PHY 104/106: INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS II (4 units)

( For agricultural sciences)

Olabisi onabanjo university

Course contents
MODULE 1- WAVES
1.1 Definition of wave
1.2 Classification of wave according to direction
1.3 Mathematical description of a wave
1.4 The speed of waves on strings
1.5 Superposition and interference
1.6 Reflection and transmission
1.7 Rate of energy transfer by sinusoidal waves on strings
1.8 Sound waves
1.9 Standing sound waves
1.10 Characteristics of wave
• Amplitude
• Wavelength
• Period
• Frequency
• Speed
1.11 Wave properties
• Reflection
• Refraction
• Interference
• Diffraction
• Standing waves
• Dispersion

MODULE 2- OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

 2.1 The Camera

2.2 The human eye,

2.3 Defects of vision.

• Longsight
• Correction of longsight
• Shortsight
• Correction of shortsight
• Astigmatism

2.4 Simple microscope

2.5 Compound microscope

module 3- electricity and magnetic field

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Electrostatics
3.3 Electric charge
3.4 Electrostatic induction
3.5 Conductors, insulators and semiconductors
3.6 Charging objects by induction
3.7 Electric force - coulumb’s law
3.8 Electric field
3.9 Field lines
3.10 Properties of electric lines of force
3.11 Simple alternating current circuit

MODULE 4- Modern physics

 4.1 Introduction4.2Matter Waves
4.3 X-RAYS
4.4 Diffraction of X-Rays by Crystals
4.5 Nature and Properties of X-rays
4.6 Uses of X-rays

INTRODUCTION

PHY104/106: Introductory Physics II is a one semester (4 units) course. It will be available to all
Agricultural Science students to take. The material have been developed in such a way that students
that passed with at least a credit pass at the ordinary level of equivalent will follow quite easily.
You are advised to have adequate grasp of Further Mathematics or Applied Mathematics to be
able to help in this study. The course contents tell you briefly what the course is all about.

There will be tutor-marked assignments at the end of each topic to test your ability and ensure you
understand the course well. There are regular classes that are linked to the course, you are advised
to attend these sessions regularly. Details of time and locations will be given to you at the
appropriate time.

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

The following table shows how the actual course marking is broken down.

Assessment Marks
Assignments 5% of course marks
Attendance 10% of course marks
Test 15% of course marks
Final examination 70% of course marks
Total 100% of course marks

PHY 104/106: INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS II (4 units)

( For agricultural sciences)

COURSE COORDINATOR

PROFESSOR KOLA ODUNAIKE

COURSE LECTURERS

PROFESSOR KOLA ODUNAIKE

DR. (MRS.) ADETORO T. TALABI

Olabisi onabanjo university

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
MODULE 2
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

We use devices made from lenses, mirrors, and other optical components every time we put on a
pair of eyeglasses or contact lenses, take a photograph, look at the sky through a telescope, and
so on. In this chapter we examine how optical instruments work. For the most part, our analyses
involve the laws of reflection and refraction and the procedures of geometric optics. To explain
certain phenomena, however, we must use the wave nature of light.
2.1 THE CAMERA
The photographic camera is a simple optical instrument; it consists of a light-tight chamber, a
converging lens that produces a real image, and a film behind the lens to receive the image. The
camera in its simplest form uses a single convex lens to form a real inverted image on a film. The
film is coated with a light-sensitive material such as an emulsion of silver bromide on a transparent
or paper base. Fig. 2.0 is a diagram of a simple camera

Figure 2.0 A simple camera

The important parts of the camera are:

a. The lens that produces the image
b. The shutter that controls the time for which light is incident on the film ( this time may
vary from a thousandth of a second to a few seconds)
c. The diaphragm which controls the amount of light falling on to the film per second by
using more or less of the aperture of the lens. The aperture of the camera lens is usually
described by the F-number or relative aperture which is defined as
Relative aperture (F-number)= focal length/diameter of aperture.
Figure 2.0b

2.2 THE EYE

The optical behaviour of the eye is similar to that of a camera; the eye is nearly spherical and about
2.5cm in diameter. The mechanisms by which the eye controls the amount of light admitted and
adjusts to produce correctly focused images are far more complex and effective than those in even
the most sophisticated camera. In all respects, the eye is a physiological wonder. Figure 2.1&2.2
shows the optical system.
We will only consider the physics of various part of the eye but you should consult biology
textbook for more details.

Fig. 2.1
Figure 2.2 Structure of the human eye

Light entering the eye passes through a transparent structure called the cornea, behind which are
a clear liquid (the aqueous humor), a variable aperture (the pupil, which is an opening in the iris),
and the crystalline lens. Most of the refraction occurs at the outer surface of the eye, where the
cornea is covered with a film of tears. Relatively little refraction occurs in the crystalline lens
because the aqueous humor in contact with the lens has an average index of refraction close to that
of the lens. The iris, which is the coloured portion of the eye, is a muscular diaphragm that controls
pupil size. The iris regulates the amount of light entering the eye by dilating the pupil in low-light
conditions and contracting the pupil in high-light conditions. The cornea–lens system focuses light
onto the back surface of the eye, the retina, which consists of millions of sensitive receptors called
rods and cones. When stimulated by light, these receptors send impulses via the optic nerve to the
brain, where an image is perceived. By this process, a distinct image of an object is observed when
the image falls on the retina.

The eye focuses on an object by varying the shape of the pliable crystalline lens through an
amazing process called accommodation. An important component of accommodation is the ciliary
muscle, which is situated in a circle around the rim of the lens. Thin filaments, called zonules, run
from this muscle to the edge of the lens. When the eye is focused on a distant object, the ciliary
muscle is relaxed, tightening the zonules that attach the muscle to the edge of the lens. The force
of the zonules causes the lens to flatten, increasing its focal length. For an object distance of
infinity, the focal length of the eye is equal to the fixed distance between lens and retina, about 1.7
cm. The eye focuses on nearby objects by tensing the ciliary muscle, which relaxes the zonules.
This action allows the lens to bulge a bit, and its focal length decreases, resulting in the image
being focused on the retina. All these lens adjustments take place so swiftly that we are not even
aware of the change. Accommodation is limited in that objects very close to the eye produce
blurred images. The near point is the closest distance for which the lens can accommodate to focus
light on the retina. This distance usually increases with age and has an
average value of 25 cm. Typically, at age 10 the near point of the eye is about 18 cm. It increases
to about 25 cm at age 20, to 50 cm at age 40, and to 500 cm or greater at age 60. The far point of
the eye represents the greatest distance for which the lens of the relaxed eye can focus light on the
retina. A person with normal vision can see very distant objects and thus has a far point that can
be approximated as infinity.
The light leaving the mirror in Figure 2.3 becomes white where it comes together but then diverges
into separate colours again. Because nothing but air exists at the point where the rays cross (and
hence nothing exists to cause the colours to separate again), seeing white light as a result of a
combination of colours must be a visual illusion.
Figure 2.3 Red, blue, and green light rays are reflected by a curved mirror. Note that the point where the
three colors meet is white.

2.3 DEFECTS OF THE EYE

Longsight

People with good vision can clearly see objects placed at distances further than about 25 cm from the eye.
Some people are however able to see things clearly at a distance but unable to see things close at hand.
Such people are said to suffer from long sight. The lens of long sight victims has sufficient power to bend
parallel rays from a distant source on to the retina but fails to focus on the retina the divergent rays from a
nearby source. This may due to the weakness of the lens which usually loses power with age.

Correction of longsight
Longsight can be corrected with a converging lens which has a focal length equal to the nearest distance
distinctly visible. The converging lens first converge the rays from the object before they are further
converged by the eye lens, and brought to a focus on the retina.
Figure 2.4 (i-iii) Correction of longsight
Shortsight

People suffering from this defect can see close objects clearly but not distant objects. The eye lens
bends the divergent rays from near objects on to the retina, but the more parallel rays from a
distance are focused in front of the retina and diverge again, giving a blurred image. This defect
may be due to the eyeball being too long or the eye lens being too strong, i.e. the eye lens may
have too short a focal length.

Correction of shortsight

This can be corrected by using a diverging lens with a suitable focal length. The diverging lens
first diverges the rays from the object before they are converged by the eye lens and brought to a
focus at the retina.

Figure 2.5 (i-iii) Correction of shortsight

Figure 2.6 (i-iii)

Astigmatism
The eye that suffers from astigmatism is able to see objects more clearly in one direction than in
other directions. This is caused by uneven curvature of the cornea, or the eye lens or both. This
defect can be corrected using cylindrical lenses.

2.4 Simple microscope

This is referred to as a simple magnifying glass. A converging lens is used to see a very small
object clearly since it greatly magnifies the object. The lens is placed close to the eye and the small
object is brought close up to the lens until a clear large image is seen. Fig. 2.7 illustrates the
working principle of a magnifying lens. Note that the object distance is less than the focal length
of the lens. A magnified, virtual and erect image is thus formed.
Figure 2.7 A simple microscope

2.5 Compound microscope

This consists of two converging lenses, the objective and the eyepiece, fitted at the opposite ends
of the tube. The tube is mounted in such a way that it can be lowered or raised for focusing. The
objective lens has a shortfocal length. The object is always placed in front of the objective at a
distance greater than the focal length but less than twice the focal length of the objective lens. The
final magnified image is viewed through the eyepiece, which has a longer focal length. This is the
normal use of the microscope.
Fig. 2.8 illustrates how images are formed in a compound microscope. The objective lens forms a real,
inverted and magnified image, I1, in front of the eyepiece. The microscope is adjusted so that the
distance of I1 from the eyepiece is less than the focal length of the eyepiece. The eyepiece,
therefore, serves as a magnifying glass which forms the final virtual and magnified image, 12, of
I1, which the eye sees. The objective lens forms the magnified image, I1, of the object at 0 and the
eye lens forms the final, virtual, magnified image, I2, of I1. The compound microscope can
therefore be used to magnify and see objects too small to be seen with the unaided eyes. The
magnification ability or power of an optical instrument may be denoted as x10. This simply means
that the size of image of an object form formed by the instrument is 10 times the size of that object.

Figure 2.8 A compound microscope