UNIT 3 LOADING AND LIFTING

EQUIPMENT
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Front End Loaders
3.2.1 Crawler-typeFront End Loaders
3.2.2 Wheel-type Front End Loaders
3.2.3 Front-end Loader Ratings
3.2.4 Operations of Front-end Loaders
3.2.5 Production Rates for Crawler-tradorLoaders
3.2.6 Production Rates for Wheel-tractor Loaders
3.3 Fork Lift Trucks
3.4 Cranes
3.4.1 Demck Cranes
3.4.2 Mob~leCranes
3.4.3 Whirler Cranes
3.4.4 Tower Cranes
3.4.5 Hydraulic Cranes
3.4.6 Electric Overhead or Gantry Cranes
3.4.7 Travelling Bridge Cranes
3.4.8 Hammerhead or Cantilever Cranes
3.4.9 Crawler Cranes
3.4.10 h c k c r a n e s
3.4.1 1Locomotive Cranes
3.4.12 Rstlngs of Cranes
3.4.13 Balance of a Mobile Crane
3.5 Electrically Operated Lifts for Goods and Men in Vertical Transportation
35.1 Elevators
3.5.2 Components of Elevators
3.6 Summary
3.7 Answers to SAQs
3.8 Further Reading

3.1 INTRODUCTION
On large projects materials like earth and aggregates will have to be lifted and dumped into
canier units for transporting over long distances. The loading is done by front end loaders in
most cases because of their ease of operation and good production rate.
Materials and structural members are required to be raised from the ground level to some
height where they are required to be placed. This lifting is done by means of cranes in most
cases.
This unit covers equipment for loading materials from the muck or stockpile into carrier
units for transportation and disposal if the haul distances are short, say upto 60 m as in the
case of portalling long tunnels. Lifting equipment is also required to raise materials and
structural members at any construction site. Various lifting equipment is described in this
unit.
objective^
By the end of thi$ unit, you should be able to :
distinguish front end loaders, their types, ratings, and their operation,
describe the fork lift trucks,
explain different types of cranes, ratings of cranes, and balance of a mobile
crane, and
 Excavation q u i p m a t identify different electrically operated lifts for goods and men in vertical
operation, and their components like elevators, guiding devices, steel framed
structure, elevator hoisting machines, driving sheaves and safety devices of
elevators.
-
3.2 FRONT-END LOADERS
~ront-endloaders are versatile, self-propelled machines mounted either on crawler- or
wheel-type tractors. Tley have a front-mounted bucket' with which they dig, scoop, lift,
carry, and dump the material into hauling units, bins, hoppers and stockpiles. They also
transport, spread and compact fill material.
3.2.1 Crawler-type Front End Loaders
' Crawler-type loaders are closely related to crawler tractors (Figure 3.1). They have the
advantage of good flotation and traction on soft or uneven terrain. They operate over sharp
objects which would be destructive to rubber tyres, and they have compact design for
clqe-quarter maneuverability. However, transport equipment, such as, a truck with a tilting
tiailer is needed to move them from job to job over public roads.

i
3.2.2 Wheel-type Front-end Loaders
Wheel-type loaders (Figure 3.2) have much higher speeds than the crawler type and operate
best on firm surfaces. They can be run on pavement and moved from job to job under their
own power. A &ider variety of size are available to match job requirements. Their
maintenance cost is lower where wet, sandy soils would be highly abrasive to crawler tracks
and undercarriages. However, wheel loaders normally have less traction than crawler-type
loaders of equal weight, and this limits the usable power which they can develop for digging
and grade climbing. Their load-handling capacity is also reduced on boggy ground.

(a) Rigid hame rrod.ead Loader (b) A d d a t a 1 h e h a - e a d Loder

Rprr b2
I
I
Loading and Liftii
3.2.3 Front-end Loader Ratings Equipment
L
Ratings for bupket volume capacity and tipping load weight as well as a recommended
operating load rating for front-end loaders have been standardised. Selection of the proper
bucket capacity for the material being handled involves these ratings, which are briefly
described as follows.
r Bucket Capacity Rating
The volume in m3 is based on physical aimensions of the bucket only, without
considering the bucket action on any specific machine. It applies to a bucket with
opening oriented in an upright, level position and filled with material heaped at a
2: 1 angle of repose.
Li
Tipping Load Rating
It is based on the loader being at operating weight and stationary on hard, level
C
ground. Operating weight with specified bucket is that of a fully serviced loader,
including a full fuel tank; counterweight in amount specified, if any; and an 80 kg
operator. The bucket is rolled back fully with the centre of rated-load gravity at
the maximum forward position in the raising cycle.Tipping load is the minimum
weight in kg that causes the front rollers of crawler-type loaders to clear the tracks,
or the rear wheels of the wheel-type loaders to clear the ground.
Operating Load Rating
The rated operating load should not exceed 50 % of the rated tipping load for
wheel-type front-end loaders or 35 % for the crawler-type. The higher figure is
permissible for the wheel-type loaders because they normally operate on harder
surfaces and smoother terrain than the crawler-type.
SAQ 1
I) What are the uses ot tront-end loaders? What are the different types available?
ii) tiow arc front-cnd loaders rated'?What are the different ratings used?

3.2.4 Operations of Front-end Loaders

Various applications of the front-end loaders are discussed below:
i) Loading
This is a major application in which operating conditions are often favourable for
wheel-type loaders. It consists of scooping, lifting, turning, and dumping materials
such as sand, gravel and crushed or shot rock from stockpile, bank, or construction
area into hauling units.
To determine the normal number of loader passes for an average-Weight of loose
materials, divide the 2 :1 heaped capacity rating of the hauling unit by the nominal
heaped capacity of the loader bucket. A poor match of the loader bucket to the
hauling unit either means a partially loaded bucket and a decrease in loading
efficiency or a partially loaded hauling unit and a decreased hauling efficiency. Fox
heavy materials, the number of loader passes may have to be restricted to the
hauling-unit struck capacity to avoid exceeding the hauling-unit tonnage rating.
Time for each pass depends on the kind of material; size and type of loader; bucket
filling, lifting, and dumping conditions; and the proficiency of the loader and the
hauler operators. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 give estimated times in minutes under average
conditions to load the material, including shot rock, into hauling units of various
struckheaped capacities with power-shift loaders of 0.96 m3 to 11.47 m3 bucket
capacity.
Table 3.1 allows a minimum of 0.5 min per pass for in-bank loading with crawler
units and for stockpile or free-running bank loading with rigid-frame wheel .+
l~aders.Table 3.2 starts with a basic time of 0.42 min for swing-loading loose bank
or stockpiled material. It adds 0.20 to 0.28 min for prying out, travelling with, and
loading shot rock into off-highway haulers.
Excavation Equipment Table 3.1 : Estimated Times (min) to Load Hauling Units from Bank with Crawler
Units and from Stockpiles or Free Running Baaks with Rigid-frame
Wheel Loaders

Loader Haul Unit Nominal StrucWHeaped Capacity (m3) and Weight Ratiyg (t)
3.0M.82, 4.5915.73, 6.321765, 7.6519.18, 9.18/11.50, 10.7ll13.0, 12.23/153,
(m3) 5.44 8.17 10.89 13.61 1633 19.06 21.78
0.96 2.0 3.0 4.0 - - -
1.15 1.5 2.5 3.3 4.0 ,- - -
1.34 ... ... 3.0 3.5 4.5 - -
1.53 ... + 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 - -
1.91 ... 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.O 3.5 -
2.30 ... ... ... 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
3.06 ... ... ... 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.5

Table 3.2 : Estimated Times (min) to Load Loose Materials Into Hauling Units with
Articulated-frameWheel Loaders

Loader Haul Unit Nominal StrucWHeaped Capacity (m3) and Weight Rating (t)
capacity,
6.12f7.65, 7.6519.2, 9.2111.5, 11.5113.8, 153118.4, 18.4122.9, 22.9127.5,
(m3 7.65 13.61 1633 19.96 27.22 32.67 40.83
Stockpile
1.53 2.1 2.5 3.3 3.8 - - -
1.91 1.7 2.1 2.5 3.O 4.2 - -

2.29 ... 1.7 2.1 2.5 3.4 4.2 -

2.68 ... ... 1.8 2.2 3.0 3.8 -
3.06 ... 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.3 3.8
3.44 ... ... ..
, 1.7 2.4 2.9 3.4
Shot rock
3.82 ... ... 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.7 4.5
4.59 ... ... ... 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.8
6.12 ... ... ... ... 2.0 2.6 3.2
6.88 ... ... ... 1.3 2.0 2.6 2.7
7.65 ... ... ... 1.3 2.0 2.0 2.7
9.18 ... ... ... ... 1.4 2.0 2.1
11.47 ... ... ... ... ... 1.4 ...
The times assumed in Tables 3.1 and 3.2 are subject to modification from job experience
and consultation with the manufacturers. Tonnage ratings for haul units are based on
material averaging 1780 kg/m3 of struck hauling-unit capacity.
ii) Hauling
Rubber-tyred loaders are excellent for moving loose materials over short distances
to dump into hauling units, hoppers, bins, or on construction sites. Production in
loose m3 at 100 9% working efficiency is approximately the bucket capacity in m3
multiplied by 60 minutes and divided by the cycle time in minutes.
Cycle time includes
i) fixed time for loading, lifting, and dumping the bucket, four changes of
direction and two turns;and
 Loading and Lifting
ii) travel time for load carrying and empty returning. High reverse speeds Equipment
enable faster cycle times when turns are not over 90°, all made in the
bucket loading area.
A fixed time allowance of 0.30 min is generally adequate. But, if 180' turns must
be made at each end of the haul, an additional 0.06 to 0.10 min may be required.
Travel time depends on the loader's average forward and reverse speeds over the
distance and terrain involved. Allowance must be made for acceleration and
braking as well as for the maximum speed at which full bucket loads can be safely
carried without spilling.
1 iii) Excavating
Crawler and heavy-duty wheel-type loaders are excellent for many excavating
jobs. Loaders have advantages over dozers of comparable size because they can be
used to lift excess excavated materials and dump it into trucks or over the edge of
the excavation into stockpiles.
Li
iv) Clearing and Cleanup
On tunnel projects, the front-end loader is the only equipment required besides the
drilling jumbo for portalling in or short tunn:ls, and before the rail tracks can be
laid for long tunnels. Loaders are not only the first on the site to prepare it for
construction operations but also the last in order to backfill, spread, level, and top
with selected soil or other materials.
3.2.5 Production Rates for Crawler-tractor Loaders
The production rate for these loaders will depend on:
i) the fixed time required to load the bucket, shift gears; turn, and dump the load,
ii) the time required to traiel from the loading to the dumping position,
iii) the time required to return to the loading position, and
iv) the actual volume of material hauled in each trip.
Example 3.1
A crawler-tractor has the following specifications:
Bucket capacity, heaped = 1.72 m3
Travel speeds in different gears:

Gear kmph mlmin

i) Forward
1st 3.1 51
2nd 4.7 78
3rd 6.4 107
ii) Reverse
1st 3.7 62
2nd 5.8 97
3rd 8.O 134

Assuming that the tractor travels a distance of 10 m each way, find production of
the tractor in a 45 rnin working hr.
Solution
Assume that the tractor will travel at an average of the specified speeds in 2nd
gear, forward and reverse. The fixed time should be based on time studies for the
particular equipment and job. Let it be 0.40 rnin.
The cycle time per load will be, in minutes.
Fixed time to load, shift, turn and dump = 0.40
ration
Haul time, ---
- lo - 0.16
0.8 x 78
Return time, = - lo - 0.13
0.8 x 97

Total cycle time = 0.69

Although the rated heaped capacity of the bucket is 1.72 m3, it is hobable that an average
volume will be about 90 % of this capacity for sustained loads. Assume an average capacity
of 0.9 x 1.72 = 1.55 m3, loose volume.
The production in a 60 min-hr will be computed as follows :
No. of cycles = 6010.69 = 87
Volume = 87 x 1.55 = 134.9 m3
If the material has a swell of 25 %, and the tractor has an operating factor of 45 min per hr,
the volume per hr in bank measure is given by :

Tables 3.3 and 3.4 indicate, respectively, cycle times and outputs for different haul distances.
Table 3.3 : Cycle Times

Haul Distance, m 7.5 15 30 45 60

Fixed time, rnin 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40
Haul time, min 0.12 0.24 0.49 0.73 0.98
Return time, min 0.07 0.14 0.28 0.42 0.56
Cycle time, min 0.59 0.78 1.17 1.55 1.94
Trips per 45 min-hr 76.3 57.8 38.5 29.1 23.2

Table 3.4 : Volume Hauled per Hour (45-min) in m3, by Size of Buckets

Bucket Size, m3 One-way Haul Distance, m

Loose Bank * 7.5 15 30 45 60
1.15 0.83 63.3 48.0 32.0 24.2 19.3
1.53 1.10 83.9 63.6 42.2 32.0 25.5
1.91 1.38 105.3 79.8 53.1 40.2 32.0
2.29 1.65 125.9 95.4 63.5 48.0 38.3
. 3.06 2.20 167.9 127.2 84.7 64.0 51.0
* Based on a swell of 25 % and an average load equal to 90 % of the rated capacity.

3.2.6 Production Rates for Wheel-tractor Loaders

The production rates for wheel-tractor loaders are determined in the same manner as for
crawler-tractor loaders. However, because they are more manoeuverable and can travel
faster on smooth haul surfaces, the production rates for wheel units should be higher than
for crawler units under favourable conditions.
Example 3.2
Consider a wheel unit with a 1.91 m3heaped capacity bucket, handling material
weighing 1800 kg per m3 loose volume, for which the swell is 25 %. This unit, has
the following speed ranges, forward and reverse:
Low range = 0-6.3 krnph
Intermediate range = 0-17.9 kmph
 Loading and Lifting
High range = 047.5 kmph. Equipment
When hauling a loaded bucket, the unit should travel at an average speed of about
80 % of the maximum speed in the low range. When returning empty, the unit
should travel at an average speed of about 60 % of its maximum speed in the
intermediate range for distances less than 30 m, and at about 80 % of its maximum
speed in the same range for distances of 30 m and over. The average speeds should
be about as follows:
Hauling, all distances, 0.8 x 6.3 x 1000 160 = 84 d m i n
.Returrring,Oto30m,0.6,x 1 7 . 9 ~1000/60=179dmin
Returning, 30 m and over, 0.8 x 17.9 x 1000160 = 238 d m i n
Because of the greater manoeuverability of the wheel-loader, its fixed time should
be slightly less than for a crawler-loader. Here it is taken as 0.35 min against
0.40 min for a crawler-loader and the cycle times are shown in Table 3.5, while
output is shown in Table 3.6.
Table 3.5 : Cycle Time

Haul Distance, m 7.5 15 30 45 60

Fixed time, min 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35
Haul time, min 0.09 0.18 0.36 0.55 0.73
Return time, min 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.19 0.26
Cycle time, min 0.49 0.62 0.84 1.09 1.34
Trips per 45 min-hr 92.0 72.6 53.7 41.2 33.6

Table 3.6 : Volume Hauled per hour (45-min) in m3by Size of Buckets

Bucket Size, m3 One-way Haul Distance, m

Loose Bank* 7.5 15 30 45 60
1.53 1.10 101.2 79.9 59.1 45.3 37.0
2.29 1.65 151.8 119.8 88.6 68.0 55.4
3.06 2.20 202.4 159.7 118.1 90.6 73.9
3.82 2.75 253.0 199.7 ' 147.7 113.3 92.4
4.59 3.30 303.6 239.6 177.2 136.0 110.9
* Based on a swell of 25 % and an average load equal to 90 % of the rated capacity.

SAQ 2
i) What are the various operations of a front-end loader?
ii) How do you determine the production rates of front-end loaders'!

3.3 FORK LmT TRUCKS

Fork lift trucks (Figure 3.3) by virtue of their easy mobility and short wheel base and overall
dimensions constitute an important piece of hoisting and conveying equipment, These may
be self-propelled or manually operated. The self-powered trucks may have petrol engines
mounted on them or may be driven by electric power supplied from batteries placed on the
truck. In most manually operated or electrically driven trucks the driver does not ride on the
truck but walks with it during operation, the usual working distance being 45 to 60 m. The
front attachment of the truck varies with the type of load to be lifted, and may consist of
crane scoop or ram attachment instead of the forks. ?he hoisting arrangement consists of
mechanically of hydraulically operated front load support powered from the engine take-off
Excavation Equipmeat of the unit. In modem designs the telescopic uprights load to ceiling heights while retaining
a short overall height with mast lowered to pass through doors.

Figure 3.3 :Fork Lift l h r k

Fork truck is very useful for handling cartons, boxes, crates, bags, etc., and heavy machine
parts. It is an ideal machine for depositing and withdrawing loads from stores. It can load
and unload carrier units easily. Handling costs of material when fork trucks are used are
reduced, process is quieter and operation cleaner. Hand operated fork trucks are low cost
and economical to operate, and can be used for small loads upto 90 kg. The petrol motor
truck works satisfactorily over hauls longer than 90 m and over rough floor surfaces. The
electrically operated trucks are well suited for intermittent operation and short hauls. In high
lift trucks equipped with forks extending like cantilevers, the weight of thk truck must
overbalance the weight being lifted, to maintain stability. The lifting capacity is usually
rated in kg of load at a given distance from the centre line of the front wheels.
Fork lift trucks in capacity of upto 5.4 t intended for heavy duty outdoor work are available.

SAQ 3
What are the uses of fork lift trucks?

3.4 CRANES
Cranes map broadly be divided into four classes:
i) stationary, sometimes called derrick;
ii) mobile;
iii) overhead or gantry; and
iv) traveller.
Sometimes, they are classified as:
i) light duty,
ii) medium duty,
iii) heavy duty, and
iv) very heavy duty.
They may be worked in various ways, and classified accordin~y:
i) electricallyoperated,
ii) diesel operated, or
iii) diesel-electricdriven.
 Loading ~ n Lifting
d
3.4.1 Derrick Cranes Equipment
Power-operated derricks, usually electrically driven are mainly of two types-the guy derrick
and the stiffleg derrick. The guy derrick (Figure 3.4) has a small mast supported by a
number of guys and a boom pivoted at the lower end of the mist. The boom can revolve
through 360' when it is at a radius which can pass inside the guys. A bullwheel is attached
to the mast and moved by a cable on a reversible drum. The boom support cable passing
over top of the mast winds over to the boom drum while the load line passing over the boom
point sheave winds over another drum for load hoist. The power for operation is usually
supplied by a diesel engine or by an electric motor. Guy derricks have capacities exceeding
200 t.

s t a leg

wh-'

Ffgure 3.4 (a) :Cony D e h k Crane Efgure 3.4 (b) :S W e g Cram

When the guy ropes are replaced by trussed structure, it becomes a stiffleg dettick. It
consists of a revolving mast and boom, the mast being supported at its upper end by two
braced stiflegs which have a horizontal angle of 60' to 90'. IIhe boom thus, rotates through
an angle of 270' - 290'. The application of the stiffleg derrick is generally in places +ere a
light, compact derrick is required or for the same boom length and working radius greater
load capacity is required. A stiffleg derrick may be used for loads from about 9 to 45 t.

3.4.2 Mobile Cranes

These cranks are mounted on mobile units-a rubber tyred truck or a crawler. Usually, a
single prime mover provides power for propulsion as well as forrig operation. Truck cranes
have high mobility while the crawler mounted cranes move slowly. However, the crawlers
are capable of moving on rough terrain where truck mounted cranes will not travel. These
cranes are, therefore, economical where ground conditions are poor, and where long periods
of operation within small areas are needed. It can travel with the load hanging and with
maximum boom and fly jib length. When long distance transportation is required it has to be
stripped d m by removing tailweight, boom and crawler side frames, and hauled on
trailers. A mobile truck crane is shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 35 :Mobiie Crane

Truck mounted cranes with two engines-one for propulsion and the other for rig operation-
have two or more gear driven axles with drive combinations of 4 x 2,4 x 4 , 6 x 4 , 6 x 6 or
8 x 4. They have a range of 4 to 15 forward speeds and 2 or 3 reverse speeds. The operation
of these cranes usually requires firmer ground than needed in case of crawler cranes. They
Excavation Equipment are fitted with outriggers to increase base width and to impiove siability during operations.
The use of outriggers enables the crane to handle loads in excess of normal mobile units,
and ensures maximum stability when working on soft ground.
Power for operation of truck cranes may be purely diesel or diesel-electric based. Crawlers
usually have diesel drives. In general, electric drive is preferred for cranes. Electric controls
provide smooth, fast and precise operation. All four motions, namely, hoisting, derricking,
slewing and travelling are individually powered through separate electric motors. Controls
are fast acting, easy to apply and are more effective than in conventional mechanical
operation. Steam powered cranes are also used (specially when rail mounted or barge
mounted) and can take considerable overload, also permitting quicker acceleration.
Ordinarily wheel or crawler mounted cranes are designed for capacities upto about 180 t and
when on wheels, are capable of travelling at 72 kmph.
3.4.3 Whirler Cranes
This crane is a combination of derrick and mobile cranes (Figure 3.6). The advantage of a
demck crane's long boom is combined with the quick working of a mobile crane. These
cranes are mounted on high towers, and are capable of longitudinal traverse on rails. The
rotating structure consists of an outer framework at the front of which is attached the boom
and at the rear a counterweight. Inside the rotating structure all necessary operating and
control gear is mounted. The centre of gravity of the machine is always inside the path of
swinging and the machine is quite stable in any position of swing. The movement of the
tower is usually obtained through separate motors mounted on two diagonally opposite
comers of the base and connected to the track wheel axles through spur gear reductions. The
capacity of a whirler crane with 24 m boom length and 15 m working radius ma$ be as high
as45 t.

Figure 3.6 :Whirler Crane

3.4.4 ~ o w e Cranes
r
Thiscrane is usually employed in erection of high,industrialand residential buildings
reaching upto several metres in height. It is also commonly used in assembling high
industrial plants with elements of steel structure (Figure 3.7).

FEgure 3.7 :T9,yerCrane

 Loading and Lining
3.4.5 Hydraulic Cranes Equipment
This type of crane 4as the unique feature that the boom length and the angle can be changed
easily and quickly during operation (Figure 3.8). Besides, it has the advantages of hydraulic
power devices. The telescopic boom crane has fast speed, mobility and
manoeuverability.The boom can be extended at a speed of over 115 rnlmin and retracted at a
speed of 96 mlmin. In the case of a conventional, cable operated, latticed boom, a whole
crew may be needed to extend or shorten the boom, besides much longer time being taken
in the operation. Slewing, derricking and hoisting can be done simultaneously in these
cranes. The operation is smoother, and is without jerks which are unavoidable in
conventional cranes.
DIMENSION DEFINITIONS
Boom length @n Crane boom
Jib length from jib foot pin to jib head Jib front stay lines or br;~rc
sheave pin Jib
Radius of load (alsa applia to jib hook Axis of rotation
load) Clamshell bueket
Boom angle Draglinc bueket
Offset angel of jib (also can be given Pilc drivcr leads
as an offxt dimension) Magnet
Grapple
Main I~lt-hookblock
Main hoist line
Jib or vmipline hook
Jib or auxxliary hoist line
Dragline fairlcad
Taglrne
donercle bucket
Boom pivot pin
Load hoist sheave pin
' k m hoist cylinder

Figore 3.8 :Hydraulic Cnye

All operations of the crane are hydraulically powered including extension and retraction of
outriggers. The power is supplied through oil pressure.
Hydraulic cranes are usually truck-mounted, supported by two or more axles with various
drive wheel combinations. There may be two engines - one to propel the truck, the dher to
power the various operations of the machine; or only one engine which provides power for
travel as well as for the different operations of the crane.

3.4.6 Electric Overhead or Gantry Cranes

This type of crane is mostly used in erection, power houses, etc., due to its large service
area, freedom from floor obstructions and three-way motion with electric drive. A standard
crane consists of two main parts: the bridge and the crab. The bridge (Figure 3.9) consists of
two main girders fixed at their ends @ the end carriages which are supported on tram wheels
and are capable of moving on gantry rails. The movement is provided by a long shaft
spanning the whole bridge and geared to tram wheels at the two ends. It is turned by an
electtic motor mounted about midway over the bridge and joined to the shaft through a pair
of spur gears meshing with each other. The crab consists of .the hoisting gear mounted on a
frame, the frame itself being mounted on another set of wheels and capable of travelling
across the main girders. Thus, a three-way movement can be provided to the load hook
Fzcavation Equipment 3.4.7 Travelling Bridge Cranes
Travelling or bridge cranes, sometimes called Goliath cranes (Figure 3.10), have their crabs
movingon girders which are supported on legs instead of on overhead gantry track as was
done in overhead cranes. The legs are capable of moving on tracks laid on the floor. Thus,
the necessity of laying overhead ganies is dispensed with. These cranes also handle loads
within a long rectangular plan.

Figure 3.10 :'Itavelling Bridge Cr~ne

3.4.8 Hammerhead or Cantilever Cranes

In some large construction projects heavy cranes, such as hammerheads or giant cantilever
cranes, the tower type cantileveq cranes are used. 'Ihe cantilever cranes
loads, with the length of the boom varying from 37.5 to 75 m(Figure 3.

Work

3.4.9 Crawler Ci-anes

A crawler crane is the most frequently used type of erecting equipment for the erection of
steel structural members. It is, however, used for erecting all types of structures which are
within its reach and capacity (Figure 3.12). Standard models are a3ailable with boom upto
60 m in length and with capacities upto 100 t. The cranes are petrol or diesel powered At
sites with f m ground, these cranes can operate without special runways laid over the
ground. Where the ground is soft or unstable, wood mats are used to provide a fmfooting.
 Loading and Lifting
3.4.10 Truck Cranes Equipment
A truck crane is the most mobile of the erecting units and is used in erecting all types of
structures within its reach and capacity. It is mounted on rubber tyres for movement over the
highway. Truck cranes are available in sizes which will accommodate booms upto 60 m and
can lift upto 70 t. The operation of a truck crane usually requires a firmer foundabn than
crawler cranes and will require the use of mats on any site which is not hard and dry.
Maximum lifts with a tmck crane require the use of outriggers to increase the base width
and t~providestability to prevent overturning. Figure 3.13 shows the general arrangement
of a truck crane.

FEgure 3.13 :h c k Crane

3.4.11 Locomotive'Cranes
A locomotive crane (Figure 3.14) is a self-propelled crane which operates on standard rail
tracks and is used primarily in unloading and sorting of steel in yarding sites. Locomotive
cranes for steel erection are used with booms upto 33 m and with capacities upto 150 t. As
with truck cranes, outriggers must be used in handling maximum lifts. Locomotive cranes
are powered with diesel or steam power. The car-body portions of locomotive cranes are so
constructed that they can be moved in trains on their own wheels.

/ 41- Rotation

F i e r e 3.14 :Lommotive Crane

3.4.12 Ratings of Cranes

Cranes are rated in terms of safe load that can be lifted without tipping at a specific radius
and with the boom in the direction of least stability. The British and American Standards are
mostly followed in different countries manufacturing cranes.
~ c c o r d i n ~ 'the
t o British standard a crane is rated at 66.67 9% of its overturning load at a
given radius, expressed in tons. When used for grab work the rating of the machine is
reduced to 85 % of the crane rating in view of the increase in stresses resulting from the
Excavation Equipment grabbing operation.
In USA, truck cranes and crawler cranes are rated differently. The truck cranes are rated at
85 % of the tipping load at 3.05 m radius with minimum boom length and with outriggers
extended. Crawler cranes are rated at 75 % of the tipping load at 3.66 m radius, with
minimum boom length. For grab or dragline work the rating is only 66.67 % of crane rating
of the machine. In India, US practice is generally followed while rating cranes. Lifting
capacity of a crane may be calculated by the formula (Figure 3.15):

where,
L = lifting capacity as 75 % of tipping load,
W = total weight of machine without boom,
g = distance of centre of gravity of machine from centre line of rotation of the
machine,

B = total weight of boom and supporting tackle,

P = weight of load falls,
R = radius of lifting, i.e., distance of load from centre line of rotation of machine,
a = distance of boom hinge from centre line of rotation,
d = R-Land

The height of the load which can be lifted at any given radius may be ascertained through
mathematical computations, but this is generally avoided by consulting rating charts or
tables supplied by the manufacturers.

Line

Figure 3.15 :Diagram for Computing Lifting Capacity of Craw

Example 3.3
Determine the lifting capacity of a crawler crane, given the following data:
Total weight of crane without boom, (W) = 25 t
Total weight of boom and supporting tackle, (B) =4 t
Weight of load , (P) =1t
Radius of lifting, (R) = 8m
Fulcrum distance, (f) = 1.8 m
Distance of centre of gravity of machine from centre line of rotation (g) = 1.2 m
Distance of boom hinge from centre line of rotation, (a) = 1 m
 Loading and Lifting
Solution
Equipment

Therefore, lifting capacity is given by :

L A

= 9.26 t say 9.25 t.

. 3.4.13 Balance of a Mobile Crane
The lifting capacity of a crane is greatly dependent on its proper balance about the forward
edge of wheels or tracks or outriggers which act as fulcrum. The moments of forces about
the fulcrum can be ma& to balance each other by changing the boom angle which results in
bringing the load line closer to the fulcrum point or away from it. Stability of the machine
can also be increased by using longer tracks or outriggers.

I 3.5 ELECTRICALLY OPERATED LIFTS FOR GOODS

AND MEN IN VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION
Electrtcally operated lifts or hoisting equipment is intended for moving loads mainly in
batches. The batch load may consist of various parts of machines or whole machines,
elements of metal structures or reinforcement,building blocks, building materials like
mxed concrete, bricks, etc., besides personnel. The working movement of hoisting
machlnes is either for raising or lowering the load. Vertical lifting can be effected by hoists
or elevators or cranes. Hoists are fixed at the top of the structure or roof of an opening, or a
frame located vertically above the construction shaft. Elevators are another means of
vertical transportation.

3.5.1 Elevators
Elevators are machines intended for raising load in guideways. Large elevators (also called
lifts) are lntendedexclusively for vertical lifting of material and passengers in a cage which
moves on rigid guide rails. They find extensive use in the construction of high rise building,
or tall structures. Electrically driven elevators are the most popular type. Figure 3.16 shows

figure 3.16 :Elevator Figup 3.17 :Vertid Skip Elevator

I an elevator suited for people while Figure 3.17 shows a vertic.al skip elevator.
Exo~vationEquipment The travel speed of material elevators range from 0.1 to 1.5 m/s while passenger lifts travel
at 0.5 to 3.5 m/s. Passenger lifts are usually available in capacities of 0.25 to 1.5 t, and
goods elevators can handle from 0.25 to 15 t.
3.5.2 Components of Elevators
An electric elevator comprises the following main parts: cage (for passengers or goods) or
car for concrete mixes and building materials, self-supporting guide rails, framed structure
(formed of joists; channels or angles), suspension gear, hoisting machine, safety devices and
electric controls.
i) Cages
The passenger cages are desi ed with a pleasant interior, with a ceiling, a floor and a door.
5?
An allowance of 0.5 to 0.3 m per person is the usual basis for figuring car capacity while
the height is not less than 2.2 m,
The frame of a goods cage is manufactured from channels, beams and steel angles, and the
walls and floor from wood or chequered plates. The cage should be rigid enough to
withstand deformation due to shocks while loading. The exit can be either completely open
or provided with a sliding door.
The size of a goods cage is selected from the unit pressure, q, exerted on the floor,

where,
Q = capacity, kg, and
F *= floor area, cm2 .
For small loads, q is taken as 200 - 300 kg/ cm2 and for large loads, q = 600 - 800 kg/ cm2
in which case the floor area should be at least 1 .m2.
ii) Guiding Devices
The cage or car travels in the framed structure on fixed guide rails for which purpose the
upper and lower ends of the car frame are provided, on both sides, with two guides whose
profile conforms to that of the guide rails.
Guide rails are made of rolled steel sections (rail section, angles or tees) and are secured on
two opposite sides of the framed structure.

SAQ 4
i) What are the different types 01 cranes used in conslruction projects')
ii) How are cranes ratcdr?
iii) What do you understand by the balance of a mobile crane'!

SAQ 5
1) What is the purpose of elevators in a constructton project'!
ii) What are the different components oi'an elevalol?
iii) How are the cages designed?
iv) What is the purpose of guiding cleviccs in an elevator?

iii) Steel Framed Structure for Elevators

The cage travels within the steel frame structure. The framed structure is designed with steel
channels and angles which is secured by anchor bolts on a concrete foundation. The
dimensions of iile cross-section of the structure are assigned so as to ensure free travel of the
cage or car. The structure must have adequate strength and provide safety.
 , Elevator Hoisting Machines Loading and Lifting
Eqluipmpnt
Jage elevators employ drum type and driving sheave hoisting machines. In the former
design, the rope supporting the cage is secured on the.drum and winds around its surface; in
the latter design the rope runs over the sheave which drives it by the force of friction.
Hoisting machines with driving sheaves are more common because they can be used for any
lifting height and because they are more compact in size. These machines may be placed at
the ground level or on top of the framed structure, the former being very convenient for
maintenance.
v) Driving Sheaves
Driving sheaves are made of grey cast iron. Grooves of different shapes-V-shaped,
semicircular or semicircular with a rectangular undercut are provided in which the rope rests
are cut in the driving sheaves. The grooves for the ropes are not machined at all in order not
to remove the harder outer layer of metal. This increases the wear resistance of the sheave.
The greater the speed of rope movement md the greater the number of cycles the elevator
performs per unit of time, the more intensive the wear will be.
vi) Safety Devices on Elevators
The cages of all elevators should be provided with special safety devices or catches which
stop the cage automatically when the lifting ropes break or slacken.There are many designs
of safety catches equipped with eccentrics, wedges, clamping rollers, knives and smooth
braking surfaces. The latter devices which tightly engage the guides along the entire length
of contact are most efficient in operation.
The catches stop the cage when,
i) one or all supporting ropes break simultaneously,
ii) all ropes slacken at the same time,
iii) one of thk ropes is more tensioned than the others, or
iv) the descending speed becomes excessive.
In all these cases a specially provided device should also automatically switch off the
hoisting machine. The safety catch mechanism should not be accessible to unauthorised
persons and requires careful maintenance. To operate instantaneously the mechanism should
be simple in design and its harmful resistance should be negligible.
The catches are usually operatedby the power developed by a spring, the weight of the cage
or the force of compressed air.
SAQ 6
i) How do the cages travel in an elevator?
ii) How are cages lifted in an elevator?
iii) What is &e speciality of driving sheaves in an elevator?
iv) What safety devices are used on elevators and for what purpose?

3.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, at the outset, we have provided a brief introduction to loading and lifting
equipment. You learnt about the factors affecting the production of front-end loaders and the
lifting capacity of cranes. Further, we discussed how to work out the production rate of
crawler- or wheel-tractor loaders and the safe lifting load of a crawler crane. Lastly, the
working of elevators for lifting goods and men in vertical transportation were discussed. .

3.7 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Check your answers to all SAQs with respective preceding text.
-
3.8 FURTHER READING
1) Nichols,R.L. (1962):Moving the Earth, Galgotia Publishing House, New Delhi, 2nd ed.
2) Peurifoy,R.L.:Ledbetter,W.B.(1985): Construction Planning, Equipment & Methods,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 4th ed.
3 ) Rudenko,N.:Materials Handling Equipment, Peace Publishers, Moscow.
4 ) Singh, Jagman (1980):Art of Earthmoving, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.
5) Stubbs,F.W.(1 959): Hunclbook of Heavy Construction, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York.
6 ) Varma, Mahesh (1979):ConstructionEquipment and i t s Planning and Application,
Metropolitan Book Co., New Delhi, 3rd ed.