinforcers are offered and it determines
which occurrences of a response result in a reinforcer (Weiten & Hassim, 2016). When a reinforcement is
applied on a continuous basis, it is called a fixed schedule of reinforcement. There are two types of fixed
schedules of reinforcement.

 Fixed ratio (FR) schedule ‐ it provides a reinforcer following a fixed number of responses. In this
reinforcement, it is the number of responses that counts for reinforcement and the number of
responses will always be the same (Ciccarelli & White, 2014). For example, in early industrial settings,
workers were often paid “by piece” work ‐ a fixed amount every time a worker produces a certain
number of products or parts on an assembly line. Some examples of piece work remain today,
including the work of most building contractors, who get paid for constructing a fixed number of
homes in a new development.

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Figure 5.11: The building of the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) houses in South Africa is an
example of a fixed ratio (FR) schedule of reinforcement. http://www.globalbuzz‐sa.com/wp‐
content/uploads/Habitat‐for‐Humanity.590.jpg

 Fixed interval (FI) schedule ‐ this schedule dictates that a reinforcer occurs following the first response
that occurs after a fixed interval of time (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). In this schedule, the interval
is from trial to trial and reinforcement is followed by a long, post‐reinforcement pause (Cacioppo &
Freberg, 2013). The reliable schedule of a bus, arriving at a bus stop every hour, is an example to
illustrate this concept. If you miss the bus that has just left, you would have to wait for another hour
before the next bus will arrive (Ciccarelli & White, 2017).

When reinforcement is applied on irregular basis, it is called a variable schedule of reinforcement. There
are two types of variable schedules of reinforcement as well.

 Variable ratio (VR) schedule ‐ it provides a reinforcer after a given number of responses, but that
number can vary (Bernstein et al., 2012). This schedule is the same as the fixed ratio schedule except
that the ratio varies and is unpredictable and unstable. In this case, reinforcement is given after every
Nth response, but the Nth is an average (Swartz et al., 2011). For example, slots machines in casinos
operate on this system of reinforcement.

Figure 5.12: A casino slot machine. http://i.onionstatic.com/onion/2731/2/16x9/960.jpg

People can sit at the slot machines for hours while gambling. The odds of winning cannot be determined as the
machines can pay off sooner, later, or never.

The casino sets the machine to pay off after some average number of plays, but the player does not
know if a payoff will occur after one coin is inserted or after thousand coins (Cacioppo & Freberg,
2013). Buying lottery tickets, or any kind of gambling works on this schedule as well.

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 Variable interval (VI) schedule ‐ this schedule provides reinforcement for the first correct response
after varying periods of time (Bernstein et al., 2012). In an experiment, for example, a rat might
receive food when it pushes a lever every 5 minutes on average. Sometimes the interval might be 2
minutes, sometimes 10, but the rat must push the lever at least once during that interval to get the
reinforcement (Ciccarelli & White, 2014). If you have a boss that keeps checking your work
periodically, then you understand the power of this schedule. Because you don’t know when the next
‘check‐up’ might come, you have to be working all the time in order to be ready (Heffner, 2014).

Figure 5.13: An example of variable interval schedule. (http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2013/05/16/article‐2325639‐

19D0E248000005DC‐917_634x423). Dialling, dialling and more dialling: People that keep dialling a busy phone and
hope that they would go through are working on the variable interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement.

Regardless of the schedule of reinforcement one uses, there are two important things that can make
reinforcement of behaviour more effective. (i) the reinforcement should be given as immediately as
possible after the desired behaviour. Therefore, timing is important. (ii) only the desired behaviour should
be reinforced ‐ Many parents make the mistake of giving a child who has not done some tasks the
promised treat anyway, which completely undermines the child’s learning of that task (Ciccarelli & White,
2014).

Differences between classical and operant conditioning

Although both classical and operant conditioning are the associative learning, they differ in some respects.
Classical conditioning is based on the association between stimuli, whereas operant conditioning occurs
when behaviour is associated with its consequence. Classical conditioning generally works better with
relatively involuntary, reflexive behaviours, such as fear or salivation, whereas operant conditioning
involves voluntary behaviours, such as gambling (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013; Swartz et al., 2011). Unlike
classical conditioning, with operant conditioning, people have greater control, and their preferences lead
to reinforcement or punishment. In classical conditioning the stimulus leading to conditioning comes

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before the behaviour, whereas in operant conditioning, the stimulus comes after the behaviour (Swartz
et al., 2011). Furthermore, in operant conditioning, reinforcement is contingent on the subject’s response.
For example, a rat receives food only if it presses the lever, whereas in classical conditioning there is no
contingency, a dog is fed whether or not it salivates (http://global.britannica.com/science/learning‐
theory). The table below will help you better understand the differences between classical and operant
conditioning.

Table 5.1: Classical and operant conditioning ‐ the comparison. (Adopted from Ciccarelli and White, 2014)

Operant conditioning Classical conditioning

Result is an increase in the rate of an already occurring Result is the creation of a new response to a stimulus
response. that did not normally produce that response.

Responses are voluntary, emitted by the organism. Responses are involuntary and automatic, elicited by a
stimulus.

Consequences are important in forming an association. Antecedent stimuli are important in forming an
association.

Reinforcement should be immediate. CS must occur immediately before the US.

An expectancy develops for reinforcement to follow a An expectancy develops for US to follow CS.
correct response.

Before you continue with this unit, please do the following activity:

Activity 2 Both classical and operant conditioning are known as . . .

A. learning through involuntary, reflexive behaviors

B. learning by means of associations
C. learning by means of reinforcement of voluntary behavior
D. learning by punishment of voluntary behaviour

Answer The above section indicates that classical and operant conditioning are the types of
learning whereby an organism forms an association between two or more stimuli. For
classical conditioning, the pairing of unconditioned stimulus (US) and conditioned
stimulus (CS) leads to the acquisition of a particular behavior. For operant conditioning,
this learning takes place through instrumental behavior followed by its consequence.
Therefore, option B is the correct answer. Option A is incorrect because it refers only to
classical conditioning. Options C and D are also incorrect because they refer to operant
conditioning only.

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5.4.2 Observational learning

Observational learning (also known as social or modelling learning), occurs when an individual learns
by watching and imitating the behaviour of others, who are called the models, and observing the
consequences of those behaviours (Ciccarelli & White, 2014, Weiten, 2013). Observational learning is
related to the social learning theories discussed previously. Through modelling, the observer may
learn new responses, learn when those responses are appropriate, and learn general rules that can
be applied to different situations (Coon, 2005). See the video on observational learning at:
https://youtu.be/b6t_OTHpJJ0 (Note: Video not for assessment purposes).

Albert Bandura (1986) was interested in imitation ‐ the copying of behaviours that are unlikely to occur
naturally and spontaneously. He investigated the possible links between children’s exposure to violence
on television and aggressive behaviour toward others (Ciccarelli & White 2014). Bandura showed children
a film of a model beating up the Bobo doll. In the first group, the children watched the model being
rewarded for beating up the doll. In the second group, the model was punished for the same behaviour.
When placed in the room with the doll and toys, the group of children that observed the model beating
up the doll and rewarded also attacked the doll. The children in the second group did not. Both groups
had learned from watching the model, but only the children watching the rewarded model imitated the
aggression. Apparently, consequences do matter in motivating a child (or an adult) to imitate a particular
model. Bandura’s theory of observational learning can explain why corporal punishment tends to increase
aggressive behaviour in children, even when it is intended to decrease it. Parents that use physical
punishment serve as models for aggressive behaviour to their children (Weiten & Hassim, 2016).

The components of observational learning

Bandura (1986) believed that the following four cognitive components are necessary in modelling other’s
behaviour:

• Attention ‐ to learn through observation, an individual must pay attention to another person’s
behaviour and its consequences.

• Retention ‐ a person has to be able to store and recall the information in order to learn something.
This indicates that memory is involved in the process of retention.

• Reproduction ‐ a person must be capable of reproducing, or imitating, the behaviour of the model.

• Motivation ‐ an individual must have the motivation or desire to perform the action. In this regard,
reinforcement and punishment play a vital role in whether or not one will imitate the modelled
behaviour.

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You can see from the components of social learning that cognitive processes also play an important role in
learning. Attending, remembering, recalling, and deciding on a course of action are all cognitive processes
and are the components of the learning process (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013).

5.4.3 Cognitive learning

Cognitive learning involves understanding, knowing, anticipating, or making use of information‐rich

higher mental processes (Coon, 2005). This implies that for learning to occur, people assess the
relationship between stimuli or between behaviours (responses) and their consequences. One example
of cognitive learning is the use of cognitive maps (internal images or mental representations of something)
to represent the environments in which we live. When studying, many students use cognitive maps, such
as diagrams showing how concepts fit together (Mojapelo‐Batka & Van Deventer, 2013). Cognitive
learning involves the following aspects:

 Perceptual‐motor skills

Perceptual‐motor skills are based on motor movements that are guided by perception. When you
learn a perceptual‐motor skill, such as driving a car, the first phase involves cognitive processes. At
first you have to think consciously about each step in the process. Soon you learn to associate together
some of the skills, such as working the clutch to change gears and the accelerator. If you practise often
enough, these skills become more fluent and fewer mistakes are made. With time and practice, the
skills becomet combined in a pattern, and you no longer have to think consciously about each step.
Driving skills become almost automatic. Therefore, your perceptions of all the components of the task
become integrated into a learned perceptual‐motor skill (Mojapelo‐Batka & Van Deventer, 2013).

 Intellectual skills

With intellectual skills, we learn by associating one thing with another, and we form concepts to
represent things. We also learn the rules for using those concepts to think and to reason. The
acquisition of verbal skills is an example of learning intellectual skills. As children grow older, they are
able to use their developing verbal (or language) skills more efficiently and to apply the information
they have acquired. Much of cognitive learning takes place through understanding. At times, we have
all learned things by repetition and memorization, but learning is more lasting and effective when we
discover information on our own (Van Deventer & Mojapelo‐Batka, 2013). Discovery learning refers
to learning based on insight and understanding (Coon & Mitterer, 2012) (also see insight learning
below). It also involves trying new strategies, and discovering new solutions (Coon, 2005).

5.4.4 Latent learning

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Sometimes a lot of what we have learned is never used, mostly because we have not had the occasion to
use it. Latent learning (also known as hidden learning) refers to learning that occurs without obvious
reinforcement and that remains unexpressed until reinforcement is provided (Coon & Mitterer, 2012).
Tolman’s best‐known experiment in learning involved teaching three groups of rats the same maze,
one at a time. In the first group, each rat was placed in the maze and received reinforcement (food) for
making its way out of the other side. The rat was then placed back in the maze, reinforced, and so on until
the rat could successfully solve the maze with no errors. The second group of rats was treated exactly
like the first group, except that they never received any form of reinforcement upon exiting the maze.
They were simply put back in again and again, until the tenth day of the experiment. On that day, the rats
in the second group began to receive reinforcement for getting out of the maze. The third group of rats,
serving as a control group, was not given reinforcement for the entire duration of the experiment. On the
10th day, the second group of rats upon receiving the reinforcement for the first time, should have
taken as long as the first group to solve the maze. Instead, they began to solve the maze almost
immediately (Ciccarelli & White, 2014).

Figure 5.14: A typical rat maze. A rat is placed in the start box. The trial is over when the rat gets to the end (food) box.
http://cdn‐7.simplypsychology.org/cog‐map.jpg

To account for these results, Tolman concluded that the rats in the second group, while wandering around
in the maze in the first nine days of the experiment, had learned where all the blind alleys, wrong turns,
and correct paths were and stored this knowledge as a kind of cognitive map of the physical layout of the
maze (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013, Weiten & Hassim, 2016). These rats, therefore, had learned and stored
away that learning mentally but had not demonstrated this learning until motivated by the reward to do
so. This indicates that cognitive maps are instantly updated when new information becomes available.
Tolman’s discovery suggests that learning can take place in the absence of reinforcement (Weiten &

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Hassim, 2016), Tolman’s rats remind us that there is a difference between what has been learned and
what is performed. Many students are too familiar with the experience of performing poorly in the exams,
in spite of having learned a great deal about the material.

5.4.5 Insight learning

A sudden understanding of what is required to solve a problem is called insight (Bernstein et al., 2012).
Therefore, insight learning is a result of cognitive processes rather than interactions with the outside
world. Insight tends to happen when the individual sees the solution to the problem or difficulty in a flash.
According to Gestalt theory, perception of a situation as a ‘whole’ gives better understanding than the
sum total of its parts (Sharma, 2015).Thus, the situation viewed as a whole will definitely look different
from the situation viewed through its parts. Thus, seeing a situation in its larger context often allows
people to have new insights about it. In some cases, insight many result from a trial‐and‐error process in
which people envision a course of action, mentally stimulate its results, compare it with imagined
outcome of other alternatives, and settle on the course of action most likely to aid the complex problem
solving and decision making (Bernstein et al., 2012).

GROUP ACTIVITY

In a discussion forum on myUnisa with your e‐tutor and peers, explain the type of learning
that you often use for exam preparation and how it is helpful to you.

NB: Please note that it is compulsory for you to have this discussion.

5.5 Summary

This unit explored the mind’s ability to adapt to the environment as a result of experience with that
environment. The different types of learning theories that paved the way for our understanding of how
we learn were discussed. Our ability to learn varies with our social circumstances, and we learn differently
in different situations. The different types of adaptive learning described in this unit involved the relatively
involuntary, reflexive processes of classical conditioning and proceeded to the more conscious control of
behaviour through operant conditioning, and other forms of learning. In each case, these adaptations
have served us well by promoting our chances for survival. Because learning is all about changes in
behaviour, understanding these processes provides us with the powerful tools for further adapting our
behaviour to meet our needs.

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5.6 Glossary
Acquisition: a period in conditioning during which a response is reinforced.
Associative learning: a type of learning that occurs when a person (or an organism) forms an
association among various stimuli and responses.
Behaviourism: the theory that asserts that human and animal behaviour can be explained in terms
of conditioning, without the involvement of mental processes.
Classical conditioning: a learning process that occurs when two or more stimuli are repeatedly
paired to evoke a response in the subject.
Cognition: the mental processes that take place inside a person’s mind in terms of thinking,
reasoning, perceptions, and so on.
Contiguity: the sequential occurrence or proximity of stimulus and response, causing their
association in the mind.
Extinction: it refers to the seemingly disappearance of a previously learned response.
Fixed interval (FI) schedule: a schedule of reinforcement where the first response is rewarded only
after a specified amount of time has elapsed.
Fixed ratio (FR) schedule: a schedule of reinforcement whereby reinforcement is delivered after the
completion of a number of responses. The required number of responses remains constant.
Higher‐order conditioning: it involves the modification of reaction to a neutral stimulus associated
with a conditioned stimulus that was formerly neutral.
Humanism: is a philosophy that stresses the idea that people have an ethical responsibility to live
personally fulfilling lives while at the same time contributing to the greater good for all people.
Imitation: the act of using someone or something as a model.
Insight: a sudden understanding about what is required to solve a problem.
Latent learning: it refers to knowledge that only becomes clear when a person has an incentive to
display it.
Learning: is a relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge that results from previous
experience with certain stimuli and responses.
Negative punishment: it involves taking something good or desirable away to reduce the
occurrence of a particular behaviour.
Negative reinforcement: it occurs when a response is followed by an end to discomfort or by the
removal of an unpleasant event.
Operant conditioning: is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments to strengthen
or weaken a particular behaviour.
Positive punishment: it occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is administered to reduce the
likelihood of certain behaviours from taking place.

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Positive reinforcement: it occurs when a response is followed by a reward or other positive event,
thereby increasing the likelihood of a behaviour occurring in the future.
Social learning: is learning through the observation of other people's behaviours.
Spontaneous recovery: is the tendency for the conditioned response (CR) to reappear after being
seemingly extinguished even though there have been no further conditioning trials.
Stimulus discrimination: it involves the ability to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli and
responding only to certain stimulus.
Stimulus generalization: the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after
the response has been conditioned.
Variable interval (VI) schedule: a reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is given to a
response after specific amount of time has passed.
Variable ratio (VR) schedule: a schedule of reinforcement whereby a response is reinforced after an
unpredictable number of responses.

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5.7 References

Bandura, A. (1986). Observational learning. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive
theory. Prentice‐Hall.

Bernstein, D.A., Clarke‐Steward, A., Penner, L.A. & Roy, E.J. (2012). Psychology (9th ed.) Wadsworth.

Cacioppo, J.T. & Freberg, L.A. (2013). Discovering psychology: The science of mind. Wadsworth.

Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O. (2012). Introduction to psychology: Active learning through models (12th ed.).
Wadsworth.

Coon, D. (2005). Psychology: A journey. Wadsworth.

Heffner, C.L. (2014). Chapter 4: Section 1: Introduction to learning theory and behavioural psychology.
http://allpsych.com/psychology101/learning/

http://cdn.24.co.za/files/Cms/General/d/2321/8674f8e5f9f0474eb688d24104e83e31.jpg

http://cdn‐7.simplypsychology.org/cog‐map.jpg

http://global.britannica.com/science/learning‐theory).

http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2013/05/16/article‐2325639‐19D0E248000005DC‐917_634x423

http://i.onionstatic.com/onion/2731/2/16x9/960.jpg

http://www.globalbuzz‐sa.com/wp‐content/uploads/Habitat‐for‐Humanity.590.jpg

http://www.lifecircles‐inc.com/Learningtheories/learningmap.html).

http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning‐meaning‐nature‐types‐and‐theories‐of‐
learning/652).

http://www.uct.ac.za/usr/news/2015/FactoryWorkers_700.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Bandura

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Watson

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Köhler

https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/7‐1‐learning‐by‐association‐classical‐
conditioning/

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e0/Abraham_Maslow.jpg

https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless‐psychology‐textbook/learning‐
7/introduction‐to‐learning‐45/defining‐learning‐191‐12726/.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html

iparentnow.com

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Plotnik, R. & Kouyoumdjian, H. (2011). Introduction to psychology (9th ed.). Wadsworth.

Schacter, D.L., Gilbert, D.T. & Wegner, D.M. (2012). Psychology. Palgrave MacMillan.

Skosana, G.M. (2017). Learning. In Ciccarelli, S.K. & White, J.N. (eds.). Psychology‐ An exploration: Global
and Southern African Perspectives. Pearson.

Swartz, L., de la Rey, C., Duncan, N. & Townsend, L. (2011). Psychology: an introduction. Oxford university
press.

Van Deventer, V. & Mojapelo‐Batka, M. (2013). A Student’s A‐Z of psychology. Juta.

Weiten, W. & Hassim, J. (2016). Variations in psychology (2nd South African edition). Cengage learning.

Weiten, W. (2013). Variations in psychology (9th ed.) Wadsworth.

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