UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves

without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
• Signals are normally broadcast through free space
and thus are available to anyone who has a device
capable of receiving them.

7.1
 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

7.2
 Unguided signals
1.Unguided signals can travel from the source to
destination in several ways:
2.Ground propagation,
3.Sky propagation
4.Line-of-sight propagation
5. m

7.3
 Unguided signals
• In ground propagation, radio waves travel through
the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the
earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all
directions from the transmitting antenna and follow
the curvature of the planet. Distance depends on the
amount of power in the signal: The greater the
power, the greater the distance.
• In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves
radiate upward into the ionosphere (the layer of
atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they
are reflected back to earth. This type of transmission
allows for greater distances with lower output power.

7.4
 Unguided signals

• In line-or-sight propagation, very high-frequency

signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from
antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional,
facing each other, and either tall enough or close
enough together not to be affected by the curvature
of the earth.

7.5
 Table 7.4 Bands

7.6
 Figure 7.19 Wireless transmission waves

7.7
 Microwave terrestrial
• It is unidirectional
• It propagate in line of sight
• Repeaters are needed for long distance
communication
• Used for long distance telephone service
• Used for both voice and television transmission
• Dish transmitter is mounted high

7.8
 Satellite
A satellite is an object in space that orbits or circles
around a bigger object. There are two kinds of
satellites: natural (such as the moon orbiting the
Earth) or artificial (such as the International Space
Station orbiting the Earth.
• Communications Satellite.
• Remote Sensing Satellite.
• Navigation Satellite.
• Geocentric Orbit type satellites
• Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Geostationary Satellites (GEOs)
• Drone Satellite.
• Ground Satellite.

7.9
 Advantages of Satellite
• Satellites effectively support on a global basis all
forms of communications ranging from simple
point-of-sale validation to bandwidth intensive
multimedia applications
• Satellite solutions are highly flexible and can
operate independently or as part of a larger network
• They support radio and cable television transmission
• They allow us to make cellular phone calls from
long distances.

7.10
 Disadvantages of Satellite
• Satellites are expensive to develop them and
launching them into space. Satellites are costly even
when they are successfully launched, but all too
often, launches end in failure. In 2017, the billion-
dollar spy satellite, Zuma, was lost when the rocket
carrying it failed to reach orbit height. Satellite costs
may rise as satellite technologies grow more complex
to handle different purposes.
• Somewhat unreliable signal. There are different
factors that affect the strength and reception of a
satellite signal. There are also circumstances, such
as weather or sunspots which may be impossible to
alter

7.11
 Disadvantages of Satellite
• Propagation delay The time can vary between 270
milliseconds to reach the satellite from Earth and
return again to 320 milliseconds. This delay can
cause an echo over telephone connections.
• There are No Repair Shops in Space

7.12
 Satellite
• Satellites maximum weight can be of 7 tons
• Satellite minimum weight can be of 100kg
• A good minimum height for a satellite is 100
km above the Earth's surface
• Most satellites are placed into orbit between 500
and 1500 km

7.13
 Infrared
It is a region of the electromagnetic radiation
spectrum where wavelengths range from about 700
nanometers (nm) to 1 millimeter
(mm). Infrared waves are longer than those of visible
light, but shorter than those of radio waves.
• Typically used for television remote control
• It need no license
• It is blocked by wall
• Transmitter and receiver must be in line of sight
• It can be use for short range communication in
close area

7.14
 Radio Wave
• It is electromagnetic radiation used for multicast
communication such as radio , television and toys.
• The frequency of radio waves ranges from 3 kHz to
300 GHz.
• Radio waves have enabled better navigation on
aircrafts and ships

7.15
 Disadvantages of Radio Wave
• They cannot transmit a lot of data simultaneously
because they're low frequency
• continued exposure to large amounts of radio waves
can cause health disorders like leukemia and
cancer.

7.16
 5-1 Modulation

Modulation is a process through which audio, video,

image or text information is added to an electrical or
optical carrier signal to be transmitted over a
telecommunication or electronic medium. Modulation
enables the transfer of information on an electrical
signal to a receiving device that demodulates the signal
to extract the blended information.

7.17
 5-2 Modulation types

7.18
 5-3 Analog Modulation

Analog modulation refers to the process of transferring

analog low frequency baseband signal, like an audio or
TV signal over a higher frequency carrier signal such as
a radio frequency band. Baseband signal is always
analog for this modulation.
There are three properties of a carrier signal amplitude,
frequency and phase thus there are three basic types of
analog modulations.
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
3. Phase modulation (PM)
7.19
 5-3-1 Amplitude Modulation

7.20
 5-3-1 Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude modulation or AM is the process of varying

the instantaneous amplitude of carrier signal
accordingly with instantaneous amplitude of message
signal. Its modulation circuit is so simple and cheap.
• It is simplest type of modulation. Hardware design
of both transmitter and receiver is very simple and
less cost effective.
• It is very susceptible to noise , it is used in AM radio
broadcast

7.21
 5-3-2 Frequency modulation

7.22
 5-3-2 Frequency modulation

FM or Frequency modulation is the process of varying

the instantaneous frequency of Carrier signal
accordingly with instantaneous amplitude of message
signal.

• Modulation and demodulation does not catch any

channel noise.
• Circuit needed for FM modulation and demodulation
is bit complicated than AM
• It is used in FM radio broad cast

7.23
 5-3-3 Phase modulation

7.24
 5-3-3 Phase modulation

Phase modulation is the process of varying the

instantaneous phase of Carrier signal accordingly with
instantaneous amplitude of message signal.

• Modulation and demodulation does not catch any

channel noise
• Circuit needed for PM modulation and demodulation
is bit complicated than AM and FM
• It is used for Satellite communication

7.25
 5-4 Digital Modulation

Analog modulation refers to the process of transferring

digital low frequency baseband signal, like digital bit
stream from computers over a higher frequency carrier
signal such as a radio frequency band. Digital
modulation in somewhat similar to the analog
modulation except base band signal is of discrete
amplitude level. For binary signal it has only two level,
either high or logic 1 or low or logic 0. The modulation
scheme is mainly three types
• ASK or Amplitude shift Key
• FSK or Frequency shift key
• PSK or Phase shift key
7.26
 5-5 Modulation types

1-Digital data Digital signals

2-Digital data Analog signals
3-Analog data Digital signals
4-Analog data Analog signals

7.27
 5-6 Encoding Schemes

7.28
 5-6 Encoding Schemes

7.29
 5-6-1 Nonreturn To Zero Level NRZ-L
In telecommunication, a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) line
code is a binary code in which ones are represented by
one significant condition, usually a positive voltage,
while zeros are represented by some other significant
condition, usually a negative voltage, with no other
neutral .
In it signal drops (returns) to zero between each pulse.
This takes place even if a number of consecutive 0s or 1s
occur in the signal.

7.30
 5-6-3 Multilevel Binary Bipolar-AMI

These codes use more than two signal levels.In it binary

0 is represented by no line signal, and a binary 1 is
represented by a positive or negative pulse. The binary 1
pulses must alternate in polarity.

7.31
 5-6-2 Nonreturn To Zero Inverted
It is a binary code used in telecommunications
transmission, where a data bit of 1 is positive voltage,
and a data bit of 0 is negative voltage. NRZ code does
not have a neutral state, versus Return to Zero (RZ)
code, which has a rest state.

Data encoded as presence or absence of signal transition

at beginning of bit time transition (low to high or high to
low) denotes binary 1, no transition denotes binary 0.

7.32
 5-5-4 Manchester Encoding

In the Manchester code, there is a transition at the

middle of each bit period. The mid bit transition serves as
a clocking mechanism and also as data: a low-to-high
transition represents a 1, and a high-to-low transition
represents a 0.

7.33
 5-5-5 Differential Manchester Encoding

In it we make inversion when we found 1.we make no

inversion when we found 0.when we found 0 we move to
the other side be move back to the same side.in start we
start from the positive side.in it 1 may be positive or
negative.

7.34
 6-1 Digital Data Communications Techniques

A conversation forms a two-way communication link;

there is a measure of symmetry between the two parties,
and messages pass to and fro. There is a continual
stimulus-response, cyclic action; remarks call up other
remarks, and the behavior of the two individuals
becomes concerted, co-operative, and directed toward
some goal. This is true communication.

4.35
 6-2 Synchronization

The transmission of bits from one device to another

involves cooperation and agreement between the two
sides , for this fundamental requirements is
synchronization. The receiver must know the rate at
which bits are being received so that it can sample the
line at appropriate intervals to determine the value of
each received bit. Two techniques are commonly used
for this purpose known as
• Synchronous transmission
• Asynchronous transmission

4.36
 6-2-1 Synchronous transmission

Synchronous data transmission is a data transfer

method in which a continuous stream of data signals
is accompanied by timing signals (generated by an
electronic clock) to ensure that the transmitter and the
receiver are in step (synchronized) with one another.
Synchronous is faster than asynchronous
transmission.In this transmission mode data moves
bytes by bytes.

4.37
 6-2-1 Synchronous transmission

• It is more efficient as data flow

• Require use preamble and postamble for each data
frame
• Require less over head as compared to
Asynchronous
• Clock must be synchronized

4.38
 6-2-2 Asynchronous transmission

It is transmission of data in which each character is a

self-contained unit with its own start and stop bits and
an uneven interval between them. Asynchronous
transmission is also referred to as
start/stop transmission. Its data rate is slower as
compared to synchronous transmission.

4.39
 6-2-2 Asynchronous transmission

• simple
• Cheap
• Require no clock synchronization
• overhead of 2 or 3 bits per char (~20%)
• good for data with large gaps (keyboard)

4.40
 6-3 Error in Transmission

In digital transmission systems, an error occurs when

a bit is altered between transmission and reception; a
binary 1 is transmitted and a binary 0 is received, or a
binary 0 is transmitted and a binary 1 is received. Two
general types of errors can occur:

• single-bit errors
• burst errors

4.41
 6-3-1 Single bit error

It is an isolated error condition that alters one bit but

does not affect nearby bits. A single-bit error can occur
in the presence of white noise(noise containing many
frequencies with equal intensities).

4.42
 6-3-2 Burst Error

It is an error condition in which first and last bits

and any number of intermediate bits are received in
error. Burst errors are more common and more
difficult to deal with.

4.43
 6-4 Parity bit

A parity bit, or check bit, is a bit added to a string of

binary code to ensure that the total number of 1-bits in
the string is even or odd. Parity bits are used as the
simplest form of error detecting code.

Odd Parity bit

If the total number of ones in the data is
an odd number, it is called odd parity.

Even Parity bit

If the total number of ones in the data is an even
number , it is called even parity bit.
4.44
 6-4 Two Dimensional Parity bit

4.45
 6-5 Cyclic Redundancy Check

cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is an error-detecting

code commonly used in digital networks and storage
devices to detect accidental changes to raw data. Blocks
of data entering these systems get a short check
value attached, based on the remainder of a polynomial
division of their contents. On retrieval, the calculation is
repeated and, in the event the check values do not
match, corrective action can be taken against data
corruption. It Reduces the number of extra bits and
maximize protection

4.46
 6-5 Cyclic Redundancy Check

Exclusive R
1 1 = 0
0 0 = 0
1 0 = 1
0 1 = 1

4.47
 6-5 Cyclic Redundancy Check

4.48
 Bridge

A networking device that connects two LANs and forward or filter data
packets between them based on their destination address. Bridges operate
at data link level (or MAC layer). A bridge is able to read MAC address
(hardware address or Ethernet address) of each packet circulating on the
network segments connected to the bridge

4.49
 Repeater

A networking device that is used to boast up the digital signals is

called repeater. It takes the signal from the computer and other
devices on the LAN and regenerates the signals so that the signal
maintain its integrity along a longer media . Repeaters do not
have any capability for directing network traffic or deciding the
particular route certain data should take.

4.50
 Switch

Switch use a combination of software and hardware to switch packets

between computers and other hardware devices on network . Switches
also connect to different computer on local area network as every switch
have port and the capacity of port of switch vary from switch to switch as
hub also contain port for the connection of different computer but switch
has the property that they can join the computer from two different local
area network and also supply the data to the desired computer only with
respect to its port number while hub copy the data to very port and
desired port get the data

4.51
 Router

Routers are even smarter than bridges and switches as a router contain a
combination of software and hardware to route the data from source to
destination and have the capability to connect two different local area
networks .Routers divide large network into logical segments called
subnets and router decide how to forward data packets to their
destination based on routing table.

4.52
 Router

Router has a very sophisticated operating system that allows you to

configure their various connections ports while router use protocols built
into their operating system to identify neighboring routers and their
network address. Whenever any user from the network make request to
open a web page then we jus write its name which is known as physical
address which must be translated into logical IP address so that the
required web page can be seen on screen This allow router to build a
routing table with the help of routing table router route its data to the
corresponding router or to the destination.

4.53
 Flow Control

Flow control is the management of data flow between

computers or devices or between nodes in a network
so that the data can be handled at an efficient pace.
Too much data arriving before a device can handle it
causes data overflow, meaning the data is either lost
or must be retransmitted.

4.54
 Flow Control

4.55
 Connection-Oriented(TCP)

Connection-oriented communication is a network

communication mode in telecommunications and
computer networking, where a communication session or
a semi-permanent connection is established before any
useful data can be transferred, and where a stream of
data is delivered in the same order as it was sent.

4.56
 Connectionless(IP ,UDP)

Connectionless communication, often referred to as CL-

mode communication, is a data transmission method used
in packet switching networks in which each data unit is
individually addressed and routed based on information
carried in each unit, rather than in the setup information
of a prearranged, fixed data sent.

4.57
 Stop and Wait

Source entity transmits a packet , destination receives

it. it indicates willingness to accept another frame by
sending back an acknowledgment to the packet just
received. The source must wait until it receives the
acknowledgment before sending the next packet. The
destination can thus stop the flow of data simply by
withholding acknowledgment. However, it is often the
case that a source will break up a large block of data
into smaller blocks and transmit the data in many
packets (because of limited buffer size).
4.58
 Stop and Wait

Source
• Source transmits single packet at a time
• Wait for ACK then send next packet

Receiver
• Send acknowledgement after receiving and
consuming data packet

4.59
 Stop and Wait

1. Used in Connection-oriented communication.

2. It offers error and flow control
3. It is used in Data Link and Transport Layers
4. Stop and Wait ARQ mainly implements Sliding
Window Protocol concept with Window Size 1
5. It is used in half duplex mode

4.60
 Problems in Stop and Wait

Lost data
• Sender wait for acknowledgment
• Receiver wait for data for infinite amount of time

Lost acknowledgement
• Sender wait for ack for infinite amount of time
Delayed acknowledgment
• After time out on sender side a long delayed ack might
be wrongly considered as ack of some other packets.
Because there is no buffer on sender or receiver side
4.61
 Problems in Stop and Wait

4.62
 Problems in Stop and Wait

4.63
 Stop and Wait ARQ

• If data is not received in specific amount of time then

data packet is retransmitted
• If ack is not received in specific amount of time then
ack is retransmitted
• If data is damaged then retransmission occur

4.64
 Stop and Wait Flow diagram

4.65
 Sliding Window Protocol

It is a technique for controlling transmitted data packets

between two network computers where reliable and sequential
delivery of data packets is required, such as when using the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). In this protocol,
multiple frames can be sent by a sender at a time before
receiving an acknowledgment from the receiver.it overcome
the deficiencies of stop and wait.

There are two types of sliding window protocols.

1-Go back N 2- Selective repeat protocol
4.66
 Sliding Window

Sequence number
It is given to each outbound frame

Sliding window
It is like a boxes(buffer) to accommodate temporary data frames to
improve the efficiency. They are present at transmitter and
receiver

4.67
 Sliding Window

4.68
 Go back N

It is a specific instance of the automatic repeat request (ARQ)

protocol, in which the sending process continues to send a
number of frames specified by a window size even without
receiving an acknowledgement (ACK) packet from the receiver. It
can transmit N frames to the peer before requiring an ACK.

4.69
 Go back N

Go-Back-N ARQ is a more efficient use of a connection than

Stop-and-wait ARQ, since unlike waiting for an acknowledgement
for each packet, the connection is still being utilized as packets are
being sent. In other words, during the time that would otherwise
be spent waiting, more packets are being sent. However, this
method also results in sending frames multiple times – if any
frame was lost or damaged, or the ACK acknowledging them was
lost or damaged, then that frame and all following frames in the
send window (even if they were received without error) will be re-
sent.

4.70
4.71
 Go back N

• Go-Back-N mean N number of frames can be send at

a time without receiving the Ack. Here N is always
greater than 1.sender and receiver window size is one
that contain many frames of data in it.
• Sender is sending data d0,d1,d2, as d2 is damaged but
sender will continuously send data like d3,d4…
• But receiver will discard data received as d2,d3 and d4
• Receiver will send NAck of d2, and sender will
understand that d3 is damaged.
• Sender will send again d2,d3 and d4

4.72
 Go back N
Damaged Frame
• Receiver send NAck with frame number
• After NAck receiver discard all frames

Lost Frame
• Check the number of each frame
• Just check the sequence
• Resent that specific frame
• Arrange sequence number

• Lost ACK
• Sender will retransmit all the frames after lost of ack
4.73
 Sliding Window Flow Control

4.74
 Selective Repeat

With selective repeat, the sender sends a number of frames

specified by a window size even without the need to wait for
individual ACK from the receiver . The receiver may
selectively reject a single frame(damaged/lost), which may
be retransmitted alone; this contrasts with other forms of
ARQ, which must send every frame from that point again.
The receiver accepts out-of-order frames and buffers them.
The sender individually retransmits frames that have timed
out. Receiver must be able to accept packets out of order.

4.75
 Selective Repeat

4.76
 High Level Data Link Control Protocol

It is bit oriented protocol as data travel in the form of bits

and it support both full and half duplex mode in point to
point and multipoint communication. It is base for many
protocol designed for local area network. It provides both
connection-oriented and connectionless services. A frame
is transmitted via the network to the destination that
verifies its successful arrival.

HDLC has three stations

1-Primary station
2-Secondary station
4.77 3-Combined station
 High Level Data Link Protocol

Primary station
Data sender is known as primary station. It carries
maximum features and responsibilities as it can control
data flow.
Secondary station
It is receiver which receive data and services from
primary station. It has low features and responsibilities
and always depends upon primary station for data flow.
Combined station
it transmit and respond data at a time without any
interruption from the primary station.
4.78
 HDLC Operation modes

1-Normal response mode

2-Asynchronous response mode
3- Asynchronous balanced mode

Normal response mode

This mode is suitable for point to point as well as point to
multipoint communication.

Asynchronous response mode

This mode is suitable for communication between
primary and secondary stations.
4.79
 HDLC Operation modes

Asynchronous balanced mode

This mode is applicable for point to point communication
between combined stations

4.80
 HDLC Frame Structure

Flag
Indicate the start and stop of frame
Address
It will hold the secondary station address. Whether
the frame is moving from primary to secondary
station or vice versa.

4.81
 HDLC Frame Structure

Control
It will show the attributes used to control the data
flow like ack, frame number , sequence number.

Information
It contain data which can be of variable size depend
upon the user.

Frame Check Sequence

It contain CRC of 16bit, so that receiver can use this
CRC code and check whether this data is correct or
4.82 corrupt.
 Spread Spectrum

In telecommunication and radio communication, spread-

spectrum techniques is method by which a signal generated
with a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the
frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider
bandwidth. It is important encoding method for wireless
communication. It can carry analog or digital data with
analog signals. It make harder the jamming and interception
during communication.

4.83
 Spread Spectrum

It is a modulation technique in which transmitted

band width is larger than information bearing signal
bandwidth..
There are two types
1-Frequency hopping spread spectrum
2-Direct sequence spread spectrum

4.84
 Advantages of Spread Spectrum

• It reduces cross talk interference

• Provide better voice quality
• Longer operating distance
• It is hard to detect
• It is harder to jam its signals
• It is harder to intercept or demodulate

4.85
 General model for Spread Spectrum

4.86
 General model for Spread Spectrum

4.87
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of

transmitting radio signals by rapidly changing the carrier frequency
among many distinct frequencies occupying a large spectral band.
The changes are controlled by a code known to both transmitter and
receiver. FHSS is used to avoid interference, to prevent
eavesdropping, and to enable code-division multiple access (CDMA)
communications.
The available frequency band is divided into smaller sub-bands.
Signals rapidly change ("hop") their carrier frequencies among the
center frequencies of these sub-bands in a predetermined order.
Interference at a specific frequency will only affect the signal during a
short interval.
4.88
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

FHSS offers three main advantages over a fixed-frequency

transmission:

• FHSS signals are highly resistant to narrowband interference

because the signal hops to a different frequency band.
• Signals are difficult to intercept if the frequency-hopping pattern is
not known.
• FHSS transmissions can share a frequency band with many types
of conventional transmissions with minimal mutual interference.
FHSS signals add minimal interference to narrowband
communications, and vice versa.
4.89
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

4.90
 Frequency Hopping graph
we change frequency with respect to time that is called
frequency hopping. So in each instance frequency is
hopping

4.91
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

Military use
Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to deliberate jamming,
unless the adversary has knowledge of the frequency-hopping pattern.
Military radios generate the frequency-hopping pattern under the
control of a secret Transmission Security Key (TRANSEC) that the
sender and receiver share in advance. This key is generated by devices
such as the KY-57 Speech Security Equipment.

4.92
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

Civilian use
In the US, since the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
amended rules to allow FHSS systems in the unregulated 2.4 GHz
band, many consumer devices in that band have employed various
FHSS modes.

4.93
 Advantages of FHSS

It provides very robust transmission path in the presence of

interferences such as multipath, noise and other wireless
transmissions etc. due to support of wide bandwidth.

➨It can be employed in point to multipoint applications.

➨It supports about ten nearby WLAN compliant APs (Access Points)
without any significant interference issues.
➨It provides security against any kind of intrusion as only transmitter
and receiver are aware of PN(Pseudorandom noise) codes

4.94
 Disadvantages of FHSS

Following are the disadvantages of FHSS:

➨As FHSS relies on carrier frequencies to transmit information bits,
it leads to strong bursty errors due to frequency selective fading
mainly.
➨It supports lower data rate of 3 Mbps compare to 11 Mbps
supported by DSSS.
➨It supports lower coverage range due to high SNR(Signal to Noise
ration) requirement at receiver.

4.95
 Direct Sequence

4.96
 Direct Sequence

In telecommunications, direct-sequence spread spectrum

(DSSS) is a spread-spectrum modulation technique primarily
used to reduce overall signal interference. The direct-sequence
modulation makes the transmitted signal wider in bandwidth
than the information bandwidth. After the despreading or
removal of the direct-sequence modulation in the receiver, the
information bandwidth is restored, while the unintentional and
intentional interference is substantially reduced

4.97
 Direct Sequence

It is one of the most popular modulation and

transmission method in wireless communication.It is a
spreading technique which expand the bandwidth.
First of all original signals are transformed into
PSK(digital) then given to modulator which blend it
with code generated by chip generator and forward
them.it is called direct sequence spread spectrum.
Direct sequence method is used to support the digital
signals

4.98
 Advantages of Direct Sequence

• It uses both time and frequency planes for transmission of

information.
• It can be employed in point to point application at the rate of
11Mbps
• It supports higher coverage range due to low SNR requirement at
receiver.

4.99
 Disadvantages of Direct Sequence

• It very sensitive technology in the presence of harsh environment

such as collocated cells, larger coverage areas, multipath and in
the presence of frequencies used for Bluetooth network.
• It operate at narrow bandwidth
• It is prone to errors at lower level than FHSS

4.100
 Multiplexing

4.101
 Multiplexing/Demultiplexing

Multiplexing (or muxing) is a way of sending multiple signals or

streams of information over a communications link at the same time in
the form of a single, complex signal; the receiver recovers the separate
signals, a process called demultiplexing (or demuxing)

4.102
 Why use Multiplexing

• To make it possible for any network device to talk to any other network
device without having to dedicate a connection for each pair. This
requires shared media
• To make an expensive resource stretch further , to send many signals
down each cable or fiber strand running between major metropolitan
areas, or across one satellite uplink

4.103
 Analog Multiplexing

Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one

signal, over a shared medium. If the analog signals are multiplexed,
then it is called as analog multiplexing. Multiplexing was first
developed in telephony. A number of signals were combined to send
through a single cable.

4.104
 Digital Multiplexing

It is a method by which multiple digital signals are combined into one

signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share a scarce resource.
The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel
such as a cable

4.105
 Advantages of Multiplexing

• More than one signals can be sent over single medium or link
• Effective use of bandwidth of medium

4.106
 FDMA

4.107
 FDMA

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique of multiplexing

which means combining more than one signal over a shared medium.
In FDM, signals of different frequencies are combined for concurrent
transmission

Multiplexing is used in the cases where the signals of lower bandwidth

and the transmitting media is having higher bandwidth. In this the
signals are combined into one and are sent over a link which has
greater bandwidth of media than the communicating nodes

4.108
 How does FDMA works

It is a technique by which the total bandwidth available in a

communication medium is divided into a series of non-overlapping
frequency bands, each of which is used to carry a separate signal.

Usage
Early cellular telephony mostly used FDMA analogue transmission.
Walkie talkies and mobile networks for closed user groups often use
FDMA

4.109
 TDMA

4.110
 TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital cellular telephone

communication technology. It facilitates many users to share the same
frequency without interference.This technology divides a signal into
different timeslots, and increases the data carrying capacity.

It is a method of putting multiple data streams in a single signal by

separating the signal into many segments, each having a very short
duration. Each individual data stream is reassembled at the receiving
end based on the timing.

4.111
 How does TDMA works

It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing

the signal into different time slots. The users transmit in rapid
succession, one after the other, each using its own time slot.

usage
TDMA is used in the digital 2G cellular systems such as Global System
for Mobile Communications (GSM), IS-136, Personal Digital Cellular

4.112
 TDMA

4.113
 TDMA types

• Synchronous time-division multiplexing.

• Asynchronous time-division multiplexing.
• Interleaving time-division multiplexing.
• Statistical time-division multiplexing.

4.114
 Synchronous time-division multiplexing

Synchronous and asynchronous time division multiplexing are

techniques that allow multiple signals to be sent over a single faster
connection by sectioning a link into time slots. In synchronous time
division multiplexing, time slots are fixed every time slice is allocated
even if sources have nothing to send

4.115
 Asynchronous time-division multiplexing

synchronous and asynchronous time division multiplexing are

techniques that allow multiple signals to be sent over a single faster
connection by sectioning a link into time slots. In asynchronous time
division multiplexing, time is assigned to each signal dynamically.

4.116
 Interleaving time-division multiplexing

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that can be

applied when the data rate capacity of the transmission medium is
greater than the data rate required by the sending and receiving
devices. In such a case, multiple transmissions can occupy a single link
by subdividing them and interleaving the portions

4.117
 Statistical time-division multiplexing

In statistical multiplexing, a communication channel is divided into an

arbitrary number of variable bit rate digital channels or data streams.
The link sharing is adapted to the instantaneous traffic demands of the
data streams that are transferred over each channel. This is an
alternative to creating a fixed sharing of a link, such as in general time
division multiplexing (TDM) and frequency division multiplexing

4.118
 Statistical time-division multiplexing

4.119
 WDMA

4.120
 WDMA

Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is a technology or technique

modulating numerous data streams, i.e. optical carrier signals of
varying wavelengths (colors) of laser light, onto a single optical fiber.
WDM enables bi-directional communication as well as multiplication
of signal capacity.

4.121
 How does WDMA works

Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is a technique of

multiplexing multiple optical carrier signals through a single optical
fiber channel by varying the wavelengths of laser lights .

Usage
It is a technique in fiber optic transmission that enables the use of
multiple light wavelengths (or colors) to send data over the same
medium. Two or more colors of light can travel on one fiber and
several signals can be transmitted in an optical waveguide at differing
wavelengths.

4.122
 CDMA

It is a form of multiplexing, which allows numerous signals to

occupy a single transmission channel, optimizing the use of
available bandwidth. The technology is used in ultra-high-
frequency cellular telephone systems in the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz
bands.
It employs analog-to-digital conversion in combination with spread
spectrum technology. Audio input is first digitized into binary
elements. The frequency of the transmitted signal is then made to
vary according to a defined pattern (code), so it can be intercepted
only by a receiver whose frequency response is programmed with
the same code, so it follows exactly along with the transmitter
frequency. There are trillions of possible frequency-sequencing
codes, which enhances privacy and makes cloning difficult.
4.123
 CDMA Application

• It is used in military and commercial application

• It is used in mobile communication
• It is used in Radar and navigation systems
• It consumes less power and cover large area so cell size in it is
larger
• It uses soft handoff reduces the drop calls

4.124
 CDMA Usage

User # 01
User data = 00
Spreading code = 0101

Spreading data signals

Code =0101 0101

Data(Repeat) =0000 0000
X OR --------- ----------
0101 0 101

Spreading message 01010101

4.125
 CDMA Usage

User # 02
User data = 10
Spreading code = 0011

Spreading data signals

Code =0011 0011

Data(Repeat) =1111 0000
X OR --------- ----------
1100 0 011

Spreading message 11000011

4.126
 CDMA Usage

User # 03
User data = 11
Spreading code = 0000

Spreading data signals

Code =0000 0000

Data(Repeat) =1111 1111
X OR --------- ----------
1111 1 111

Spreading message 11111111

4.127
 Combining three data signals

Let create weave form

0 bit = +1 volt
1 bit = -1 volt

4.128
 Composite weave form

4.129
 User 1 data retrieval

4.130
 User 2 data retrieval

4.131
 User 3 data retrieval

4.132
 Security Threats

Basic idea of networking communication is flow of information

from source to destination without any problem. But here
arises some possibilities that can disturb the communication.

4.133
 Security Threats

Interruption
Interruption is a security threat in which availability of
resources is attacked. For example a user is unable to access its
web server.

Privacy Breach
In this threat, the privacy of a user is compromised. Someone,
who is not the authorized person is accessing or intercepting
data sent or received by original authenticated user.
4.134
 Security Threats

Interruption Interception
An unauthorized party gain access to information with the help
of some sniffer and wire trapping. In it information are also
going to its destination but unauthorized party also gain it at
the same time while sender and receiver are not aware of this
theft. In this process unauthorized party cant damage or
change to information

4.135
 Security Threats

Sniffier
Software that is used to gain the unauthorized access of
information is called sniffer. Often sniffer are used in LAN
while in WAN we can’t predict the route of information so it is
difficult for a sniffer to work efficiently in wide area network.

Anti Sniffer
Software that we use to avoid from the possibility of exposing
information

4.136
 Security Threats

Integrity
This type of threat includes any alteration or modification in the
original context of communication. The attacker intercepts and
receive the data sent by the sender and the attacker then either
modifies or generates false data and send to the receiver. The
receiver receive the data assuming that it is being sent by the
original sender.

4.137
 Security Threats

Authenticity
This threat occur when an attacker or a security violator poses as
a genuine person and access the resources or communicate with
other genuine person.
No technique in the present world can prove100% security. But
steps can be taken to secure data while it travels in unsecured
network or internet. The most widely used technique is
cryptography.

4.138
 Security Types

Physical Control
Prevent physical access to sensitive data by closing circuit,
surveillance cameras, and alarm system. These physical system
are not reliable for example a virus can enter into a system
even we use alarm or cameras.

4.139
 Technical Security

• Encryption
• Smart cards
• Network Authentication
• Access Control Lists
• File Integrity

4.140
 Technical Security

Encryption
In this process we change the format of our information on bits
level and then send it to the desire destination so that sniffer or
wire trapper can not recognize the information.

Smart Cards
In this process we use the finger prints, voice pattern or eye
retina structure to avoid from the unauthorized person access
to the sensitive information.

4.141
 Technical Security

Network Authentication
In this process we use the password to access the data and
information to minimize the exposure of information for
example to open email accounts or login to local area network
we use password.

Access Control Lists

In this process we define the privilege and rights for every user
so the valid user can access only to his concern information
rights are also distinguish whether the specific user can
change the information or only view the information.
4.142
 Technical Security

File Integrity Auditing

In this process we keep track of files that access the specific
information file and how much time he used that file and what
kind of action he performed to that file. If the user made any
change to the information or just viewed the information then
it can be observed

4.143
 Cryptography or Encryption

It is a technique to encrypt the plain text data which makes it

difficult to understand and interpret. Encryption is a way of
scrambling data so that only authorized parties can understand
the information. In technical terms, it is the process of
converting plaintext to ciphertext.

There are several cryptographic algorithm available present day.

• Secret key
• Public key
• Message digest
4.144
 Encryption

1-Symmetric encryption 2-Asymmetric encryption.

Symmetric Encryption
Symmetric encryption is also known as conventional encryption ,
secret key , or single key encryption .It was the only type of
encryption in use prior to the development of public key
encryption in the late 1970.We often use three types of encryption
algorithms known as DES, Triple DES, AES
DES = Data Encryption Standard AES = Advanced
Encryption Standard

4.145
 Symmetric Encryption

It comprised of five elements

1-Plain text 2-Encryption algorithm 3-Secrtet key
4-Chiper text 5-Decryption algorithm

Plain Text
The data is written into simple text form and fed into the
algorithm as input.

Encryption Algorithm
It perform various algorithms substitution and transformation
on the plain text and change the original shape of text often used
algorithms are used as DES,AES and Hash.
4.146
 Symmetric Encryption

Secret Key
It is also input to algorithms the exact substitution and
transformation performed by the algorithm depends on the key
so for strong encryption the key must be long one. Usage of long
key will increase the overhead but the data becomes more secure.

Chipper Text (siefer)

The text that is presented after making use of algorithms and
addition of secret is called chipper text or we can simply say that
the scrambled message is called chipper text. It depends on key
and algorithms.
4.147
 Symmetric Encryption

Decryption Algorithms
Take the input as encrypted data use key and algorithms to
produce the original data. The key and algorithms should be
same on both on receiver and sender sides.

4.148
 Requirement of symmetric Encryption

• Strong encryption algorithms

• Secret key
• Sender and receiver must obtain copies of the secret key in
secure fashion and must keep the key secure.

4.149
 Key Distribution

Key distribution is main point here ,whole communication depends on key

if key is exposed then sniffer can get the original data by using the key.
Suppose two parties A and B
•Key could be selected by A and physically delivered to B
•Key could be selected by B and physically delivered to A
•A third party could select the key and physically deliver to A and B
•If A and B have previously used a key one party could transmit the new
key to other in encrypted form using previous key.
•A and B each have an encrypted connection to third party C then C could
deliver a key in encrypted form to both A and B
4.150
 Asymmetric Encryption

It comprised of Six elements

1-Plain text 2-Encryption algorithm 3-Secret key
4-Chiper text 5-Decryption algorithm 6-Public key

4.151
 Cryptography

Secret key Encryption

In this encryption type both sender and receiver have one secret
key. This key is used to encrypt the data at sender end . After data
is encrypted, it is sent on the public domain to the receiver. The
receiver know the secret key and with the help of this secret key
encrypted data packets can be decrypted. DES(data encryption
standard is example of secret key encryption.

4.152
 Cryptography

Public key Encryption

In this encryption every user has its own secret key and it is not
in the shared domain. The secret key is never released on public
domain. Along with the secret key, every user has its own public
key. Public key is always made public and is used by sender to
encrypt the data. When the user receives the encrypted data, he
can easily decrypt it by using its own secret key. RSA(Rivest
Shamir Aldeman is example of Public key encryption.

4.153
 Cryptography

Message Digest
In this method, actual data is not sent; instead a hash value is
calculated and sent. The other end user, compute its own hash
value and compare with the one just received. If both hash
values are matched, then it is accepted, otherwise rejected.
MD5 hashing is example of message digest it is mostly used in
authentication where user password is cross checked with the
one saved on the server.

4.154
 Virus

A computer virus is malicious code that replicates by copying

itself to another program, computer boot sector or document and
changes how a computer works. The virus requires someone to
knowingly or unknowingly spread the infection without the
knowledge or permission of a user or system administrator.

4.155
 How does a Computer Virus Spread

A computer virus spreads through removable media, internet

downloads, and e-mail attachments. In other words, a virus
spreads while the user is viewing an infected advertisement,
visiting an infected website, opening the attachment in the email,
or clicking on an executable file. Besides that, connecting with
an already infected removable storage device such as a USB
drive also spreads the infection.

4.156
 Computer Virus Symptoms

The list of computer virus symptoms include:

• A slow performing computer

• Pop-ups automatically showing up on the screen
• Programs running on their own
• Automatic multiplying/duplicating files
• Presence of unknown files and applications on the computer
• Files getting deleted or corrupted

4.157
 What to do

1- Disconnect your computer from the internet

2- Enter Safe Mode – this helps running only the required
programs and applications.
3- Delete all temporary files to free up the disk space
4- Run a virus scan

4.158
 Virus types

Boot Sector Virus.

Direct Action Virus.
Resident Virus.
Multipartite Virus.
Polymorphic Virus.
Overwrite Virus.
Space filler Virus.
File Infector Virus.

4.159
 Virus types

Boot Sector Virus.

The Boot Sector virus infects the master boot record, and it mostly
spreads through the removable media. It is a complex task to remove
this virus and often requires the system to be formatted.

Direct Action Virus

The Direct-Action Virus remains dormant on a computer until the file
containing the virus is executed.

Resident Virus
The Resident Virus inserts itself in a computer system’s memory. It is
hard to identify the virus, and it is equally tough to remove it.
4.160
 Virus types

Multipartite Virus
The Multipartite Virus infects and spreads in multiple ways. This
virus infects both the program files and the system sectors.

Polymorphic Virus
A Polymorphic Virus is more capable of altering its signature
pattern whenever it replicates thereby rendering it hard to be
detected

4.161
 Virus types

Overwrite Virus
As the name suggests, an Overwrite Virus spreads through emails and
deletes all the files it infects.

Space filler Virus

The Space filler Virus is also known as Cavity Virus; it occupies the
empty spaces between the codes. It does not harm the files.
File Infector Virus

A File Infector Virus is also known as Parasitic Virus because it comes

attached to program files, such as .COM or .EXE files. The best way to
detect file infector viruses is to use virus detector software.
4.162
 Antivirus

Antivirus software is a type of program designed and developed to

protect computers from malware like viruses, computer worms,
spyware, botnets, rootkits, keyloggers and such. Antivirus programs
function to scan, detect and remove viruses from your computer

4.163
 How does Antivirus works

Antivirus software, sometimes known as anti-malware software, is

designed to detect, prevent and take action to disarm or remove
malicious software from your computer such as viruses, worms and
Trojan horses. ... It will also scan your computer for behaviors that
may signal the presence of a new, unknown malware

4.164
 Network Routing

When a device has multiple paths to reach a destination.it always

select one path by preferring it over others. The selection process
is termed as routing. Routing is done by special network device
called router or it can be done by means of software processes.
The software based router has limited functionality and limited
scope. In case there are multiple paths existing to reach the same
destination, router can make decision based on the following
information.
1-hop count 2-Bandwidth 3-metric
4-prefix length 5-delay

4.165
 Network Routing

Hop count
In networking, a hop count is the total number of intermediate
devices such as routers through which a given piece of data must
pass between the source and destination, instead of flowing
directly over a single wire.

Bandwidth
is the capacity of a wired or wireless network communications
link to transmit the maximum amount of data from one point to
another over a computer network or internet connection in a
given amount of time -- usually, one second.
4.166
 Network Routing

Metric
A metric is a value that is assigned to an IP route for a particular
network interface that identifies the cost that is associated with
using that route. ... The Automatic Metric feature can be useful
when the routing table contains multiple routes for the same
destination

prefix length
The prefix-length is a decimal value indicating the number of
leftmost contiguous bits of the address. It identifies the prefix
(that is, the network portion) of the address.
4.167
 Network Routing

Delay
The delay of a network specifies how long it takes for a bit of
data to travel across the network from one communication
endpoint to another. It is typically measured in multiples or
fractions of seconds.

4.168
 Routing types
Unicast routing
Most of the traffic on the internet and intranets known as
unicast data or unicast traffic is sent with specified destination. It
is simplest form of routing because the destination is already
known. In it router just has to look up the routing table and
forward the packet to next hop.

4.169
 Routing types

Broadcast Routing
There are two types of broadcast routing
1- A router creates a data packet and then send it to each host one by
one.in this case the router creates multiple copies of single data packet
with different destination addresses. All packets are sent as unicast but
because they are sent to all , it simulates as if router is broadcasting.
This method consume lots of bandwidth.

2-When router receive a packet that is to be broadcast, it simply flood

those packets out of all interfaces. All routers are configured in the
same way, so this method may cause problem of duplicate packets
received
4.170 from peer routers.
 Routing types

Broadcast Routing

4.171
 Routing types

Multicast Routing
Multicast routing is special case of broadcast routing with
significant difference and challenges. In broadcast routing,
packets are send to all nodes even if they don’t want it. but in
multicast routing the data is sent to only nodes which wants to
receive the packets.
Multicast routing works spanning tree protocol to avoid looping.it
also uses reverse path forwarding techniques, to detect and
discard duplicate and loops.

4.172
 Routing types

Multicast Routing
.

4.173
 Routing types

Anycast Routing
Anycast packet forwarding is a mechanism where multiple hosts
can have some logical address. When a packet destined to this
logical address is received , it is sent to the host which is nearest in
routing topology

4.174
 Routing algorithm

Flooding
Flooding is simplest method packet forwarding. When a packet is
received, the routers send it to all the interfaces except the one on
which it was received. This creates too much burden on the
network and lots of duplicate packets wandering in the network.

There exists another approach for flooding, which is called

Selective Flooding to reduce the overhead on the network. In this
method, the router does not flood out on all the interfaces, but
selective ones.

4.175
 Routing algorithm

Shortest Path
Routing decision in networks, are mostly taken on the basis of cost
between source and destination. Hop count plays major role here.
Shortest path is a technique which uses various algorithms to
decide a path with minimum number of hops.
Common shortest path algorithms are:
• Dijkstra's algorithm
• Bellman Ford algorithm
• Floyd Warshall algorithm

4.176
 UDP

4.177
 UDP

UDP uses a simple connectionless communication model

with a minimum of protocol mechanisms. It provides
checksums for data integrity, and port numbers for
addressing different functions at the source and destination
of the datagram. It has no handshaking dialogues, there is
no guarantee of delivery, ordering, or duplicate protection.

4.178
 UDP

If error-correction facilities are needed at the network

interface level, an application may use Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) or Stream Control Transmission
Protocol (SCTP) which are designed for this purpose.

UDP is suitable for purposes where error checking and

correction are either not necessary or are performed in the
application;
.

4.179
 UDP Header

Source port number

This field identifies the sender's port, when used, and should be
assumed to be the port to reply to if needed. If not used, it
should be zero. If the source host is the client, the port number
is likely to be an ephemeral port number. If the source host is
the server, the port number is likely to be a well-known port
number.

4.180
 UDP Header

Destination port number

This field identifies the receiver's port and is required. Similar
to source port number, if the client is the destination host then
the port number will likely be an ephemeral port number and if
the destination host is the server then the port number will likely
be a well-known port number.

4.181
 UDP Header

Length
This field specifies the length in bytes of the UDP header and
UDP data. The minimum length is 8 bytes, the length of the
header. The field size sets a theoretical limit of 65,535 bytes (8
byte header + 65,527 bytes of data) for a UDP datagram.
However the actual limit for the data length, which is imposed
by the underlying IPv4 protocol, is 65,507 bytes (65,535 − 8 byte
UDP header − 20 byte IP header).

4.182
 UDP Header

checksum
The checksum field may be used for error-checking of the
header and data. This field is optional in IPv4, and mandatory
in IPv6

4.183
 UDP features

User Datagram Protocol or Universal Datagram Protocol.it is

connectionless protocol. This is not connection based which
means that one program can send a load of packets to another
and that would be the end of the relationship. It is suitable for
applications that need fast, efficient transmission, such as
games.

4.184
 UDP features

UDP's stateless nature is also useful for servers that answer

small queries from huge numbers of clients. UDP has no
inherent order as all packets are independent of each other. If
ordering is required, it has to be managed by the application
layer. It is faster because error recovery is not attempted. There
is no guarantee that the messages or packets sent would reach
at all. UDP is lightweight. There is no ordering of messages, no
tracking connections, etc. It is a small transport layer designed
on top of IP. It does not have an option for flow control . UDP
does error checking but simply discards erroneous packets.
Error recovery is not attempted.
4.185
 Memory

Memory is the ability of the brain by which data or

information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed. It
is the retention of information over time for the purpose of
influencing future action.

Memory is internal storage areas in the computer system. The

term memory identifies data storage that comes in the form of
chips, and the word storage is used for memory that exists on
tapes or disks. You can think of main memory as an array of
boxes, each of which can hold a single byte of information

4.186
 Memory

4.187
 RAM

Memory that can be instantly changed is called read write memory

or random access memory. When people talk about computer memory
in connection with microcomputers they usually mean the volatile
memory. The purpose of RAM is to hold the data and programs while
they are in use. A computer does not have to search its entire memory
each time it need to find data because the CPU uses memory address
to store and retrieve each pieces of data. A memory address is a
number that indicates a location on the memory chip as memory
address start from zero and so on. RAM is not just used in
conjunction with the computer’s CPU it can be found in various
places in compute system for example most newer video and sound
4.188
cards have their own built in RAM.
 DRAM

Dynamic random access memory gets its name form the fact
that is must be refreshed frequently (refreshing mean
recharging the RAM chip with electricity) as it must be
recharged many times each second or they will lose their
contents. So DRAM recharge it self after every 10neno seconds
it mean it consume its lots of time in frequently in recharging
process so it is less efficient as compared to SRAM

4.189
 SRAM

Static random access memory it does not need to be refreshed

as often and can hold its contents longer than dynamic ram
where as it is consider faster than DRAM because SRAM
recharge it self after every 60neno seconds it mean it is static
in nature and waste less time in recharging process so it is
more efficient as compared to DRAM

4.190
 ROM

Static Non volatile chips always hold the same data which
cannot be changed except through a special process that
overwrite the data. In fact putting data permanently into this
kind of memory is called burning in the data. During normal
use the data in these chips is only read and used not changed
so the memory is called read only memory.
One important reasons a computer needs ROM is that it must
know what to do when the computer power is first turned on.
Among other things ROM contain a set of start up instructions
which ensures that the rest of memory is functioning properly

4.191
 PROM

It stands for programmable read only memory in it user can

write his own instructions but only once. However once a
program has been stored in the PROM chip it can not be
changed or erased. If there is any error in writing the
instructions into PROM the error can not be removed and it
becomes unusable.

4.192
 EPROM

It stand for erasable programmable read only memory and a

computer user can erase instruction or data stored in the
EPROM by exposing it to ultraviolet light and new programs
can also be written to the same chip. If there is an error in
writing into it the user can erase the previous contents and can
write new instructions.

4.193
 EEPROM

It stands for electronically erasable programmable read only

memory in these memory instructions can be erased and
written with the help of electrical pulse. A computer user can
write instruction or data inside it with special electrical pulses.
If there is any error in writing instructions the user can erase
the contents electrically.

4.194
 Cache Memory

Cache memory is similar to RAM except that it is extremely

fast and it works between RAM and CPU. When a program is
running and CPU needs to read data or program instruction
from RAM then it first check to cache memory if the data is
not in cache then it read the data from RAM into register but it
also load a copy of the data into cache memory. The next time
CPU needs that same data and saves the time needed to load
the data from RAM. Cache memory is provide built in into
most PC since 1980.

4.195
 Virtual Memory

Virtual memory is a memory management capability of an

operating system (OS) that uses hardware and software to
allow a computer to compensate for physical memory
shortages by temporarily transferring data from random
access memory (RAM) to disk storage. So the temporarily
rented portion of memory from hard disk to server as main
memory temporarily is known as virtual memory

4.196
 Storage Devices

A storage device refers to a computing hardware used to store

information permanently or temporarily. The device can be
external or internal to a computer, server, and other computing
systems. ... There are two types of storage device: secondary
storage device and primary storage device.

4.197
 Magnetic Tape

4.198
 Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape is oldest media for storing data permanently. It

is made of plastic and is coated with magnetic material. And
the data is stored on the magnetic tape in the form of magnetic
spots. Magnetic tape is usually divided into 9 Tracks the
information or programs are stored in different tracks in
binary codes. To store a single byte nine tracks are used as
eight tracks for character code and one for check bit. And the
combination of nine tracks is called Frame and in one frame a
single character is stored. The records are stored one after the
other on the magnetic tape

4.199
 Magnetic tape

The process of accessing or writing records on the tape is time

consuming. To write a record or data on the tape the computer
leaves a space or gap between each record. The accessing
speed of data is also slow because the tape drive must start and
stop between to each record. This type of tape is called
Unblocked Tape

4.200
 Storage Devices

IBG
Inter block gap this technique is used to increase the accessing
speed and storage capacity of magnetic tape as the data and
record are stored on the blocked tape in the form of blocks

4.201
 Storage Devices

IRG
Short for inter record gap, the space between two consecutive
physical blocks on a data recording medium, such as a hard
drive or a magnetic tape. IRGs are used as markers for the end
of data and also as safety margins for data overwrites.

4.202
 Magnetic tape

When you want to access a specific set of data on the tape the
drive have to scan through all the data you do not need to get
to the data you want. The result is a slow access time. In fact
the access time varies depending on the speed of the drive,
length of tape and the position of required stuff. The amounts
of data that can be stored on a tape depend on the length and
the density of tape. Magnetic tapes are used in different sizes
200, 600, 1200 and 2400 feet in length as on 2400 feet reel 120
million characters can be stored.

4.203
 Hard disk

It is a magnetic disk device used to store data with large capacity that
provide quick access to large amount of data on electromagnetically
charged surface or set of surfaces. the hard disk can store data up to
TB .Every hard disk has two heads known as read head and writes
heads used to retrieve and store data respectively. Two heads one on
each side of a disk read or writes the data as the disk spin. A hard disk
comes with a set rotation speed varying from 4500 to 7200 rmp
revolution per minute. Hard disk contain many concentric tracks
which are further divided into sectors where the data is stored
actually whereas every sector has its own unique address to which it
follow when it read or right data. A little jolt can spoil the hard disk
which causes the destruction of stuff available in hard disk
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 Optical disk

It is called compact disk ,available in both 5.25 and 2.5 inches. It uses
the laser technology to store data. Laser is highly concentrated beam
of light it makes close tracks on the disk as a result the optical disk
has very high storage capacity as its storage capacity is more then 600
MB as optical disk is removable it can be moved from computer to
computer. And the data on is disk is safe and it can not be corrupted
by magnetic fields. The optical disk was originally developed for
videos and audio software and software application. The data is
stored on it in Tiny Pits with the laser beam as the presence of pit
show 1 and absence 0 as this beam is also used to read the data from
optical disk. But the data accessing speed of optical disk is slower as
compared to hard disk
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 IP addressing and Sub netting

• We know source and destination IP address are of 32 bit each.

• These bits are divided into four parts each part containing 8 bits
• So each set of 8 bits is known as Octect
• So each octect is separated by decimal point
• IP address is also known as logical address
Octect Octect Octect Octect
8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits
- - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - -

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 IP addressing and Sub netting

8 bits may be with minimum value= 00000000 = 0

8 bits may be with maximum value = 11111111 = 255
So the range of octect is 0 to255
We count the bits from 0 to7 = 8 bits
Bits weight
Weight of bits 0 -- 20 = 1
1 -- 21 = 2
2 -- 22 = 4
3 -- 23 = 8
4 -- 24 = 16
5 -- 25 = 32
6 -- 26 = 64
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7 -- 27 = 128
 Classes

Here the classes range from {A, B, C, D, and E} but we use the classes
often up to C.
IP has two parts 1-Network Part 2-Host Part
1 show the network part 0 show the host part
Class A
Class Range Sub mask address
Class A 1 . 0 . 0 . 0 255. 0. 0. 0
127. 255. 255. 255
Network portion host portion
So # of networks in class A = 127 – 1 = 126
And # of hosts per network = 255 * 255 * 255 = 16581375
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 Classes

Class B

Class Range Sub mask address

Class B 128. 0 . 0 . 0 255. 255. 0. 0
191 .255. 255 .255

So # of networks in class B = 191 – 128 = 63 * 255 = 16065

And # of host per network = 255 * 255 = 65025

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 Classes

Class C
Class Range Sub mask address
Class C 192. 0 . 0 . 0 255. 255. 255. 0
223 .255 .255 .255

So # of network in class C = 223 – 192 = 31 * 255 * 255 = 2015775

And # of host per network = 255

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 Classes

The range of network is from 0 to 255 and the first address is known as
base address or networks address that is address of network while second
address is known as router address because it contain the address of next
router to which it will transfer the data for routing while last address is
known as broad cast address which we use to send the data or information
to the whole network so we cant use these three address for example
202. 68. 73 . 0 here 0 is network address
.1 1 is router address
.
.
202. 68. 73. 255 Here 255 is Broadcast address
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 Sub netting

Sub Netting
As we know that in every Class we waist the resources for example we use
class C that have the capability to hold 255 computers in one network but
mostly we use 60-100 range computer so we can add 155 computer more but
we don’t have so we use the resources. So to avoid from this wastage we
convert the network into sub network so that we can avoid to waist
resources. This phenomenon is called sub netting.

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 Sub netting

Example supposes we have IP address 192. 168. 0. 5

Suppose we have SM address 255. 255 .255. 0

So the network address will be 192. 168. 0. 0

And the broadcast address will be 192. 168. 0. 255

Now convert it in to binary form

11000000. 10101000. 00000000. 00000101
11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 00000000

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 Sub netting

In the host part [0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0] we fix the three bits of left side

765 4 3 2 10
3re bits Possible Combinations
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
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 Sub netting

And these bits are on number 5, 6, 7 because we start from 0 to7

So the weight of these three bits is
Weight of 5th bit = 32
Weight of 6th bit = 64
Weight of 7th bit = 128
So the total weight = 32 + 64 + 128 = 224
And the # of subnet will be = 23 = 8 (3) the number of bits that we fix
Remaining bits = 5 = (2)5 = 32
The number of hosts per network = 32
So the sub mask address becomes from 255. 255 .255. 0
To 255. 255 .255. 224
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