PYC1501 Unit 6 States of Consciousness OER 2022

PYC1501/States of consciousness/OER/2022
Unit 6: States of consciousness

Learning objectives
This learning unit will help you to:
 understand the nature of consciousness.

 understand the nature, the stages, and the functions of sleep.
 gain knowledge of different types of sleep disorders.
 define hypnosis.
 understand types of psychoactive drugs.
6.1 Introduction
In a real sense, understanding consciousness involves understanding how effectively people function and
why they experience things differently. Understanding how the conscious mind works is important for
both our physical and mental well‐being. States of consciousness range between wakefulness and sleep,
and they can also be altered with the use of psychoactive drugs. This unit discusses the states of
consciousness and its related concepts. The different stages of sleep will be identified, and sleep disorders
will be described. The unit also discuss the types of psychoactive drugs and their effects on consciousness.
The unit closes by discussing hypnosis and the circumstances under which it can be used.
6.2 Defining consciousness

The word ‘conscious’ is derived from Latin conscientia, which means ‘to know’ (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013).
Therefore, consciousness refers to our mental awareness of sensations and perceptions of external events
as well as self‐awareness of internal events including thoughts, memories, and feelings about our
experiences and the self (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). William James coined the term ‘stream of
consciousness’ to capture the moving, seemingly unbroken flow of conscious awareness. Freud used the
term ‘consciousness’ to refer to aspects of the mind that can be retrieved voluntarily (Coon & Mitterer,
2012).
1
6.3 The nature of consciousness

Consciousness describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli and we spend most of our time in
waking consciousness; a state of clear, organised alertness (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). Awareness of internal
stimuli includes among others, feeling pain, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions.
Awareness of external stimuli may include seeing the light from the sun or hearing the voice of a friend.
We experience different states of consciousness at different levels of awareness on a regular basis. We
might even describe consciousness as a continuum that ranges from full awareness to deep sleep. Sleep
is a state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct
from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness. Wakefulness is characterised by high levels of sensory
awareness, thought, and behaviour. In between these extremes are states of consciousness related to
daydreaming, intoxication, meditative states, hypnotic states, and altered states of consciousness
following sleep deprivation. We might also experience unconscious states as a result of drug‐induced
anaesthesia for medical purposes. Many of these processes, like much of psychological behaviours, are
rooted in our biology.
6.4 The nature of sleep
Sleep is distinguished by low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness. Siegel (2008)
maintained that sleep involves the interplay of biological regulation in the body which include fluctuations
in heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, and so on. Sleep is also characterised by certain patterns
of brainwave activity that can be observed using the electroencephalography (EEG). When people are
awake and alert, an EEG reveals a pattern of small, fast brainwaves called beta waves. Brainwaves are
electrical impulses in the brain. Immediately before sleep, the patterns shift to larger and slower waves
called alpha waves, that also occur when people are relaxed and allow their thoughts to drift away. The
alpha waves are eventually replaced by the even slower and larger theta waves. Then the largest and
slowest delta waves appear in the deepest form of sleep (Ciccarelli & White, 2017).
One popular hypothesis of sleep incorporates the perspectives of evolutionary psychology. Evolutionary
psychology is a discipline that studies how universal patterns of behaviour and cognitive processes have
evolved as a result of natural selection. This perspective argues that sleep is essential to restore resources
that are expended during the day. Therefore, people sleep at night to reduce their energy expenditures.
While this is an intuitive explanation of sleep, there is little scientific support for this explanation. In fact,
it has been suggested that there is no reason to think that energetic demands could not be addressed
with periods of rest and inactivity (Frank, 2006; Rial et al., 2007). Moreover, some research has actually
found a negative correlation between energetic demands and the amount of time spent sleeping
(Capellini et al., 2008).
Another perspective regarding sleep recognises the importance for cognitive function and memory
formation (Rattenborg et al., 2007). Sleep deprivation results in disruptions in cognition and memory
deficits (Brown, 2012), leading to impairments in our abilities to maintain attention, make decisions, and
2
recall long‐term memories. Moreover, these impairments become more severe as the amount of sleep
deprivation increases (Alhola & Polo‐Kantola, 2007). Furthermore, slow‐wave sleep after learning a new
task can improve resultant performance on that task (Huber et al., 2004) and seems essential for effective
memory formation (Stickgold, 2005). Understanding the impact of sleep on cognitive function should help
you understand that cramming all night for an examination may not be effective and can even prove
counterproductive. Multiple brain areas act together to control sleep‐wake cycles. Some of these areas
include the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the pons. The hypothalamus contains the suprachiasmatic
nucleus (SCN) ‐ the biological clock of the body. In conjunction with the thalamus, it regulates slow‐wave
sleep. The pons regulates the rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (Siegel et al., 1984).
6.4.1 Non‐Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) sleep
Sleep is not a uniform state of being. Instead, sleep is made up of different stages that can be distinguished
from each other by the patterns of brainwave activity that occur during each stage. These brainwave
activities have different frequencies and amplitudes. Typically, sleep begins with the non‐rapid eye
movement (NREM) sleep stage. About 90% of the time, NREM sleep is dream‐free and is deepest early in
the night. Dreamless slow waves of NREM sleep increase after physical exertion and may help us to
recover from bodily fatigue. NREM also seems to calm the brain during the early part of a night’s sleep
(Coon & Mitterer, 2012). As the eyes close, breathing becomes slow and regular, the pulse rate slows, and
the body temperature drops. Soon after, we descend into slow wave sleep through four distinct stages of
sleep (Coon & Mitterer, 2012).
Stage 1 sleep ‐ the early part of this stage produces alpha waves, which are relatively low frequency
(8−13Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical waves that become synchronized. As an individual
continues through stage 1 sleep, there is an increase in theta waves activity. Theta waves are even lower
in frequency (4−7Hz) but higher amplitude than alpha waves. It is relatively easy to wake up someone in
stage 1 of sleep. In addition, the appearance of K‐complexes is often associated with stage 1 sleep. K‐
complex is a very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to
environmental stimuli. Thus, K‐complexes might serve as a bridge to higher levels of arousal in response
to what is going on in our environments (Halász, 1993; Steriade & Amzica, 1998).
As a person enters light sleep, the heart rate slows even more and breathing becomes more irregular. The
body muscles relax and this may trigger a reflex muscle twitch called hypnic jerk. In this stage, people
awakened from sleep may even deny that they were sleeping (Conn & Mitterer, 2012).
Stage 2 sleep ‐ this stage is characterised by the appearance of sleep spindles, which are short, bursts of
distinctive brainwaves activity, and K‐complexes. As we move into stage 2 sleep, the body goes into a state
of deep relaxation. Theta waves still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief
bursts of sleep spindles. As sleep deepens, the body temperature drops even further, and sleep spindles
3
seem to mark the true boundary of sleep. Within 4 minutes after spindles appear, most people when
woken up, would admit being asleep (Coon & Mitterer, 2012).
Figure 6.1: Stage 1 sleep ‐ sleep spindles and K‐complex patterns.

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/1250/fig_4.3.3.png?revision=1
Stage 3 sleep ‐ a brain wave called delta waves begins to appear. These waves are very large and slow.
They signal a move to deeper slow‐wave sleep and a further loss of consciousness (Coon & Mitterer, 2012).
Stage 4 sleep ‐ this is the deepest level of sleep that is reached within an hour of sleep. This stage is
marked by pure, slow delta waves, and the sleeping person is in a state of oblivion. Usually, people who
are awakened by loud noise during this stage are likely to become confused and may not even remember
the noise (Coon & Mitterer, 2012).
6.4.2 The Rapid‐Eye Movement (REM) sleep
There is much more to a night’s sleep than a simply falling into a deeper form of sleep. Early in life, REM
sleep may stimulate the developing brain. Newborn babies have lots of new experiences to process, so
they spend about 8 to 9 hours a day in REM sleep (Coon & Mitterer, 2012). Fluctuations in other sleep
hormones cause the recurring cycles of deeper and lighter sleep throughout the night. During this period
of sleep, the eyes occasionally move under the eyelids. This is called the Rapid Eye Movement (REM)
sleep and dreaming usually occurs during this period. REM sleep also shows the return of fast, irregular
EEG patterns similar to stage 1 sleep. In fact, the brain is so active during REM sleep that it looks like a
person is awake (Rock, 2004). REM sleep appears to ‘sharpen’ our memories of the previous day’s more
important experiences. The value of more REM sleep is that it helps us to sort and retain memories,
especially memories about strategies for solving problems (Coon & Mitterer, 2012).
Roughly 85% of the time, people awakened during REM sleep report vivid dreams and some eye
movements correspond to dream activities. People born blind also show REM patterns in their sleep. REM
4
is easy to observe in animals, such as cats and dogs. Dreams during REM sleep tend to be longer, clearer,
more detailed, more bizarre than thoughts and images that occur during NREM sleep (Coon & Mitterer,
2012). Figure 6.2 below shows the different brainwave activity during the NREM and REM sleep.
Figure 6.2: Brainwave activity changes dramatically across the different stages of sleep.
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/1249/fig_4.3.2.png?revision=1
Sleep has also been associated with other cognitive benefits, such as increased capacities for creative
thinking (Cai et al., 2009; Wagner et al., 2004), language learning (Fenn et al., 2006), and inferential
judgments (Ellenbogen et al., 2007). It is possible that even the processing of emotional information is
influenced by certain aspects of sleep (Walker, 2009).
Before you continue with this unit, please do the following activity:
Activity 1 During which stage of sleep do dreams occur?
A. Stage 1 of NREM
B. Stage 2
C. REM stage
D. Stage 4 of NREM
Answer The NREM stage of sleep is divided into four stages. Each stage is by differentiated by
certain types of brainwaves, with some brainwaves overlapping to other stages. Dreams usually occur
during the REM sleep and therefore, option C is the correct answer. This is the stage whereby the eyes
occasionally move under the eyelids. Other options are incorrect because they are stages of NREM sleep.
5
6.5 Functions of sleep

All people sleep, and when we do not get sufficient sleep, we often function poorly in terms of physical
and mental activities. Therefore, sleep provides some essential benefits.
6.5.1 Restoration ‐ sleep serves a restorative function. Examining the evolutionary basis of sleep,
scientists and psychologists have proposed that sleep restores, replenishes, and rebuilds our brains and
bodies, which can feel depleted by the day’s activities. This explains why we tend to feel ‘tired’ before
going to bed and we feel ‘restored’ when we wake up (Santrock, 2003). Therefore, stage 3 and 4 of NREM
sleep play an important role of restoring the body (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013).
6.5.2 Growth ‐ sleep may be beneficial to physical growth and brain development in infants and
children. The vast majority of the release of human growth hormone occurs during stage 3 and 4 of the
NREM sleep (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013; Santrock, 2003).
6.5.3 Memory ‐ sleep plays an important role in the storage, maintenance, and consolidation of
memories (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2013; Santrock, 2003). Memories for verbal tasks, emotional material,
and procedures are all better following a period of sleep than when followed by wakefulness (Cacioppo &
Freberg, 2013). Moreover, REM sleep has been linked to the formation of emotional memories in people.
During sleep, it is assumed that cerebral cortex is free to integrate memories formed during the recent
waking hours into long‐term memory storage (Santrock, 2003).
GROUP ACTIVITY
In a discussion forum on myUnisa with your e‐tutor and peers, discuss the NREM and REM
sleep.
NB: Please note that it is compulsory for you to have this discussion on myUnisa.
6.6 Sleep disorders

Not everyone is able to enjoy the luxury of a good night sleep. In this section we discuss some of the
common disturbances or disorders that tend to occur during sleep.
6
6.6.1 Insomnia
This is the most common form of sleep disorders. Insomnia may involve having trouble falling asleep,
waking up during the night and being unable to fall asleep again, or waking up too early in the morning
(Santrock, 2003; Weiten & Hassim, 2016). Insomnia is associated with, among other things, daytime
fatigue, impaired cognitive functioning, reduced productivity, anxiety, and increased health problems
(Weiten & Hassim, 2016). Individuals suffering from insomnia often experience long delays between the
times that they go to bed and actually falling asleep. Short‐term insomnia can be treated with sleeping
pills. However, such pills stop working after few weeks of night use and their long‐term use may actually
interfere with good night sleep (Santrock, 2003).
6.6.2 Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy is characterised by an individual uncontrollably falling asleep suddenly, typically in

inappropriate situations. The typical episode can last from a minute to half an hour. Once awakened from
a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed (Chokroverty, 2010). Regular narcoleptic
episodes could interfere with the ability to perform one’s job or complete schoolwork, and in some
situations, narcolepsy can result in significant harm and injury (e.g., driving a car or operating potentially
dangerous machinery or other equipment). Narcoleptics immediately enter the REM sleep rather than
progressing through the first four stages of sleep. This disorder can be inherited, and the treatment may
include counselling to determine the reason for the excessive desire to sleep (Santrock, 2003).
6.6.3 Catalepsy
Catalepsy occurs because of muscle paralysis normally associated with REM sleep (Cacioppo & Freberg,
2013. In some cases, it involves complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles. This is similar to the kind of
paralysis experienced by healthy individuals during REM sleep (Luppi et al., 2011). During cataleptic sleep,
the person is awake but unable to move, the paralysis end when the person is touched or called (Van
Deventer & Mojapelo‐Batka, 2013).
6.6.4 Sleep apnoea
Sleep apnoea occurs when a person stops breathing for a few seconds, wakes up abruptly and gasping for
air. This disorder is usually accompanied by loud snoring and it occurs more often to men than women
(Weiten & Hassim, 2016). Many individuals suffering from sleep apnoea seek treatment because the
snoring interrupts their partners’ peaceful sleep (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013). There is a higher incidence of
this disorder among older adults, postmenopausal women, and those who are obese (Weiten & Hassim,
2016). While individuals suffering from sleep apnoea may not be aware of these repeated disruptions in
sleep, they do experience increased levels of fatigue. Moreover, sleep apnoea may exacerbate
cardiovascular diseases (Sánchez‐de‐la‐Torre, Campos‐Rodriguez, & Barbé, 2012).
7
6.6.5 Somnambulism (sleepwalking)
Somnambulism usually occurs during stage 3 and 4 of NREM sleep, a time when a person is unlikely to be
dreaming (Santrock, 2003). It occurs when a person wakes up and wanders about while remaining asleep.
It tends to occur during the first three hours of sleep, when a person is in slow wave sleep. Sleepwalkers
may wake up during their sleepwalk, or they may return to bed without any recollections of their walking.
The causes of somnambulism are unknown, although it may have a genetic predisposition (Weiten &
Hassim, 2016).
6.6.6 Sleep‐talking
Sleep‐talking is another form of quirky night behaviour. Although sleep‐talkers may talk with you and
make fairly coherent statements, they are sound asleep. Even if a sleep‐talker mumbles a response to a
question, such a response tends to be highly inaccurate (Santrock, 2003).
Activity 2 Peter usually experiences a sudden, irresistible urge to fall asleep during the day in
different situations, even though he has sufficient night sleep. What sleep disorder is
Peter suffering from?
A. Insomnia
B. Catalepsy
C. Narcolepsy
D. Somnambulism
Answer Option A is incorrect because insomnia refers to an inability to fall asleep. Option B is also
incorrect because it is characterised by muscle weakness whereby a person is awake but
unable to move. Option D is also incorrect because somnambulism is marked by sleep
walking and a person is unaware of this behaviour. An uncontrollable urge to fall asleep
is called narcolepsy and therefore, option C is correct.
6.7 Hypnosis
Hypnosis is a systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility (Weiten &
Hassim, 2016). This involves a state of extreme self‐focus and attention in which minimal attention is given
to external stimuli. In the therapeutic setting, a clinician may use relaxation and suggestion to alter the
thoughts and perceptions of a patient. Hypnosis has also been used to draw out information believed to
8
be buried deeply in someone’s memory. For individuals who are susceptible to the power of suggestion,
hypnosis can prove to be a very effective technique. Brain imaging studies have also demonstrated that
hypnotic states are associated with changes in brain functioning (Del Casale et al., 2012; Guldenmund et
al., 2012).
Historically, hypnosis has been viewed with some suspicion because of its portrayal in popular media and
entertainment. Therefore, it is important to make a distinction between hypnosis as an empirically based
therapeutic approach, and hypnosis for entertainment. Contrary to popular belief, individuals undergoing
hypnosis usually have clear memories of the hypnotic experience and are in control of their own
behaviours. While hypnosis may be useful in enhancing memory or a skill, such enhancements are very
modest in nature (Raz, 2011).
There are four steps that appear useful in bringing people into the state of suggestibility associated with
hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994). These steps include:
 the participant is guided to focus on one thing, such as the hypnotist’s words or a ticking watch.
 the participant is made comfortable and is directed to be relaxed and sleepy.
 the participant is told to be open to the process of hypnosis, to trust the hypnotist and let go.
 the participant is encouraged to use his or her imagination.
These steps work simply because the participant is highly susceptible to the suggestions of the hypnotist.
People vary in terms of their ability to be hypnotised, and the available research suggests that most people
are at least moderately hypnotisable (Kihlstrom, 2013). Hypnosis in conjunction with other techniques is
used for a variety of therapeutic purposes and has shown to be at least somewhat effective for pain
management, treatment of depression and anxiety, smoking cessation, and weight loss (Alladin, 2012;
Elkins et al., 2012; Golden, 2012). You might find the following videos links on hypnosis interesting and
useful
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OXqT383Ps3M
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tXIRq6LxYFk
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4b9LfU1v5aA
(Note: Videos not for assessment purposes).
6.8 Substance use disorders
The alteration of our state of consciousness can result in dependence and drug use disorders. The
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM‐5) is used by clinicians to
diagnose individuals suffering from various psychological disorders, including drug use disorders. A person
who has a substance use disorder often uses more of the substance than they originally intended to and
continues to use that substance despite experiencing significant adverse consequences. In individuals
9
diagnosed with a substance use disorder, there is a compulsive pattern of drug use that is often associated
with both physical and psychological dependence. Physical dependence involves changes in normal bodily
functions; the user will experience withdrawal symptoms from the drug upon cessation of use. A person
who has psychological dependence has an emotional need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve
psychological distress. Drug tolerance occurs when a person requires more and more quantity of drugs
to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses. Tolerance can cause the user to increase the
doses of drug used, probably leading to death.
6.8.1 Psychoactive drugs
The effects of psychoactive drugs occur through their interactions with the endogenous neurotransmitter
systems. As you have learned in unit 1 (Human Nervous System), drugs can act as agonists or antagonists
of a given neurotransmitter system. An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system,
whereas an antagonist hinders the activities of the neurotransmitters.
 Depressants ‐ these are drugs that tend to suppress the central nervous system activity. For example,
barbiturates and benzodiazepines are depressants and they act as agonists of the Gamma‐
Aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system. Depressants are often prescribed to treat anxiety
and insomnia. Alcohol is a depressant because it depresses the nervous system. Acute alcohol intake
can result in a variety of altered states of consciousness. At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated
with feelings of euphoria. As the dose increases, people report feeling sedated. Generally, alcohol
decreases reaction time, leads to low levels of visual acuity and alertness, and reduction in
behavioural control (McKim & Hancock, 2013). In addition, if a pregnant woman consumes alcohol,
her infant may be born with a cluster of birth defects and symptoms collectively called foetal alcohol
spectrum disorder (FASD) or foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). With repeated use of the drugs, a person
becomes physically dependent upon the substance and will exhibit signs of both tolerance and
withdrawal. This is of such concern that people who are trying to overcome addiction to these
substances should only do so under medical supervision.
 Stimulants ‐ are drugs that stimulate the nervous system. Many of these drugs act as agonists of the
dopamine neurotransmitter system. Dopamine activity is associated with cravings therefore, drugs
that affect dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse liability. For example, caffeine is a
stimulant and can be addictive. This is why we often hear people say that they cannot concentrate or
function without coffee. Other types of stimulants include cocaine, amphetamines (including
methamphetamine), cathinones, MDMA (ecstasy), and nicotine.
• Hallucinogen ‐ this class of drugs results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual
experiences. In some cases, users experience vivid visual hallucinations, including the
hallucinations of body sensations (e.g. feeling like a giant). This may also include a skewed
perception of the passage of time. The most common types of hallucinogens include
marijuana and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).
10
• Inhalants ‐ inhalants are chemicals that make one feel high when they sniff them into their
lungs. These chemicals are found in household cleaners, spray cans, glue, and even
permanent markers. Inhalants can cause the user to pass out.
• Opioids ‐ this category of drugs includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine.
Opioids have analgesic properties ‐ they decrease the feeling of pain. The body makes small
quantities of opioid compounds that bind to opioid receptors reducing the feeling of pain
and producing euphoria. Opioid drugs, which mimic endogenous painkilling mechanism,
have an extremely high potential for abuse. Natural opioids, called opiates, are derivatives
of opium, which is a naturally occurring compound found in the poppy plant. There are
now several synthetic versions of opiate drugs (called opioids) that have very potent
painkilling effects, and they are often abused. Heroin has been a major opioid drug of
abuse. It can be snorted, smoked, or injected intravenously and it causes the feeling of
euphoria followed by periods of agitation. Because heroin is often administered via
intravenous injection, users often bear needle track marks on their arms and have an
increased risk for contracting of both tuberculosis and HIV.
Activity 3 Which of the following is a depressant?
A. Alcohol
B. Cocaine
C. Amphetamine
D. Glue
Answer The correct answer is option A. People often think that alcohol is a stimulant because
people who drink alcohol often become loud and boisterous, but it is a central nervous
system depressant. It depresses the brain’s inhibition centres so that people become less
inhibited. When they are less inhibited, they tend to be noisier and act in silly ways.
Options B and C are incorrect because they are stimulants. Option 4 is also incorrect
because glue is an inhalant.
GROUP ACTIVITY
In a discussion forum on myUnisa with your e‐tutor and peers, reflect on your personal
experiences with the psychoactive drug(s) that you have used or not used and explain why.
NB: Please note that it is compulsory for you to have this discussion on myUnisa.
11
6.9 Summary
The states of consciousness are both biologically and chemically induced. This means that our states of
consciousness could be determined by factors such as sleep, fatigue and so forth. Additionally, our
consciousness can also be controlled by the chemicals or substances that we take. In this learning section
we discussed the nature of consciousness focusing on different states of consciousness with emphasis on
stages of sleep. We also provided a discussion on the nature of sleep, substance‐use disorders, different
types of psychoactive drugs, their function on the human nervous system and addictive nature on the
users.
12
6.10 Glossary
Alpha wave: a type of relatively low frequency, relatively high amplitude brain wave that becomes
synchronised; characteristic of the beginning of stage 1 sleep.
Brainwaves: refer to electrical impulses in the brain.
Catalepsy: a sleep disorder marked by symptoms resulting from problems with the nervous system, and
causes muscular rigidity.
Consciousness: a state of mental awareness of sensations and perceptions of external and internal events
including thoughts, memories, and feelings about our experiences and the self.
Delta wave: type of low frequency, high amplitude brain wave characteristic of stage 3 and stage 4 sleep.
Depressant: a type of drugs that tend to suppress central nervous system activity.
Drug tolerance: a state of requiring increasing quantities of the drug to gain the desired effect.
Drug use disorders: are the disorders induced by using certain drugs (also called substance use disorders).
electroencephalography (EEG): is a tool that detects electrical activity in the brain using small, metal discs
(electrodes) attached to the scalp.
Foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) or foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): a cluster of physical and
psychological birth defects in the infant that are caused by the use of psychoactive drugs by the pregnant
mother.
Growth: an aspect of sleep that is necessary for neural reorganization and growth of the brain's structure
and functions.
Hallucinogen: a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences,
often with vivid hallucinations.
Hypnosis: is a systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility.
Insomnia: is a sleep disorder marked by inability to fall asleep or staying asleep.
K‐complex: very high amplitude pattern of brain activity associated with stage 2 sleep that may occur in
response to environmental stimuli.
Memory: as a function of sleep, memory helps to retain information over time through encoding, storage,
and retrieval.
13
Narcolepsy: a sleep disorder characterized by overwhelming daytime drowsiness and sudden attacks of
sleep.
Non‐REM (NREM) sleep: a period of sleep outside periods of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.
Physical dependence: a state whereby the body starts to rely on a substance to function.
Psychological dependence: a symptom of reliance on a psychoactive substance for its pleasurable effects.
Rapid eye movement: a period of sleep characterised by brain waves very similar to those during
wakefulness and by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids.
Restoration: a function of sleep that allows the body to repair cellular components necessary for
biological functions.
Sleep apnoea: a sleep disorder marked by temporary cessation of breathing during leep.
Sleep spindles: a specific pattern of brain waves that occurs during sleep.
Sleep: a state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is
distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness.
Stimulant: is a substance or drug that tends to increase overall levels of neural activity; includes caffeine,
nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine.
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): an area of the hypothalamus in which the body’s biological clock is
located.
Theta wave: a type of low frequency, low amplitude brain wave characteristic of the end of stage 1 sleep.
Wakefulness: an awareness state characterised by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and
behaviour.
Withdrawal symptoms: a variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued.
14
6.11 References
Alhola, P. & Polo‐Kantola, P. (2007). Sleep Deprivation: Impact on cognitive performance.
Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 3, 553–557.
Brown, L. K. (2012). Can sleep deprivation studies explain why human adults sleep? Current Opinion in
Pulmonary Medicine,18, 541–545.
Alladin, A. (2012). Cognitive hypnotherapy for major depressive disorder. The American Journal of Clinical
Hypnosis, 54,275–293.
Burgess, C. R., & Scammell, T. E. (2012). Narcolepsy: Neural mechanisms of sleepiness and cataplexy.
Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 12305–12311.
Cai, D. J., Mednick, S. A., Harrison, E. M., Kanady, J. C., & Mednick, S. C. (2009). REM, not incubation,
improves creativity by priming associative networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, USA, 106, 10130–10134.
Capellini, I., Barton, R. A., McNamara, P., Preston, B. T., & Nunn, C. L. (2008). Phylogenetic analysis of the
ecology and evolution of mammalian sleep. Evolution, 62, 1764–1776.
Chokroverty, S. (2010). Overview of sleep & sleep disorders. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 131, 126–
140.
Del Casale, A., Ferracuti, S., Rapinesi, C., Serata, D., Sani, G., Savoja, V. & Girardi, P. (2012). Neurocognition
under hypnosis: Findings from recent functional neuroimaging studies. International Journal of
Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis,60, 286–317.
Elkins, G., Johnson, A., & Fisher, W. (2012). Cognitive hypnotherapy for pain management. The American
Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 54, 294–310.
Ellenbogen, J. M., Hu, P. T., Payne, J. D., Titone, D., & Walker, M. P. (2007). Human relational memory
requires time and sleep. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 104, 7723‐7728.
Fenn, K. M., Nusbaum, H. C., & Margoliash, D. (2006). Consolidation during sleep of perceptual learning
of spoken language. Nature, 425, 614–616.
Frank, M. G. (2006). The mystery of sleep function: Current perspectives and future directions. Reviews in
the Neurosciences, 17, 375–392.
Golden, W. L. (2012). Cognitive hypnotherapy for anxiety disorders. The American Journal of Clinical
Hypnosis, 54, 263–274.
Guldenmund, P., Vanhaudenhuyse, A., Boly, M., Laureys, S., & Soddu, A. (2012). A default mode of brain
function in altered states of consciousness. Archives Italiennes de Biologie, 150, 107–121.
15
Halász, P. (1993). Arousals without awakening—Dynamic aspect of sleep. Physiology and Behavior, 54,
795–802.
Henry, D., & Rosenthal, L. (2013). “Listening for his breath:” The significance of gender and partner
reporting on the diagnosis, management, and treatment of obstructive sleep apnea. Social Science
& Medicine, 79, 48–56.
Huber, R., Ghilardi, M. F., Massimini, M., & Tononi, G. (2004). Local sleep and learning. Nature, 430, 78–
81.
Kihlstrom, J. F. (2013). Neuro‐hypnotism: Prospects for hypnosis and neuroscience. Cortex, 49, 365–374.
Luppi, P. H., Clément, O., Sapin, E., Gervasoni, D., Peyron, C., Léger, L. & Fort, P. (2011). The neuronal
network responsible for paradoxical sleep and its dysfunctions causing narcolepsy and rapid eye
movement (REM) behavior disorder. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 15, 153–163.
National Research Council. (1994). Learning, remembering, believing: Enhancing human performance. The
National Academies Press.
Rattenborg, N. C., Lesku, J. A., Martinez‐Gonzalez, D., & Lima, S. L. (2007). The non‐trivial functions of
sleep. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 11, 405–409.
Raz, A. (2011). Hypnosis: A twilight zone of the top‐down variety: Few have never heard of hypnosis but
most know little about the potential of this mind‐body regulation technique for advancing
science. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 555–557.
Rial, R. V., Nicolau, M. C., Gamundí, A., Akaârir, M., Aparicio, S., Garau, C. & Esteban, S. (2007). The trivial
function of sleep. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 11, 311–325.
Rock, A. (2004). The mind at night: The new science of how and why we dream. Basic Books.
Sánchez‐de‐la‐Torre, M., Campos‐Rodriguez, F., & Barbé, F. (2012). Obstructive sleep apnoea and
cardiovascular disease. The Lancet Respiratory Medicine, 1, 31–72.
Siegel, J. M. (2008). Do all animals sleep? Trends in Neuroscience, 31, 208–213.
Siegel, J.M., Nienhuis, R. & Tomaszewski, K.S. (1984) REM sleep signs rostral to chronic transections at the
pontomedullary junction. Neuroscience Letters, 45, 241–246.
Steriade, M., & Amzica, F. (1998). Slow sleep oscillation, rhythmic K‐complexes, and their paroxysmal
developments [Supplemental material]. Journal of Sleep Research, 7(1 Suppl.), 30–35.
Stickgold, R. (2005). Sleep‐dependent memory consolidation. Nature, 437, 1272–1278.
Van Deventer, V. & Mojapelo‐Batka, M. (2013). A students’ A‐Z of psychology. Juta.
16
Wagner, U., Gais, S., Haider, H., Verleger, R. & Born, J. (2004). Sleep improves insight. Nature, 427, 352–
355.
Walker, M. P. (2009). The role of sleep‐in cognition and emotion. Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences, 1156, 168–1
17

PYC1501 Unit 6 States of Consciousness OER 2022

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PYC1501 Unit 6 States of Consciousness OER 2022

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PYC1501/States of consciousness/OER/2022

Unit 6: States of consciousness

 understand the nature of consciousness.

6.2 Defining consciousness

6.3 The nature of consciousness

6.4 The nature of sleep

6.4.1 Non‐Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) sleep

Figure 6.1: Stage 1 sleep ‐ sleep spindles and K‐complex patterns.

6.4.2 The Rapid‐Eye Movement (REM) sleep

Activity 1 During which stage of sleep do dreams occur?

6.5 Functions of sleep

6.6 Sleep disorders

Narcolepsy is characterised by an individual uncontrollably falling asleep suddenly, typically in

6.6.4 Sleep apnoea

6.6.5 Somnambulism (sleepwalking)

6.8 Substance use disorders

6.8.1 Psychoactive drugs

Activity 3 Which of the following is a depressant?

Brainwaves: refer to electrical impulses in the brain.

Hypnosis: is a systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility.

Insomnia: is a sleep disorder marked by inability to fall asleep or staying asleep.

Siegel, J. M. (2008). Do all animals sleep? Trends in Neuroscience, 31, 208–213.

Stickgold, R. (2005). Sleep‐dependent memory consolidation. Nature, 437, 1272–1278.

Van Deventer, V. & Mojapelo‐Batka, M. (2013). A students’ A‐Z of psychology. Juta.

You might also like