Unit#1 DIVERSITY IN EDUCATION

Content Included
1.1 Diversity of Aims and Approaches in Education
1.2 Variety of Philosophical Approaches to Education
1.3 Education in Different Periods and Societies
Diversity refers to the range of identities that exist in a group of people. Common identity categories referenced when discussing dive rsity
include race, class, gender, religion and sexual orientation. Diversity in education represents a broad range of ideas and initiatives to create
learning environments that are safe, inclusive and equitable for as many identities as possible. Recognizing, fostering and d eveloping
sensitivity to the needs of people in various identity categories are primary aims of educational diversity.

History
Initiatives toward creating more diversity in education began with the civil rights movement of the 1960s. Originally, civil rights scholars
fought to change the negative stereotypes of African-Americans in mainstream scholarship. One result of this movement was a growth of
African-American studies programs and other ethnic studies programs. In the 1970s, the National Council for Social Studies, the Ameri can
Association of Colleges for Teacher Education and other professional organizations pushed for the inclusion of more diverse cultural content
in curricula. The concept of multicultural education sprouted from the civil rights movement and from the efforts of educator s who vied for
change.

Policy and Practice

School desegregation resulting from the U.S. Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education decision was the first major law to recognize the
importance of diversity in education. Affirmative action policies by President John F. Kennedy in 1961 and President Lyndon B. Johnson in
1965 sought to ensure equal opportunity and to foster diversity in the work place and in schools. Both desegregation and affi rmative action
stressed the benefits of diversity for all students. Beginning in the 1970s, colleges and unive rsities across the country created positions to
address issues of diversity. Now, multiculturalism training and diversity committees are commonplace in schools.

Diversity and Education Today

Today's diversity initiatives in education encompass an even wider range of categories and practices. Initially, affirmative action and equal
opportunity policies recognized race, religion, gender, color, ethnicity and national origin. Since the 1980s, con cerns have expanded to include
such categories as ability, sexual orientation and learning styles. Educational practice has gone beyond providing access to minority groups.
Now, many educators are discussing ways to revise teaching strategies so methods are more inclusive. Diversity practices are also responding
to new developments in education, such as research about students with learning challenges. As an example, the movement towar d
differentiated instructional strategies aims to cater to the diversity of learning styles in the classroom.

Misconceptions
Though multiculturalism and diversity are used synonymously, these terms have different meanings. Multiculturalism concerns t he
understanding and acceptance of ethnic cultures, while diversity deals with a wide range of identity categories, including et hnic cultures.

Benefits
According to the Ford Foundation, two out of three Americans agree it is important that colleges and universities prepare students to function
in a diverse society. Having more diversity in educational settings helps prepare students to interact on a globa l scale. According to the
Diversity Digest, diversity in education increases a student's cultural awareness, satisfaction with college and commitment to fostering racial
understanding.

Source: https://classroom.synonym.com/diversity-mean-education-6458319.html
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1.1. Diversity of Aims and Approaches in Education

Why do children go to school? Most people would say it’s to learn the three R’s: reading, writing and ‘arithmetic. But a school culture that
promotes diversity in the classroom teaches students something that’s more important: how to live and work in a society where every individual is
unique. In an increasingly fragmented society, the ability to connect with peers, coworkers and neighbours with diverse backgrounds and abilities is
invaluable. Diversity improves critical-thinking skills, builds empathy and encourages students to think differently.
What is diversity in the classroom?
Diversity is everything that makes people different from each other. This includes many different factors: race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation,
socio-economic status, ability, age, religious belief, or political conviction. All these factors work together to inform how students (and teachers, and
everyone else) encounter the world. The University of Rhode Island defines diversity in the classroom as “understanding each student brings unique
experiences, strengths, and ideas to our classroom … Diversity is the exploration and incorporation of these differences to enrich learning in our
classroom.”
Why is diversity in the classroom important?
If you ignore the issue of diversity in the classroom and choose to not promote diversity in your school, you’re not doing your job.
Children go to school to be prepared for the workforce, so teaching must effectively address and embrace the realities that come with living and working
in a diverse school, community and country. Not only that, but there are other research-backed reasons for promoting diversity in the classroom:
 • Diversity in the classroom builds better thinkers
According to an article from Scientific American, we’re more likely to think harder about an issue when we’re talking to someone who is different than
us:
“Decades of research by organizational scientists, psychologists, sociologists, economists and demographers show that socially diverse groups (that is,
those with a diversity of race, ethnicity, gender and sexual orientation) are more innovative than homogeneous groups.”
The same article goes on to point out that even the appearance of diversity (and with it, the suggestion that different opinions exist) makes us change
how we approach issues.
Students are no exception to this rule. Diversity in the classroom teaches students to appreciate different perspectives and draw stronger
conclusions. Challenging students to consider different perspectives can also teach them how to interact with their peers on a social level, and equip
them with skills they’ll use for the rest of their life.
• It improves academic outcomes
Diversity in the classroom doesn’t just improve social skills, it can also have an impact on academic results. It improves critical thinking skills and
encourages academic confidence. According to a case study from The Century Foundation, students who attended a magnet school in Hartford,
Connecticut that was required to meet racial integration standards through a lottery system outperformed students at suburban school that had a
higher percentage of affluent, white students on standardized test scores. The same report also found that effectively integrated schools had less
misbehavior, lower dropout levels and noticed that students were more likely to want to pursue post-secondary education.

• It involves more students

According to OISE professor Ann Lopez, diversity can “disrupt narratives and stereotypes in the classroom that position diverse people as lacking in
valuable knowledge or unqualified.”

“We commend this California high school instructor for encouraging essential #21stcenturyskills, such as communication and social/diversity awareness,
through collaboration in the classroom. https://t.co/fnxu1AScJG https://t.co/fnxu1AScJG
— Elizabeth Woods (@woods_spunky) April 1, 2019
When schools take inclusive and responsive approaches to diversity, students are more likely to see their identify represented in classroom materials
or other students. When diversity is not a priority and these students don’t feel included, they’re more likely to not participate and feel inferior to their
peers.A study from the University of California, Los Angeles looked at diverse classrooms to assess the emotional gains of students, and found
encouraging results. According to the study, students in the most diverse classrooms were more likely to feel safer, less lonely and less bullied at school.
7 ways to encourage a culture of diversity in your school
Alright. So diversity is important to cultivate in your classroom because of the academic and social benefits. That’s a great thing to know, but what does
diversity in the classroom look like in action? And how can you promote it in your school? Good news: there are lots of different ways!
1. Examine your teaching materials
Which voices are speaking in your classroom? That is, whose stories do you tell? Especially in the humanities and social sciences, teaching materials
can often be limited to Western, white, male and middle-class
narratives.https://www.instagram.com/p/Bue7_t5hAdu/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_linkWork with your teachers to see if you’re representing a
wide range of voices in the curriculum. If possible, teach literature from authors of color. Examine historical narratives to see which voices are
missing — for example, a discussion about the civil rights movement can examine how it intersects with gender equality, immigration and the stories
of Latino, Hispanic and Native American peoples. Richard Messina, principal of OISE’s Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, defines this practice as
“idea diversity:”
“To understand an idea is to understand the ideas that surround it, including those that stand in contrast to it. Idea diversity creates a rich
environment for ideas to evolve into new and more refined forms. This pedagogical approach may help students to appreciate and value all forms
of diversity and how diversity enriches learning.”
This is exactly what Citizens of the World Charter Schools in California is doing through a focus on a project-based, culturally-responsive and data-
driven learning model.
Some of the projects they’re working on to promote diversity in the classroom include:

• A first-grade rally to end homelessness: To learn about homelessness and civic engagement, students write letters to the mayor and use their
creative skills to produce awareness materials like posters and songs.
• Second language practice in second grade: Students who speak Spanish at home help teach their classmates and teachers how to pronounce and
translate a Spanish song.
• Fourth-grade history: While learning about the gold rush, students write diaries from a wide range of historical actors like mine workers and
owners, but also from the perspective of women and immigrants that worked alongside them.
If it’s difficult to change your existing curriculum, use the opportunity to ask students why different perspectives aren’t included and challenge them to
apply critical thinking skills.
2. Get to know your students
All the students in your school are unique individuals, so use that fact to build a diverse and inclusive school culture. Take the time to learn about your
students: Where do they come from? What kind of socio-economic situation do they live in, broadly speaking? Are they meeting academic achievement
standards, or are they struggling? Do they get along with their peers? With everything that you have to keep track of and work on, it might be difficult
to find the time to intentionally build relationships with students — especially if you’re new to the school or to a leadership position. Here are some
ways to start:

• Schedule time out of your day to visit classrooms or walk through the halls. Let students know that they can approach you with problems (or just
to say hello), and then follow through on what they come to you with.
• Communicate your vision and goals for the school to your teachers. Encourage them to come to you with any questions or concerns, and work
with them to promote diversity in the classroom.
• Show some school spirit. Participate in school events and visit different clubs or after-school activities. If students see that you’re invested in school
culture, they’ll be more likely to also participate.
When you know your students and understand their strengths and weaknesses, you’ll be better equipped to promote diversity and work with teachers
to address the challenges and opportunities that come with a focus on diversity in the classroom.

3. Be willing to address inequality

Part of supporting diversity in the classroom is creating a space for students and educators to talk about how issues of discrimination affect them on a
personal, classroom- and school-wide level. The more diversity is a topic of discussion in your school, the less students and teachers will hesitate to
address it. As a school leader, you’re in a position to lead the conversation and inspire others in the school to follow. This conversation shouldn’t just
be limited to words — in order to make effective change, you need to take practical steps to address inequality when you encounter it, such as:

• Shut down discrimination whenever you hear it

• Use language that promotes positivity and doesn’t reinforce existing stereotypes (for example, the phrase “boys will be boys” shouldn’t be used
to justify sexism or aggression)
• Respond effectively to inappropriate comments or actions. Take infractions seriously and inform parents when necessary
• Encourage students to include all of their peers if you see division forming along racial or economic lines.
• Remove existing markers of inequality in your school. (For example, make sure students who are eligible for free or reduced lunch programs aren’t
singled out and made to feel different.)

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Fair does not equal same — fair means making sure that every student has what he or she needs to succeed both personally and academically. When
you lead the conversation and follow through with action, you signal that discrimination will not be tolerated in your school.

4. Connect with parents and community

Schools are a central part of the community, and should reflect and celebrate its diversity. Communicate your goals for diversity in the classroom to
parents. Ask if they have any questions or concerns, and then listen. Invite them to identify areas in the curriculum or in the school culture that they
feel could benefit from more of a focus on diversity. Reach out to leaders in the community that can offer different perspectives, either as experts in
their field, professionals, community workers or activists. Consider asking teachers to develop service learning projects that connect classroom learning
with community initiatives.
When your students meet members of their community, they get to see examples of people from different backgrounds succeeding in their field and
might be inspired to think differently about their own future. Other options for staying in touch and building relationships with parents and neighbours:

• Host a community food drive. Ask students, parents and neighbours to bring in non-perishable food items to donate to the local food bank
• Start a paper or email newsletter to communicate school news and events to parents
• Host a parent night as an opportunity to outline any curriculum additions or special events the school is having to promote diversity

5. Meet diverse learning needs

Diversity goes beyond just measurable factors like ethnicity, socio-economic status or gender. It also extends to the way that students learn in the
classroom — whether that’s through an accelerated learning course or with supports for learning disabilities. Uniform standards can’t apply to a diverse
classroom, so start working with your teachers to establish different approaches for students with different learning needs. Some suggestions for
making sure the classroom stays accessible and equitable:

• Introduce adaptive technologies. Adaptive technologies give students with physical or learning disabilities the support they need to enter the
lesson alongside their peers. This can include anything from speech-to-text software, talking calculators for students with dyscalculia, or modified
computer accessories for students with physical disabilities.
• Encourage teachers to use different teaching strategies. Techniques like project-based learning, differentiated instruction and blended learning all
allow teachers to help learners with different needs. (For even more ideas about classroom teaching strategies, read our Ultimate List of Teaching
Strategies!)
• Make sure all students are participating in the classroom discussion and activities. It’s sometimes difficult to tell if one group is participating more
or less, so encourage teachers to track class participation and adjust as necessary.

6. Hire diversely
The vast majority of teachers in the United States are white and female. According to federal data, 81.6 percent of teachers are white, while just 6.8
percent are black. As a contrast, 47 percent of students are white, while 16 percent are black. In a 2018 study from the Learning Policy Institute,
researchers found that having teachers of color increased the academic performance of students of color. As a school leader, you can directly impact
the diversity of your faculty through hiring and recruitment efforts. Some of the suggestions from the study for hiring a more diverse faculty include:

• Establish programs at the district level that recruit teachers from non-traditional programs and provide financial help and training.
• Improve the data systems that monitor diverse hiring efforts, and reward schools that meet diversity requirements.
• Hire earlier in the year to reach more in-demand candidates
• Support principal preparation programs, including actively recruiting teachers and supporting their professional development
It’s important to always hire the best candidate for the position, regardless of their background. At the same time, work to challenge your biases and
assumptions about what makes a candidate qualified. A staff that reflects diversity in the classroom will expose your students to different ideas and
teaching styles, and make them stronger as a result.

7. Support professional development opportunities

Your teachers will probably take on the bulk of the day-to-day efforts to promote diversity in the classroom. Offer professional development resources
to help them effectively respond to challenges and opportunities. At Blackstone Valley Prep in Rhode Island, teachers go through specific professional
development sessions that illustrate how structural inequalities are present in classroom dynamics, and learn to elevate student voices above their
own. This is especially important considering their student body has a great deal of economic diversity and aims to give at least half of its opening to
students who qualify for free or reduced lunch. With professional development, teachers in that school are better equipped to address challenges and
confront biases in themselves and in their students. Here are some great resources and organizations to get you started:

• Beyond Heroes and Holidays: This resource is for teachers, school leaders, students and parents alike. It provides a model for building a culturally
responsive curriculum and includes in-service activities, strategies for teaching and offers an analysis of racial inequality in the current school
system.
• The Center for Culturally Responsive Teaching and Learning is an organization that offers professional development opportunities for schools,
businesses and the general public on becoming culturally responsive, “moving below the superficial focus on culture.” They offer half to multi-day
workshops, as well as coaching and online courses.
• Teaching Tolerance is an organization that helps “teachers and schools educate children and youth to be active participants in a diverse democracy.”
The program emphasizes social justice and anti-bias, and offers workshops in a number of major cities as well as free online resources. They also
have a team of professional development trainers available to run sessions at the school or district level.

Source
https://www.prodigygame.com/main-en/blog/diversity-in-the-classroom

1.3 Education in Different Periods and Societies

Education in Ancient Egypt
Most children in Egypt did not go to school. Instead boys learned farming or other trades from their fathers. Girls learned sewing, cooking and
other skills from their mothers. Boys from wealthy families sometimes learned to be scribes. They learned by copying and memorizing and
discipline was strict. Teachers beat naughty boys. The boys learned reading and writing and also mathematics. Some girls were taught to read and
write at home.

Education in Ancient Greece

In ancient Greece girls learned skills like weaving from their mothers. Many girls also learned to read and write at home. Boys from better off
families started school when they were seven. Boys from a rich family were escorted to school by a slave.

The boys learned reading, writing and arithmetic as well as poetry and music. The Greeks also believed that physical education was very important
so boys did dancing and athletics. Discipline was severe in Ancient Greek schools and children were often beaten.

In Sparta children were treated very harshly. At the age of 7 boys were removed from their families and sent to live in barracks. They were treated
severely to turn them into brave soldiers. They were deliberately kept short of food so they would have to steal - teaching them stealth and cunning.
They were whipped for any offence.

Spartan girls learned athletics and dancing - so they would become fit and healthy mothers of more soldiers.

Education in Rome
In rich Roman families children were educated at home by a tutor. Other boys and girls went to a primary school called a Ludus at the age of 7 to
learn to read and write and do simple arithmetic. Boys went to secondary school where they would learn geometry, history, literature and oratory
(the art of public speaking).

Teachers were often Greek slaves. The teachers were very strict and they frequently beat the pupils.

Children wrote on wax tablets with a pointed bone stylus. (Adults wrote on a form of paper called papyrus, which was made from the papyrus
plant).

Education in the Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages many people were illiterate but not all. Upper class children were educated. Among the Medieval poor the better-educated
priests might teach some children to read and write - a little. In many towns there were grammar schools where middle class boys were educated.
(They got their name because they taught Latin grammar). Boys worked long hours in the grammar schools and discipline was severe. Boys were
beaten with rods or birch twigs.

There were also chantry schools. Some men left money in their wills to pay for a priest to chant prayers for their soul after their death. When he
was not praying the priest would educate local children.

During the Middle Ages education gradually became more common. By the 15th century perhaps a third of the population of England could read
and write.

From the early 13th century England had two universities at Oxford and Cambridge. At them students learned seven subjects, grammar, rhetoric
(the art of public speaking), logic, astronomy, arithmetic, music and geometry.

Education in 16th Century England

Education flourished in the 16th century. Many rich men founded grammar schools. Boys usually went to a kind of nursery school called a 'petty
school' first then moved onto grammar school when they were about seven. The school day began at 6 am in summer and 7 am in winter (people
went to bed early and got up early in those days). Lunch was from 11am to 1pm. School finished at about 5 pm. Boys went to school 6 days a
week and there were few holidays.
In the 16th century many children learned to read and write with something called a hornbook. It was not a book in the modern sense. Instead it
was a wooden board with a handle. Fixed to the board was a sheet of paper with the alphabet and the Lord's prayer (the Our Father) written on it.
The paper was usually protected by a thin slice of animal horn.

Discipline in Tudor schools was savage. The teacher often had a stick with birch twigs attached to it. Boys were hit with the birch twigs on their
bare buttocks.

At about 15 or 16 the brightest boys might go to one of England's two universities, Oxford and Cambridge.

Of course many Tudor boys did not go to school at all. If they were lucky they might get a 7-year apprenticeship and learn a trade. Some craftsmen
could read and write but few laborers could. As for girls, in a rich family a tutor usually taught them at home. In a middle class family their mother
might teach them.

Education in the 17th Century

There was little change in education in the 17th century. In well off families both boys and girls went to a form of infant school called a petty
school. However only boys went to grammar school. Upper class girls (and sometimes boys) were taught by tutors. Middle glass girls might be
taught by their mothers. There were also dame schools, usually run by a woman where young girls were taught skills like reading and writing.
During the 17th century boarding schools for girls were founded in many towns. In them girls were taught subjects like writing, music and
needlework.

Education in the 18th Century

In the 18th century young boys and girls continued to go to dame schools. In the early 18th century charity schools were founded in many English
towns. They were sometimes called Blue Coat Schools because of the color of the children's uniforms.

Boys from well off families went to grammar schools. Girls from well off families also went to school but it was felt important for them to learn
'accomplishments' like embroidery and music rather than academic subjects.

Meanwhile non-conformists or dissenters (Protestants who did not belong to the Church of England) were not allowed to attend most public
schools. Instead they went to their own dissenting academies.

Education in 19th Century England

In the 19th century education greatly improved for both boys and girls. In the early 19th century there were still dame schools for very young
children. They were run by women who taught a little reading, writing, and arithmetic. However many dame schools were really a childminding
service.
Nevertheless in the 19th century Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) and Maria Montessori (1870-1952) invented more progressive methods of
educating infants.
Girls from upper class families were taught by a governess. Boys were often sent to public schools like Eton. In Victorian public schools, boys
were taught the classics like Latin but little else. Science and technical subjects were neglected. Public schools also placed great emphasis on
character building through sports and games.
Middle class boys went to grammar schools. Middle class girls went to private schools where they were taught 'accomplishments' such as music
and sewing.
At the beginning of the 19th century a man named Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838) invented a new method of educating the working class. In the
Lancaster system, the ablest pupils were made monitors and they were put in charge of other pupils. The monitors were taught early in the day
before the other children arrived. When they did the monitors taught them.
In 1811 the National Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principle of the Established Church (The Church of England) was
formed. Its schools were called National Schools. In 1814 non-conformists (Protestants who did not belong to the Church of England) formed the
British and Foreign Schools Society.
In Britain the state did not take responsibility for education until 1870. Forster’s Education Act laid down that schools should be provided for all
children. If there were not enough places in existing schools then board schools were built. In 1880 school was made compulsory for 5 to 10-year-
olds. However, school was not free, except for the poorest children until 1891 when fees were abolished. From 1899 children were required to go
to school until they were 12.

Meanwhile in the USA three women gained bachelor degrees from Oberlin College in 1841. They were the first American women to gain bachelor
degrees. The first woman in the USA to gain a PhD was Helen Magill White in 1877. In Britain women were first awarded degrees in 1880.

Education in the 20th Century

Education vastly improved during the 20th century. In 1900 children sometimes left school when they were only 12 years old. However, in 1918
the minimum school leaving age was raised to 14. Between the wars, working-class children went to elementary schools. Middle-class children
went to grammar schools and upper-class children went to public schools.

In 1948 the school leaving age was raised to 15 and in 1973 it was raised to 16.

Following the 1944 Education Act all children had to sit an exam called the 11 plus. Those who passed went to grammar schools while those who
failed went to secondary modern schools. However, in the late 1950s, public opinion began to turn against the system and in the 1960s and early
1970s most schools became comprehensives.

Until the late 20th century teachers were allowed to hit children. However corporal punishment was phased out in most primary schools in the
1970s. The cane was abolished in state secondary schools in 1987. It was finally abolished in private schools in 1999.
There was a huge expansion of higher education in the 1960s and many new universities were founded. In 1992 polytechnics were changed to
universities. Meanwhile, the Open University began in 1969. In the late 20th century people had far more opportunities for education and training
than ever before. However, student grants were ended in 1998 and most students now have to take loans .
Source: http://www.localhistories.org/education.html

Education with the arrival of Islam in Muslim Societies

Thus, in this way, Islamic education began. Pious and learned Muslims (mu' allim or mudarris), dedicated to making the teachings of the Koran
more accessible to the Islamic community, taught the faithful in what came to be known as the kuttāb (plural, katātīb). The kuttāb could be located
in a variety of venues: mosques, private homes, shops, tents, or even out in the open. Historians are uncertain as to when the katātīb were first
established, but with the widespread desire of the faithful to study the Koran, katātīb could be found in virtually every part of the Islamic empire
by the middle of the eighth century. The kuttāb served a vital social function as the only vehicle for formal public instruction for primary-age
children and continued so until Western models of education were introduced in the modern period. Even at present, it has exhibited remarkable
durability and continues to be an important means of religious instruction in many Islamic countries.
The curriculum of the kuttāb was primarily directed to young male children, beginning as early as age four, and was centered on Koranic studies
and on religious obligations such as ritual ablutions, fasting, and prayer. The focus during the early history of Islam on the education of youth
reflected the belief that raising children with correct principles was a holy obligation for parents and society. As Abdul Tibawi wrote in 1972, the
mind of the child was believed to be "like a white clean paper, once anything is written on it, right or wrong, it will be difficult to erase it or
superimpose new writing upon it" (p. 38). The approach to teaching children was strict, and the conditions in which young students learned could
be quite harsh. Corporal punishment was often used to correct laziness or imprecision. Memorization of the Koran was central to the curriculum
of the kuttāb, but little or no attempt was made to analyze and discuss the meaning of the text. Once students had memorized the greater part of
the Koran, they could advance to higher stages of education, with increased complexity of instruction. Western analysts of the kuttāb system
usually criticize two areas of its pedagogy: the limited range of subjects taught and the exclusive reliance on memorization. The
contemporary kuttāb system still emphasizes memorization and recitation as important means of learning. The value placed on memorization
during students' early religious training directly influences their approaches to learning when they enter formal education offered by the modern
state. A common frustration of modern educators in the Islamic world is that while their students can memorize copious volumes of notes and
textbook pages, they often lack competence in critical analysis and independent thinking.
During the golden age of the Islamic empire (usually defined as a period between the tenth and thirteenth centuries), when western Europe was
intellectually backward and stagnant, Islamic scholarship flourished with an impressive openness to the rational sciences, art, and even literature.
It was during this period that the Islamic world made most of its contributions to the scientific and artistic world. Ironically, Islamic scholars
preserved much of the knowledge of the Greeks that had been prohibited by the Christian world. Other outstanding contributions were made in
areas of chemistry, botany, physics, mineralogy, mathematics, and astronomy, as many Muslim thinkers regarded scientific truths as tools for
accessing religious truth.
Gradually the open and vigorous spirit of enquiry and individual judgment (ijtihād) that characterized the golden age gave way to a more insular,
unquestioning acceptance (taqlīd) of the traditional corpus of authoritative knowledge. By the thirteenth century, according to Aziz Talbani,
the 'ulama' (religious scholars) had become "self-appointed interpreters and guardians of religious knowledge.… learning was confined to the
transmission of traditions and dogma, and [was] hostile to research and scientific inquiry" (p. 70). The mentality of taqlīd reigned supreme in all
matters, and religious scholars condemned all other forms of inquiry and research. Exemplifying the taqlīd mentality, Burhän al-Din al-Zarnüji
wrote during the thirteenth century, "Stick to ancient things while avoiding new things" and "Beware of becoming engrossed in those disputes
which come about after one has cut loose from the ancient authorities" (pp. 28, 58). Much of what was written after the thirteenth century lacked
originality, and it consisted mostly of commentaries on existing canonical works without adding any substantive new ideas. The lethal combination
of taqlīd and foreign invasion beginning in the thirteenth century served to dim Islam's preeminence in both the artistic and scientific worlds.
Despite its glorious legacy of earlier periods, the Islamic world seemed unable to respond either culturally or educationally to the onslaught of
Western advancement by the eighteenth century. One of the most damaging aspects of European colonialism was the deterioration of indigenous
cultural norms through secularism. With its veneration of human reason over divine revelation and its insistence on separation of religion and
state, secularism is anathema to Islam, in which all aspects of life, spiritual or temporal, are interrelated as a harmonious whole. At the same time,
Western institutions of education, with their pronounced secular/religious dichotomy, were infused into Islamic countries in order to produce
functionaries to feed the bureaucratic and administrative needs of the state. The early modernizers did not fully realize the extent to which
secularized education fundamentally conflicted with Islamic thought and traditional lifestyle. Religious education was to remain a separate and
personal responsibility, having no place in public education. If Muslim students desired religious training, they could supplement their existing
education with moral instruction in traditional religious schools–the kuttāb. As a consequence, the two differing education systems evolved
independently with little or no official interface.
Source: https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2133/Islam.html
E DUCATION WITH T HE A RRIVAL OF I SLAM IN M USLIM S OCIETIES
The arrival of Islam had a profound and transformative impact on education in Muslim societies. Islamic the Prophet Muhammad was "Iqra" (Read). This underscored the significance of literacy and
civilization made significant contributions to various fields of knowledge and played a pivotal role in the knowledge.
preservation, transmission, and advancement of learning. Here are some key aspects of education with the 8. Religious Education: Initially, education in Muslim societies focused on religious instruction,
arrival of Islam in Muslim societies: particularly the recitation and memorization of the Quran. This emphasis on religious education
1. Foundation of Islamic Education: The Quran, the holy book of Islam, emphasizes the continues to be a cornerstone of Islamic learning.
importance of knowledge and learning. It was through the Quran that Muslims were encouraged 9. Madrasahs and Maktab Schools: The early Muslim community established madrasahs
to seek knowledge. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) also stressed the importance of (religious schools) and maktab schools where children could learn to read and write in addition to
acquiring knowledge, stating that "seeking knowledge is an obligation upon every Muslim." receiving religious education. These institutions laid the foundation for primary education in
2. The Quranic Emphasis on Knowledge: The Quran, the holy book of Islam, places a strong Muslim societies.
emphasis on knowledge and learning. The very first word revealed to the Prophet Muhammad was 10. Preservation of Knowledge: With the spread of Islam, Muslims recognized the importance of
"Iqra" (Read), highlighting the importance of literacy and education in Islam. preserving knowledge. They took an interest in translating and preserving ancient Greek, Roman,
3. Madrasahs and Early Educational Institutions: The establishment of madrasahs, which were Persian, and Indian texts. This led to the translation movement, with scholars translating works
religious schools, played a crucial role in the early education of Muslims. These institutions taught from various cultures into Arabic.
not only Islamic theology but also subjects like mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and 11. House of Wisdom in Baghdad: During the Abbasid Caliphate, the House of Wisdom was
philosophy. established in Baghdad, serving as a major center of scholarship. It played a crucial role in
4. Islamic Golden Age: The Islamic Golden Age (8th to 13th centuries) witnessed significant translating classical texts and advancing knowledge in various fields, including astronomy,
advances in various fields, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. Scholars medicine, and philosophy.
made important contributions, such as Al-Khwarizmi's work in algebra and Ibn al-Haytham's 12. Development of Arabic as a Scholarly Language: The translation movement led to Arabic
contributions to optics, Al-Farabi, Avicenna (Ibn Sina), and Averroes (Ibn Rushd) made significant becoming a dominant language of scholarship, and many classical texts were translated into
contributions. Arabic. This helped in the preservation and dissemination of knowledge.
5. Universities and Libraries: Many early universities, such as Al-Qarawiyyin in Morocco and 13. Legal and Theological Education: Islamic education included the study of Islamic
Al-Azhar in Egypt, were established in the Islamic world. These institutions played a key role in jurisprudence (fiqh), theology (kalam), and the Hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet). This
disseminating knowledge and fostering scholarly activity. The establishment of vast libraries, like provided a strong foundation for understanding Islamic law and theology.
the House of Knowledge in Cairo, further facilitated learning and research. 14. Impact on Global Education: The educational advancements in the Islamic world had a far-
6. Legal and Religious Education: Islamic education also focused on the study of Islamic law reaching impact. The translated works of Islamic scholars were instrumental in the European
(Sharia) and religious sciences. Religious scholars, known as ulama, played a pivotal role in the Renaissance, as they contributed to the revival of classical knowledge in the West.
education system, teaching not only religious subjects but also various branches of Islamic 15. Importance of Knowledge in Islam: The Quran, the holy book of Islam, places a strong
jurisprudence. emphasis on knowledge and learning. The first word revealed to the Prophet Muhammad was
7. Islamic Revelation and Emphasis on Knowledge: The Quran, the holy book of Islam, contains "Iqra" (Read), highlighting the importance of literacy and education.
numerous verses that stress the importance of seeking knowledge. The very first word revealed to Religious Education: Islamic education began with the study of the Quran and Hadith (sayings and actions of
the Prophet). This religious education was foundational and focused on Islamic beliefs, practices, and morality.
 Unit#2 MADRASSAH EDUCATION
CONTENT
2.1 Madrassah: Origin, Aims and Objectives
2.2 Role of Madrassah in 21st Century
2.3 System of Education in Madrassah
2.4 Madrassah Reforms in Pakistan

2.1 Madrassah: Origin, Aims and Objectives

Madrassah: “An Islamic educational institution where students, typically (children and young adults) are
taught about Islamic theology, law, and culture”. Madrassahs are an integral part of the traditional Islamic
education system and have been established in various forms across the Islamic world for centuries.
Derived from: Arabic word.
Variously translated:
a) Madrasah
b) Medresa
c) Madrassa.
d) Medrese.
Admit orphans and poor in order to provide them
• Education.
• Training.
MADRASSA EDUCATION:
Madrasah, (Arabic: “school”)
• English madrassa.
• Turkish medrese.
Institution of higher education in the Islamic sciences (ʿulūm; singular, ʿilm). In Arabic-speaking countries,
the word in modern times refers to any institution of education, especially primary or secondary education.

First Islamic institute:

✓ Dar-e-Arqam.
Used by:
Holy prophet (PBUH).
As a hidden location where he could quietly carry on his divine mission.
Used place for a few years during the initial period of Islam.
After Hijrah(migration):
Madrassa: “Suffa”
Established in: Madina
On the east side of the Al- masjid an-Nabawi mosque.
Teacher: Hazrat Muhammad (SAW).
Students: some of students.
Ubadai-bin-as-Samit was appointed there by Hazrat Muhammad as teacher.
Curriculum:
• Teaching of Quran
• Hadith.
• Faraiz.
• Tajweed.
• Treaties of first aid.
Training of:
1. Art of war.
2. Calligraphy.
3. Athletics.
4. Martial arts.
First Rank Scholar:
Omar bin Abdul Aziz.
From the very earliest day of Islam:
1. Education has been at the forefront at the mind of Muslim.
2. The first word of the QURAN that was revealed to prophet Muhammad (SAW) was in fact “read”
3. “Seeking knowledge is mandatory for all Muslims”
Muslim Libraries and Learning Center:
• Baghdad.
• Cordoba.
• Cairo.

Mosque:
Places of education.
• Taught :
• Religious.
• Science.
From the start it was the place of…
✓ Center of Islamic community.
✓ Place for prayer.
✓ Meditation.
✓ Religious instruction.
✓ Political discussion.
✓ School.
Example:
Mosques in Madina
• Cairo (Al-Azhar)
• Damascus.
Primary schooling:
Include:
Lessons in writing of Arabic along with reading.
TAUGHT:
• Basic arithmetic.
Which would enable them to carry out calculations related to the
• Zakat.
• Inheritance.
Learning:
1) Grammar.
2) Poetry.
3) Logic.
4) Algebra.
5) Biology.
6) History.
7) Law.
8) Theology.
9) Arabic.
The first school connected with mosque was set up in Madina every mosque had an elementary school for
education both boys and girls.
Age: (5 year)
Learning: perform Salah and recite the Holy Quran.

Oldest university in the word: Al-Azhar university.

Thought-out:
 • Important social rule.
• Place of prayer.
• Center of political activities.
• Educational institution.
• Focal point.
• Communal life.
Aims:
1) Quranic texts with confidence.
2) Reciting in correct manner.
3) Teach basic necessary of Islam.
4) Moral attitude to live as a Muslim.
5) Take guidance from Quran.
6) To impart Islamic education foe future generation.
7) Provide leadership course.
8) Provide Islamic academic research.
9) Ensure the girls and boys have equal access to all areas.
10) Establish a caring and secure environment.
11) To ensure students to enjoy their study in madrasa.
12) Work for curriculum reform.
Education in Islam
Etymology:
Arabic three terms are used for education.
1. ta'līm, from the root 'alima, which means knowing, being aware, perceiving and learning.
2. Tarbiyah from the root of Raba, which means spiritual and moral growth based on the will of God.
3. Ta'dīb from the root aduba which means to be cultured or well accurate in social behavior.
Education would begin at a young age
study of:
1) Arabic
2) Quran
Either at home or in a primary school, which was often attached to a mosque.
Then proceed to training in
• Tafsir (Quranic exegesis)
• Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence).
Which was seen as particularly important. Education focused on memorization, but also trained the more
advanced students to participate as readers and writers in the tradition of commentary on the studied texts.
The Islamic Empire, spanning for almost 1,000 years, saw at least 60 major learning centers throughout the
Middle East and North Africa.
Prominent
Baghdad in the East
Cordoba in the West.
For the first few centuries of Islam, educational settings were entirely informal.

Education and women:

Throughout the Islamic history, educating women has been a high priority. Women were not seen as incapable
of attaining knowledge nor of being able to teach other themselves. The precedent for this was set with prophet
Muhammad own wife,” Aisha” who was the first of leading scholars of her time and was known as a teacher
of many people in Madinah after the Prophet (PBUH) death.
Women role as supporters of education:
1. First formal madrassah of Muslim world?
University of al-karaonine
Established in By . Name
859 Wealthy merchant Fatima al-Fihri.
 2.The Abbasid caliph Huram al-Rashid’s wife, Zubayda personally funded many construction projects
for
• Mosques.
• Roads.
• As well in Hijaz.
Which greatly benefits the many students that traveled through these areas.
3.The wife of Ottoman Sultan Suleyman, Hurrem Sultan, endowed numerous
• Madrassa.
• Hospitals.
• Public bath.
• Soup kitchens.

4. During the Ayyubid period: (1174-1260)

26 religious endowments
Including…
1. Madrassas 2. Mosques. 3. Religious monuments.
Were built by the women.
Unlike Europe during the Middle Ages (and even up until the 1800s and 1900s), women played a major role
in Islamic education in the past 1400 years.
Beginning in the 11th and 12th centuries:
The ruling elites began to establish institutions of higher religious learning known as madrasas in an effort to
secure support and cooperation of the ulema.
From the 8th century to the 12th century,
The primary mode of receiving education from;
• Private tutors.
This formal education was most readily available to:
1) viziers
2) Administrative officers.
3) Wealthy merchants.
TOUGHT:
• Arabic.
• Literature.
• Religion.
• Mathematics.
• Philosophy.
Also offered other subjects
such as
a) Theology.
b) Medicine.
c) Mathematics.
AIM:
Enable Muslims to have some basic information
• How to pray, Fast
• What is the basic information in order to live an honorable life.
Stages: Islamic education is Quranic school otherwise known as informal education.
According to Dembo (1994):
1) MAKARATA YARA; The early childhood stage.
2) Tittibri: Early stage.
3) Adult stage.
IMPORTANCE:
• Help to develop ethical and moral values.
• Important for societal development.
• Help to permute unity.
• Understanding among different community and culture.
2.2 Role of Madrassah in 21st Century
Learning outcomes:
• Current issues.
• Reforms for madrassa system of education.
Demand for following reforms:
• The wafaq dgree of matric(sanwiya Aama)
• Intermediate (sanwiya khaasa)
Are not approved yet.
Higher degree Shahadat-ul-Almia is recognized as equal to MA Islamic studies and Arabic.
1) Govt should accept these lower level degrees
as equal to formal education system.
2) Wafaq should be affiliated with Federal Ministry of education.
3) Madaaris should also link with higher education.
4) The madaaris should be exempted from all utility bills.
5) Madaaris should be removed in the registration process.
6) Opportunities should be provided.
7) The govt selected a working group for developing measure to facilitate,
8) In August 2001 Pakistan madrasa education board (PMEB) has been created.

PMEB:
• Build up modern madrasas.
• Manage them.
• Affirm condition of theological colleges on the suggestion of its academic council.
• Foundation of three model madrassas
2-in Sindh (Karachi and Sukkur)
1- In Islamabad.
9) Align educational system of madrassa with the needs of modern society.
10) Teaching of (English, Economics, Mathematics, Pak Study at secondary level in 150 outstanding
madrassahs).
11) Teaching of (English, Economics, Computer Sciences) at intermediate level in 200 outstanding
madrassahs.
12) Training of one thousand teachers in formal education through workshops.
13) Equipping libraries of 70 madrassas with modern books.
14) Teaching (English, Math, General Science, Social Studies) in 3000 madrassahs at secondary level.
15) Impart training to 2000 teachers for 5000 madrassahs.
16) Update the knowledge and teaching experience in formal subjects.
17) Two-week duration of workshops in different parts of country.
18) Provide a vehicle to each institution.
19) Provide 10 computer and 2 printers each to 200 madrassahs for teaching.
20) Equip libraries of 5000 madrassah through reference books.
21) Improve the quality of education.
22) Modernized curriculum.
23) Co-curricular activities.
Policy Recommendations:
• Religious and madrassa need to sensitized to follow positive, modernized reforms.
• Madrassa curriculum need to reform.
• Basic introduction and awareness about modern knowledge.
• Discipline should be imparted to madrassa students.
• Utmost care about fund collecting.
• Madrassa concentrate religious education.
• There should be contacts among sects, and writing competitions and tournaments.
• Give some suggestion to bring madrassa reforms in Pakistan.
History
Madrassa in Pakistan 12000 Pak Religious & Public Education
Jan 2007 12000 to 13000 reg
Dec 31,2005 1700 foreign student
1 Jan 2006 1000 reported left
Aug 2006 700 foreign students left
In 1947 No of madrassa (245,137)
Madrassah increased 1977-1998 General Zia-ul-Haq
April 2002 Minister of religious 10000 school
affairs estimated the Student (1.7 million)
numbers of school

Year No of madrassah
1960 401
1971 893
1988 3000

HIGHER EDUCATION
No of secondary& higher madrassas senior &graduated level madrassas
(6,000) (4,335)
Deoband madrassas Brelvi madrassas
(2,333) (1,625)
Ahl-i-hadith madrassas Shia madrassas
(224) (163)
Number of students Local student
(604,4211) (586,604)
Foreign student Afghan student
(17,817) (16,598)

Central board in madrassa education:

• Wafaq-ul-madaris-alsalfia • Wafaq-ul-Madaris Deobandi Multan
• Ahl-i-hadith FSD 1955 • Tanzimul Madaris Barelvi Lahore
• Wafaq-ul-Madaris(shia)pak • Rabta-tul-Madaris-allislamia

School education:
Primary school Middle school
(Hifz/tajweed-wa-quiraat/ibtedayia) Mutawas Sita
Secondary school certificate Higher secondary school certificate
(Sanviya Aama) (saviyakhassa and above)

2.4 Madrassah Reforms in Pakistan

Several initiatives and reforms have been attempted to address these concerns. Here are some key points related to Madrassah reforms in Pakistan:
1. Registration and Regulation: The government of Pakistan has introduced measures to register and regulate Madrassahs to ensure transparency in their
funding sources and to monitor their curricula. This is aimed at preventing extremist ideologies from being taught in these institutions.
2. Curriculum Reforms: Efforts have been made to modernize the curriculum in Madrassahs by introducing subjects like mathematics, science, and social
studies alongside religious education. This aims to provide students with a more well-rounded education and better prepare them for the job market.
3. Counterterrorism Measures: Madrassahs were once seen as potential breeding grounds for radicalism and extremism. The government has taken steps to
ensure that these institutions do not promote extremist ideologies and do not serve as recruitment centers for terrorist organizations.
4. Financial Transparency: There have been efforts to scrutinize the financial transactions of Madrassahs to ensure they are not receiving funds from illegal or
foreign sources that may have ulterior motives.
5. Teacher Training: Some initiatives focus on improving the training of teachers in Madrassahs to ensure that they have the necessary skills to teach a diverse
range of subjects.
6. Integration with Mainstream Education: In some cases, there have been efforts to integrate Madrassah students into the mainstream education system to
provide them with a more comprehensive education and increase their opportunities for employment.
7. Public Awareness: Public awareness campaigns have been launched to inform the general public about the importance of Madrassah reforms and the need
for a balanced, modern education system.
It's important to note that Madrassah reforms in Pakistan are a complex and sensitive issue, as they involve religious and political considerations. The success of these
reforms depends on cooperation between the government, religious leaders, and the Madrassah community.
 Unit#3 UNIVERSAL LITERACY
Content Included
3.1 Literacy and Individual Rights
3.2 Factors Affecting Program for Universal Literacy: Medium of Instruction
3.3 Formal and Non-Formal Education: Advantages and Disadvantages

Introduction to Literacy, International Literacy and its Types

1. Literacy: Literacy is the ability to read, write, and understand written information. It is a fundamental skill
that allows individuals to access, interpret, and communicate through written language. Literacy is essential
for personal development, participation in education and the workforce, making informed decisions, and
engaging in civic activities. Basic literacy refers to the ability to read and write at a functional level, enabling
individuals to understand and use written information for everyday tasks.
2. International Literacy: International literacy goes beyond basic literacy skills and involves the ability to
read, write, and understand information from different cultures and languages around the world. It
encompasses the capacity to engage with information and perspectives from diverse sources and regions.
International literacy involves understanding and interacting with global issues, respecting cultural diversity,
and being able to communicate and collaborate effectively with people from various linguistic and cultural
backgrounds. It is vital in today's interconnected world, where people often need to navigate a globalized
society and access information from different parts of the world.
3. Types of Literacy: There are several types of literacy that focus on different aspects of reading, writing,
and understanding information. Some of these include:
1. Basic Literacy: The ability to read and write at a functional level, enabling individuals to
understand and use written information for everyday tasks.
2. Digital Literacy: The ability to use digital devices and technology effectively for communication,
information retrieval, and problem-solving. It includes skills related to navigating the internet,
using software applications, and understanding digital media.
3. Media Literacy: The ability to critically analyze and understand the information presented in
various forms of media, including print, broadcast, and digital media. Media literacy includes
recognizing biases, evaluating sources, and understanding the impact of media on society.
4. Financial Literacy: The ability to understand and manage financial matters, including budgeting,
saving, investing, and making informed financial decisions.
5. Health Literacy: The ability to read and understand health-related information, including
medical instructions, health policies, and information about diseases and treatments. Health
literacy is essential for making informed healthcare decisions.
6. Information Literacy: The ability to access, evaluate, and use information effectively.
Information literacy skills are crucial for research, academic pursuits, and staying informed in the
digital age.
7. Cultural Literacy: Understanding and appreciating the customs, traditions, and social norms of
different cultures. Cultural literacy is vital for intercultural communication and respecting diversity.
8. Scientific Literacy: The ability to understand and interpret scientific information, including
concepts, data, and research findings. Scientific literacy is essential for informed decision-making
and participation in discussions on scientific topics.
9. Environmental Literacy: Understanding environmental issues, ecological systems, and the
impact of human activities on the environment. Environmental literacy is important for promoting
sustainable practices.
10. Legal Literacy: Knowledge and understanding of laws and legal systems, enabling individuals to
comprehend legal documents, rights, and responsibilities.
11. Numeracy: The ability to understand and work with numbers, perform mathematical
calculations, and interpret quantitative information.
12. Critical Literacy: The capacity to analyze, evaluate, and interpret text critically, considering
underlying power dynamics, biases, and hidden meanings.
 13. Multilingual Literacy: Proficiency in multiple languages, enabling effective communication and
interaction in diverse linguistic environments.
14. Global Literacy: Understanding of global issues, international relations, and cross-cultural
awareness to participate effectively in the globalized world.
"Types of literacy encompass a wide range of essential skills and knowledge for personal and societal
growth. From basic and functional literacy to digital and financial literacy, they underpin our ability to read,
write, and navigate the modern world. Moreover, cultural, scientific, and ethical literacies enable us to engage
in diverse cultures, understand complex issues, and make moral decisions. Literacies related to gender, race,
and emotional intelligence promote inclusivity, while specialized literacies offer insights into specific areas of
expertise. Collectively, these literacies empower individuals to thrive in an increasingly complex and
interconnected society."

3.1 Literacy and Individual Rights

Literacy and individual rights are intimately connected, as the ability to read and write is a
fundamental tool for the exercise and protection of various individual rights. Literacy empowers
individuals to access information, participate in democratic processes, and advocate for their own
rights. Here is a detailed explanation of the relationship between literacy and individual rights:
1. Access to Information: Literacy enables individuals to access a wide range of information
from various sources, including books, newspapers, websites, and government documents.
This access is crucial for staying informed about current events, understanding government
policies and decisions, and making informed choices about one's life and community. Without
literacy, individuals may be excluded from critical information and knowledge.
2. Freedom of Speech and Expression: Literacy is a prerequisite for the effective exercise of
freedom of speech and expression. It allows individuals to articulate their thoughts and ideas
in writing, whether through written or digital media. The written word is a powerful means of
conveying one's opinions, sharing experiences, and advocating for social and political change.
3. Participation in Democratic Processes: In democratic societies, literacy is essential for
participating in elections and civic activities. Voting, running for office, understanding political
platforms, and engaging in informed political discourse all rely on the ability to read and
comprehend political materials and information. Literacy ensures that individuals can make
meaningful choices and contribute to the political process.
4. Access to Education: Literacy is a prerequisite for accessing formal education. Without the
ability to read and write, individuals may be denied the opportunity to attend school, acquire
knowledge, and develop the skills necessary for personal and professional growth. Education
is a fundamental right, and literacy is the gateway to that right.
5. Legal Rights and Responsibilities: Literacy is essential for understanding and navigating
legal systems. It enables individuals to read and comprehend legal documents, contracts, and
government laws and regulations. This understanding is critical for protecting one's legal
rights and fulfilling legal responsibilities.
6. Economic Empowerment: Literacy is closely tied to economic rights and opportunities. It is
essential for obtaining and maintaining employment, understanding financial transactions,
and managing personal finances. Literacy enables individuals to access job opportunities,
negotiate fair wages, and protect themselves from financial exploitation.
7. Health Literacy: The ability to read and comprehend health information is essential for
maintaining one's health and well-being. Literacy helps individuals understand medical
instructions, make informed decisions about healthcare, and advocate for their health-related
rights.
 8. Access to Culture and Arts: Literacy allows individuals to engage with culture and the arts
through literature, music, and various forms of artistic expression. This cultural participation
is an important aspect of personal enrichment and self-expression.
9. Advocacy and Activism: Literacy empowers individuals to engage in advocacy and
activism for the protection of their rights and the rights of others. It allows them to write
petitions, letters to authorities, and other forms of communication to advocate for social
justice and change.
Literacy is the key that unlocks access to a wide range of other individual rights, including freedom
of expression, education, participation in democratic processes, and access to information.
Promoting literacy is an important step in ensuring that individuals can fully exercise and protect
their rights in society.

3.2 Factors Affecting Program for Universal Literacy: Medium of Instruction

Programs aimed at achieving universal literacy are influenced by numerous factors. These include
access to education, socioeconomic disparities, cultural and linguistic diversity, gender equality,
education quality, government policies, teacher training, community involvement, health,
technology, conflict, cultural norms, adult literacy, monitoring, sustainability, and global support. To
succeed, literacy programs must address these factors comprehensively, making education
accessible and inclusive while sustaining long-term commitment and cooperation.

How medium of instruction affects program for universal literacy?

The medium of instruction is a vital factor in universal literacy programs. It can impact the
accessibility, effectiveness, and inclusivity of education. The choice of the medium should take into
account linguistic diversity, cultural relevance, resource availability, teacher competence,
socioeconomic factors, policy considerations, and globalization to ensure the success of literacy
initiatives. The medium of instruction has a significant impact on programs for universal literacy, as
it directly affects how individuals learn to read and write.
Here's how the choice of the medium of instruction can influence the success of such programs:
1. Linguistic Accessibility: The medium of instruction must be in a language that is widely
understood by the target population. If it aligns with the learners' native language or is a
language, they are familiar with, it can enhance their comprehension and learning. Conversely,
using an unfamiliar language can create barriers to understanding.
2. Cultural Relevance: The language chosen as the medium of instruction should be culturally
relevant to the learners. Learning in a culturally familiar language makes educational content
more relatable and engaging, improving the overall learning experience.
3. Language Diversity: In linguistically diverse regions or countries, accommodating multiple
languages for instruction may be necessary. Multilingual approaches can promote inclusivity
and accessibility, allowing learners from various language backgrounds to participate.
4. Resource Availability: The medium of instruction should be supported by educational
materials and resources. If these materials are available in the chosen language, it ensures
that learners have access to relevant reading materials, textbooks, and digital content.
5. Teacher Competence: Teachers must be proficient in the medium of instruction to
effectively teach students. Providing training and resources to educators in the chosen
language is crucial to the program's success.
6. Socioeconomic Factors: The choice of the medium of instruction may be influenced by
economic and resource constraints. Some communities may have limited resources to
support literacy in languages other than their own, potentially exacerbating literacy gaps.
 7. Policy and Political Considerations: Political and policy considerations can influence the
choice of the medium of instruction. Some governments may promote specific languages for
political or historical reasons, which may not align with the linguistic diversity of the
population.
8. Globalization and Market Demands: In an increasingly globalized world, proficiency in
certain languages used for international trade and communication may influence the choice
of the medium of instruction. Access to job opportunities and participation in a global
economy may depend on learning specific languages.

3.3. Formal and Non-Formal Education: Advantages and Disadvantages

1. Formal Education: Formal education refers to a structured and institution-based system of
learning that follows a specific curriculum and is typically provided by recognized educational
institutions such as schools, colleges, and universities and often leads to the attainment of formal
degrees and certifications.
Advantages:
• Recognized Credentials: Formal education typically results in recognized degrees and
certifications, which can enhance career opportunities and job prospects.
• Structured Learning: It offers a structured and organized curriculum with clearly defined
learning objectives, making it easier to measure progress and outcomes.
• Quality Assurance: Formal education is often subject to government regulations and
quality standards, ensuring a consistent and high-quality educational experience.
• Expert Instruction: Instructors in formal education are usually qualified professionals with
expertise in their subject areas.
• Social Interaction: Formal education provides opportunities for students to interact with
peers, fostering social skills and networking.
Disadvantages:
• Rigidity: The structured nature of formal education can be rigid, limiting individual flexibility
and creativity in the learning process.
• Cost: Pursuing formal education can be expensive due to tuition fees, textbooks, and other
associated costs.
• Time-Consuming: Formal education often requires a significant time commitment, with set
durations for completing programs.
• Limited Practical Skills: It may focus more on theoretical knowledge and academic content,
sometimes lacking practical skills relevant to certain careers.
• Standardization: The one-size-fits-all approach in formal education may not address
individual learning styles and needs.

2. Non-Formal Education: Non-formal education is a more flexible and informal approach to

learning that occurs outside traditional educational institutions and is not bound by a
standardized curriculum and may not lead to formal degrees and often associated with lifelong
learning and adult education, providing opportunities for skill development (like vocational
training, workshops, community programs, online courses etc.), practical knowledge, and
personal enrichment.
Advantages:
• Flexibility: Non-formal education is flexible and adaptable, allowing learners to choose
topics and skills that match their interests and needs.
• Lifelong Learning: It encourages lifelong learning and personal development, making it
suitable for learners of all ages.
 • Practical Skills: Non-formal education often focuses on practical skills and real-world
applications, preparing individuals for specific careers or personal development.
• Cost-Effective: Many non-formal education programs are more cost-effective than formal
education, making learning accessible to a broader population.
• Community Involvement: It can be community-driven and foster local involvement,
addressing specific needs and cultural contexts.
Disadvantages:
• Lack of Formal Credentials: Non-formal education may not lead to recognized degrees or
certifications, which can limit job opportunities in certain fields.
• Quality Variability: The quality of non-formal education programs can vary widely, as they
may not be subject to the same regulations and standards as formal education.
• Limited Recognition: Some employers and institutions may not recognize non-formal
education achievements, which can be a disadvantage in competitive job markets.
• Self-Directed Learning: Non-formal education often requires self-discipline and self-
directed learning, which may not suit everyone.
• Isolation: Some non-formal education programs, particularly online courses, can lead to
isolation and a lack of social interaction.
Ultimately, the choice between formal and non-formal education depends on individual goals,
circumstances, and preferences. Many learners may find value in a combination of both approaches,
depending on their specific educational needs and career aspirations.
 Unit#4 GENDER DISPARITY
Content Included
4.1 Concept of Gender Equality
4.2 Factors Affecting the Status and Role of Women
4.3 Steps Towards Reducing Gender Disparity
Introduction to Gender Disparity
Gender disparity refers to the unequal treatment, opportunities, and outcomes between individuals
of different genders, typically favoring one gender over the other, often to the detriment of one
gender. Gender disparity can manifest in various aspects of life, including but not limited to:
1. Economic Gender Disparity
2. Educational Gender Disparity
3. Political Gender Disparity
4. Health Gender Disparity
5. Domestic and Caregiving Roles
6. Violence and Discrimination
Efforts to Address Gender Disparity include gender equality initiatives, policies, and advocacy for
women's rights. Many countries and organizations work toward achieving gender equality through
legal reforms, educational programs, and promoting cultural and social change to eliminate gender-
based discrimination and biases. Gender disparity is a complex and multifaceted issue that varies
across cultures and regions, and addressing it often requires a multi-faceted approach.

4.1 Concept of Gender Equality

Gender equality is the fundamental principle that all individuals, regardless of their gender, should
have equal rights, opportunities, and treatment in all aspects of life. It is rooted in the belief that
gender should not be a determinant of how individuals are treated or what they can achieve in
society. Key aspects of the concept of gender equality include:
1. Equal Rights: Gender equality asserts that everyone, regardless of their gender, should
have the same legal rights and protections, encompassing areas such as education,
employment, property ownership, and participation in civic and political life.
2. Equal Opportunities: It advocates for equal access to opportunities, resources, and
services, such as education, healthcare, and economic opportunities, while opposing
discrimination based on gender that can limit access to these opportunities.
3. Equal Treatment: Gender equality emphasizes that individuals should be treated with
respect and dignity regardless of their gender. Discriminatory practices, stereotypes, and
biases based on gender should be challenged and eliminated.
4. Empowerment: It is also about empowering individuals to make choices about their lives,
including choices related to education, career, family, and personal development, free from
societal pressures and constraints.
5. Eliminating Gender-Based Violence: Gender equality efforts aim to eradicate all forms of
gender-based violence, such as domestic violence, sexual harassment, and human trafficking,
in order to create a safe and just society for all genders.
6. Challenging Gender Norms and Stereotypes: Gender equality challenges and redefines
traditional gender roles and stereotypes, acknowledging that individuals should not be
limited by societal expectations based on their gender.
 7. Inclusive Policies and Laws: Achieving gender equality often involves enacting and
enforcing policies and laws that promote gender equity. This includes measures to address
pay gaps, improve representation in decision-making roles, and prevent discrimination.
8. Social and Cultural Change: It recognizes the importance of changing societal attitudes
and norms to create a culture of respect and equality. Education, awareness campaigns, and
cultural shifts play a significant role in achieving gender equality.
Gender equality is a fundamental human right, and it is enshrined in various international
agreements and conventions, such as the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights
and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).
Efforts to promote gender equality continue worldwide, with the aim of building more just and
equitable societies that benefit everyone, regardless of their gender.

4.2 Factors Affecting the Status and Role of Women

The status and role of women in society are influenced by a complex interplay of various factors.
These factors can vary from one culture, region, and time period to another. Understanding the key
factors affecting the status and role of women is crucial for addressing gender inequality and
promoting women's rights. Here are some of the significant factors:
1. Cultural Norms and Traditions: Cultural beliefs and practices can significantly impact
women's roles. Traditional gender roles and expectations may restrict women's choices and
opportunities.
2. Education: Access to quality education plays a crucial role in women's empowerment.
Limited educational opportunities or gender-specific barriers can limit women's social,
economic, and political participation.
3. Economic Factors: Economic conditions, including wage disparities, access to employment,
and financial independence, can affect women's economic empowerment and decision-
making power.
4. Legal and Political Frameworks: Laws and political structures can either protect or infringe
upon women's rights. Legislation related to gender equality, violence against women, and
political participation is essential.
5. Family and Household Dynamics: Family structures can influence women's roles and
responsibilities. Traditional gender roles may assign women a disproportionate share of
caregiving and domestic work.
6. Violence and Discrimination: Gender-based violence and discrimination, such as domestic
violence, sexual harassment, and human trafficking, can have a detrimental impact on
women's well-being and opportunities.
7. Healthcare Access: Access to quality healthcare services, including reproductive health and
family planning, affects women's health and status.
8. Technology Access: Access to technology, including the internet, can impact women's
access to information, education, and economic opportunities.
9. Political Representation: Political systems and representation influence women's
participation in decision-making processes and leadership roles.
10. Media and Representation: The media and popular culture often reinforce or challenge
gender stereotypes, shaping perceptions of women's roles in society.
11. Economic Independence: Economic opportunities and financial independence can
empower women and increase their decision-making power.
12. Religious and Ideological Beliefs: Religious beliefs and ideologies can have varying effects
on women's rights and opportunities.
 13. War and Conflict: Women's roles can be profoundly impacted by conflict and
displacement, affecting their vulnerability to violence and displacement.
14. Globalization and Urbanization: Global economic trends and urbanization can change the
roles and opportunities available to women, both offering new opportunities and challenges.
15. Intersectionality: The intersection of various factors, such as gender, race, class, sexual
orientation, and disability, creates unique challenges and opportunities for women.
Efforts to improve the status and role of women involve addressing these complex and
interconnected factors through legal reforms, policy changes, awareness campaigns, and cultural
shifts. Promoting gender equality and women's empowerment is essential for creating more
inclusive and equitable societies.
4.3 Steps Towards Reducing Gender Disparity
Reducing gender disparity and promoting gender equality is a multifaceted and ongoing process
that involves various stakeholders, including governments, organizations, communities, and
individuals. Here are steps and strategies that can be taken to work towards reducing gender
disparity:
1. Legislation and Policy Changes:
• Enact and enforce anti-discrimination laws that address gender-based disparities in
employment, education, and other areas.
• Implement and monitor equal pay laws to bridge the gender pay gap.
• Develop and enforce laws and policies to combat gender-based violence, including
domestic violence, sexual harassment, and human trafficking.
2. Gender-Responsive Budgeting:
• Analyze government budgets to ensure they consider the different needs and impacts
on individuals of all genders.
• Allocate resources to programs that address gender disparities in areas such as
education, healthcare, and economic opportunities.
3. Education and Awareness:
• Promote gender equality through educational programs and awareness campaigns in
schools, workplaces, and communities.
• Challenge stereotypes and biases, and encourage discussions on gender-related
issues.
4. Empowerment and Leadership Development:
• Provide training and leadership development opportunities for women and
underrepresented genders.
• Promote gender diversity in leadership roles and decision-making positions.
5. Economic Empowerment:
• Implement policies that support women's economic empowerment, such as access to
credit, vocational training, and entrepreneurship opportunities.
• Encourage equitable hiring practices and support women in non-traditional career
fields.
6. Healthcare and Reproductive Rights:
• Ensure access to quality healthcare services for all, with a focus on reproductive
healthcare and family planning.
• Promote comprehensive sexual education and access to contraception.
7. Elimination of Gender-Based Violence:
• Raise awareness about the consequences of gender-based violence and provide
support for survivors.
 • Enhance law enforcement and judicial responses to address and prevent gender-based
violence.
8. Supportive Workplaces:
• Implement family-friendly policies, including flexible work hours and parental leave, to
support work-life balance for both men and women.
• Promote diversity and inclusion within organizations, addressing issues such as the
glass ceiling and gender bias.
9. Role of Civil Society and Advocacy:
• Encourage and support the work of civil society organizations and women's groups
that advocate for gender equality and hold governments and institutions accountable.
• Mobilize public opinion and engage in advocacy efforts to raise awareness and push
for gender equality policies.
10. Collect and Analyze Gender-Disaggregated Data:
• Continuously collect and analyze data that is broken down by gender to identify
disparities and measure progress.
• Use data to inform policies and programs aimed at reducing gender disparity.
11. International Cooperation:
• Collaborate with international organizations and other countries to share best
practices and support global efforts to reduce gender disparity.
12. Promote Inclusivity:
• Recognize that gender disparities intersect with other forms of discrimination and
work to address intersectionality in policies and programs.
Reducing gender disparity is an ongoing and complex process that requires a coordinated effort
from multiple stakeholders. It involves changing not only laws and policies but also cultural norms,
attitudes, and behaviors to create a more equitable and inclusive society.