OB related disciplines

Introduction :
Every field of study is usually related to another discipline, often borrowing knowledge from
other disciplines, and using it to derive principles and theories of its own while also sharing a part
of its own knowledge to other discipline so that they can do the same. A good example can be of
“Physics” , which uses concept of “Mathematics” to prove its laws and theories, Similarly OB as
an applied behavioral science is based on the knowledge that is contributed by different
behavioral disciplines which are listed below :
1. Psychology
2. Social psychology
3. Sociology
4. Anthropology
5. Political Science
Let’s look at each discipline separately and discover their contribution toward the discipline of
OB

Contribution of each discipline :

1- Psychology :
According to Britannica ,Psychology is defined as :
”Scientific discipline that studies mental states and processes and behaviors in humans and
other animals.”
According to American psychological association :
“ Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.”
Thus, psychology involves the scientific study of mental processes and behaviors . Behaviors
include external and outward actions and reactions toward an external stimuli while mental
processes are internal activities that the mind performs which includes memory, emotion,
perception, imagination, thinking and reasoning for example how you react toward an
approaching deadline of an assignment is your behavior. Are you person who will plan way
ahead before the deadline and complete your assignment well before the deadline or you will
opt to complete assignment on the night before the deadline. The thinking and reasoning you
will do while preparing the assignment are the mental processes you are most likely to
undergo.
Now we will look at the contributions of psychology toward OB.
Since psychology deals with the study of the behavior and mental process of individuals , the
major contribution of this field is at individual level of analysis which we have seen in the
OB model , which deals with analysis of organizational behavior at three levels or units ,
individual group and organization.
Traditionally psychology has been used to study factors that made individuals less efficient,
less efficiency of individuals translated directly to inefficiency on attainment of organizational
goals. These factors included fatigue, boredom, distractions, lack of focus and so on.
But most recently psychology has diverted its focus toward the study of following :
1) Learning :
Learning in the context of the organization is the process of creating, retaining, and
transferring knowledge within an organization. Through organizational learning, an
organization improves itself over time through the use of experience and then employees
 this experience in the creation of new knowledge beneficial for the organization.
Organization learning has three important steps.
i. Knowledge creation( the creation of knowledge through experience)
ii. Knowledge retention( preservation of knowledge created)
iii. Knowledge transfer ( transfer of knowledge within organization to individuals,
since knowledge is only meant to grow when shared )
Organization gain knowledge in one of four communities.
i. Individual ( Individual strive to learn new skills and idea and their productivity and
efficiency increases as a result. If the individual leaves the group, without sharing
the learned knowledge , the group loses the knowledge )
ii. Team( Group learning is defined as a process in which groups take actions, gets
feedback and uses this feedback to modify their actions gaining valuable
knowledge in doing so)
iii. Organizational( the process in which organization creates and organizes
knowledge relating to their function and culture, to adapt to competitive landscape
and increase their efficiency)
iv. Inter-organizational( the process in which different organizations collaborate,
shares knowledge and learn from one another)
References : 1 , 2
2) Motivation :
Motivation in context of organization refers to the positive state of mind that drives you
to achieve your objectives. Psychology helps organizational behavior in identifying the
factors that affect employee’s motivation because motivation of employee determines the
productivity and efficiency of organizations. Through the study of psychology of various
individuals, many theories related to motivations were conceived. Following are few
important theories :
i. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
ii. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
iii. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Some of the factors effecting motivation of employees are :
i. Compensation and benefits
ii. Recognition and rewards
 iii. Work environment
iv. Opportunities for growth and development
v. Opportunities for growth and development
vi. Work-life balance

Reference : 3

3) Personality and emotions :

Personality is the combination of characteristics , qualities , thought and behaviors that
forms a person distinct unique identity, that distinguishes one person from another. Every
person has unique determinants that define his/her personality. Therefore psychology
helps in identifying personality traits which effect the organizational behaviors. The
personality of a person is influenced by two major features :

i. Inherited characteristics :
Inherited characteristics refer to traits that are passed down from parents to their
offspring through the genes. These traits can include physical characteristics such
as eye color, hair color, and height, as well as behavioral characteristics such as
personality traits, intelligence, and temperament.
ii. Learned characteristics :
Learned characteristics, also known as acquired traits, are traits that are not
inherited from one's parents but rather acquired through individual experiences or
environmental factors. These characteristics can include skills, knowledge, habits,
behaviors, and attitudes.
Five major personality attributes that effect OB are :
i. Locus of Control
ii. Machiavellianism
iii. Self-esteem
iv. Self-monitoring
v. Risk taking
An emotion is an intense feeling, that occurs due to an internal or external stimuli .
Internal stimuli include thought and beliefs, memories and physiological sensations.
External stimuli include events, other people and physical environment. Psychology deals
with the study of emotions of employees because emotions can acts as determinant for the
employees productivity and performance, therefore it is very important that an employee
 recognizes and understands his/her emotion and emotion of others. This ability is often
known as emotional intelligence .

Reference : 4 , 5

4) Perception and training :

Perception is the process in which an individual screens, selects, organizes, and interprets
stimuli to give them meaning. Perception helps in determining appropriate behavioral
response by making sense out of the environment. Each perceiver paints a picture of
reality that expresses an individual view of reality .
The process through which various objects come into our attention and then are selected
or screened is called perceptual selectivity . This process contains following four steps :
i. Exposure ( exposure to external object or stimuli )
ii. Attention( concentrating on a single stimulus out of multiple stimuli)
iii. Perception and interpretation( stimuli is understood and comprehended)
iv. Retention and response( individuals’ actions in response to stimuli)
Social perception in an organization is dependent on three factors :
i. The person being perceived.
ii. Perceiver
iii. The particular situation(in which perception is to take place)
Training in context of organizations deals with the process of transferring practical
knowledge within an organization with the goal of boosting organization productivity and
efficiency. It is concerned with developing a particular skill to a desired standard by
instruction and practice.
The important type of training are :
i. Induction training :
It is conducted to make employee familiar with internal environment of the
organization by helping him/her understand procedure , code of conduct, and
policies within organization.
ii. Job instruction training :
This type of training is conducted to provide an employee overview about the job
and an experienced demonstrator demonstrates the jobs
iii. Refresher training :
 This type of training is conducted to incorporate latest development in a particular
field . It is used to upgrade the skills of employees often as a result of a promotion.
iv. Apprenticeship training :
This type of training is usually conducted under the supervision of an expert for a
specific amount of time with the goal of imparting new skills and abilities in the
employees.
The need of the training arises because of following reasons :
i. Environmental changes
ii. Organizational complexity
iii. Human relations
iv. Change in the job assignment
Reference : 6 , 7 , 8

5) Attitude measurement and Employee selection :

Organizational behavior is concerned with employees’ attitude toward the work
environment because these attitudes affect an organizations performance and efficiency.
These work-related attitudes are :
i. Job satisfaction:
An attitude a person holds toward his/her job is known as job satisfaction. A
person with high satisfaction toward the job will have a positive attitude while it
will be reverse opposite for the case where the job fails to provide employee with
adequate satisfaction. A person with positive attitude will be punctual, have low
absenteeism, and will show a positive attitude toward his/her co workers and
managers while on the other hand a person with negative attitude will have high
absenteeism rate, will acts sluggish and his/her performance level will be low.
ii. Job Involvement:
Job involvement is the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with
his/her job and considers his or her perceived performance level important to self-
worth. Employees with a high level of job involvement very strongly identifies
with their job and the kind of work they do leading to increasing productivity and
low absenteeism and turnover rate.
iii. Organizational Commitment:
 Organizational commitment is the state in which an employee feels a sense of
belonging and membership toward the organization. In such a case, an employee
feels proud being associated with the organization and strivers hard to achieve
organization goals. Similar to other attitudes discussed before , organizational
commitment can result in low turnover and absenteeism rate.
Employee selection employs the principle of psychology to determine the best available
candidate in the market. “Right people for the Right job” principle of employee
selection is made possible through the use of psychology. A good selection process is
comprised of following steps:
i. Employment interview
ii. Reference checking
iii. Medical examination
iv. Final selection
Reference : 9

6) Work stress and design :

According to “Centers for Disease Control and Prevention”
“Job stress can be defined as the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the
requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker.”
Job stress directly affects physiological processes that increase the risk for CVD:
i. High cholesterol
ii. High blood pressure
iii. High blood sugar
iv. Weakened immune response.
v. High cortisol
vi. Changes in appetite and digestive patterns
Job stress contributes to behavior changes that increase the risk for CVD:
i. Low physical activity levels
ii. Excessive coffee consumption
iii. Smoking
iv. Poor dietary habits
Job stress contributes to the development of mental health conditions that independently increase
the risk for a range of chronic health conditions.
i. Anxiety
ii. Depression
Therefore, Organizational behavior strives to have work design that limits and minimizes work
stress by having a deep understanding of the employees mind which is provided by the pschology.
Work design refers to the “content and organization of one’s work tasks, activities, relationships
and responsibilities”. Ultimately the work design effects how we feel about the job and can
influence whether we feel motivated , engaged, bored or stressed at work. Therefore psychology
helps in determining appropriated work design that is employee oriented meaning it keeps
employee motivated without the fear of burn out( a condition in which a person loses all its
motivation) happening.
References : 10 , 11 , 12

2- Social psychology :
According to Baron, Byrne, and Suls (1989) , social psychology is defined as :
“the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior in social
situations” (p. 6).
According to Wikipedia , social psychology is defined as :
“Social psychology is the scientific study of how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced
by the real or imagined presence of other people or by social norms.”
Social psychology aims to explain human behaviors that are result of the relationship between
mental and social situations, studying the social situations under which though feelings and
behaviors occurs, and how the influence social interaction.
Since social psychology deals with the understanding of human behavior in relation to external
situations , it contribution are prominent at the group and organization system level of analysis
in the OB model. Social psychology , generally considered a branch of psychology, blends
concepts from both psychology and sociology to focus on peoples’ influence on one another.
Let’s look at each contribution the social psychology has provided to organizational behavior :
1) Behavioral and attitude change :
Behavioral change can be defined as the change in the action or conducts of the
employees in the workplace. The behavioral change has been stimulated by globalization
 of markets and competition, growth of immediate digital information and
communications, growth of the service-based economy and changes in rules affecting
corporate governance and trade relationships.
Behavioral change can be made by using OB-mod which is based on the work of BF
skinner who postulated that “the needs of employees can be understood by his/her
behavior” for example a low preforming employee exhibits the need of change in either
the work allocated to him/ her or change in the reward provided as a result of work.
The OB-mod process identifies performance-related behaviors, studies their frequency and
instances of occurrence, identifies the triggers present, develops an intervention strategy,
applies the strategy and maintains performance through appropriate rewards.
Attitude is defined as "a learned pre-disposition to respond in a consistently favorable or
unfavorable manner with respect to a given object” and thus attitude change means to
undergo a modification or change in these learned Predispositions. Attitude change can
occur due to change in leadership, organizational restructuring , change in policies and
procedures, Training and development programs, work change. Since these both type of
changes happen on a collective level rather than individual level, with their effect seen
throughout the organization sociology helps us in identifying the causes and effects of
such changes.
References : 13 , 14

2) Group processes and decision making :

Group processes deal with the “how” the group behaves which includes how the
individuals within groups , interact with each other, how decisions are made and how the
group communicates internally and with other peoples. “The Johari window” models is
used to explain group process :
i. The Johari window :
This model is based on two main ideas that trust can be acquired by revealing
information to others and learning about yourselves from their feedback . Each person
is represented by the Johari model through four quadrants or window pane. Two of these
panes represent self and the other two represent the part unknown to self but to
others.
Open/self-area or arena :
 In this area, the information about the person will be know by both the person itself
and other person in the groups. This is the area where most communication occurs.
Blind self or blind spot :
In this area, the information about the person is known by all the members of the
group except the person itself. This spot can be decreased through., effective
communication with other members.
Hidden area or façade:
In this area, the information about the person is confined to the person itself, all
other members of the group are not aware of it. A person is often reluctant to share
information of personal nature which main include trauma, past experiences, secrets
etc.
Unknown area :
In this area, the information about the person is not known to the person nor it is
know to other members of the group. The person will be unaware till he discovers
his hidden qualities and capabilities or through observation of others.
Group decision making allows group to make decisions that are group oriented rather than being
individual oriented and a group follows following process in doing so :

i. Planning( decision making tools are identified and for evaluation of alternatives
success factor or criteria is defined)
ii. Determining alternatives ( generation of 5 to 9 alternatives with the potential of
solving the problem)
iii. Selecting best alternatives( selection of best alternative using the criteria and success
factor identified earlier)
iv. Deployment( realization of the solution decided in the previous step )
Following is the list of decision-making methods :
i. Brainstorming
ii. Nominal group thinking
iii. Delphi technique(a problem-solving method that involves a group of experts who provide
their opinions anonymously and iteratively until a consensus is reached.)
 iv. Dialectical inquiry(is a method of discussion and analysis that involves the exploration of
opposing viewpoints in order to arrive at a better understanding of a particular issue or
problem.)
References : 15 , 16 , 17

3) Communication:
Communication is the process by which information is exchanged between individuals
through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior. Within organization
communication fulfills three main functions :
i. Coordination
ii. Transmission of information
iii. Sharing of emotions and feelings
The process model for communication has following components :
i. Sender : The one conveying the message e.g., your boss says, “ you must print
those documents before sales manager arrives ” . These actions performed by
sender is known as encoding.
ii. Medium : The channel of communication through which a message is conveyed
e.g. spoken words , written word or signs.
iii. Receiver : The one receiving the message , whose purpose is to understand the
meaning conveyed by the sender. These actions performed by receiver is known as
decoding.
iv. Noise : Nosie is anything that interferes in the communication process resulting in
distortion of message . Either this noise can interfere during the encoding process
resulting in ineffective encoding of the message or can interfere during decoding
process resulting in ineffective decoding of the message.
Reference : 18
3- Sociology :
According to Britannica, sociology is defined as :
“Sociology, a social science that studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes
that preserve and change them”
According to Wikipedia , sociology is defined as :
“Sociology, a social science that studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes
that preserve and change them”
It does this by examining the dynamics of constituent parts of societies such as
institutions, communities, populations, and gender, racial, or age groups. Sociology also
studies social status or stratification, social movements, and social change, as well as societal
disorder in the form of crime, deviance, and revolution.
Sociology contributes to organizational behavior at two level of analysis first is group and
second is organizational system :
i. At Group Level :
At group level , sociology contributes to following fields :
1. Intergroup behavior :
The organization consists of many groups often working with each other for the
attainment of a single goal. The behaviors of group toward each other gives rise to
intergroup behavior. Mostly two relationships are used to define behavior among
competing groups.
a) Rensis Linket Approach :
According to this approach, inter organizational groups are linked with each other
through a person that holds membership in more than one group. These persons are
called “Linking pins” and are vital for the success of decision making.
b) Thompson’s Approach:
This approach suggests that rather then being linked through “linking Pins ”,
groups are linked through interdependence which is of three types ( 1 ) pooled ( 2 )
sequential and ( 3 ) reciprocal.
Reference : 19
2. Power and conflict :
Power is the ability to influence the behaviors of others to get what you want. For
example: If you want a larger budget to open a new store in a large city and you
get the budget increase, you have used your power to influence the decision. In an
organizational setting, power can be divided into different types such as legitimate
power, reward power, coercive power, expert power, and referent power.
Legitimate power is based on an individual's position within the organization,
while reward power comes from an individual's ability to provide incentives or
 rewards. Coercive power comes from the ability to punish or penalize, expert
power is based on an individual's knowledge and skills, and referent power is
based on an individual's charisma or personal characteristics.
Contrarily, conflict develops when there is discord or tension between people or
groups who have various objectives or interests. Different goals, limited resources,
conflicting values, and other factors can all lead to conflict in an organizational
situation. Conflict can be advantageous if it results in constructive solutions and
advancements within the company, but it can also be harmful if it has a negative
impact on employee retention, morale, or efficiency.
Reference : 20
ii. At organizational Level :
At organizational level , sociology contributes to following fields :
1. Formal organizational theories :
There are three theories that describe formal organization :
a) Classical theory :
It concentrates on organizational structure, layout, and characteristics like
specialization, scalar chain, departmentation, span of control,
centralization/decentralization, etc. People are chosen to lead the different
departments after the structure has been established. Humans and the interactions
they have within informal social organizations are not thought to be significant.
It views organizations as closed systems that interact minimally or not at all with
external factors. It places more stress on tasks than on people. The key
components of traditional theories of organization are hierarchies of power,
specialization, division of labor, impersonal relations, and a limited range of
control.
b) Human and Participative Theories :
The classical theory of organization was opposed in the 1950’s when behavioral
theories emerged on the management scenario. Classical theory was criticized
for being highly mechanistic, formal and impersonal. McGregor propounded
Theory F which emphasized human relationships as important contributors to
organizational goals.
 These theories characterized a shift from task – oriented approach to people –
oriented approach. They are comparatively less mechanistic, impersonal, and
formal than the classical theory. They design organization structures to suit the
needs of people and aim to synthesize individual goals with organizational goals.
c) Contingency Theory :
There is no one "best" way to run a company or manage workers, according to
the contingency theory, a viewpoint on organizational design and management.
Instead, the best course of action relies on the particulars of a given situation.
The best way to manage a company is influenced by a number of variables,
including the environment, technology, the size of the organization, and the
characteristics of the employees, according to contingency theory. According to
this idea, organizations need to be adaptable and flexible in order to succeed.
Reference : 21
2. Organizational technology :
Technology is employed by the organization in the following sector :
a) Communication
b) Workplace environment
c) Organization and Efficiency
d) Accessibility
3. Organizational culture :
Organizational culture includes an organization’s expectations, experiences,
philosophy, as well as the values that guide member behavior, and is expressed in
member self-image, inner workings, interactions with the outside world, and
future expectations. Culture is based on shared attitudes, beliefs, customs, and
written and unwritten rules that have been developed over time and are
considered valid (The Business Dictionary).
Simply stated, organizational culture is “the way things are done around here”
(Deal & Kennedy, 2000).
Under this set of definitions, organizational culture is a set of shared assumptions
that guide what happens in organizations by defining appropriate behavior for
various situations (Ravasi & Schultz, 2006). Organizational culture affects the
way people and groups interact with each other, with clients, and with
 stakeholders. Also, organizational culture may influence how much employees
identify with their organization (Schrodt, 2002).
4. Organizational Change :
Organizational change is the movement of an organization from one state of affairs
to another. Organizational change can take many forms. This change may happen
in the form of change in structure, policies , procedures, technology and culture.
The change may be planned many year in advance or can be forced through the
environment. The change can happen because of
a) Workforce Demographics
b) Technology
c) Globalization
d) Market Conditions
e) Organizational Growth
f) Poor performance
Most people fail and resist change because of following reasons :
a) Disrupted Habits
b) Personality
c) Feelings of Uncertainty
d) Fear of Failure
e) Personal Impact of Change
f) Prevalence of Change
g) Perceived Loss of Power
Reference : 22
4- Anthropology :
According to Britannica, Anthropology is defined as :
“the science of humanity,” which studies human beings in aspects ranging from
the biology and evolutionary history of Homo sapiens to the features of society
and culture that decisively distinguish humans from other animal species.
According to Wikipedia , Anthropology is defined as :
“Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human
biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including past human
species.”
Anthropology is divided into different sub levels :
Social anthropology studies patterns of behavior, while cultural anthropology studies
cultural meaning, including norms and values. A portmanteau term sociocultural
anthropology is commonly used today. Linguistic anthropology studies how language
influences social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the biological
development of humans.
Archaeological anthropology, often termed as "anthropology of the past," studies human
activity through investigation of physical evidence. It is considered a branch of anthropology
in North America and Asia, while in Europe archaeology is viewed as a discipline in its own
right or grouped under other related disciplines, such as history and palaeontology.
Similar to sociology, anthropology contributes to organizational behavior at two level of
analysis group and organization level
i. At Group Level :
At group level , anthropology contributes to following fields.
1. Comparative value and attitudes :
People's attitudes are their preferences for and opposition to anything and everyone
that can be judged. This can be something as specific as a bug biting you at night or
something as general and vague as capitalism or communism. While in contrast , In
contrast, human values have been defined as abstract ideals and guiding principles in
one’s life. These attitudes and values are analyzed using anthropology to determine
their effect on the organization.
2. Cross-cultural analysis :
According to Wikipedia cross cultural analysis can be defined as
Cross-cultural studies, sometimes called holocultural studies or comparative studies
or cross-cultural analysis, is a specialization in anthropology and sister sciences such
as sociology, psychology, economics, political science that uses field data from
many societies through comparative research to examine the scope of human
behavior and test hypotheses about human behavior and culture. It is used in
organizational behavior to examine diverse workplace and how employees behave in
such workplace.
ii. At organizational level :
At group level , anthropology contributes to following fields.
 1. Organizational culture and environment :
Organization culture has been discussed previously in detail , anthropology
studies the formation of such cultures through careful examination of human
societies and how they function. The environment includes external factor that
effects the operation of the organizations and includes political, economic, social,
technological, and legal factors that can influence the organization's ability to
achieve its goals and objectives.

5- Politics :
Politics contributes to organizational behavior at “organization system” level of analysis and
deals with conflicts(discussed previously), power(discussed previously) and Intra-
organizational politics, which is informal, unofficial, and sometimes behind-the-scenes efforts
to sell ideas, influence an organization, increase power, or achieve other targeted objectives
Politics has been around for millennia. Aristotle wrote that politics stems from a diversity of
interests, and those competing interests must be resolved in some way. “Rational” decision
making alone may not work when interests are fundamentally incongruent, so political
behaviors and influence tactics arise.

References :
1. Exhibit 1-3, pg. 13 Organizational Behavior by Stephen P Robbins and Timothy A.
Judge(15th ed)( Basic framework for discussion)
2. Learning :
https://www.valamis.com/hub/organizational-
learning#:~:text=Embedded%20knowledge%20can%20be%20kept,the%20organization%20as%2
0a%20whole.
3. Motivation :
https://harappa.education/harappa-diaries/motivation-in-organizational-
behavior/#:~:text=The%20role%20of%20motivation%20is,more%20effort%20into%20their%20
work.
4. Personality :
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/organizational_behavior/organizational_behavior_personlity.html
5. Emotion :
https://open.lib.umn.edu/organizationalbehavior/chapter/7-4-what-are-
emotions/#:~:text=More%20formally%2C%20an%20emotion%20is,a%20third%20to%20feel%2
0sad.
6. perception :
https://openstax.org/books/organizational-behavior/pages/3-1-the-perceptual-
process#:~:text=By%20perception%2C%20we%20mean%20the,make%20an%20appropriate%2
0behavioral%20response.
7. Training :
https://corp.kaltura.com/blog/organizational-training/
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/human-resource-development/training-meaning-definition-
and-types-of-training/32374
8. Attitude measurement :
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/attitude-essay/essay-on-attitude-types-functions-and-
measurement/63843
9. employee selection
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/recruitment_and_selection/what_is_selection.html
10. job stress
https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/99-
101/default.html#:~:text=Job%20stress%20can%20be%20defined,or%20needs%20of%20the%20worker.
https://www.uml.edu/research/cph-new/worker/stress-at-work/health-
effects.aspx#:~:text=Long%20Term%20Effects,Psychological%20disorders
11. work design
https://www.thriveatwork.org.au/resources/work-design/
12. Behavior change :
https://smallbusiness.chron.com/examples-behavior-modification-organization-13411.html
13. Attitude Change :
https://www.smitorissa.org/Documents/OB%20UNIT%20II-2.pdf13
14. group behavior :
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/group-
processes.html#:~:text=Group%20processes%20are%20'how'%20a,internally%20and%20with%20other%
20people.
https://www.communicationtheory.org/the-johari-window-model/
15. group Decision :
https://everhour.com/blog/group-decision-
making/#:~:text=Group%20members%2C%20in%20their%20turn,rank%20the%20ideas%20by%20priority
16. Communication :
https://open.lib.umn.edu/organizationalbehavior/chapter/8-2-understanding-communication/
17. Intergroup Behavior :
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/organization/group-dynamics/inter-group-behaviour-approaches-to-
its-relationship/63908
18. power and conflict :
https://pressbooks.senecacollege.ca/organizationalbehaviour/chapter/chapter-13/io
19. formal theories of organization :
https://www.businessmanagementideas.com/management/organisation-management/top-3-theories-
of-formal-organisation/4881
20. 0rganizational change :
https://open.lib.umn.edu/organizationalbehavior/chapter/14-3-organizational-change/
21. Attitude and values
https://oxfordre.com/psychology/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.001.0001/acrefore-
9780190236557-e-248
22. Organizational Politics :
https://open.lib.umn.edu/organizationalbehavior/chapter/13-4-organizational-politics/