UNIVERSITE DE POITIERS UNIVERSITY OF POITIERS

Faculté des Sciences Fondamentales et Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences

Appliquées

THESE PhD THESIS

Pour l’obtention du Grade de For obtaining the Rank of

DOCTEUR DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

DE L’UNIVERSITE DE POITIERS UNIVERSITY OF POITIERS
ED Sciences pour l’Environnement ED Sciences pour l’Environnement
Gay Lussac Gay Lussac
Spécialité : Hydrogéologie Specialization: Hydrogeology

Présentée par - Submitted by

WAKGARI FURI KONCHI

Hydrogeology of complex volcanic systems in continental rifted zone.
Integrated geochemical, geophysical and hydrodynamic approach. Middle
Awash basin, Main Ethiopian Rift, Ethiopia.
Hydrogéologie des complexe systèmes volcaniques en zone de rift continental.
Approche couplée géochimique, géophysique, et hydrodynamique. Bassin Central
d'Awash, Rift éthiopien majeur, Ethiopie.

Directeur de thèse : Moumtaz RAZACK, Université de Poitiers

Co-Directeur de thèse : Dagnachew LEGESSE, University of Addis Ababa

Soutenue le 7 octobre 2010 - Defended on 7th october 2010

Devant la commission d’examen - Before the board of examiners

JURY
Christelle MARLIN Professeur, Université Paris-Sud Rapporteur
Jacques MUDRY Professeur, Université de Franche-Comté Rapporteur

Tamiru ALEMAYEHU Professor, University of the Witwatersrand,

South Africa Examinateur
Christian LEDUC DR IRD, UMR G-EAU, Montpellier President
Bernard LE GALL CR CNRS HDR, UMR 6538, Brest Examinateur
Moumtaz RAZACK Professeur, Université de Poitiers Examinateur
Dagnachew LEGESSE Associate Professor
University of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Examinateur
This thesis is dedicated to my daughters Feben and Abenezer
Abstract

Middle Awash basin, located in the complex volcanic centre of the Ethiopian Rift valley,
is one of the drought prone areas marked by considerable water supply problems. Due
to lack of surface waters, groundwater remains the sole resource supplying water for
domestic and livestock. However, its effective use has been hampered due to the
complex aquifer system of this basin. In this study, multidisciplinary method has been
applied to characterize the hydrogeological system of this complex volcanic basin.

The combined results from datasets show two distinct aquifer systems linked to geology
and physiographic location. The Ca-alkaline rocks like basalt, ignimbrite, and
trachybasalt form aquifers in the mountain regions whereas the Na-alkalne rocks which
include scoria, pumice, tuff, and volcanoclastics are main aquifers in rift floor. Ground
waters circulating in the highland areas are slightly mineralized and are Ca-Na-HCO3
type. On the other hand, ground waters in the rift floor are Na-HCO3-Cl types and are
highly mineralized as well as contain high load of fluoride much higher than the
permitted standard.

Rivers hydrograph, hydrochemistry, environmental isotope, and 2D tomography are in

good agreement showing fast percolation of rainfall and strong interaction between
surface waters and ground waters. Result from numerical groundwater flow modeling
further indicates the strong interaction between groundwater and surface waters in the
form of losing and gaining.

Keyword: Middle Awash basin, 2D tomography, Fluoride, Rift floor, Groundwater

i
Résumé

Le bassin central d'Awash, situé dans le centre volcanique complexe de la Vallée du

Rift éthiopien, est un des secteurs les plus touchés par la sécheresse et par des
problèmes considérables d'approvisionnement en eau. En raison du manque d'eau de
surface, l'eau souterraine reste la ressource unique fournissant l'eau potable.
Cependant, l'exploitation effective de l'eau souterraine s'est heurtée à la
méconnaissance du système hydrogéologique complexe de ce bassin. Dans cette
étude, une approche pluridisciplinaire a été mise en oeuvre pour caractériser
l'hydrogéologie de ce bassin volcanique complexe.

Les résultats couplés de l’ensemble des données montrent deux systèmes aquifères
distincts liés à la géologie et à la localisation physiographique. Les roches Ca-alcalines
comme le basalte, l'ignimbrite et le trachybasalte forment des aquifères dans les
régions de montagne tandis que les roches Na-alcalines qui incluent les scories, la
pierre ponce, les tufs et les volcanoclastiques constituent les principaux aquifères au
niveau du plancher du rift. Les eaux souterraines circulant dans les secteurs
montagneux sont légèrement minéralisées et sont de type Ca-Na-HCO3. Par contre, les
eaux souterraines du plancher du rift sont de type Na-HCO3-Cl, sont fortement
minéralisées et contiennent une charge en fluorure beaucoup plus élevée que les
normes permises.

Les résultats de diverses approches (hydrogrammes des fleuves, hydrochimie,

isotopes environnementaux et tomographie 2D) sont concordants et montrent une
percolation rapide des eaux de pluie et une forte interaction entre les eaux de surface et
les eaux souterraines. Les résultats de modélisation numérique confirment la forte
interaction eau souterraine - eaux de surface.

Mote clé: Middle Awash basin, 2D tomography, Fluoride, Rift floor, Groundwater

ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the Earthscience Department of the Addis Ababa University for initiating
MAWARI (Sustainable Management of Water Resources in East African Rift System) project
and giving me the opportunity to pursue my Ph.D. The generous support from French Ministry of
Foreign Affairs for granting the project through CIFEG (Centre International pour la Formation et
les Echanges en Geosciences) is greatly appreciated. With regard to this, I would like to make a
special reference to Mr.Françoise PINARD and Madam Sylvie ORLYK for their commitment and
good assistance in facilitating the field works in Ethiopia and my stay in France.

It is my pleasure to express my special thank to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Moumtaz Razack for
giving me an opportunity to write my Ph.D thesis at his prestigious university under his
supervision. The trust and freedom he gave me created comfortable and a convivial place to
work. Besides his genial hospitality, he was always helping, even when he had burdens of
works. We worked together both in the field and office with ease and enjoyment throughout the
course of the research. I was pleased to have him as director of my thesis. Thanks.
Joining university of Poitiers was not only a turning point in my research skill but also an
opportunity to experience French’s beautiful culture and popular language.

I am heartily thankful to my co-advisors Prof. Tamiru Alemayehu and Dr. Dagnachew Legesse
whose encouragement, supervision and support from the preliminary to the concluding level
enabled me to produce this thesis. I was delighted to have them as co-advisors who were
closely attending my research and spend much of their time in reviewing the manuscripts of this
thesis. Their rich advising experience broadened my perspective research. I wish to thank Dr
Seifu Kebede and Prof.Tenalem Ayenew for sharing me their research skill and invaluable
assistance. My special thanks to Dr Seifu Kebede who invested much of his time in analaysing
the isotope data used in this study. I have got an opportunity to work with Dr Tigistu Haile and I
admire his rich of patience, caring and research skill. He is considerate person with attractive
spirit of friendship as unique personal possession.

I am grateful to Oromia Water Resources Bureau, in particular East Shoa Water office, Ministry
of Water Resource, Ministry of Mines and Energy, National Meteorological Agency, Water
Works Design and Construction Enterprise, Earth Science Department of the Addis Ababa
University, and Wonji Sugar Factory for their unreserved support and assistance to my study.
With regard to this, I would like to express my thanks to Dr Birhanu Gizaw, Tilahun Azagegn,
Engida Zemedikun, Muktar Mahammed, and Lemessa Mokonta for their great contribution in
providing me valuable data. I would like to thank Dr Andarge Yitbarek not only for his
contribution in editing the manuscripts of this thesis but also for his good encouragement when
we were together in France.
iii
 All members of the Earth Science Department of the Addis Ababa University deserve special
thanks. Especially I want to thank Dr Dereje Ayalew and Dr Balmewal Atnafu who were my
constant source of encouragement during my study. This is not forgetting the amiable
contribution of drivers of this same department, in particular Hailu Dibabe, for their good
understanding and cautious driving through difficult terrains to reach data points and take
samples. Had it been not their energetic and excellent driving skill, access to remote data would
not have been possible. I am also indebted to Mr Claude FONTAINE from University of Poitiers,
France, for his valuable laboratory assistance.

My deepest love and gratitude goes to my beloved families, in particular, my daughters Feben
and Abenezer, who had lost me for long time. This dissertation was simply impossible without
their understanding, patience and unflagging love.

I am indebted to my father and mother for their care and love. As a typical family, they sparse
no effort to provide the best possible environment for me to grow-up and attend school. They
had never complained in spite of all the hardships in their life. Although my father is no longer
with us, he is forever remembered. I have no suitable word that can fully express the everlasting
love of my mother, Kalbishe Dajje, to me. She is simply prefect. Mother, I love you.
My brother Kissi Buli with his family, Salmon Alemayehu, Kumara Wakjira, Tesfaye Beyene, and
Tofiq Sabit were always been there giving me a moral boost as well as any assistance I need
from them. Thank you.

I would like to thank Ethiopian colleagues who live in Poitiers, France, for their good friendship
and hospitality during my three years of stay. My special thanks to Madam Anisha BARATHIEU
and her family for their special caring, heartfelt hospitality and inspiring me to feel at home. I
treasured all precious moments I shared with them and would really like to thank them.

I cherished the prayers and spiritually support of my Christian brothers and sisters. God bless
you.
Lastly, I offer my regards and blessing to all whose names are not mentioned who supported
me in any respect during my study. Without their genuine support, this thesis would certainly not
have been possible. Thanks.
Fear of God is the beginning of Knoweldge.

Wakgari Furi Konchi

Poitiers, France
October, 2010

iv
Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................ i
1. General Introduction .................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Background and Concept .......................................................................................... 2
1.2 Rationale and Relevance of the study ....................................................................... 3
1.3 Previous works .......................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Objective .................................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Limitation ................................................................................................................... 6
1.6 Methodology .............................................................................................................. 6
1.7 Materials and Tools ................................................................................................... 8
1.8 Structure of the thesis ............................................................................................. 10
2. Physical Description of the study area ...................................................................... 12
2.1 Location................................................................................................................... 12
2.1 Physiography .......................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Land cover of the study area ................................................................................... 15
2.3 Slope Analysis ......................................................................................................... 18
2. 4 Soil type ................................................................................................................. 20
2.5 Geology and geological structures .......................................................................... 21
2.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 21
2.5.2 General geological setting of the study area ................................................. 23
2.5.3 Stratification .................................................................................................. 24
2.5.3.1 The Cretaceous formation ...................................................................... 24
2.5.3.2 The Miocene-Pliocene formation ......................................................... 24
2.5.3.3 The Pliocene-Pleistocene formation ....................................................... 25
2.5.3.4 The Quaternary Formation ..................................................................... 25
2.5.4 Geological structures .................................................................................... 28
3. Analysis of Hydrometeorology and Recharge ...................................................... 32
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 32
3.2 Evaluation of meteorological data of the study area ................................................ 32
3.2.1 Classes of meteorological stations ................................................................ 34
3.2.2 Distribution of stations and data quality. ........................................................ 34
3.3 Precipitation ............................................................................................................ 35
3.3.1 General Occurrence in Ethiopia .................................................................... 35
3.3.2 Rainfall pattern of the study area .................................................................. 38
3.3.3 Spatial interpolation of precipitation .............................................................. 41

v
 3.3.4 Analysis of rainfall trend ................................................................................ 44
3.4 Temperature and Sunshine ..................................................................................... 46
3.5 Evapotranspiration .................................................................................................. 48
3.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 48
3.5.2 Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) ............................................................... 49
3.5.2.1 Heat index method ................................................................................. 49
3.5.2.2 Penman Method ..................................................................................... 50
3.5.3 Estimation of Actual evapotranspiration (AET) .............................................. 52
3.5.3.1 Estimation of AET from river discharge .................................................. 53
3.5.3.2 Semi distributed soil-water balance method ........................................... 54
3.6 River hydrograph and recharge estimation ............................................................. 60
3.6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 60
3.6.2 Hydrograph of the major rivers ...................................................................... 62
3.6.3 Analysis of flow duration curve (FDC) and recession rate ............................. 67
3.7 Concluding remarks ................................................................................................ 69
4. Hydrochemistry ....................................................................................................... 72
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 72
4.2 Sampling technique ................................................................................................. 73
4.3 Measurements of field parameters .......................................................................... 74
4.3.1 Temperature.................................................................................................. 74
4.3.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) ........................................................................... 75
4.3.3 pH and alkalinity ............................................................................................ 75
4.3.4 Eh.................................................................................................................. 75
4.4 Assessment of field measured water quality ........................................................... 78
4.5 Laboratory analysis of hydrochemical variables and result ..................................... 82
4.6 Multivariate statistical analysis of hydrochemical variables ..................................... 82
4.6.1 Descriptive statistics ...................................................................................... 84
4.6.2 Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) .............................................................. 85
4.6.3 Principal Component Analysis……………………….…………………………….92
4.7 Water quality, Hydrochemical facies, and inverse geochemical modelling.............. 99
4.7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 99
4.7.2 Water types of the study area ....................................................................... 99
4.7.3 Groundwater flow paths, hydrochemical evolution and inverse geochemical
modeling .............................................................................................................. 103
4.7.3.1 Horizontal flow paths and inverse geochemical modeling .................... 107
4.7.3.2 Vertical flow system and hydrochemical reaction ................................. 109
vi
 4.7.4 Fluoride ....................................................................................................... 114
4.7.4.1 Previous study in Ethiopia .................................................................... 115
4.7.4.2 Fluoride and its health implication ........................................................ 117
4.7.4.3 Source and mechanism of Fluoride distribution in the study area ........ 118
4.7.4.4 Hydrochemical reaction and fluoride enrichment process in groundwater 119
4.7.4.5 Geospatial distribution of F- concentration ............................................ 125
4.8 Concluding remark ................................................................................................ 129
5. Isotope Hydrology ................................................................................................. 130
5.1 Introduction and principles .................................................................................... 130
5.2 Result and Discussion ........................................................................................... 136
5.3 Tritium (3H) ............................................................................................................ 146
5.4 Concluding remark ................................................................................................ 149
6. Characterization of the aquifer system ............................................................... 152
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 152
6.2 The hydrostratigraphic units .................................................................................. 153
6.2.1 Aquifer systems of the highland areas ........................................................ 158
6.2.2 Escarpment aquifers ................................................................................... 159
6.2.3 Rift floor aquifers ......................................................................................... 160
6.3 Role of geological structures on groundwater flow ................................................ 161
6.4 Hydraulic property of rocks .................................................................................... 164
6.5 Conceptual model of groundwater flow system of the Middle Awash basin .......... 169
6.6 Concluding remarks .............................................................................................. 173
7. The hydrogeology of Adama-Wonji Basin .......................................................... 174
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 174
7.2 Description of Adama-Wonji basin ........................................................................ 176
7.3 Geological setting .................................................................................................. 176
7.4 Hydrogeological setting ......................................................................................... 178
7.5 Methods and material ............................................................................................ 182
7.6 Results and Discussions ....................................................................................... 184
7.7 Concluding remark ................................................................................................ 197
8. Numerical groundwater flow modelling .............................................................. 198
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 198
8.2 Model design ......................................................................................................... 200
8.2.1 Model grid ................................................................................................... 201
8.2.2 Model boundary conditions ......................................................................... 202
8.2.2.1 No flow.................................................................................................. 202
vii
 8.2.2.2 Constant flux and general head boundary ............................................ 202
8.2.2.3 Wells ..................................................................................................... 203
8.2.2.4 Sinks ..................................................................................................... 203
8.2.2.5 River boundary ..................................................................................... 203
8.2.2.6 Constant head ...................................................................................... 204
8.2.3 Model Property ............................................................................................ 205
8.2.3.1 Hydraulic conductivity ........................................................................... 205
8.2.3.2 Groundwater evapotranspiration .......................................................... 206
8.2.3.3 Groundwater Recharge ........................................................................ 206
8.2.4 Model geometry .......................................................................................... 208
8.2.5 Aquifer type ................................................................................................. 209
8.3 Model simulation and Discussion .......................................................................... 210
8.3.1 Model Calbiration ........................................................................................ 210
8.3.2 Model sensitivity analysis ............................................................................ 212
8.3.3 Model converegence and performance assessment ................................... 213
8.4 Head distribution and groundwater contours ......................................................... 216
8.5 Modelling selected sub flow systems .................................................................... 217
8.5.1 Adama-Wonji sub basin .............................................................................. 219
8.5.2 Welenchiti sub basin ................................................................................... 222
8.5.3 Beseka basin............................................................................................... 225
8.6 Model limitation ..................................................................................................... 230
Conclusion and Prospects ....................................................................................... 234
Reference ................................................................................................................... 244

viii
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. 1 Outlined methodology and workflow ............................................................. 9

Figure 2. 1 Location map of study area ......................................................................... 12
Figure 2. 2 Physiographic classes of the area............................................................... 13
Figure 2. 3 Major land use and land cover .................................................................... 17
Figure 2. 4 Classified slopes ......................................................................................... 19
Figure 2. 5 Soil profil and waterlog in Welenchiti plain .................................................. 20
Figure 2. 6 Geological map of study area...................................................................... 26
Figure 2. 7 Simplified geological set-upof study area .................................................... 27
Figure 2. 8 A conceptual model showing role of geological structures on groundwater
flow ................................................................................................................................ 29
Figure 3. 1 Location of meteorological stations and river gauges. ................................ 33
Figure 3. 2 Seasonal change of ITCZ............................................................................ 36
Figure 3. 3 Sources of Ethiopian rainfall and its seasonal variation .............................. 37
Figure 3. 4 Mean monthly rainfall of the study area ...................................................... 38
Figure 3. 5 Spatial rainfall and temperature pattern ...................................................... 39
Figure 3. 6 Correlation of rainfall with altitude ............................................................... 40
Figure 3. 7 Comparison of rainfall and temperature with altitude for selected stations . 41
Figure 3. 8 Thiessen polygon and Isohytes .................................................................. 44
Figure 3. 9 Twenty years of annual aerial rainfall trend of selected stations ................ 45
Figure 3. 10 Temperature and sunshine at selected stations ........................................ 46
Figure 3. 11 Relative humidity and windspeed of selected stations ............................ 47
Figure 3. 12 Semi distributed soil-water balance model ................................................ 55
Figure 3. 13 Water balance at different physiographic regions ..................................... 58
Figure 3. 14 Hydrological balance computed by soil-water balance method ................. 58
Figure 3. 15 Drainage system of the study area ............................................................ 61
Figure 3. 16 River daily hydrograph .............................................................................. 65
Figure 3. 17 Correlation of rainfall with baseflow ........................................................... 66
Figure 3. 18 Flow duration curves of rivers ................................................................... 68
Figure4. 1 Water sampling sites .................................................................................... 73
Figure4. 2 pH and alkalinity of water samples ............................................................... 78
Figure4. 3 Titration curves of representative water samples ......................................... 79
Figure4. 4 EC and water temperature .......................................................................... 81
Figure4. 5 Dendrogram of water samples. .................................................................... 86
Figure4. 6 Principal Component Analysis...................................................................... 92
ix
Figure4. 7 Diagrammatic representations of PCs .......................................................... 95
Figure4. 8 Projection of variables on PC plane ............................................................. 98
Figure4. 9 Piper plots of hydrochemical data .............................................................. 100
Figure4. 10 Water types at different physiographic locations. ..................................... 100
Figure4. 11 Plots of hydrochemical variables on Durov diagram ................................ 101
Figure4. 12 Groundwater flow direction and evolution of hydrochemical facies .......... 102
Figure4. 13 Main flow paths and hydrochemical facies. .............................................. 106
Figure4. 14 Mole ratio of Na+ to Ca2+ against mole ratio of HCO3- to H4SiO4 plotted on
mineral alteration curves. ............................................................................................ 109
Figure4. 15 Mexaqoma well log .................................................................................. 111
Figure4. 16 Burqa Hora spring and reconstructed host .............................................. 114
Figure4. 17 Fluoride level in water samples ................................................................ 119
Figure4. 18 Bivariate plots of water variables.............................................................. 122
Figure4. 19 Distribution of fluoride and hydrochemical facies across the rift valley ..... 124
Figure4. 20 Fluoride data fitted to exponential variogram ........................................... 126
Figure4. 21 Geospatial distribution of fluoride in Middle Awash basin ........................ 127
Figure4. 22 Kriging standard error map of fluoride distribution.................................... 128
Figure5. 1 Partial charts of elements. .......................................................................... 130
Figure5. 2 Isotope composition of evaporated surface water water, the original
precipitation prior to evaporation, and the evaporated vapor. ..................................... 133
Figure5. 3 Isotopic variations of local meteoric waters ................................................ 134
Figure5. 4 Water sampling sites for stable isotope analysis ........................................ 137
Figure5. 5 Local meteoric waters and recharge system .............................................. 139
Figure5. 6 Plots of stable isotopes. ............................................................................. 140
Figure5. 7 Mechanisms of rock-water reactions involving isotope exchanges ............ 144
Figure5. 8 Isotope composition of Lake Beseka in different years .............................. 145
Figure5. 9 Tritium sampling sites................................................................................. 147
Figure5. 10 Tritium content in selected samples ......................................................... 148
Figure5. 11 Hydrochemical and isotope of waters at different locations...................... 150
Figure 6. 1 Location of wells and VES sites ................................................................ 154
Figure 6. 2 Geoelectric sections and groundwater flow direction at selected sites. ... 157
Figure 6. 3 Effect of geological structures on groundwater miniralization.................... 163
Figure 6. 4 correlation of transimissivity computed by empirical equation and analytical
methods ...................................................................................................................... 167
Figure 6. 5 Exponential variogram model fitted to hydraulic data ............................... 167
Figure 6. 6 Hydraulic conductivity and transimissivity maps........................................ 168
x
Figure 6. 7 Main groundwater flow direction of the study area .................................... 171
Figure 6. 8 Conceptual groundwater flow models along regional flow and across the rift
floor ............................................................................................................................. 172
Figure 7. 1 Location map of Adama-Wonji basin ......................................................... 176
Figure 7. 2 Geological map of Adama-Wonji basin ..................................................... 178
Figure 7. 3 Location of groundwater monitoring wells and groundwater level in different
years .......................................................................................................................... 181
Figure 7. 4 2D imaging transects and stations ............................................................ 183
Figure 7. 5 Interpreted 2D inversion ............................................................................ 186
Figure 7. 6 Geoelectric sections from 2D imaging ....................................................... 189
Figure 7. 7 1D curve and its corresponding lithology .................................................. 190
Figure 7. 8 Electrical sounding stations and geoelectric sections ............................... 191
Figure 7. 9 Conceptual model of the hydrological system of Adama-Wonji basin ....... 196
Figure 8. 1 Finite difference model grid ....................................................................... 201
Figure 8. 2 Model boundary conditions ....................................................................... 205
Figure 8. 3 Model properties ....................................................................................... 209
Figure 8. 4 Residual statistics for uncalibrated model ................................................. 211
Figure 8. 5 Model calibrated statistics ......................................................................... 212
Figure 8. 6 Plot of observed vs residual and cumulative sum of squared residuals .... 215
Figure 8. 7 Groundwater head contour contour from calibrated model ...................... 217
Figure 8. 8 Location of sub basins .............................................................................. 218
Figure 8. 9 Adama-Wonji basin groundwater head distribution from calibrated model
(and model sensitivity .................................................................................................. 220
Figure 8. 10 Adam-Wonji basin groundwater head profile and flow direction along
selected direction ........................................................................................................ 220
Figure 8. 11 Head statistics for calibrated model ........................................................ 221
Figure 8. 12 Welenchiti basin groundwater head distribution from calibrated model and
model sensitivity plot ................................................................................................... 223
Figure 8. 14 Welenchiti head statistics for calibrated model........................................ 224
Figure 8. 13 Welenchiti basin groundwater head profile and flow direction along
selected directions....................................................................................................... 224
Figure 8. 15 Beseka lake level changes ...................................................................... 226
Figure 8. 16 Beseka basin groundwater head distribution from calibrated model and
model sensitivity plot. .................................................................................................. 227
Figure 8. 18 Beseka basin calibrated model head statistics ........................................ 228
Figure 8. 17 Beseka basin groundwater head profile and flow direction ..................... 228
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3. 1 Effective rainfall of the study area ................................................................ 43
Table 3. 2 PET by Heat index method........................................................................... 50
Table 3. 3 PET by Penman method .............................................................................. 52
Table 3. 4 Major land cover, soil type and field capacity ............................................... 56
Table 3. 5 AET, P, PET and recharge for representative regions ................................. 57
Table 3. 6 Hydrograph components of rivers and catchment effective rainfall .............. 63
Table 4. 1 Field measured water parameters ................................................................ 76
Table 4.2 Descriptive statistics of hydrochemical variables; EC is in µS/cm, T in 0c and
the others are in mg/l..................................................................................................... 84
Table 4.3 Summary statistics of major hydrochemical variables of cluster groups; Water
type is based on the dominant ions. T (0C) and the rest (mg/l) ..................................... 90
Table 4. 4 Correlation matrix of variables ...................................................................... 91
Table 4. 5 Eigenvalue of PC before varimax rotation .................................................... 94
Table 4. 6 R-mode varimax of PC loadings after rotation .............................................. 94
Table 5. 1 Approximate ground waters recharge age for continental areas based on
tritium values ............................................................................................................... 147
Table 7. 1 Groundwater level measured in Wonji irrigation ......................................... 180
Table 8.1 Estimated recharge for four physiographic regions imposed to the model .. 208
Table 8. 2 Water balance of the Middle Awash basin (M3/yr) ...................................... 216
Table 8. 3 Adama Wonji sub basin model calibration statistics and water balance ..... 221
Table 8. 4 Welenchiti sub basin model calibration statistics and water balance.......... 225
Table 8. 5 Beseka sub basin model calibration statistics and water balance .............. 229

xii
LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Land use and land cover map processed from MSS Landsat image ...... 257
Appendix 2 Major soil types of the study area ........................................................... 257
Appendix 3 Simplified geological map of Ethiopia ...................................................... 258
Appendix 4 Rainfall data ............................................................................................ 259
Appendix 5 Effective rainfall of the stations computed by Thiessen method .............. 260
Appendix 6 Mean daily temperature of selected Stations.......................................... 260
Appendix 7 Sunshine ................................................................................................. 261
Appendix 8 Monthly mean Wind speed measured above 2 m .................................. 261
Appendix 9 Relative humidity ..................................................................................... 261
Appendix 10 AETfrom river discharge ........................................................................ 262
Appendix 11 Plot of total Monthly River discharge ..................................................... 263
Appendix 12 River total monthly flow ......................................................................... 264
Appendix 13 Hydrochemical data ............................................................................... 266
Appendix 14 Distribution histogram of variables and their correlation with field
parameters .................................................................................................................. 268
Appendix 15 Fluoride data obtained from Water Resources Bureau used as
supplementary data in geospatial kriging .................................................................... 269
Appendix 16 Boreholes in Adama-Wonji basin .......................................................... 270
Appendix 17 Well data, with T determined from specific capacity (Sc) ...................... 271
Appendix 18 Transmissivity determined by analytical method ................................... 275
Appendix 19 Simplified hydrogeological map of the Middle Awash basin .................. 277
Appendix 20 Mansucripts….………………………………………………………………..278

xiii
ABBREVIATIONS

AET Actual Evapotranspiration

CIFEG Centre International pour la Formation et les Echanges en Geoscience
DEM Digital Elevation Model
EC Electrical Conductivity
EELSS Electrolytic Enrichment and Liquid Scintillation Spectrometry
Eh Redox Potential
ET Evapotranspiration
FAO World Food Organization
FDC Flow Duration Curve
Fig Figure
GIS Geographic Information System
GMWL Global Meteoric Water Line
GNIP Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation
GV Groundwater Vistas
HCA Hierarchial Cluster Analysis
HS Hydrograph Separation
ITCZ Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
K Hydraulic conductivity
LMWL Local Meteoric Water line
LWIA Liquid-Water Isotope Analyzer
m asl meter above sea level
m bgl meter below ground level
MAWARI Management of Water Resources in East African Rift System
mcm million cubic meters
mS Milli Siemen
m/s meter per second
MER Main Ethiopian Rift
Mg/l Milligram per litre
NMO National Meteorological Agency

xiv
OWRB Oromia Water Resource Bureau
P Precipitation
PCA Principal Component Analysis
PET Potential Evapotranspiration
pH Pondus Hydrogenium
RF Rainfall
RH Relative Humidity
Sc Specific capacity
SMOW Standard Mean Ocean Water
TDS Total Disolved Solids
TU Tritium Unit
VES Vertical Electrical Sounding
VSMOW Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water
WFB Wonji Fault Belt
WHO World Health Organization
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WWDSE Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise
YTVL Yerer Tulu walel Volcanic Lineament
µS/cm Micro Siemens per centimeter
Ωm Ohm-meter

Location with synonyms name

Adama = Nazert

xv
1
 CHAPTER ONE

General Introduction

1.1 Background and Concept

Ethiopia is thought to have abundant groundwater resources that can be useful for
domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes. The availability of high rainfall, favorable
environmental features including geology, topography and climate conditions could be
factors for the occurrence of voluminous groundwater resources in the country.
Ethiopian aquifers are categorized into three broad groups as sedimentary, volcanic and
metamorphic aquifers (Alemayehu, 2006). The sedimentary aquifers are widely
common in east and north central regions of the country. The ground waters from this
aquifer are generally mineralized compared to ground waters from other aquifers. The
volcanic aquifers occupy the central part including the Ethiopian Rift valley and extend
to southwest, west and northwest. Volcanic aquifers are commonly considered as
productive aquifers due to their location in high rainfall region as well as the acceptable
chemical constituent of water from this aquifer. The Metamorphic aquifers are limited to
north, west and southern periphery of the country. These are the least productive
aquifers mainly due to the non water bearing nature of the metamorphic rocks.

Middle Awash basin is one of the drought prone areas marked by considerable water
supply problems. Due to the erratic nature of rainfall, surface waters are general scarce
and unreliable thus groundwater remains the sole resource supplying water for
domestic and livestock. However, the effective use of groundwater has been hampered
due to the complex nature of aquifers of this basin. The geological system is much
complex and the functioning of groundwater with this multifaceted volcanic rocks is not
adequately explored which leads to difficulties in identifying productive aquifers.
Broadly, three common hydrogeological challenges are recognized in the Middle Awash
basin: 1) Groundwater flow is strongly controlled by geological structures, a condition
leading to equal chance of a “hit or miss” opportunity of productive aquifers. 2) Strong
interaction of groundwater with magmatic materials is impairing groundwater quality 3)
2
Perturbation of hydrological systems induced by recent tectonics and anthropogenic
activities. These leads to escalation of water supply shortage, financial wastage while
drilling unproductive wells, and retard development.

These are some of the reasons for selecting Middle Awash basin as the study area
mainly to describe the hydrogeological system of the basin towards improving the
understanding of aquifer system and its function with environmental features.

1.2 Rationale and Relevance of the study

The hydrogeological functioning and aquifer system of the Ethiopian Rift

Valley are generally complex compaired to other aquifer systems located
outside of this rift system. This is mainly due to the occurrence of
groundwater in complex rift volcanic products highly controlled by geological
structures. A project, called MAWARI (Sustainable Management of Water
Resources in the East African Rift System), a jointed project between
Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti funded by French Ministry of Foreign Affairs was
initiated in 2003 to study the groundwater resources in East African Rift. The
Ethiopian component of this project was to undertake systematic
groundwater investigation in selected sites of the Ethiopian Rift towards
understanding the hydrogeology of the rift and adjacent highlands which
includes the Middle Awash basin, and this Ph.D is part of this project.

Middle Awash basin is one of the drought hubs of the country where
groundwater becomes the sole water supply sources for nearly one million
populations living in this basin. However, aquifer system and groundwater
occurrence including mode of its interaction with rift volcanic products are
not yet adequately explained. Existing well data show that groundwater
distribution and quality are highly variable over short distance and drilling of
productive and non productive aquifers has got equal chances in this basin.

Tectonic structures are playing profound control on groundwater movement

acting either as barrier or conduit as well as cause preferential flow system.
3
Thus, understanding the hydrogeological system and characterization of
quifers according to their mode of occurrence and groundwater quality is
crucial for sustainable and effective use of groundwater resources of the
area. To this end, this research intended to describe such hydrogeological
information towards reducing the uncertainty of understanding the
hydrogeological systems of the basin. It is anticipated that this research
provide valuable hydrogeological information useful for sustainable and
effective use of groundwater resources as well as it can be a reference for
hydrogeological studies that will be conducted in similar hydrogeological
settings.

1.3 Previous study

Previous hydrogeological and related studies conducted in the Middle Awash

basin and its adjacent areas have been assessed and some of them relevant
to this research are summarized below. Kebede et al., (2005) conducted
hydrogeological study towards understanding groundwater origin and flow along
selected transects in Ethiopian volcanic aquifers. This study partly discussed on the
origin and hydrodynamics of ground waters draining the western watershed of the study
area. The study explains that ground waters are getting recharge from recent rains that
falls on plateau areas and fast groundwater circulation system via faults. Alemayehu et
al., (2006) reported the hydrochemical and lake level changes in Ethiopian Rift induced
by anthropogenic activities together with recent geological activities with particular
emphasis given to Lake Beseka. Similar study by Ayalew (2009), show that Lake
Beseka is getting excess inflow of groundwater much higher than its outflow
component. Ayenew (2004), Legesse and Ayenew (2006) reported the improper water
resources utilization practices and environmental problems in the Ethiopian Rift.
According to these studies, excessive land degradation, deforestation and over-
irrigation are changing the hydrometeorological setting of the Ethiopian Rift. A number
of studies (Haimanot et al., 1987; Gizaw 1996; Ayenew 1998; Cherent et al., 2001;
Wondwossen et al., 2004; Rango et al., 2009), reported high level of fluoride in ground
waters of the Ethiopian rift valley causing serious health problem.
4
The geology with geological structures of the Main Ethiopian Rift including the study
area have been described by different studies including Kazmin, (1979), Damte et al.,
(1992), Abebe et al., (1998), Boccaletti et al., (1999), Acocella et al., (2002), Coulie et
al., (2003), Chorowicz, (2005), Abebe et al., (2005), and Abebe et al., (2007). The
geological map of the study area is developed from these studies.

In general, previous hydrological studies were focused on the hydrochemistry of lakes,

interaction of ground waters with lakes, assessment of anthropogenic impact on natural
lakes and groundwater origin and its flow dynamics in the western part of the watershed
and none of them described the general hydrogeological system of the Middle Awash
basin. All the previous studies relevant to this work are referenced in this thesis.

1.4 Objective

Being located in the active volcano-tectonic centre of the East African Rift
valley, Middle Awash basin has complex hydrogeological systems.
Groundwater occurs in multifaceted manner and its quality is highly variable
affected by the volcanic and geothermics. Thus, the main objective of this
study is to assess and characterize the aquifer systems, mode of
groundwater movement and functioning with volcanic materials as well as
evaluate the interaction of groundwater with surface waters.

Specific objective includes:

• Describe the major water bearing units and characterize aquifers systems
• Analyze recharge-discharge system with various environmental factors
controlling groundwater movement
• Assess physiochemical property of groundwater with source and mode of
distribution of hydrochemical variables.
• Study surface water- groundwater interactions.
• Assess the impact of human activities on groundwater flow regimes
• Characterize aquifer systems according to physiographic location, lithology and
hydrochemical properties.

5
 • Analysis role of rift volcanic products on the circulation of groundwater
• Assess the groundwater mass balance (water budget) of the study area including
selected sub basins which have more hydrogeological importance.

1.5 Limitation

Scarcity of data, access to sampling sites, unevenly distribution of the data

point and lack of geological information at adequate scale were the major
encountered problems. Data limitations and the encountered problems are
elaborated under their respective chapters of this thesis.

1.6 Methodology

Middle Awash basin is an area where geological formations, tectonic

structures and relief features are highly complex. In such volcanic
environment where geology, geological structures, physical features and
hydrogeological conditions are highly diversified, application of single
method could not properly address the actual field condition. Hydrogeology
of complex volcanic system can be more explored through application and
integration of multiple disciplines. Thus, an effort has been made to apply
various disciplines and synchronize results from each datasets to describe
the hydrogeological system of the study area representing the most likely
field condition (Figure 1.1).

Prior to field data acquisition, preliminary surveys were conducted including

literature review, interpretation of physical features from satellite images,
geological descriptions, well data analysis, understand the geomorphologic
and environmental features. Field observation, measurement and data
collection from available sources were conducted to get the most reliable
result.
6
Literatures and previous relevant researches were assessed to learn more on
major issues to be addressed as well as methods to be applied in describing
volcanic aquifers. Satellite images were used as baseline to identify
geological structures, relief features and topographic slopes to understand
geospatial hydrological factors. Land use and land covers were generated
from satellite image processed under IDRISI Andes and GIS software. Land
cover features together with meteorological elements were used to assess
recharge system and hydrological process of the area. Geological structures
including faults, lineaments and fissures controlling groundwater movement
were traced in the initial stage from Landsat image with 30m ground
resolution which was later validated from literatures and field observations.
Hydrological data including meteorology and river discharge were used to
assess varies form of hydrological components including recharge.

Hydrochemical and isotopic data were used to understand groundwater

origin, spatial variation and aquifer characteristics as well as groundwater
flow processes. Spatial variations of aquifer parameters, aquifer type,
piezometeric surface, lithostratigraphy of the aquifer including boundary
condition and lateral extension were examined by combining with
geophysical result. Details of methodology, sampling and analytical
techniques have been discussed under their respective chapters and
sections.

As the lateral and vertical units of volcanic formations are highly variable,
geophysical survey was conducted to improve the understanding of the role
of subsurface geological materials on groundwater movement. Toward this,
2D tomography and deep electrical sounding were carried out at selected
areas where further information on subsurface hydrogeological conditions
was required. Result from geophysical survey was combined with other
datasets such as well data, geology and hydrochemistry to characterize the
aquifer system and subsurface geological structures according to their
7
hydrogeological significance. These were the integeral part of the study
towards proper characterization of the hydrogeological system of the basin.
Methodology and workflow is outlined in Figure 1.1

1.7 Materials and Tools

Water samples were collected in clean and dry standard HDPE plastic bottles.
Geophysical survey was conducted using the SYSCAL R1 PLUS Switch-72
IRISI unit which has typical resistivity accuracy of 0.5% and performs noise
reduction through continuous stacking selectable from 1 to 255 stacks.

Various softwares were employed to assist processing and mapping of the

datasets. Land use and land cover features were classified from satellite
images under IDIRSI Andes, while hydrochemical variables were analyzed
under Aquachem V.5.1(Waterloo 2006) and STATISTICA data analysis
software version 8 (Stat Soft Inc.2008). Geophysical anomalies were
processed under PROSYS and RES2DINV soft wares which perform pseudo-
section inversion to true resistivity and 2D section respectively (www.iris-
instruments.com). Aquitest Pro (Waterloo 2002) and MODFLOW soft ware
(McDonald and Harbaugh, 1988) build in Groundwater Vista (GV) were used
to analyze aquifer parameters and perform numerical groundwater flow
modeling, respectively. GIS soft wares such as ArcView 3.2 and ArcGIS 9.2
(www.esri.com), Surfer 8 (www.goldensoftware.com), VarioWin (www-
sst.unil.ch/research/varioWin/index.html), and Excell were other softwares
used for quarrying, analyzing and mapping spatial data.

8
 Rationale & Objective Methodology Output

Literature review

• Aquifer characterization Satellite image

• Hydro.connectivity
Physical Des.
• Recharge system
Surface aspect
• Mass balance

Hydrolo balance
RF & T analys.
Geology

Outlined hydrogeological system of Middle Awash

Lithological

Structural Des.
Meteorology
(RF, T, SS, RH, WS)

River hydrology

River hydrograph anly.

FDC
Recharge estim.
estim
Drainage system
Hydrochemistry

Water quality
Hydrochemical System

basin
Aquifer Charact.

Recharge Syst.
Flow dynamics
Water isotope

Recharge/Source analy.
Hydrodynamics
Rock-water interaction
Recharge syst.
Geophysics (2D Tomography & VES)
Subsurface stru. & Aquifer geometry

Well data
(Aquifer property, lithology))

Figure 1. 1 Outlined methodology and workflow

9
1.8 Structure of the thesis

This thesis is structured into 8 chapters. The first two chapters provide general overview
starting with the background of the study area and objective of the study whereas
chapters 3 to 8 are about observations and implications. Main problems, objective and
methodology are outlined in chapter 1 whereas general introduction including location
and description of physical features including geology of the area are provided in
chapter 2.

Chapter 3 is devoted in description of meteorological and river hydrograph towards

understanding the hydrological behaviour of the study basin. In this chapter, main
meteorological elements including precipitation, humidity, temperature, windspeed and
sunshine and evapotranspiration are discussed in details to realize the various
hydrological components.

Chapter 4 is the subjects of hydrochemistry which deals about the statistical association
among hydrochemical variables and water families classified according to their chemical
behavior. Hydrochemical characteristics of aquifers in different location with their
hydraulic relationships and geochemical reactions are elaborated under this chapter.
Chapter 5 describes result from water isotopes with detail discussion on the implications
of isotopic data from different locations and sources.

Chapter 6 explains the aquifer system of the basin and provides the conceptual
groundwater model from the converging evidence of different datasets. This conceptual
model is transformed to numerical groundwater flow model which is described under
Chapter 8. In chapter 7, detail description of the hydrogeological system of Adam-Wonji
sub basin is elucidated which includes the hydraulic relationship between irrigation
water and groundwater in Wonji wetland. Groundwater in this sub-flow system show
sign of rise in water table thus 2D tomography was conducted to understand the
position of groundwater head under wonji irrigation field and its lateral profile to

10
understand the extent of hydraulic connection between irrigation water and
groundwater. Major hydrgeological factors like faults and fissures are mapped and their
hydrological roles have been illustrated under this chapter.

The thesis ends with conclusion and prospects giving emphasis on basic issues to be
improved for further detail hydrogeological study of this same basin.

11
 Chapter 2

Physical description of the study area

2.1 Location

The study area, Middle Awash basin, is located in north central part of the Main
Ethiopian Rift (MER) within the geographic limits of 70, 50’ to 90, 40’N latitude and 380,
55’ to 400, 45’E longitude and has an area of 19,297 Sq km (Fig 2.1)

Figure 2. 1 Location map of study area

12
2.1 Physiography

The Miocene massive geological process of the rift generates the buildup of three
distinct slices of geomorphologic series in central Ethiopia recognized as plateau,
escarpment and rift floor ranging in altitude from 700 to 4200 meter above sea level
(Figure 2.2).

Figure 2. 2 Physiographic classes of the area

13
These physiographic configurations create three distinct river basins bordering the study
area. The Blue Nile basin located northwest of the study area drains westward from
northern highlands whereas the Wabeshebelle basin drains eastwards from Arsi, Bale
and Hararghe highlands. The south part of the study area drains to lakes basin

For the study area, the intermittent volcano-tectonic processes of the rift forms land
deformations into successive pieces of stratum land masses stacked one after the other
each with physio-climatic varieties. These pieces of land masses can be grouped into
three main physio-climate divisions based on the relative frequency of air mass within
geographic location.

The plateau (Highlands)

This physiographic group shares about 12% of the study area and includes mountain
masses above 2000m a.s.l. It is characterized by humid climate with annual rainfall
above 1500mm and temperature below 16 0c. The northwestern margin of the study
area around Sendafa, Ankober and the Arsi highland in southeastern margin belongs to
this group.

The escarpment

This region shares about 14% and marked by moist climate with air
temperature ranging from 16 0 C to 24 0 C and annual rainfall of 1000 to
1400mm. It is sited between plateau and rift floor and comprises landmass
with elevation ranging from 1500-2000m a.s.l.

The rift floor

This physiographic group shares 74% of the total area and encompasses the
main rift valley with elevation below 1500m a.s.l. This land group is notable
by flat terrain with patch of volcanic dome and calderas widely distributed
witin the area. As this region shares large portion of the study area, the
hydrogeological systems of the basin is largely tailored by surface physical
conditions and geological systems of this physiographic group. The rift floor

14
can be considered as hot and arid zone as it has the highest temperature
above 24 0 C with low annual rainfall below 900mm.

Watersheds of the Middle Awash basin function according to semi-arid, two-

season tropical type climate, with cool wet summer and dry warm-to-hot
winter. Air moisture is greatest at the highlands and decreases towards the
rift floor. High precipitation occurs between June to September, with rainfall
magenitude varying significantly throughout the watershed affected by
topographic features.

2.2 Land cover of the study area

Rift valley including the study area is a typical environment whereby land
features co-exist in complex manner. Physical features lack textural
variability but found highly intermixed. In such environmental conditions
where land cover features lack discrete boundaries, digital satellite images
can be a useful tool for land cover discrimination (Lillesand and Thomas 2000).

Land features are important hydrological factors. Type, size, location and
attribute of land covers play significant role on hydrological flow conditions.
Type of surface features and their location determine the recharge condition,
have impact on water budget of the area through triggerring varies
hydrological processes such as runoff, infiltration, recharge, discharge and
evapotranspiration (Sikdar et al., 2004). Land covers determine the amount
of rainfall infiltrating into the soil (Melesse et al., 2003). Thus, identification
of physical surface features is essential for proper understanding of the
hydrgeological system of a basin as land cover features are the initial factors
in hydrological processes. Detailed morphometry of land surface information
is especially important to understand the initial hydrological condition and
characterize the area according to their hydrological response.

15
MSS Landsat image with 30m resolution acquired in 2004 was used for land
cover classification of the study area. Prior to land feature classification,
images were processed and enhanced to improve the visual interpretation
capability. Automated classification was performed by supervised
classification methods whereby signatures groups from composite image
have been evaluated with known selected ground features. Six major land
cover types have been identified as lakes, irrigation land, open forest,
Agricultural land, rock exposure and grass and bush land and these land
features were assigned as signature groups with which the software
compares and classify the whole land cover features of the study area.

The automated output provides much diffused land features highly

interspersed to each other which is difficult to discern and classify features in
accordance to their hydrological response(Appendix 1). To enhance the
discrimination between land features groups, the automated results were
further reclassified into major land features groups under GIS in accordance
to their frequency of occurrence that can be readily interpreted (Fig 2.3).

16
Figure 2. 3 Major land use and land cover

From the classified land features shown on Figure 2.3, rocky outcrops occupy large part
of the study area principally at escarpments and rift floor. This corresponds to the
mountain volcanic massive and volcanic deposits in the rift floor.

17
2.3 Slope Analysis

Local topographic features such as slope and topographic aspect play a crucial role in
hydrological processes (Martin et al., 2009). Surface runoff, infiltration and evaporation
processes are affected by topographic slope and hillside condition. The routing of water
over a surface is closely tied to surface form (Wood, 1996). Hydrological responses on
the valley-head and hill slope reflect their respective topographic characteristics and
varied with the slope, hillside condition and rainfall magnitude (Martin et al., 2009).
Runoff from the plateau and escarpment occurs rapidly while rift floor shows little
response in storm runoff. The differences in the runoff responses could be caused by
differences in the hill slopes.

Understanding the linkage between hydrological flow processes and hill slope is
important to realize the various hydrodynamics components of the area. Physiographic
features with steep slope triggers surface runoff while gentle slope and flat plains favor
either vertical recharge or evaporation depending on their physical features and
attributes. Topographic slope was generated from the DEM of the study area processed
under IDRISI Andes software and this has been further reclassified into three major
topographic groups under GIS based on the ranges of inclination (Fig 2.4).

18
 Alt (m a.s.l)
Plateau
Slope>100
Slope

Escarpment
Slope 3-100
Slope

Rift floor
Slope <30
Slope

Figure 2. 4 Classified slopes

As shown on Figure 2.4, about 74% of the study area is flat terrain with slope less than
3°. Thus, vertical local recharge and strong rock w ater reaction are normally expected in
this region because of low hydraulic energy leading to long residence time and slow
moving of ground waters. On the other hand, highlands and escarpments are
characterized by gentle slope (3 to 10°) which coul d enhance both infiltration and
surface runoff depending on their physical attributes and land cover types. The
northwest, south and east plateau areas have steep slope greater than 10°. Surface
runoff can be the main hydrologic component to be triggered in these terrains.
However, these areas are relatively covered by dense vegetation that can deter runoff
and enhance infiltration. These physiographic slopes have been considered in
assessment of the hydrogeological system of the study basin.

19
 2. 4 Soil type

Soil has significant role in altering the natural water that has come in contact
with soil layer. As soil is the top part of ground layers with which surface
water and rainwater interact in the first time during its downward movement,
it has an ultimate effect in altering the hydrochemistry of water (Freeze and
Cherry, 1979). Depositional places and soil composition, thickness, and soil
textures can have significant influence on hydrological processes.

According to FAO (1998) soil classification, nine major soil groups are
identified in the study area (Appendix 2). Leptosols and cambisols are the
predominant soil group in central lowlands where hydraulic gradient is very
low. These soil group composed of thick silty-clay (Fig 2.5, left) which can
retain water on the surface for prolonged time period (Figure 2.5, right), a
condition which allows water to lost through evaporation

Surface waterlog

Figure 2. 5 Soil profile (left) and waterlog in Welenchiti plain (right)

The poorly developed sandy cambisols covers large areas of the central
north low lands in the rift floor. This soil has thin horizons and often found
with rock fragments. The southeast highlands and some localities in western
plateau are mainly covered by vertisols soil group.

20
2.5 Geology and geological structures

2.5.1 Introduction

Precambrian basement is the oldest formation found underlying all rocks in

Ethiopia. Few exposure of this formation is found in south, west and north
periphery of the country (Appendix 3). Paleozoic period is generally marked
by non depositional and erosional period, thus only few units of this period
as lower sandstone and clay stone are observed in north, west and in the
eastern Ogaden region (Alemayehu, 2006). Following the Paleozoic period,
land subsidence took place in the beginning of the Mesozoic period which
caused transgression of the sea to the land. This brought vast accumulation
of different types of continental sedimentary rocks including limestone,
sandstones, shales, mudstone and marl over the Precambrian basement
(Kazmin, 1979).

Following Mesozoic, stretching forces driven by very slow creep of rocks

hundreds of kilometers deep initiated in Afro-Arabian landmass (W illiams et
al., 2004). This created the uplifting of Afro-Arabian continent with
subsequent dissection and spreading of landmass which resulted in the
opening of the main rift in the Pliocene period (Coulie et al., 2003; Abebe et
al., 2005; Chorowicz, 2005). This geologic venture starts from the Red sea
and Gulf of Aden in north and runs for about 6400 km southward. In
Ethiopia, it forms a triangular depression of the Afar Triangle in northeast
and runs across the country splitting the central Ethiopian lands into eastern
and western mountain blocks with low-lying rift floor in the middle. As land
dissection and spreading continued in response to tensional forces,
extensive episodic volcanic eruptions took place accompanied by series of
faulting which resulted in extensive extrusion of basalts along the tensional
zones (Mohr and Wood, 1976; Abebe et al., 2005). This extrusive flood basalt
associated with ignmbrite, trachyte, bereccia and rhyolite occupies large part
of the Ethiopian plateau (Cornwell et al., 2006; Maguire et al., 2006). In the
21
rift, this rifting process is still ongoing which is believed to split the east
African plate apart along the axis of the Rift Valley and will form a new ocean
(Chorowicz, 2005). The date of the extrusion flood basalt in Ethiopian is not
exactly known but it is believed to have taken a bit earlier to the rifting
(Rogers et al., 2000), or connected with the onset of rifting in the Red sea and
gulf of Aden (Coulie et al 2003). Rift and rift-like zones have undergone a
complex evolution, with its historical roots in the early Precambrian
(Milanovsky, 1987). But, the Ethiopian rift system is believed to be initiated at
the end of the Mesozoic or beginning of the Tertiary which has developed to
its current land form by episodic extensional tectonics (Backer and
Wohlenberg 1971; Kazmin 1979; Kazmin et al., 1980; Woldegebriel et al.,
1990; Abebe et al 2005). The episodic volcano-tectonic activities produced
diverse volcanic sequences largely fissural basalts stocked one over the
other with volcanoclastic deposits (Jon et al., 1982).

The Ethiopian highlands are largely underlain by trap series of the

Oligocene-Miocene age which rest uncomformably over the Mesozoic
sedimentary rocks (Woldegebriel et al., 2001). This Trap series volcanic consists
series of lava flows mainly flood basalt ignmbrite, trachyte and rhyolite
(Mohr, 1970). In the central and southern plateau margins, these rocks are
mainly basalts trachyte, ignmbrite rhyolite, ash and pyroclastic deposits.

During rift development, rapid subsidence of rift floor was accompanied by

the formation of shield volcanoes in central part of the Main Ethiopian Rift
and on both side of the mountains bounding the rift (Kunz et al., 1975). The
eruptive phase of crustal extension to the east of the proto-rift gave rise to
the extinct Pliocene trachyte shield volcanoes of the eastern highlands which
rest on the trap basalts. This includes the Chilalo and Badda volcanoes.

22
2.5.2 General geological setting of the study area

The geology of the study area and its lithostratigraphic profile (Fig 2.6) is
constructed from the combination of varies geological maps including
geological map of Nazert (Kazmin and Berhe, 1978), geological map of main
Ethiopian rift (Abebe et al., 2005), geological map of Dera (Damte et al.,1992)
as well as geological information from publications (Abebe et al., 1998;
Woldegeabriel et al., 1992; Kinnaird 1998; Mahatsente et al., 1999; Mario et
al., 1999; White 2001; Acocella et al., 2002; Acocella et al., 2003; Korme et
al., 2003; Williams et al., 2004; Abebe et al., 2007).

Middle Awash basin is marked by diversified geology and complex geological

structures resulted from immense and versatile volcano-tectonic activities of
the Oligocene period (Milanovsky 1987; Chorowicz 2005). In place, trace of this
volcano-tectonics is still manifested in rift floor in the form of new volcanic
eruptions, steams, thermal waters and fissures. This ongoing extensional
rifting is causing a progressive crustal thinning in the rift floor and spreading
of landmasses (W illiams et al., 2004; Pan et al., 2002).

In general, rocks ranging in age from Cretaceous to recent form the

geological framework of the study area (Fig 2.6). Vast areas of the rift floor
are covered by highly intermixed volcanic products of recent age including
pumice, scoria, tuff, ignimbrite and volcanic ashes. In many places of the rift
floor, the fissural basaltic lava flows stacked over these volcanos-ejects
(Abebe et al., 1998). In highland area, the plateau basalt is found
interspersed with large accumulation of ignimbrite and rhyolite which
unconformably overlay the trachyte (Abebe et al., 2007).

23
2.5.3 Stratification

The geological activity of the rift valley resulted in the formation of two major
land groups. The central main rift valley trending NNE-SSW and the
mountain block bounding the rift floor. The rift valley is covered by recent
formation mainly the volcano-clasts (Acocella et al., 2002). The massive
volcanic formation commonly basalt, trachyte and ignimbrite that range from
Oligocene to Holocene occupies the mountain blocks (Kazmin, 1979).

2.5.3.1 The Cretaceous formation

This is the lowest formation in the study area found unconformably overlying
the crystalline basement (Abebeb et al., 2005). It consists of the Amba
Aradam sandstone, conglomerates and shale. The volcanic shield mainly
basalt and trachybasalt of the Gumbi chains found overlying this formation.
An outcropping of Cretaceous formation is limited to the north east margin of
the study area south of Bordede.

2.5.3.2 The Miocene-Pliocene formation

This is the Alajae volcanic group that consist of the transitional and sub
alkaline basalts associated with rhyolite and trachyte. Exposures of these
units are observed at Bordede and Abomsa highlands in the east and
Ankober and Chefe Donsa in the west. The major unit of this formation is the
Neogene group which occupies wide area of the study area. This group
comprises the Malba Arba Gurcha formation, Termaber Megezez formation,
Afar series, Nazert series, Chilalo formation, Mursi and Bofa basalts. The
Malba and Arba Guracha formation is the oldest of this group found in
northwest mountain chains of Sendafa, Ankober and in north east
escarpments of Abomsa, and Sire highlands. The dominant unit of this group
is the rhyolite domes with subordinate basalt. The transitional and alkaline
basalt of Termaber Megezez formation unconformably overlies this unit and

24
few exposures are observed in some localities of north-west highlands of the
study area.

The Nazert series covers the west and southeast area forming as buffer zone
between escarpment and rift floor. This group consists of ignimbrite,
unwelded tuffs, ash flow, rhyolite and trachyte. The Chilalo formation
comprises the trachyte, trachybasalt, peralkaline rhyolite with subordinate
alkaline basalts. Few exposures of this group are observed in central south
and north marginal areas around Awash 7 town. The younger Mursi and Bofa
basalt of the Neogene group is typically alkaline basalts and exposure is
limited to south central part of the study area.

2.5.3.3 The Pliocene-Pleistocene formation

These formations make up the alkaline basalt and trachyte of the Bishoftu
group. This unit is very rare in the study area but few exposures are found as
volcanic hills in various places of the central east of the study area.

2.5.3.4 The Quaternary Formation

These are the youngest rock groups in the study area and comprise the late
Pleistocene, Holocene and upper Quaternary formations. Vast areas of the
rift floor are covered by the inter-spread of these geologic formations. The
ignimbrite, tuff, pumice, scoria and pyroclastic rocks, commonly the Dino
formations are the lower unit of this group. Exposure observed as volcanic
domes in the central part of the rift floor while the undifferentiated alluvial,
lacustrine and beach sediments of the Holocene formation cover the north
central margin of the study area adjacent the Awash River. The plateau
basalts are spatially distributed within the rift floor as volcanic hills. The
alluvial and lacustrine deposits consists of sand, silt, clay, diatomite and
beach sand deposited in south-central margin around lake Koka and in low
land area near Wonji, Merti, Abadir and Metahara.

25
Figure 2. 6 Geological map of study area

26
In general, geology of the study area is grouped into three major units based on the
chronology of main rocks that make-up the land masses (Fig 2.7).

The Western landmass: This landmass is generally composed of the young volcanic
product of the Miocene formation. The Nazert series of this group is exposed in south
part near Nazert, north of Koka, and east of Addis Ababa, while the oldest Termaber-
Megezez formation is exposed in northern part at Sendefa, Debre Birhan and Ankober
plateau.

The Rift floor landmass: This is the youngest formations of the rift valley, composed of
rocks ranging from Chilalo and Badda trachyte of the upper Pliocene to youngest
aphyritic basalt of the recent Quaternary formation. These groups are highly
interspersed by the ongoing tensional volcanic activities.

The eastern landmass: This landmass is largely made up of the oldest rock unit that
ranges from the oldest Cretaceous Ambardam formation to the lower Miocene Anchar
basalt. Exposure of this unit is not observable in western land masses and rift floor.

Figure 2. 7 Simplified geological stratification of study area

27
2.5.4 Geological structures

Geological structures are geotectonic products including, fractures, joints,

faults, folds and any of these combinations emplaced in rocks and
landmasses after they are formed. These geological structures can modify
the landscape as well as affect the hydrological process of an area.
Geological structures play considerable role in modifying the physiochemical
property of groundwater, improve and deter flow dynamics as well as
constrains the distribution of groundwater within specific area.

In broader sense, geological structures can play significant hydrogeological

roles including: 1) form barrier or conduit to groundwater flow; 2) create
preferential flow path; 3) enhance the mixing of groundwater with fluids and
gasses from magmatic source; 4) setback or step-up groundwater flow
dynamics; a condition that affects the physiochemical property of ground
waters; 5) enhance interaction of surface water and groundwater; 6) create
various hydrological flow systems as local, intermediate and regional flow
systems. Thus, understanding the geological structures including type,
location, orientation, and extent of the structures is vital to understand the
hydrogeological system of an area.

Broadly, two main structural systems are important from hydrogeological

point of view for the study area. The first system corresponds to tectonic
structures associated in central basin which is related to the 000 0 -020 0
trending Wonji fault belt (WFB). These fault systems mainly affect the rift
floor and forms the trough slips downward below 1,000m relative to the
eastern and western bounding mountain blocks (Mohr, 1967; Mohr 1968;
Mohr and Wood, 1976; Kazmin et al., 1980; Boccaletti et al., 1999). In
places, the valley floor such as the Kessem depression is even below 800
m.a.s.l. This zone is aligned along the regional groundwater flow direction.
The Wonji faults belt is the principal fault of this structural group which runs
NNE-SSW trends (Fig 2.6). Regional flow system from upper Awash as well

28
as the intermediate flow systems from both sides of mountains bounding the
rift constrained within this main fault zone. This zone is the active volcanic
centers marked by seismic, volcanic, and low magnitude earthquakes.

Tectonics in the form of fissures is localized within this fault belt and more
than 80% of the rift strains are bounded within central rift zone (Ebinger and
Casey, 2001; Keir et al., 2006; Keranen and Klemperer, 2007). In this fault
system, tensional fissures and faults with low vertical displacement are more
frequent (Abebe et al., 2005). Furthermore, as this fault belt localized on
tensional tectonics centre where crustal thinning and magmatic thickening is
taking place (Fig 2.8), magmatic materials like gases, heat, and fluids from
deep emanate up ward to upper crust along this main faults, and eventually
ground waters circulating in the rift floor interact with these magmatic
materials and partakes their physiochemical property (Chapter 6 and 9).

Figure 2. 8 A conceptual model showing role of geological structures on groundwater

flow

29
At the central part of the rift, crustal thinning and land disconnection are
taking place in response to the tensional forces, a process that produce
crowd of fissures of various sizes aligned NNE-SSW as main geological
structures (Morgan and Ramberg, 1987). The younger volcano-tectonic products
such as the Fantalle young ignimbrite and various volcanic domes are results
of the active tectonics of the rift (Williams et al., 2004). Studies by Boccaletti et al.
(1999), Korme et al. (2003), Williams et al. (2004), Chorowicz (2005), and Abebe et al.,
(2007) indicate the presence of recent fissure and volcanic activities in the
various places of the rift floor as an evidence of the ongoing geological
processes in the basin centre. These fissures are modifying the hydrological
flow system and create groundwater and surface water interaction. They are
also the main conduit for upward migration of gas, heat and fluids from deep
source to the groundwater environment which are imparing groundwater
quality (chapter 4).

The second group of tectonic structure corresponds to the 025 0 -045 0 trending
rift marginal fault system that bound the rift floor in both side. These fault
system comprises major rift escarpment above 1000m in elevation and
characterized by continuous system of boundary faults with sinistral
component of motion along the rift border fault systems (Abebe et al., 1998;
Abebe et al., 2005). The principal tectonic structure of this group is the west
regional structures so called Yere Tulu-Wellele Volcanic Lineament (YTVL)
which extended to the MER in E-W trends (Fig 2.6).

These landmasses are notable by crowd of minor duplicated rift systems

called rift-in-rift dipping to each other and forming local synformal structures
(Keep and McClay, 1997). The other structural features of this group is the
associated series of normal faults with high vertical displacement arranged in
an echelon pattern trending parallel to the rift axis (Abebe et al., 2007).

The eastern rift margin is characterized by crowd of faults with height of fault
escarpment increasing from the north to the south. The hydrogeological role
30
of these geological structures includes the formation of various groundwater
flow systems as local, intermediate and regional flow systems create
preferential flow path, barrier or conduit to groundwater flow and to the
lesser extent transport mantle materials to groundwater regime.

31
 Chapter 3

Analysis of Hydrometeorology and Recharge

3.1 Introduction

Climate include the average of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind,

rainfall and numerous other meteorological elements over a long period of time in a
given region (Boorman and Sefton, 1997). It can be contrasted to weather, which is the
present condition of climate. Climate also includes statistics other than the average,
such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations (WMO, 1992). Factors
which influence climate are numerous, but the majors are latitude, altitude, the density
and type of vegetation cover and rainfall.

Climate elements interact in complex manner whereby a simple process that is

triggered initiates others to take place. For example, when the sun heats up ocean
waters for a period of time, water can evaporate and spread throughout nearby land,
making it cooler. Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. A
hot surface heats the air above it and the air expands lowering the air pressure and its
density. The resulting horizontal pressure gradient accelerates the air from high to low
pressure, creating wind. The simple process, thus formed can then display emergent
behavior to produce more complex systems and other weather phenomena to take
place. All these climate elements and their interaction with physical features determine
the hydrological process such as rainfall, runoff, recharge, and stream flow. The
purpose of the assessment of meteorological element and river hydrograph is to assess
these hydrological processes of the study area.

3.2 Evaluation of meteorological data of the study area

The climate data which have been measured at 24 stations located within and adjacent
to the study area (Fig 3.1) are obtained from the National Meteorological Agency
(NMA).These stations were selected based on the length of data span, location and
relative quality of their data. In some stations, the climate records were not completed

32
thus some adjustments were made using the linear correlation between the nearest
stations.

Figure 3. 1 Location of meteorological stations and river gauges. The polygon within the
map is boundary of study area

33
3.2.1 Classes of meteorological stations

Depending on the meteological variables measured at stations, stations are classified

as Class 1, 2, 3, and 4. Class 1 stations span wide number of meteorological elements
including temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed, evaporation, and sunshine.
Few stations such as Nazert, Metehara, D/Berhan, Assela, Nura era, S/Gebeya, and
Wonji belong to this class. Class 4 stations are ordinary stations which records only
temperature and precipitation. Majority of the stations in the study area falls in between
class 1 and class 4 types.

3.2.2 Distribution of stations and data quality.

As shown on Figure 3.1, the spatial distribution of meteorological stations in the study
area is irregular. More stations are concentrated in south west part of the area while
they are sparse in the central part whereas the eastern portion of the basin has only
three stations which are very far from each other. Furthermore, there is large difference
in data spaning among stations. For example Nazert, Sendafa, D/Berhan, Me’iso,
Bedessa and Galmso stations have data span over 50 years whereas Diksis and
Metahara stations have less than 25 years of data records. The remaining stations
have data span between 20 to 50 years. Frequency of data measurement was another
problem of the stations. All stations measure precipitation once per 24 hours. Thus, the
precipitation reported by stations may not represent the actual amount. As discussed by
Shuttleworth (1992), at stations which record only once per day, the reported
precipitation could be less than the actuall value due to evaporation from the measuring
container. This condition is expected at stations located in rift valley where evaporative
factors such as windspeed, sunshine, and temperature are strong.

Data gaps and inconsistencies between measured values were other problems. A time
series of rainfall measurement from 1954 to 2007 illustrates high inhomogeneity and
data discontinuity at some stations. For instance, a rainfall data was missed at
D/Berhan station for the months of July in 1964, 1965, 1971, 1973, 1974, 1981 and
1982. Similarly, there was no recent wind speed data at Koka, Modjo, Wonji, Sheno,
34
Arsi, and M/Were stations. Furthermore, the variability of monthly data for a given
month at same station is highly erratic which leads to data uncertain. Even though,
climate factors of a given month at the same station can vary from year to year, data
outliers and extreme inhomogeneities could not be expected for the same months at the
same stations. For example, precipitation recorded for the month of July at D/Berhan
ranges from 32mm (in 1987) to 432 mm (in 2006). The 32 mm record seems
underestimated as the month of July is the high rainfall month at this station. No
explanation was given for such outliers. This could be due to spatial and temporal
sampling problems (for example records could be taken at different times of the day),
entering data against wrong time or month, different instrument types, instrument bias,
changes in a station's location (elevation), averaging techniques, surrounding
environment, observers, etc. Thus, an adjustment was made for data outliers using
correlation factor between the nearest stations to eliminate data anomalies as used by
Singh (1992).

3.3 Precipitation

3.3.1 General Occurrence in Ethiopia

Rainfall in Ethiopia is controlled by the position where the opposing north-east and
south-east trade winds converge, so called the inter-tropical convergent zone (ITCZ).
The ITCZ is a zone of high atmospheric pressure where the rising air triggers heavy
rainfall and high air temperature (Valadon, 1992; Angel, 2006). In its oscillation to the
north and south of the equator, the ITCZ passes over Ethiopia twice a year (Fig 3.2) and
this migration causes a variation in the wind flow patterns over the country with the
onset and withdrawal of winds from north and south (Tadesse,1994; Shanko and
Camberlin, 1998).

35
 Notheast trade wind
ITCZ noth of Ethiopia

Location
of Ethiopia

equator

ITCZ south of Ethiopia

Southwest trade wind

Figure 3. 2 Seasonal change of ITCZ. Bold line and arrow show a tropical depression on the ITCZ
north of the equator (Ethiopian high rainfall season) and the broken line and arrow show the drift
of ITCZ south of eqautor (Ethiopian dry season); adapted from Djuric (1994)

When ITCZ is located in the north of Ethiopia, the north easterly winds from south west
reach most part of the country leading to the retreat of north trade wind. During this
period, the southerlies wind from Atlantic Ocean and the easterlies wind from the Indian
Ocean reach large part of the country causing outsized rainfall including the study area.
Its southward drift marks the onset of the trade winds from the north and causes the
equatorial monsoons to retreat. This periodical shift of trade winds causes rainfall to
be variable and seasonal in Ethiopia.

Main rainy season is usually preceded in March and April by converging northeast and
southeast winds that produce a brief period of light rains (from Indian Ocean). These
rains are followed by a short period of hot dry weather in May and toward the middle of
June, violent thunderstorms occur almost daily and heavy rain occurs in months of July,
August and mid-September (from Atlantic Ocean). In January the high pressure system
that produces monsoons in Asia crosses the Red Sea (Riehl, 1979). Although these
36
northeast trade winds bring erratic rain to the eastern escarpment, they are essentially
cool and dry and provide little moisture to the country's interior.

In general, the southwestern Ethiopia receives heaviest annual rainfall over 1,500 mm
with magnitude of rainfall gradually decreases towards the northeast and east. In central
and north-central Ethiopia, the annual amount is moderate, about 1,200 mm. The
summer rain has a wide coverage whereas the winter season is generally cool and dry.
Figure 3.3 shows source of Ethiopian rainfall and its seasonal distribution.

Figure 3. 3 Sources of Ethiopian rainfall and its seasonal variation (Gemechu, 1977)

37
3.3.2 Rainfall pattern of the study area

Rainfall is the most widely measured meteorological element in the study area
(Appendix 4). Analyses of long term rainfall records show two distinct rainy seasons
common to the study area. The main rainy season often extends from mid June through
September and the short rainy season occurs in March until mid May while the rest of
the months are generally drier (Fig 3.4).

250

200

150
RF (mm)

100

50

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 3. 4 Mean monthly rainfall of the study area

In addition to the position of ITCZ, the temporal and spatial variation of precipitation of
the study area is strongly related to the physiographic configuration and seasonal
changes in the atmospheric pressure systems that control the prevailing winds.
Because of these factors, most of the western and eastern highlands receive high
rainfall while the central lowlands of the rift floor receive little seasonal showers and
often dry. The highest annual average rainfall occurs at the northwest highlands near
Ankober, Ginagir and Sendafa while the north central lowlands receive the lowest
annual rainfall less than 600mm (Fig 3.5).

38
 Figure 3. 5 Spatial rainfall and temperature pattern

From the long term mean monthly rainfall data, spatial distribution of rainfall
and its regression with altitude was examined and it is found that rainfall is
positively correlated with altitude (Fig 3.6)

39
 RF (mm)

RF (mm)
Western highland
Eastern highland

RF (mm)

Rift floor

Figure 3. 6 Correlation of rainfall with altitude

The general positive correlation between rainfall and altitude shown in Figure 3.6 is not
very much high (r2=0.35) that explains the topographic effect on rainfall as shown on
Figure 3.7. The western plateau facing toward east are on the windward side
whereby large precipitation is generated by upward movement of air upon
encountering these uplands whereas the eastern plateau facing to west is on
the leeward side receiving low precipitation (Fig 3.6, top). For example, the
Assela station located at 3000m.a.s.l is recieving low rainfall as compared to
40
Gelemso and Bedesa stations which are located at 2000m.a.s.l on the
windward sides. This indicates the effect of topography on the magnitude
and spatial distribution of rainfall in the study area.

Alt (masl) RF (mm/yr) T (0C)

3500 30
Alt (m.a.s.l) & RF (mm/yr)

3000 25

Mean air T (0C)

2500
20
2000
15
1500
10
1000
500 5

0 0

Figure 3. 7 Comparison of rainfall and temperature with altitude for selected stations

3.3.3 Spatial interpolation of precipitation

Precipitations recorded at rain gauges are point data. However, precipitation exhibits an
appreciable spatial variation within the area affected by physiography. There are
numerous methods for computing areal rainfall from point data including arithmetic,
isohyets, Thiessen polygon, normal ratio and others. The technique, advantage and
drawbacks of each of these methods are discussed by Shuttleworth (1992). Due to
large topographic contrast of the study area and unevently distribution of rain gauges,
annual average aerial precipitation of the study area was assessed by arithmetic mean,
Thiessen and Isohytes methods.

Arithmetic mean is effective in estimating mean aerial precipitation in uniform

topographic area where rain gauge stations are evenly distributed. The mean aerial

41
precipitation of the study area calculated by this method is 995 mm/yr. On other hand,
isohyets is effective in estimating mean aerial precipitation in area characterized by high
topographic contrast where topographic influence on precipitation is supposed to be
very high, whereas Thiessen method produce more reliable result in uniform
topographic areas. The mean aerial precipitation determined by isohytes (Fig 3.8b) is
964 mm/yr. The Thiessen polygon (Fig 3.8a) method is based on the mean of long term
annual rainfall of 24 stations. Thiessen method attempts to adjust for non-uniform gauge
distribution by weighing the record of each gauge in proportion to the area which is
closer to that gauge than to any other gauge by calculating weighted area of influence
by equation.
n

∑ A i p i
P = i = 1
(3.1)
A t

where, P is effective aerial precipitation (mm), Ai is the ith polygon area, pi is the
precipitation recorded at the ith rain gauge, At total area. The annual aerial effective
precipitation and polygon area of the stations is given in Appendix 5.

Result obtained by these methods is given in Table 3.1. Considering the large size of
the study area and limited rainfall stations, results obtained by the three methods are
not very much different. Thus, their average of 970 mm/yr is taken as annual aerial
rainfall of the study area.

42
Table 3. 1 Effective rainfall of the study area computed by three methods for the data
span given in appendix 4

Arthimetic Thiessen Method Isohyte Method

Effective Isohyets Area % Weighted
2
Station Rf (mm/yr) Area RF (mm) (mm) Av. (Km ) Area RF (mm)
Assela 1211.5 617 39 <700 650 458 2.4 15.4
Diksis 1238.71 1760 113 700-800 750 1333 6.9 51.8
Bedesa 1009.31 288 15 800-900 850 6810 11.3 300.0
Gelmso 1116 751 43 900-1000 950 4182 35.3 205.9
Kora 806.51 642 27 1000-1100 1050 2358 21.7 128.3
Meiso 745.88 39 2 1100-1200 1150 2185 12.2 130.2
Melka were 582.79 678 20 1200-1300 1250 1035 5.4 67.0
D/ Berhane 914.64 21 1 >1300 1350 936 4.9 65.5
Ginager 1790.15 971 90 Total 19297 100.0 964.1
Meki 803.63 200 8
Metahara 533.13 1871 52
Mojo 961.45 16 1
Nazeret 873.03 465 21
Nura era 632.1 2134 70
Sendafa 1162.3 219 13
Sheno 997.31 966 50

S/Gebeya 991.61 971 50

Wonji 831.9 326 19
Koka 741.7 219 13
Awash7 659.09 1540 53
Alelitu 1104.09 326 19
Welenchiti 958.42 2036 101

Ankober 1761.4 190 17

Alyu Amba 1470 958 73
Mean
(mm/yr) 995 19297 944

43
 (a)
(b)

Figure 3. 8 Thiessen polygon (a) and Isohytes (b)

3.3.4 Analysis of rainfall trend

Assessment of rainfall trend of twenty years (1987-2006) at selected station shows a

remarkable rainfall anomaly that is repeating in a defined period of time in the form of
either dry or heavy rainy year (Fig 3.9). Rainfall recorded in 1989 and 1997 were the
highest storm whereas the 1992 and 2002 were the least which correspond to the
heavy rain and dry years, respectively. Each of these rainfall anomalies has both social
and hydrological consequences causing devastating flood or severe drought. The heavy
rainy year cause recharge from floods, rivers, depression storages whereas the dry
events are commonly known causing drop in water table in shallow domestic wells
escalating water supply shortage. Understanding long term rainfall trend of a watershed
is important in planning dam at downstream of rivers that rely on surface runoff to
predict maximum flow that can be carried to the dam.

44
 810mm

.
480mm

880mm

570mm

1050mm
1050mm

1100mm

Figure 3. 9 Twenty years (1987-2006) of annual aerial rainfall trend of selected stations

45
 3.4 Temperature and Sunshine

Temperature shows a negative correlation with altitude whereby the mean monthly
temperatures at lowest elevations range from 23.3 °C in December to 33 °C in June at
M/Werer, and at the highest elevations from 10.7°C in November at D/Berhan to 16.6
°C in May at S/Gebeya and Assela (Appendix 6).

Figure 3. 10 Temperature and sunshine at selected stations

46
Figure 4.11 Relative humidity (%) and windspeed (m/s) of selected stations
Figure 3. 11 Relative humidity (%) and windspeed (m/s) of selected stations
Figure 4. 1 Relative humidity (%) and windspeed (m/s) of selected stations

Daylight duration show significant variation between rift and highlands where the
longest daylight (12.7 h) is in January and September at Nazert whereas the shortest
(4.1 h) is at S/Gebeya in July and August (Appendix 7). Similar to temperature and
sunshine shown in Figure 3.10, relative humidity (RH) and wind speed show seasonal
and spatial variation over the study area (Fig 3.11). The lowest wind speed is 0.7 m/s in
October at Koka and the maximum is 5.8 in November at Melka Werer (appendix 8)

47
whereas the maximum RH occurs in July and August at Sheno while the minimum is in
May at Nura Era (Appendix 9).

3.5 Evapotranspiration

3.5.1 Introduction

Evapotranspiration (ET) describes the discharge of water to the atmosphere from land
surface and vegetation. The rate of evapotranspiration at any location is controlled by
several factors including the available energy related to solar radiation and air
temperature, humidity, wind speed above the surface, water availability, land cover
features such as vegetation, and soil characteristics (Bonan, 2002).

In terms of the hydrological component and the water balance, ET make-up the second
largest component (Shuttleworth, 1992). However, the difficulty of measuring
evaporation from soil and open water surfaces, and transpiration from different types of
vegetation is a central problem in measuring the evapotranspiration of a given area.

Difficulties in understanding the physical nature of the evaporation process, together

with ambiguous results from the various types of instrument designed to measure
evaporation directly led to the development of empirical techniques for estimating
evapotranspiration using available climatic data (Thornthwaite 1948). These techniques
are recognized and acknowledged to give only approximation, but in the absence of
simple-to-apply more theoretically sound methods, they could provide a useful means of
calculating these hydrological components. Errors in estimating this hydrological
variable, therefore, has great negative implication in determining other hydrological
process, for example, in estimation of groundwater recharge.

The best compromise is the semi-empirical physically based Penman (1948)

formula which embodies the concepts of potential evapotranspiration (PET)
and actual evapotranspiration (AET) from an extensive soil and open-water
surface. This method is commonly selected as it takes into account various
factors as input for evapotranspiration.

48
3.5.2 Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)

PET is the amount of water that would be evaporated under an optimal set of
conditions, among unlimited supply of water (Brutsaert, 1982). In other words, it would
be the water needed for evaporation and transpiration given the local environmental
conditions. One of the most important factors that determine water demand is solar
radiation as energy input increases the demand for water. This means that Middle
Awash basin which is marked by long sunshine and high temperature could have high
PET. PET of the study area was evaluated using the heat index (Thornthwaite, 1948)
and Penman (1948) methods, and the most reliable result from Penman methd was
considered in this study.

3.5.2.1 Heat index method

Thornwaite (1948) proposed that potential evapotranspiration could be estimated by

equation

a
 10 T m 
PET = 16 N m   (3.2)
 I 

Where PET= monthly evapotranspiration (mm)

m is the month 1, 2, 3…12, and Nm is the monthly adjustment factor related to hours of
daylight, Tm is the monthly mean temperature (0c) , I is the heat index for the year,
computed by:
1.5
12
T 
I = ∑  m i  (3.3)
i =1  5 

a= location dependant coefficient determined by (4.3)

a = 6.7 x10 −7 I 3 − 7.7 x10 −5 I 2 + 1.8 x10 −2 I + 0.49 (3.4)

PET estimated by this method is given in Table 3.2

49
Table 3. 2 PET computed by Heat index method (mm)

Region Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Plateau 19 20 21 21 21 21 19 19 19 19 18 18 234
rift floor 66 60 60 59 68 63 43 42 49 54 56 55 675
Study area
(mean) 58 53 54 53 60 56 39 39 44 49 50 49 604

One of the potential drawbacks of heat index method is underestimated PET as the
method takes only a single variable (temperature) as evaporative factor. Because of this
potential limitation of this method, PET computed by this method is not considered in
this hydrological assessment.

3.5.2.2 Penman Method

Penman (1948) first combined factors to account for a supply of energy and a
mechanism to remove the water vapor from the immediate vicinity of the evaporating
surface and produced a formula which allows the condition under which
evapotranspiration takes place from a vegetated surface:

∆ γ
(R n − G )+ 6 . 43 (1 . 0 + 0 . 53 u 2 )(e s − e d )
∆ +γ ∆ +γ
PET = (3.5)
λ
Where PET= potential evapotranspiration in mm/day
Rn = net radiation in MJ/m/d computed by:
 
R n = [(1 − α )R s ] −  f (T ). f ( e d ). f (
n
) (3.6)
 N 
Where, α = refelction factor which depends on the nature of the surface;
Rs = solar radiation in equivalent evaporation (mm/d) defined by:
n
R s = ( 0 . 25 − 0 . 5 ) Ra (3.7)
N

50
Ra = the amount of radiation received at the top of the atmosphere which is derived from
standard tables for specific location and time of the year (mm/d)
n: measured actual sunshine hours
N: maximum possible sunshine hours
f(T)=σTk4, Tk (temperature in 0K), σ is Stefan-Boltzman constant (5.67*10-8 W/m2*k4)
f(ed)=0.34-0.044√ed , ed is actual water vapour pressure (mbar)
f(n/N)=0.1 + 0.9n/N
G = heat flux density to the ground in MJ/m/d
λ =latent heat of vaporization computed by equation:

λ = 2.501 − 2.361x10 −3 T (3.8)

u2 = wind speed measured 2 m above the ground in m/s
∆ = slope of the saturation vapor pressure-temperature curve, kPa/0C determined by:

  17.27T 
40980.6108 exp 
  T + 237.3 
∆= (3.9)
(T + 237.3) 2
where T is the mean temperature in 0C.
γ = psychrometric constant, in kPa/0C and computed by:
CpP
γ = (3.10)
0.622λ
where Cp, the specific heat of water at constant pressure (0.001013 kJ/kg/0c), and p is
the atmospheric pressure that Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) suggested and calculated
by:
P = 101.3 − 0.01055H (3.11)
where P is in kPa and H is the elevation above sea level in meters. The remaining G is
the heat flux density to the ground in MJ/m/d, and this can be determined from equation:

(Ti +1 − Ti −1 )
G = 4 .2 (3.12)
∆t

Where T is the mean air temperature in 0c for time period i+1 and i-1, and ∆t is the time
in days between the midpoints of time periods i+1 and i-1

51
es − ed = vapor pressure deficit determined by
(e (
s T max ) + e s (T min ) )
e s − ed = − es (Td 8 am ) (3.13)
2
16.78T − 116.9 
es = exp (3.14)
 T + 237.3 
e d = e s xRH (3.15)
Where RH is relative humidity (%)

PET of the study area computed according to this method is given in Table 3.3

Table 3. 3 PET by Penman method (mm)

Region Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Plateau 119 133 128 113 130 103 66 47 54 101 119 114 1226
Rift floor 232 264 273 271 316 318 242 176 190 264 256 233 3035
Study
area 212 242 249 245 286 284 214 156 169 237 233 213 2739

In both heat index and Penman method, the computed PET shows both spatial and
temporar variation with the highest PET in rift floor. The high PET estimated in the rift
floor is due to high temperature, long sunshine hours, low relative humidity (Fig 3.10
and 3.11) as well as low rainfall of this region (Fig 3.9). PET estimated by heat index
method is much lower than the Penman method as it takes only single variables as
factor for evaporation whereas result from Penman method seems more reliable as this
method consider other factors for evaporation including wind speed, sunshine hour and
relative humidity in addition to temperature. Thus, PET obtained by Penaman method is
used in this study (Appendix 10).

3.5.3 Estimation of Actual evapotranspiration (AET)

AET is the amount of water delivered to the air through evaporation and transpiration
under the existing field condition (Droogers, 2000). It is an output of water that depends
on available soil moisture, temperature, humidity and field capacity of soils.
52
3.5.3.1 Estimation of AET from river discharge

The river discharge method or water balance approach is generally used for estimating
AET of large area like Middle Awash basin. The inflow and outflows are determined
from stream flow and precipitation measurements and the difference between inflow
and outflow over a relatively long period of time is used to estimate evaporation using
the equation:

AET = P-Q ± ∆G ±∆θ (3.16)

where P is effective precipitation of stream catchment (mm/month), AET is actual

evapotranspiration (mm/month), Q is depth of effective river discharge (mm/month), ∆G
is groundwater inflow or outflow (mm), and ∆θ is soil water change (mm/mm/month).
For long period of years, the change in ∆G and ∆θ are insignificant thus can be
dropped, and the equation becomes:

AET = P-Q (3.17)

There are four major rivers in the study area, namely Awash, Kessem, Keleta and Arba
Abomsa which have long term daily discharge records. Keleta and Arba Abomsa rivers
drain the eastern watersheds where as Kessem river drains the western watershed of
the study area. Awash River is regulated at Koka and Melkasa for hydropower and
sidetracked at Wonji and Metahara for large scale irrigation. Thus, Awash River
discharge is not used for estimating evapotranspiration as the recorded discharge of
this river could not represent its natural flow. Therefore, river discharge data of the other
three rivers were used to estimate the AET of the study area (appendix 10). Detail
hydrograph of these rivers are discussed under section 3.6 of this chapter.

53
3.5.3.2 Semi distributed soil-water balance method

AET of the study area was also estimated by semi soil-water distributed method
(Thornthwaite and Mather ,1957) that calculates the water budget for individual soil
type based on average monthly effective precipitation, potential evapotranspiration and
available water capacity of soil, which is equal to the rooting depth and the water
holding capacity of the soil.

The theoretical principle of this method is that, when the soil is saturated, it will hold no
more water. In this condition, actual evapotranspiration is equal to potential
evapotranspiration (Shaw, 1988). If there is no rain to replenish the water supply, the
soil moisture gradually becomes depleted by the demand of vegetation to produce a soil
moisture deficit (D). As soil moisture deficit increases, actual evapotranspiration
becomes less and less than potential evapotranspiration. The value of soil moisture
deficit and actual evapotranspiration vary with soil type and vegetation. When the
moisture supply becomes limiting, the computed potential rate is modulated by a factor
that depends upon the amount of water in the soil. The relationship can be expressed
as (Dunne and Leopold, 1978):

 AW 
AET = PETxf   (3.18)
 AWC 

where, AET and PET are actual and potential rates of evapotranspiration, respectively.
f ( ) is some function of the term inside the parentheses. AW is the available soil
moisture (cm), AWC is water capacity of soil (cm).

Deficit (D) A soil moisture deficit occurs when the demand for water exceeds that which
is actually available (Shuttlewort, 1992). In other words, deficits occur when potential
evapotranspiration exceeds actual evapotranspiration (PET>AET). Deficits only occur
when the soil is completely dried out (FAO. 1998). That is, soil moisture storage (ST)
must be 0.

54
Surplus (S) Surplus water occurs when P exceeds PET and the soil is at its field
capacity or saturated (Shuttleworth, 1992). That means, there is more water than soil
and plants actually need to use given the environmental conditions at a place. The
surplus water cannot be added to the soil because the soil is at its field capacity so it
runs off the surface. Surplus runoff often ends up in nearby streams causing stream
discharge to increase.

Soil Moisture Storage (ST). This refers to the amount of water held in the soil at any
particular time. The amount of water in the soil depends on soil properties like soil
texture and organic matter content. The maximum amount of water the soil can hold is
field capacity (Allen et al., 1998). Fine grain soils have larger field capacities than
coarse grain (sandy) soils. Thus, more water is available for actual evapotranspiration
from fine soils than coarse soils. The upper limit of soil moisture storage is the field
capacity; the lower limit is 0 when the soil has dried out (Smith, 1992).

Change in Soil Moisture Storage (∆ST). The change in soil moisture storage is the
amount of water that is being added to or removed from what is stored. The change in
soil moisture storage falls between 0 and the field capacity.

55
Figure 3. 12 Semi distributed soil-water balance model
Penman (1948) introduced the concept of ‘root constant’ that defines the amount of soil
moisture that can be extracted from a soil without difficulty by given vegetation. A soil
moisture budget can be made on monthly basis for various types of plants classified
according to their root constants (Dunne and Leopold, 1978). Therefore, to evaluate
actual evapotranspiration over the study area, the proportions of different types of
vegetation covering the basin has been classified according to their rooting depth with
the references to guidelines for computing Crop water requirements (FAO 1998).
Based on land cover features of the study area discussed under chapter 2, the area has
been classified into six major land cover features (Table 3.4) and the water balance for
each of these land classes is computed by soil water balance model (Figure3.12).

Table 3. 4 Major land cover, soil type and field capacity

No Land cover % Soil type Field Capacity (mm)

1 Open forest 13 Silty sand 200
2 Rock exposure with 36 Silty sand 100
shrubs
3 Crops, beans, peas, 19 Silty loam 150
Teff etc
4 Irrigation (sugar cane, 3 Clay loam 150
maize, etc.;
5 Grass 27 Silty sand 100
6 Water body/Lakes 2

Inputs to the model consists of monthly rainfall, Pm and Potential evapotranspiration

PETm. According to Alley (1984), if in a given month, Pm > PETm, the value of soil
moisture at the end of that month, Sm, is found as:

S ; m = min [(Pm − PET m ) + S m −1 ][( ( pm − PETm ) + S m −1 ), S max ] (3.19)

If Pm < PETm, a soil moisture deficit develops or increases. The soil moisture for this
case is given

 (PET m − Pm ) 
S m = S ; m −11 exp  −  (3.20)
 S max 

The monthly actual evapotranspiration, AETm, is then found as:

AET = PET, if Pm > PETm (3.21)

56
AET = Pm + ∆Sm, otherwise (3.22)

where, AET is actual evapotranspiration (mm), PET is potential evapotranspiration

(mm), P is aerial precipitation (mm), ∆Sm is change in soil moisture.

Water balance at different physiographic regions of the study area computed by soil
water balance method is shown in Figure 3.13 (cross-sectional view) and Figure 3.14.
Summary of the water balance for four physiographic regions is presented in Table 3.5

Table 3. 5 AET, P, PET and recharge for the representative region

Rift floor (Pasteur land and rock exposure, Field capacity 100m)
Type
(mm) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
P 9 29 49 52 34 33 130 127 43 18 3 7 533
PET 243 263 269 271 325 346 254 206 204 317 302 257 3258
AET 9 29 49 52 34 33 130 127 43 18 3 7 533
Recharge 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Eastern plateau (Open forest, field capacity 200mm)

Type
(mm) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
P 21 45 95 130 114 142 203 210 159 60 19 14 1211
PET 136 129 115 94 98 94 68 56 51 97 123 117 1179
AET 21 45 95 94 98 94 68 56 51 97 123 117 959
Recharge 4 2 1 1 0 0 18 86 68 34 17 9 240

Western plateau Open forest, field capacity 200mm)

Type
(mm) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
P 11 22 48 67 46 80 305 292 96 18 7 6 997
PET 80 77 94 80 133 98 50 30 48 72 75 76 912
AET 11 22 48 67 46 80 50 30 48 72 75 76 625
Recharge 6 3 2 1 0 0 28 144 97 48 24 12 365

Southwestern plateau (Agricultural land, field capacity 150mm)

Type
(mm) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
P 15 29 54 53 55 71 222 225 101 32 8 8 873
PET 191 237 227 218 256 211 160 105 123 149 184 192 2253
AET 15 29 54 53 55 71 160 105 123 110 8 8 792
Recharge 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 41 20 10 5 3 81

57
 Recharge=365mm/y Recharge = 240mm/y

AET=P (zero recharge)

Figure 3. 13 Water balance at different physiographic regions

(d)
(d)
PET
(a)
P Recharg AET
PET
AET
Figure 4. 2 Water balance at different physiographic regions

(b)

(c)

Figure 3. 14 Hydrological balance computed by soil-water balance method (mm/month)

58
As shown on Figure 3.14, the semi distributed soil moisture budgeting for rift
floor areas reveals that direct recharge accounts zero percent of the total
amount. This implies that rift floor is found under moisture deficit conditions
where the available precipitation does not satisfy soil water requirement. In
such condition where annual PET is much higher than annual precipitation
(Fig 3.14d), soils may never reach filled capacity, and thus direct recharge is
unlikely to occur. In such case, one has to assume that much of the recharge
could be indirect through geological structures. Conspicuous ephemeral
stream channels are widely present in the study area where indirect recharge
by means of channel leakage could also be obvious. Thus, more localized
indirect recharge can occur via structures and macropores such as
desiccation cracks and interface between vesicles in outcropping volcanic
materials (scoarie and unwelded tuff) that can provide pathways for surface
runoff to enter into aquifer materials.

One of the potential drawbacks of soil water balance method in estimating

recharge is its inability to account for such geological structures which are
pathways for indirect recharge. Large scale faults, surface depressions can
provide bypass routes for runoff to rapidly flow from the surface to the
interior, even prior to soil field capacity is achieved. In the volcanic terrain of
the study basin, accurate quantification of such localized forms of recharge
is very difficult as such structural features are too numerous.

Middle Awash basin is a typical environment where assessment of

groundwater recharge is one of the challenges and difficult to quantify
precisely because of its complex physical features. Furthermore, its low
annual aerial rainfall compared to annual aerial potential evapotranspiration
makes the soil-moisture balance method of recharge estimation to be
ineffective. As discussed by Allison and Hughes, (1978), the high demand
of water by soil and vegetation could result in estimating zero recharge in the
rift floor. In general, the difficulty of recharge estimation by soil water

59
balance method arises due to the random and sporadic nature of
precipitation and spatial variability in soil characteristics, complex geology,
topography, and land cover features of the study area.

Chloride mass balance method can provide better estimation in areas where
preferential (bypass) recharge is largely expected. However, this method is
inapplicable for volcanic terrains of the Middle Awash basin where additional
chloride from rocks and deep circulation can be produced in groundwater, a
condition that could highly under estimate recharge rate. Furthermore,
rainwater in the study area is highly irregular and spatially variable. Thus,
the atmospheric chloride concentration in rainwater of the study area is not
yet documented and difficult to accurately quantify. Because of these two
reasons, chloride mass balance method of recharge estimation was not
applied in this study. This method is more applicable in areas where
production of chloride from rocks is expected to be very low such as
sedimentary aquifers.

3.6 River hydrograph and recharge estimation

3.6.1 Introduction

Drainage systems are controlled by climate, topography, land cover, and geology
including tectonic structures of the area. In area where the underlying geology is
impervious, and topography is steep, dense drainage systems could develop whereas
area with porous materials and flat topography produce low drainage density as large
volume of water is lost to subsurface through porous materials. The climatic and
hydrologic characteristics of the Middle Awash basin generally produce a discontinuous
stream flow regime in most of the watersheds.

The plateau and escarpments which shares 26% of area are marked by dense drainage
systems characterized by well integrated drainage pattern in which many tributaries join
together to form larger streams. The drainage systems in these regions developed over
the steep mountains and follow topographic slopes. The northeast highlands are
60
characterized by swift and straight drainage pattern whereby there is no integrity among
tributaries but streams form separate flow in the same direction (Figure 3.15). These
flow systems are constrained by fault systems and the bounding relief which are sloping
toward each other and form local flow system. On other hand, the rift floor which
accounts 74% of the total area has diffused drainage system marked by lack of well
developed drainages. Streams that drain the highlands tend to disappear up on
reaching the rift porous and permeable volcanic deposits.

Figure
Figure 4.
3. 315Drainage
Drainagesystem
systemofofthe
thestudy
studyarea
area
61
3.6.2 Hydrograph of the major rivers

Analysis of long term daily stream discharge data records of the streams show that
most of the streams are flashing types that exists only during the short rainy seasons.
Between summer rainfall events, the rivers exhibit continuous flow to the Awash River
from residual watershed but flows are entirely dry during the dry seasons (Figure 3.16).

Awash River is the main river in the study area that flow toward northeast following the
main rifting axis. Its discharge is measured at several places (Koka, Wonji, Nura Era,
Metahara, and Melka werer) but as it is controlled at Koka and Melkasa for hydropower
as well as sidetracked to irrigation field at Wonji, Merti and Metahara, discharge
recoded from Awash River was not used in this study.

Kessem, Keleta, and Arba Abomsa are perennial streams and major tributaries of
Awash River. Kessem stream drains the northwestern plateau whereas Keleta and Arba
Abomsa streams drain the eastern watershed of the study area. The daily discharge
data of these three rivers were used for analyses of hydrological dynamics and
recharge estimation as they have their natural flow throughout the year.

Analysis of the relationship between magnitude and frequency of stream flow

components and its relation with the stream peak (rainfall event) is essential to
understand the dynamics and frequency of groundwater discharge to streams. Daily
time-series record of stream flow was used to derive the hydrograph components of the
three rivers. In this hydrograph analysis, periods with complete daily discharge record
were selected for hydrograph separation (HS) and recharge estimation.

Separation of stream discharge into its flow components has practical importance to
understand the contribution of groundwater to river flow as well as to estimate
groundwater recharge. The traditional plot of river hydrograph (appendix 11) does not
indicate the flow components contributing to stream flow. Furthermore, manual
hydrograph separation technique is very subjective and could not give reliable quantity
of hydrograph flow components.

62
 In this study, the daily data were initially filtered into its flow component under ABSCAN
software (Parker, 2006). The river hydrograph was constructed from the filtered data
into base flow and quick flow components (Table 3.6) using the Eckhardt recursive
digital filter of 0.99 and a base flow index (BFI) of 0.25. These values were selected in
accordance to Eckhardt (2005) recommendation for perennial streams that drains the
fractured volcanic rocks which correspond to the study basin. In addition, the filtered
data was also used to analysis flow duration curve of the rivers to understand
percentage of time to which a given flow rate is consistent. Summary of monthly
hydrometric discharge data of these rivers is presented in Appendix 12

Table 3. 6 Hydrograph components of rivers (mcm/month) and effective rainfall of the

corresponding catchment (mm/month)

Stream Fow component Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Eff.RF 24 32 66 91 81 92 166 180 109 64 13 16 936
Total flow 180 145 219 180 207 183 355 802 359 37 21 23 2710
Arba
Abomsa Direct runoff 73 34 83 26 40 27 169 525 208 0 2 7 1195
2
(140km ) Base flow 107 111 136 154 166 156 185 277 151 37 18 17 1516
Eff.RF 21 41 84 128 119 141 202 213 166 72 21 18 1225
Total Flow 264 834 952 1147 424 367 983 1781 2106 382 113 99 9451
Keleta
Direct Runoff 132 436 461 578 207 182 509 897 1152 187 56 49 4846
(749
2
km ) Baseflow 132 398 490 569 217 185 474 884 954 195 57 50 4605
Eff.RF 34 45 92 105 70 80 291 312 127 51 25 22 1254
Total Flow 212 274 347 185 176 137 2252 10344 2494 379 197 132 17127
Kessem
Direct Runoff 140 210 233 96 124 111 2029 8716 1066 12 13 6 12758
(3113
2
km ) Baseflow 71 64 114 89 52 25 223 1628 1428 367 184 125 4369

Baseflow rising and recession segments shown on Figure 3.16 indicate

typical geological factors that influence recharge condition of the watershed
(Horton, 1933). The hydrological flow components of the three streams show
relative contributions of quick flow and base flow components which varies
over slight time span to stream flow indicating the consequential effect of
rainfall on both flow components with the quick flow event caused due to
steep slope and hard rock occupying the mountains watershed while the
63
baseflow caused by large preferential recharge to groundwater through
geological structures. For all the three streams, base flow shows a quick
rises and secede following the onset and cease of rainfall which indicate fast
recharge system. The baseflow component of the rivers begin rising at 180
days (Fig 3.16 top) following the onset of summer rainfall and the limb rises
towards the crest between 200 to 250 days which corresponds to the high
rainfall months of July and August (Fig 3.16 bottom).

As shown on Figure 3.16, stream discharge and baseflow of the three rivers
varies depending on the magnitude of the corresponding catchment rainfall.
Kessem stream has baseflow only during the rainy storms of the summer
seasons with the peak flow in the months of August. Arba Abomsa stream
has relatively sustainable baseflow with minimum flow in the months of
November and December while the maximum flow occurs in August and
September. Keleta stream has different flow pattern from the other two
characterized by two seasons of maximum flow in April and September which
is related to the bi-modal pattern of rainfall in southeastern highlands of the
study area. During the rainy season, flows increase to peak in all streams in
response to high rainfall and subsides rapidly following rainfall cessation.

In estimating recharge from baseflow, the assumption is that the baseflow of

a river is equal to the total groundwater recharge of the catchment upstream
of the discharge measuring site (Wright, 1980). In this case any loss
upstream the gauging station is considered to be negligible. Accordingly, the
recharges estimated from rivers are largely variables which depend on
catchment rainfall, topographic slop and underlying geology of the
watershed.

64
 Kessem River

ArbaAbomsa River

Keleta
Keleta River

Figure 3. 16 River daily hydrograph for the data 2006 and longterm mean monthly
flow for the
Figure 4.4data presented
River in Appendix
daily hydrograph for12
the data 2006 and longterm mean monthly
flow for the data presented in Appendix 12 65
Figure 3.17 shows the rainfall-baseflow relationships for the three rivers
established from mean monthly data. The correlation coefficient shown on
the curve indicates the condition of channel loss of the respective rivers.
Kessem River has lower correlation coefficient (0.36) indicating higher
possible channel loss. The lower correlation value is also related to dry
season rainfall which plays little role in recharge. The existence of channel
losses from river could result in lower total discharge and baseflow records.
This means that the estimated recharge from Kessem River could be
somewhat lower than the actual value. In this case, the recharge estimated
from Kessem River is expected to be lower than its actual recharge.

Figure 3. 17 Correlation of rainfall with baseflow

Figure 4. 5 Correlation of rainfall with baseflow

66
3.6.3 Analysis of flow duration curve (FDC) and recession rate

Regional estimation of river flow duration characteristics is important to

estimate the mean annual stream flow rate (Niadas, 2005; Tulinave et al.,
2008). Comparison of flow duration curve of the stream is also useful to
understand the morpho-climatic characteristics of the drainage basin
(Mimikou & Kaemaki, 1985). Flow duration curves of the three streams were
analyzed from long term daily flow data to assess flow variation among the
three streams (Fig 3.18). The results show more than 50% of flow rate of the
three streams is below 10 m3/s and flow rate exceeding 200 m3/s contribute
below 10% of total annual river flow which occurs during the heavy rainy
months of July and August. During these periods, Arba Abomsa has
maximum flow within 20-30 m3/s and it has consistent flow rate compared to
Keleta and Kesem streams.

The flow recession rate of Keleta and Kessem stream are typically
characterized by rapid decay while Arba Abomsa has slow decay after the
rain ends. This could be due to the effect of topography, rainfall, geology,
and contribution of base flow to stream flow. In this respect, Kessem and
Keleta stream have high rainfall and drain steep topography, a condition
which triggers surface runoff following the onset of rainfall.

67
 250

200
Discharge (M3/s)

150

100

50

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent of time that indicated discharge equaled or exceeded
Keleta River Kessem River Arba Abomsa River

Figure 3. 18 Flow duration curves of rivers

FDC indicates the amount of flow rate consistent over specified period of
time (Niadas, 2005). FDC has practical importance in design of dam for water
storages to be used for hydroelectric power generation and large scale
irrigation. From the FDC (Fig 3.18), Kessem stream has high flow rate as
peak as 225 m3/s which contributes below 10% of the total flow and flow
tends to diminish sharply below 20 m3/s. In the dry season, all rivers have
consistent flow rate near 8 m3/s which contributes over 60 % of the total
annual flow. This explains that quick flow is the major component of streams
that results due to high topographic slops and massive geology in highland
and escarpment area. The recession limbs of the three streams were
analyzed using the recession constant, K, defined by log-linear recession
equation (Linsley et al., 1958):

Q ( t ) = Q ( to ) e − K ( t −to ) , (4.23)

where, K is recession constant of the system and Q (t) is stream flow at time
t. Referring Figure 4.16, the lowest portion of the recession for Kessem and
Keleta Rivers start at 250 days whereas it is after 270 days for Arba Abomsa
River. Thus, using the least squares on t-t0, ℓnQ(t) of the daily stream
68
discharge data, the recession constant obtained for Kessem, Keleta and
Arba Abomsa are 0.056, 0.021, and 0.001, respectively. As discussed by
Weisman (1977), the low hydrograph recession constant (slow decline in flow
rate) of Keleta and Arba Abomsa streams suggest streams are relying on the
base flow component, while the higher recession constant of Kessem stream
indicates that the annual stream flow is highly dependant on the quick flow.
On the other hand, the rise and fall of the limb of the three streams shows
short lag between the onset and cessation of precipitation which shows the
consequential effect of rainfall on the river hydrograph.

3.7 Concluding remarks

The PET of the study area is higher than the available precipitation with
magnitude increasing riftwards. This implies that the area is under moisture
deficit condition where by the available annual rainfall does not satisfy the
water demand of the area. Higher PET in the rift floor is related to long
sunshine, low humidity, high temperature and low precipitation at rift floor.
Spatial coverage, quantity and quality of meteorological data could be
limitations in estimation of PET and AET in both methods used.

Soil water balance method suggest only about 17% of annual rainfall as
excess waters for groundwater recharge while 83% is lost through
evaporation and surface runoff. The potential drawback of soil water balance
model is that it underrates recharge in volcano-tectonic environments as the
model does not account for preferential recharge system that can occur
through rift geological structures. Furthermore, the land cover classification
made to account the soil water balance model could have limitation in
accurate characterization of rift valley land features which exist in highly
diffused manner. Thus, soil- water balance method could produce
underestimated recharge and overrated AET. However, result obtained from
the model can provide valuable information on the various hydrological
components of the study area useful for water resource management.

69
River hydrograph show the consequential effect of rainfall on magnitude of
the base flow of the rivers which explains the ongoing fast recharge system
in the basin. This is in good agreement with hydrochemical and isotopic
results (chapters 4 and 5).

70
71
 Chapter 4

Hydrochemistry

4.1 Introduction

Atmosphere derives its water from evaporation of the ocean and to a lesser extent from
water at the land surface of the continents. Solute dissolved in rainwater progressively
enriched towards inland derived from dissolution of dust particles (calcium), gaseous
emissions from plants and soil (ammonium and sulfate), burning of fossil (sulfur and
nitrogen oxide) which result in the formation of sulfuric acid and nitric acid in rain
(Drever, 1982). A local variation in rainwater composition is related to variation in
atmospheric composition which resultes human activities, plant and animal metabolism,
and gases from volcanoes and other geothermal sources (Toth, 1963). Particulate
matter carried into the air by wind, discharged from smokestacks, or entering the
atmosphere from outer space provides a number of atmospheric components that may
influence the composition of rainwater. Minor constituents such as CO, SO4, O3, and
NO2 or other nitrogen-containing gases may play important roles in air pollution and
may influence the composition of rainwater (Hem, 1992).

Solutes contained in groundwater represent the net effect of a series of antecedent

chemical reactions that have dissolved material from another phase, have altered
previously dissolved components, and have eliminated them from solution by
precipitation or other processes (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). The ways in which solutes
are taken up or precipitated and the amounts present in solution are influenced by many
environmental factors, especially climate, geological activities including structure,
position of rock strata and biochemical effects. Thus, chemical composition of
groundwater is used to construct the hydrogeological processes including flow paths
and provide information about the recharge system, mode of groundwater movement
and its interaction with the host rocks. All these hydrological processes and mechanism

72
of geochemical reactions between groundwater and host rocks can be traced from
measured hydrochemical variables.

Detail description of hydrochemical characterstics and geochemical processes

undergoing with ground waters of the study area is presented in this chapeter

4.2 Sampling technique

The hydrogeochemical characteristics of waters were obtained from analysis of 45

water samples of which 37 from wells, 4 springs, 2 rivers, and a lake collected from
different physiographic region of the study area (Fig 4.1). The hydrochemical data are
presented in Appendix 13.

Figure4. 1 Water sampling sites

73
In order to fetch water from wells, water was initially purged for some times before
taking sample and samples were collected at the wellhead while keeping pumping.
Springs were sampled at their emerging points using plastic syringe. To account the
physiochemical change that would take place, all field based parameters such as
temperature, pH, EC, Eh and alkalinity were measured at in situ. All samples were
filtered with 0.45 µm filter membranes and collected in clean and dry HDPE plastic
bottles filled almost completely to the top and capped tightly to avoid evaporation and
exchange of sample water with atmospheric materials.

4.3 Measurements of field parameters

When groundwater is removed from its natural environment to the surface, temperature,
pH, EC, Eh and alkalinity of water undergo changes due to aeration, oxidation, and
degassing or absorption of atmospheric carbon dioxide. These reaction processes
cause other activities to take place. For example, degassing of CO2 could cause
precipitation of carbonates and if precipitation of carbonate occurs, the laboratory
results will reflect a lower alkalinity than is actually found in the formation water (Hem,
1989). Furthermore, most of groundwater is found under reducing environment
(negative Eh), and when brought to the surface, oxygen absorption could rapidly take
place causing oxidation and precipitation of some constituent. Thus, to account the
physiochemical change that could take place, all field based water parameters were
measured at in situ (Table 4.1).

4.3.1 Temperature

Water temperature was measured by digital thermometer which is incorporated in pH

meter. The thermometer probe was immersed in flowing waters and temperature
reading was taken when the record is stabilized to the nearest 0.20c while keeping the
probe immersed in water.

74
4.3.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC)

CONSORT K810 instrument was used to measure the EC of sample waters.

Calibration of electrode was performed with standard solution of KCl of 1413 µS/cm
conductivity at 25 0C.

4.3.3 pH and alkalinity

Measurements of pH were acquired with a PHM220 MeterLab pH meter equipped with

AgCl-KCl glass electrode. Calibration curve was drawn by measurement of two
standard buffered solutions of pH 4.01±0.01 (potassium hydrogenophtlate) and
7.00±0.01 (potassium dihydrogenophosphate di-sodium) at 25 0C. The concentration of
alkalinity was determined by titration of an aliquot of 100 ml of sample continuously
stirring with 10-4N hydrochloric acid solution. The titration curve (VHCl in ml vs pH)
obtained permit to calculate the concentrations of carbonate species (H2CO3, HCO3-
and CO2-3) in the sample (Fig 4.2)

4.3.4 Eh

The pH meter used was assembled with Eh meter. After taking the pH reading, Eh (in
mv) was automatically recorded from the Eh mode of the pH instrument.

75
Table 4. 1 Field measured water parameters

Elev Depth WT EC TDS Alk

0
S.N Site_Name Source Sa_No E N (masl) Date (mbgl) (mbgl) T( C) pH (mS/cm) (mg/l) (mg /l) Eh(mV)
1 Metaqoma well 4 542261 916155 1662 29/02/09 420 360 28.8 8.29 0.318 183.9 122.04 -43.3
2 Xadde Dildima well 13 518552 947121 1850 3/3/09 254 204 31.1 7.22 0.48 290 295.4 -64
3 Jogo gudedo well 15 523616 944501 1733 3/3/09 120 86 29.9 6.8 0.481 287 225 -32.7
4 Darer Dambel well 37 510132 937817 1639 3/3/09 162 115 32.7 8.2 0.83 497 365 -86.3
5 Awash Melkasa well 7 536587 929734 1547 4/3/09 150 113 29.1 6.92 1.06 646 475 -57.7
6 Guraja Furda well 12 538755 950839 1484 4/3/09 206 89 32.8 7.16 0.628 373 280 -38.9
7 Galdiya well 16 507929 957419 1569 7/3/09 136 97 35 7.64 0.458 275 200 -52.8
8 Wachu laafa well 42 537676 948420 1491 7/3/09 160 128 44 7.51 0.806 484 360 -56.2
9 Didibsa well 18 535920 945900 1475 8/3/09 180 120 47.6 7.96 1.508 884 725 -79.7
10 Goro Wagilo well 19 539209 940243 1525 8/3/09 202 168 48.4 7.43 1.717 1025 820 -65.4
11 Bati Bora well 8 516683 928502 1624 11/3/09 94 69 33.2 8.23 0.748 450 325 -72.7
12 Bati Qallo well 9 515450 928240 1604 11/3/09 71 33 28.4 8.09 0.592 355 250 -87.7
13 Shanan Silase well 36 520546 919422 1692 11/3/09 185 150 30.4 7.18 2.02 1199 630 -47.6
14 D/N/Kusaye well 21 544786 951428 1465 12/3/09 180 144 27.5 7.35 0.735 448 265 -70.7
15 Chemir Jawis well 28 537591 962318 1659 12/3/09 187 135 29.5 7.5 0.501 300 230 -51.2
16 Buta Badhaso well 17 547968 961046 1467 12/3/09 183 140 35.3 7.53 0.64 385 260 -78.8
17 Feexo well 22 552559 959214 1374 12/3/09 210 165 33.9 7.59 0.875 526 350 -74.6
18 Birsa Ababora well 34 546408 971443 1674 13/3/09 174 65 34.6 7.26 0.547 329 240 -85.7
19 Borcheta well 23 560362 969076 1222 13/3/09 235 187 36.6 8.17 1.245 743 535 -81.6

76
Table 4.1 cont’d
Elev Depth WT EC TDS Alk
0
S.N Site_Name Source Sa_No E N (masl) Date (mbgl) (mbgl) T( C) pH (mS/cm) (mg/l) (mg /l) Eh(mV)
20 Challe well 20 541738 943425 1484 13/3/09 170 135 56.1 7.8 1.925 1130 662.5 -67.6
21 Burqa Hora Spring 35 557925 938561 1333 16/3/09 - - 26.5 10.3 5.37 3280 3100 -189.6
22 L.Beseka Lake L1 596113 984664 957 17/3/09 - - 25.3 9.3 5.6 3370 2200
23 Dhebiti well 26 591942 994317 985 17/3/09 90 43 39.7 8.2 1.813 1077 600 -92.5
24 Xadacha dhera wel 29 589728 993150 992 17/3/09 74 38 39.4 8.2 1.922 1140 675 -84.9
25 Ilala well 30 592742 986659 981 17/3/09 85 34 37.1 8.7 1.964 1174 640 -112.8
26 Xuxuxxi well 27 584972 982057 995 17/3/09 220 158 44.3 8.3 2.34 1383 800 -104.2
27 Ibsata-Haxe well 2 551954 919261 1727 21/3/09 190 100 28.4 7.3 0.602 357 225 -66.8
28 Halelu-gasala well 1 550684 915701 1803 21/3/09 77 42 26.7 7.4 0.547 328 225 -65.4
29 Xabbo chacha Spring 3 552769 914086 1883 21/3/09 - - 26.8 7.1 0.573 346 265 -76.1
30 Sire-gollo Spring 5 555851 915058 2027 21/3/09 - - 27.5 6.9 0.577 355 285 -71.2
31 Keleta River R1 543783 915206 1586 21/3/09 - - 6.8 0.18 128 108 -48.9
32 Awash River-2 River R2 536788 928710 1529 31/3/09 - - 26.2 8.4 0.331 200 185
33 Sodere Spg Spring 6 542758 928967 1344 31/3/09 - - 67.7 6.8 3.04 1814 1100 11.4
34 Adama Uni-1 well 11 530624 947396 1673 01/04/09 298 218 34.6 7.2 0.667 397 250 -13.6
35 Adama Univ-2 well 14 530994 946241 1656 01/04/09 196 152 46.7 7.4 0.636 373 254 -27.8
36 Bordede well 32 652678 996374 1107 01/04/09 135 74 34.9 7.2 0.96 567 325 -18.8
37 Awash Arba well 33 628761 1009132 824 01/04/09 185 56 31.6 7.3 0.679 407 250 -35.08
38 Awash C.M.C.T well 31 632509 998246 890 02/04/09 187 48 37.6 7.2 0.732 432 240 -16.5
39 Abomsa-old well 24 591729 938934 1545 02/04/09 230 152 32 6.9 0.402 243 200 4.2
40 Ashe Abasa well 24 581780 932602 1878 02/04/09 268 182 25.5 6.8 0.454 269 200 13.5
41 Ethio cutting well 10 502362 929483 1598 03/04/09 85 24 27.8 8.2 2.06 1235 875 -75.7
42 Abasa Gorba well Abg 580702 936960 1607 17/05/09 400 358 21.6 7.6 0.383 221 264.8 -25.21
43 Sifa well 41 564317 944152 1232 16/03/09 167 85 32 8.3 724 428 250 -82.1
44 Sendafa well 38 506902 1016138 2678 19/05/09 74 24 21.3 7.3 235 189 243 -24.4
45 Sheno Spring 39 564889 1028218 2688 19/05/09 - - 17.5 6.7 214 175 164 -14.7
46 Ankober Spring 40 580996 1053990 3260 19/05/09 - - 16.8 6.8 224 189 178 -16.5

77
4.4 Assessment of field measured water quality

Field measured water quality shows significant variation in alkalinity, EC and Temperature
throughout the basin. Except Lake Beseka (sample L1) and Burqa Hora springs (sample
35), all ground waters have pH of natural waters within 6 to 8. Figure 4.2 shows the
apparent stability field and state of saturation of waters with respect to carbonate species.
As shown on this figure, the HCO3- is the dominant alkalinity of all waters in the study
area with the exception of Burqa Hora spring (pH=10.3) and L.Beseka (pH=9.3) in which
CO32- also makes up the alkalinity.

a OH
H+ b c
H2CO3 HCO3-
CO32-

Figure4. 2 pH and alkalinity of water samples; Ground waters (a), lake

Beseka (b), Burqa Hora spring(c)

Alkalinity of representative water samples determined by titration with HCl has been
plotted on Brejjum curve (Drever, 1982) to understand the major components of alkalinity
and the apparent constants of carbonate species in water (Fig 4.3). Ground waters in
Middle Awash basin have relatively high temperature that could affect the activity of
carbonate species dissolved in water. This high water temperature could cause a
mismatch of stability field of carbonate species of waters of the study area with Brejjum
diagram which is ploted for specified temperature of 250c. As shown in Figure 4.3, all
waters except Burqa Hora spring are marked by two inflation points labeled as 2 and 3
whereas Burqa hora spring has three inflation points labeled as 1, 2, and 3.

78
 Burqa Hora spg (T-26 d-celsus) pH Highland bore holes
pH
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
0 15
0 80 H+ OH-

Log(activity)
HCO3-

0.1MHCl(ml)
-1 H+ H2CO3 -2 H2CO3 CO32- 10
Log(activity)

60 3

0.1MHCl(ml)
-2 HCO3- CO32- OH- 2
-4 5
-3 40
-4 3
-6
20 0
-5
2 Ibseta Haxe (T-28degre-Celsus)
-6 1 0
Ashe Abasa (T-26 degree-Celsus)

Borehole near escarpment pH Borehole in the rift floor

pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 1314
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 0 15
H+ OH-
0 H+ 12
OH- -1 H2CO3
-1 10 0.1MHCl(ml) HCO3- CO32-
HCO3-

0.1MHCl(ml)
Log(activity)
H2CO3 CO32-
Log(activity)

-2 10
-2 8 3
3 -3 2
-3 6
-4 2 4 -4 5
-5 2 -5
-6 Birsa Abaora (T-35 d-celsus) 0 Dhebiti (T-40 d-celsus)
-6 0
Xuxuxxi (T-44 d-celsus)
Chemir Jawis (T-30 d-celsus)

Thermal waters Shallow and deep waters

pH pH
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
0 15 0 15
H+ OH- H+ OH-
-1 -1 HCO3-
H2CO3

0.1MHCl(ml)
Log(activity)

H2CO3 HCO3-
0.1MHCl(ml)

CO32-
Log(activity)

CO32- -2 10
-2 10 3
2
3
2 -3
-3
-4 5
-4 5
-5
-5
Sodere spg (T-68 d-celsus) -6 Mexaqoma (d=425m, T-29) 0
-6 0
Goro wagilo (T-50 d-celsus) Halelu Gasela (d=77m, T-27)

Figure4. 3 Titration curves of representative water samples

79
The titration curves of water samples with higher temperature do not exactly fit to the end
points on Bjerrum plot. This slight shift could be due to the effect of temperature on pH
and activity of dissolved species which leads to slight drift from site of the end points
marked by Bjerrum curve which is plotted for solution at standard 250c. However, the
inflation point of samples with temperature close to 250c such as Burqa Hora (sample
number 35), and Ashe Abasa (sample number 24) both with temperature 260c, is plotted
closer to the end points of the Bjerrum plot.

Burqa Hora, located in the rift floor, has low temperature and strongly alkaline with pH
10.3. The titration curve of this spring has three inflation point marked by 1, 2, and 3. This
shows that the three alkaline species HCO3-, CO32- and OH- make up the alkalinity of this
spring. The first inflation reached at about pH 8.4 by adding 20ml of 0.1M HCl. At this
point the water was buffered with HCO3- and CO32- and beyond this point, all CO32-
converted to HCO3-. The second end-point marked by number 2 reached at about pH 6.4
by addition of extra 40ml of 0.1MHCl. For all inflation points marked by number 2, the
solution was buffered with HCO3-/H2CO3 pairs. Beyond this end point, the HCO3- species
changed to H2CO3 and as acid kept added, inflation point marked by number 3 reached
around pH 4.2, beyond which the pH show slow change with further addition of acid
showing that all the solution became concentrated with H2CO3.

Other samples have only two inflation points with initial inflation reached near pH 6 (mark
number 2) by addition of about 4ml of acid. At this point, the solution was buffered with
HCO3-/H2CO3 and beyond this the HCO3- converted to H2CO3 by further addition of acid.
With addition of extra 4ml of acid the second end point (marked by 3) reached at about
pH 4.2 beyond which pH changed very slowly with further addition of acid.

The alkalinity of waters determined in the fied by titration show that all waters with the
exception of Burqa Hora springs are weak alkaline waters containing HCO3- as the
dominant carbonate alkalinity of the waters whereas the alkalinity of Burqa Hora spring
consist CO32- and OH in addition to HCO3- species.

80
Conductivity, ionic concentration and temperature generally increase from highland
towards rift floor along groundwater flow. Exceptions to this trend is the Sifa water
(number 41) located in central rift floor adjacent to Awash River bank which is marked by
low EC and temperature compared to other samples located within the rift floor. The low
EC and temperature in this sample could be due to the effect of leakage from Awash
River.

Ground waters located within Wonji fault belt are hot waters (40-670c) with higher EC
(>1500 µS/cm) compared to ground waters circulating outside of this fault belt which are
characterized by T< 300c, and EC < 600µS/cm (Fig 4.4).

Figure4. 4 EC (left) and water temperature (right)

81
4.5 Laboratory analysis of hydrochemical variables and result
Major cations (K+, Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+) and SiO2 were analyzed by flame atomic
absorption spectrometry. The instrument used was a double beam VARIAN AA240FS
spectrometer equipped with deuterium lamp for background correction and single (Si) and
multielement (K+, Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+) lamps as monochromatic light sources. The
different elements were atomized over titanium burner (7cm width) by combustion of
analytical solution (flow induced by venturi effect with rates at 1.2ml/min depending on
viscosity of solution in air-acetylene flame). The detector is composed of monochromator
and a photomultiplicator available on wavelength (λ) range from 185 to 900nm. The
measurement were the mean of 3 replicates each of them of the 3s counting time with
coefficient of variability less than 2%.

The concentrations of anions (Br-, F-, Cl-, HCO3-, NO3-, and SO42-) were determined by
ionic chromatography. The instrument used was ICS1000 DIONEX chromatograph
equipped with AG9-HC post-column, AS9-HC column, ASRS-300 suppressor and both
UV-visible (AD25) and conductimetery (DS6) detectors in series. Standard solutions
range from 0 to 100mg/l concentrations were prepared by dissolution of KBr, NaF, KCl,
NaNO2, NH4NO3, (NH4)2SO4 and KH2PO4 salts of high purity (99.99%) in osmosed
water of 18mΩ quality. It has to be noted that only major ions with F- and Br- were
analysed in this hydrochemical study. As a result, the ionic charge balance has been
found out of the acceptable range (±<5%) for majority of the samples.

4.6 Multivariate statistical analysis of hydrochemical variables

Hydrochemical studies of groundwater systems have placed heavy emphasis

on variations in the physical and chemical characteristics of groundwater in
time and space. A conventional approach of interpretation of hydrochemical
variables takes into account limited hydrochemical variables to interpret
hydrochemical processes and classify hydrochemical facies using various
graphical methods such as Piper (1944), Stiff (1951), and Schoeller (1962). A
higher level approach includes multivariate statistical techniques which assist the

82
common conventional methods of interpreting hydrochemical variables. These
multivariate statistical techniques are the best and often the only effective
solution for analyzing large mass of information generated from groundwater
hydrochemical data (Join et al., 1997).
The obtained hydrochemical data (Appendix 13) were interpreted by
multivariate statistical methods to understand the statistical association among
dissolved variables and extract critical information from hydrochemical
datasets that is used to deduce the cause-and-effects relationship
(Wackernagel, 1995). During the last decade, application of this technique has
been proved successful in the interpretation of various hydrochemical
processes (Ruiz et al., 1990; Voudouris et al., 2000; Meng and Maynard 2001;
Papatheodorou et al., 2007).These techniques can help to resolve
hydrogeological parameters including aquifer systems, ground water flow
paths, and hydrochemical evolution processes, infer and identify factors
controlling geochemical composition of waters (Join et al., 1997; Suk and Lee
1999; Wang et al., 2001). In this study, both Hierarchial Cluster Analysis
(HCA) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were applied to better
constrain the interpretation including inverse geochemical modeling.
STATISTICA data analysis software version 8.0 (Stat Soft Inc.2008) was used
for this hydrochemical data analysis.Detailed technical descriptions of HCA
and PCA techniques are documented in StatSoft Inc. (2008) and only brief
description is given here. HCA, also called Q-mode analysis, is used to group
samples into distinct populations (clusters) that may be significant in the
hydrogeological context, as well as from a statistical point of view (Güler et
al., 2004). To determine the relation between water samples, the standardized
data matrix was imported into the statistical package. The statistical clusters
are analyzed for spatial coherence confirming that the clusters have a
geological basis corresponding to flow paths. On the other hand, PCA, also
called R-mode factor analysis (Lambrakis et al., 2004), is used to determine
the association and sources of variation between parameters (Ruiz et al.,
1990).
83
Middle Awash basin is characterized by variable groundwater quality due to
the interaction of groundwater with intricate geological formation inherent with
active volcano-tectonics. Fresh water derived from highland becomes largely
impaired in the rift floor by the ongoing geological activities imposing shortage
of potable water supply in the area. A statistical technique was applied to
distinguish factors that control the hydrochemical variability of the complex
volcanic aquifers of the Middle Awash basin. The effectiveness of this method
is its ability to reveal inter-variable relationships and allow the use of physical
parameters such as pH, temperature, EC and alkalinity as part of the
classification variables.

4.6.1 Descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics for major hydrochemical variables were calculated (Table

4.2) to gain information on the ranges of variables in samples and to
understand how well the distributions follow the normal distribution.

Table 4.2 Descriptive statistics of hydrochemical variables; EC (µS/cm, T ( 0c) and the
others are in mg/l
Variables Mean Minimum Maximum Std.Dev. Skewness Kurtosis
T 34.4 18.0 67.7 9.1 1.6 3.8
pH 7.7 6.8 10.3 0.7 1.2 2.1
EC 1204.1 156. 0 5600.0 1167.5 2. 7.3
TDS 723.7 183.9 3370.0 702.2 2.7 7.7
Alkalinity 514.5 122.0 3100.0 548.4 3.4 13.3
-
HCO3 503.2 122.0 1171.2 294.0 0.7 0.7
-
Cl 55.0 2.7 477.0 81.7 3.7 17.2
2-
SO4 45.4 2.4 477.9 75.7 4.8 26.9
-
NO3 5.8 0.0 32.0 7.5 2.3 5.1
2+
Ca 29.6 0.0 87.8 26.0 0.6 0.8
2+
Mg 22.2 0.1 257.9 52.3 3.4 11.8
+
Na 272.2 17.3 2030.1 370.9 3.4 13.6
+
K 18.9 0.9 77.4 14.2 2.1 6.1
SiO2 44.1 7.1 248.5 34.3 5.4 32.6
-
F 6.2 0.4 72.5 12.5 4.3 21.0
-
Br 0.4 0.0 2.5 0.6 3.3 10.6

84
As shown in Table 4.2, hydrochemical variables show large variation among samples.
High level of skewness and kurtosis indicates asymmetrical and high peakdness
distribution of the corresponding variables, respectively.

4.6.2 Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA)

HCA is a statistical algorithm that put observed data into meaningful structures
in their hierarchical order (Davis, 1986). The purpose of this classification
technique is to join together cases successively into clusters, using some
measure of similarity or distance. A typical result of this type of clustering is
the hierarchical tree which explains similar or related families of cases. The
result from HCA was used to find the geochemical factors associated to cases
under R-mode analysis. This technique was applied to organize the different
species of groundwater samples from Middle Awash basin into distinct clusters
according to common variables they share in order to give a meaningful
description of the differences between sample sources.

Hydrochemical data having complete analysis of variables were classified into

distinct clusters according to common variables they share using 14
+ + 2+ 2+ - -
dimensions space (T, Alkalinity, TDS, pH, Na , K , Mg , Ca , Cl , HCO 3 , F-,
SiO 2 , SO 4 2- and Br - ) and the result is presented in dendrogram (Fig 4.5). The
mean and standard deviations of discriminate function used in resolving cases
into clusters were computed for individual cluster group and the result is
presented in Table 4.3. Two important factors in cluster analysis are the
linkage between cases and Euclidean distance between the linkages.
Individual samples are compared with the specified relationship, using the
selected linkage method. A classification scheme using Euclidean distance for
measurement of similarity, together with Ward’s method for linkage, produces
the most distinctive groups where each member within the group is more
similar to its fellow members than to any member outside the group (Kuells et
al., 2000; Güler et al., 2004).

85
Statistical data analysis using HCA differentiates three water families (Fig 4.5)
each restricted to specific location and water quality property. The clusters in
the dendrogram are ordered from right to left in increasing order of TDS. A
high content of total dissolved solids, Na + , K + , T, Cl - , SO 4 2 - , and low values of
Ca 2+ , and Mg 2+ are present in Cluster III which are located in the rift floor
within Wonji fault belt, whereas the opposite conditions are associated with
Cluster I and Cluster II which are located outside this fault belt. Exception to
these are Awash Melkasa (number 7), Bati Qallo (sample number 9), Awash
Arba (number 33), and Sifa (number 41) which are also located in Wonji fault
belt but they have chemical property distinct from other samples. Ground
waters corresponding to these samples are receiving significant amount of
water from Awash River (chapter 5).

Figure4. 5 Dendrogram of water samples. Sample numbers are the same as in Figure 4.1

Levels of conductivity, ionic concentration and temperature generally increase

from Cluster I to Cluster III

86
Cluster I

Fourteen samples (sample number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 15, 24, 25, 38, 39, 40, 41, R1
and R2) are grouped under this cluster which are low mineralized waters (TDS
< 500 mg/l) located at the recharge zones of the highlands bounding the rift
valley (except sample number 41). The topography is highly rugged, high
hydraulic gradient, and rainfall above 1200mm/yr. This group drains the acidic
rhyolite domes, ignimbrite, and trachyte which are unconformably overlain by
the transitional and sub alkaline basalts. The principal source of water for this
cluster is the rainfall on the highlands, and thus they are considered as local
flow systems. pH range from 6 to 7.5 and they are characterized by very weak
alkalinity (Fig 4.3). The low TDS in this group could be due to fast circulation.
Ca 2+ and Na + are the dominant cations and HCO 3 - is the dominant anion.
Thus, this group corresponds to Ca-Na-HCO3 type

Cluster II

This group includes eighteen samples (sample number 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16,
17, 21, 22, 23, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37 and 42). They are located near the base
of the escarpment in transitional zone between highland and rift floor where
hydraulic gradient is low. Thus, groundwater velocity is slow compared to the
first cluster. The bedrock is similar to rocks in highlands largely composed of
ignimbrite, trachyte and rhyolite associated with basalt. Similar to cluster I
ground waters, aquifers corresponding to this cluster group are obtaining
water from rainfall on the highlands, and thus they correspond to the
intermediate flow systems characterized by moderate salinity (TDS range from
500-800mg/l). Cluster II samples are joined with Cluster I at low linkage
distance as both of them drain similar geology, sources, and identical
physiochemical property. Both clusters have Ca 2+ , Na + , and HCO 3 - as
dominant ionic composition. High salinity in this cluster as compared to
Cluster I is due to the fact that as water flow off the highlands towards the low
lying areas, it becomes progressively enriched with solute through rock-water
87
interaction. In this group, the concentration of Ca 2+ and HCO 3 - are somewhat
decreased compared to the first cluster while Na + , K + , Cl - , and SO 4 2-
concentrations are increased (Table 4.3). As a result, this cluster represents
the Na-Ca-HCO3 waters. Both cluster I and cluster II waters are diluted with
TDS below 800mg/l. This show that members of these two clusters are under
fast flow systems which flushes out of the aquifer in relatively short period of
time.

Both cluster I and cluster II flow system can be summarized by hydrochemical

reaction:

Rainwater+Silicic rock=Ca-Na-HCO3 (Na-Ca-HCO3) water+altered rock (4.1)

Cluster III

Hypo- and mesothermal waters are the main members of this group. Thirteen
samples (sample number 6, 8, 10, 18, 19, 20, 26, 27, 29, 30, 35, 36 and L1)
localized within the WFB are categorized under this cluster. The hydraulic
gradient is nearly flat leading to slow groundwater velocity and long residence
time creating favorable condition for rock-water reaction. As a result, they are
the most mineralized (TDS> 800mg/l) and alkaline waters (pH >7.5) compared
to samples under the other two clusters. The aquifers are composed of
mixtures of various volcanic products predominately pumice, welded tuff, and
scoria. Na + and HCO 3 - are the major ionic composition, but Cl - and SO 4 2 - are
also abundant in significant amount compared to the first two clusters where
as Ca 2+ , and Mg 2+ are very low and in some members of this group these
cations are below detection. Thus, members of this group corresponds to Na-
HCO3-Cl-SO4 types.The low level of Ca 2+ and Mg 2 + in this group could be due
to the precipitation of these divalent cations as calcite and Mg-silicate along
groundwater flow direction. Alkalinity increased but the concentration of HCO 3 -
is significantly decreased in this cluster which could be due to the conversion

88
of HCO 3 - to CO 3 2 - in response to rise in pH activated by high temperature as
discussed under section 4.4.

This cluster can be summarized by the following hydrochemical reaction:

Ca-Na-HCO3 (Na-Ca-HCO3) water + Na-silicate minerals= (Na-HCO3 water) + Clay

(Precipitated Ca/Mg-silicate) (4.2)

In general, Cluster I and II are linked at short Euclidean distance showing both
have similar hydrochemical properties and hydraulic continuity between them.
Cluster III is linked with the other two clusters at relatively higher Euclidean
distance indicating that members under cluster III have unique properties not
shared by others. These could be the high temperature, fluoride, and salinity
of samples under cluster III. However, the linkage between the three clusters
is not very much high which marks the connectivity between sample sources.
Burqa Hora spring (number 35) is extraordinary water marked by different
physiochemical property and linked with all clusters at very far linkage
distance.

Silica concentration is relatively uniform in all cluster groups (30-50 mg/l) with
a slight increasing trend towards rift floor in response to rise of salinity and
temperature.

89
Table 4.3 Summary statistics of major hydrochemical variables of cluster
groups; Water type is based on the dominant ions. T ( 0 C) and the rest (mg/l)
Variables Cluster III (Na-HCO3 water) Cluster II (Na-Mg-Ca-HCO3 water) Cluster I (Na-Ca-HCO3)
Max Min AM 10% 90% Max Min AM 10% 90% Max Min AM 10% 90%
Ca 13.6 0 6.2 0 12.15 87.8 2.2 34.3 4.7 69.8 70.4 6.4 43.4 24.2 69.3
Na 562.3 394 467.5 410.5 547.6 250.3 54.3 141 59.4 236.8 182.8 17.3 70.5 46.0 102.7
K 49.5 20.5 34.8 24.6 43.6 22.5 8.7 14.3 10.7 17.1 17.5 0.9 7.6 3.8 10.1
Mg 8.4 0.4 3.1 0.8 6.35 257.9 0.1 38.4 0.5 123.3 22.4 0.7 8.6 3.4 17.5
Cl 174 12.8 98.3 38.8 155 68 5.9 27.8 7.4 62.0 16 2.6 10.2 5.0 15.5
SO4 139 52.2 88.6 54.8 118.4 58 6.3 28.1 10.2 52.3 25 2.4 9.2 3.7 13.8
HCO3 226 88 147.2 90.5 207.5 488 98 240.8 161.4 298.6 915 348 553.3 364.2 717
T 67.7 37.1 48.8 38.2 61.9 44 0 31.6 29.2 37.1 35 0 25.1 19.8 32.3
pH 8.7 6.8 7.8 7.1 8.5 8.3 6.9 7.5 7.2 8.2 8.4 6.82 7.5 6.8 8.3
Alk 1100 640 783 651.5 960 475 230 305 240 364 283 120 204 121.8 266.8
TDS 1814 1025 1278 1078 1598.5 646 290 440.9 305.8 558.8 355 184 276.6 184.9 355

In this hydrochemical study, a relationship between variables for all cases has
been analyzed using statistical correlation matrix to understand the
association among major hydrochemical variables. As shown in Table 4.4,
Na + , K + , Cl - , pH and SO 4 2- are positively correlated showing that they are
progressivelly increasing along flow direction. These variables are also
strongly correlated with electrical conductivity which shows increase in salinity
of water is contributed by enrichment of these variables.

On the other hand, Ca2+ and Mg2+ show negative correlation with Na+, K+,
Cl-, SO42-, EC and pH indicating both Ca2+ and Mg2+ are the dominant
cations in the highland areas. In other word, the negative correlation of Ca2+
and Mg2+ to Na+ and K+ could be due to the removal of divalent cations
through precipitation along flow direction and the negative correlation of
HCO3- to Cl- and SO42- shows anionic evolution towards the rift floor. All the
other elements have positive correlation with Alkalinity but are negatively
correlated to HCO3-. The negative correlations of HCO3- to Alkalinity could be
due to the conversion of HCO3- to CO32- in response to pH rise in
groundwater flow direction. In this case the positive correlation of element to
Alkalinity implies the positive correlation of element with CO32-. Distribution

90
histogram of variables and their correlation with field parameters including
altitude and depth of circulation is shown in Appendix 14.

Table 4. 4 Correlation matrix of variables

Varia Alt Depth T pH EC TDS Alk HCO3- Cl SO4 NO3 Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ [K+] SiO2 F Br
Alt 1,00
Depth 0,11 1,00
T -0,27 0,15 1,00
pH -0,40 -0,51 0,21 1,00
EC -0,37 -0,20 0,43 0,47 1,00
TDS -0,36 -0,20 0,42 0,47 0,90 1,00
Alk -0,42 -0,12 0,45 0,32 0,84 0,84 1,00
HCO3- 0,48 -0,08 -0,42 -0,22 -0,73 -0,73 -0,69 1,00
Cl -0,46 -0,27 0,25 0,41 0,94 0,94 0,76 -0,71 1,00
SO4 -0,62 -0,17 0,42 0,42 0,82 0,82 0,70 -0,67 0,89 1,00
NO3 -0,14 0,09 -0,17 0,03 -0,14 -0,15 -0,25 0,11 -0,11 -0,09 1,00
Ca2+ 0,17 0,19 -0,28 -0,42 -0,52 -0,52 -0,37 0,37 -0,42 -0,35 0,38 1,00
Mg2+ -0,02 0,04 -0,34 -0,42 -0,17 -0,16 -0,17 0,06 -0,09 -0,18 0,30 -0,13 1,00
Na+ -0,28 -0,23 0,58 0,59 0,91 0,91 0,77 -0,64 0,79 0,73 -0,29 -0,55 -0,44 1,00
K+ -0,32 -0,26 0,34 0,48 0,91 0,91 0,73 -0,70 0,89 0,74 -0,07 -0,46 -0,22 0,81 1,00
SiO2 0,21 0,34 0,52 -0,22 0,33 0,32 0,49 -0,39 0,13 0,05 -0,30 -0,29 -0,06 0,36 0,27 1,00
F 0,11 -0,29 0,06 0,38 0,61 0,61 0,58 -0,39 0,48 0,14 -0,21 -0,39 -0,22 0,61 0,55 0,41 1,00
Br -0,42 -0,14 0,32 0,30 0,82 0,82 0,76 -0,67 0,82 0,70 -0,01 -0,27 0,00 0,68 0,76 0,32 0,53 1,00

As shown in Figure 4.6, the ratio of divalent cations to monovalent cations

show a decreasing trend towards the rift floor which indicates a geochemical
reaction which is removing the divalent cations from solution along flow
direction. On the other hand, the ratios of Cl - to HCO 3 - and SO 4 2- to HCO 3 -
both increase riftwards indicating water mineralization and anionic evolution in
the flow direction.

91
 Cl-/HCO3-

SO42-/HCO3-

Figure 4.61Principal
Figure4. Ratios ofComponent
major ions as
Analysis
a function
(PCA)of altitude

4.6.3 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

PCA is a generic term that describes a variety of mathematical procedures

applicable to the analysis of data matrices (Helen et al., 2000). The most
important feature of PCA techniques is its ability to reduce a large number of
variables down to a smaller number of factors that simplify detection and
identification of groups of well correlated variables (Davis, 1986). Application
of PCA is an important technique of understanding large quantity of data
involved in extended aquifer systems (Invernizzi and Oliveira 2004).

As a multivariate data analytical technique, PCA reduces a large number of

variables to a small number of factors by combining two or more correlated

92
variables into one without loss of essential information which can be
interpreted as independent factors underlying the phenomenon. PCA
transforms the data matrix [X] into a new set of composite variables or
principal components based on the variance matrix of [X]. In general, the
analysis is based on standardized data, i.e. the correlation matrix. This
approach was used in the present study. The principal components are by
definition uncorrelated with each other. The first principal component, PC1,
explains as much as possible of the total variance of the observations, the
second, PC2, explains as much as possible of the residual variance, and so on
(Anderson, 1984; Melloul and Collin, 1992; Melloul, 1995). The application of
PCA to hydrochemical problems are briefly described by Ruiz et al., (1990),
Suk (1999), Voudouris et al., (2000), Kim et al., (2005), and Papatheodorou et
al., (2007).

PCA with casewise deletion was performed on 14 variables which includes

major ions, SiO 2 , F - , NO 3 - , Br - and field measured parameters (T, EC, pH) to
learn more about the relationships between variables in the different domains
and understand the number of factors that could explain the underlying
hydrochemical process. In other word, the basic purpose of PCA is to find the
highest factors which explain more the variance of 14 variables measured on
45 water samples collected at different location of the Middle Awash basin.
Steps and stages of selections of number of factors to be retained were based
on methods and procedures discussed by Davis, (1986), Brown, (1998), and
Lambrakis et al., (2004). The data sets were factored using the orthogonal
varimax solution in order to maximize the variance of each PC. Result from
PCA is interpreted in terms of other environmental condition such as
topography, geology, and rainfall.

93
Table 4. 5 Eigenvalue of PC before varimax rotation
Eigenvalue % Total Cumulative Cumulative
PC variance Eigenvalue %
1 7.11 50.76 7.11 50.76
2 1.65 11.80 8.76 62.56
3 1.43 10.18 10.18 72.74
4 1.12 7.98 11.30 80.72
5 0.92 6.60 12.22 87.31
6 0.76 5.44 12.99 92.76
7 0.34 2.40 13.32 95.16
8 0.27 1.90 13.59 97.06
9 0.15 1.06 13.74 98.13
10 0.12 0.87 13.86 98.99
11 0.07 0.52 13.93 99.51
12 0.04 0.32 13.98 99.83
13 0.01 0.11 13.99 99.94
14 0.01 0.06 14.00 100

Eigenvalues and cumulative variance for each PC are shown in Table 4.5.
Varimax rotation of PCs was performed to maximize the variance and to
determine the number of PC to be retained. A total of four PCs explaining
88.02% of the total variances were retained. The loadings of the variables on
each PC are shown in Table 4.6 and Figure 4.7.

Table 4. 6 R-mode varimax of PC loadings after rotation

Variables PC 1 PC 2 PC 3 PC 4 Communality
T 0,39 0,65 0,44 -0,15 0,78
pH 0,50 -0,40 0,54 0,28 0,81
EC 0,92 0,14 0,111 0,27 0,98
-
HCO3 -0,78 -0,34 0,019 -0,06 0,68
-
Cl 0,95 -0,02 0,02 0,16 0,99
2-
SO4 0,89 0,04 0,19 -0,10 0,97
-
NO3 0,09 -0,41 -0,31 -0,57 0,56
2+
Ca -0,39 -0,14 0,03 -0,691 0,80
2+
Mg -0,04 -0,06 -0,93 -0,03 0,83
+
Na 0,78 0,22 0,42 0,33 0,96
+
K 0,89 0,06 0,12 0,22 0,91
SiO2 0,16 0,87 -0,06 0,26 0,79
-
F 0,43 0,07 0,06 0,70 0,91
-
Br 0,87 0,16 -0,1 0,09 0,84
Prop, Tot var 0,46 0,21 0,12 0.93
% Expl.var 46,46 20,59 11.63 9.34
Cum%.var 46,46 67.05 78.68 88.02

94
Figure4. 7 Diagrammatic representations of PCs

The coefficient in Table 4.6 indicates the extent of the loading to which the variables are
associated with the PCs and the communality explains how well the variance of the
variable is described by the current set of PCs. The sign on the loading in Figure 4.7
shows how variables are correlated; that means variables with the same sign on the
same PC are positively correlated and those with opposite signs are negatively
correlated. For this data analysis, the most commonly used varimax rotation has been
used which has the effect of producing a set of uncorrelated factors in which variable has
high loadings on some factors, and near zero loading on others (Wang et al., 2001). That
is to make the factors easier to interpret by maximizing the differences between variables.

95
PC-1

This PC accounts for 46.46% of the total variance. It has substantial positive loadings for,
EC, and Cl- moderate positive loadings for SO42-, K+, Na+, Br-, F- and pH; high negative
loading for HCO3- and moderate negative loading for Ca2+. The other loadings fall in
between. It is interpreted as water corresponding to Cluster III (saline waters of the rift
floor). Thus, this PC can be considered as the mineralization axis. The positive loading of
Na+ and negative loading of Ca2+ on this factor plane explain ionic exchange reaction
between Na+ and Ca2+ along flow direction. The moderate positive loading of F- on this
factor is an additional evidence for such hydrochemical process where the loss of Ca2+
resulted in the enrichment of F- in solution.

Potassium minerals are generally resistance to water attack (Hem, 1992) thus, potassium
concentration is low in all samples. The maximum measured is 49.5 mg/l in Sodere
thermal spring (670c). The high potassium in this sample could be from hydrolysis of
potassium minerals of silicate rocks under high temperature condition. Moderate K+ (10-
36mg/l) content are also encountered in the basin interior in Tututti (number 27), Ilala
(number 30), Xadacha dhera (number 29), Dhebit (number 26), and Gorowagilo (number
19) samples which could be derived from hydrolysis of principal potassium minerals of
silicate rocks under high temperature condition. The high positive loadings of this factor
for Cl- and SO42- and high negative loading for HCO3- marks the anionic evolution process
in the flow direction (Chebotarev 1955; Appelo and Postma 1993).

PC-2

This accounts for 20.59% of the total variance and shows substantial positive loadings for
SiO2 and fairly positive loading for temperature. This is also corresponds to cluster III
thermal waters circulating in rift floor which are marked by higher SiO2 and T compared to
the other two clusters.

96
PC-3

This PC accounts for 11.63% of the total variance and is associated exclusively with Mg2+
with negative loading. This PC represent a geochemical reaction involving selective
weathering of rocks containing ferromagnesian minerals principally basaltic rocks that is
first to be dissolved by rainwater at highland areas. High level of Mg2+ concentration is
measured in four water samples (number 7, 21, 32, and 33, Appendix 13) that drain the
basic rocks.

PC-4

This PC accounts only 9.3% of the total variance and is highly loaded with F- and Ca2 +.
This factor is part of the first PC as these two variables are also explained by the PC-1.
On this PC, Ca2+ and F- have negative loading among themselves which explains the
enrichment of F- in solution as Ca2+ is lost by precipitation. Even though this PC explains
only 9.3% of the total variance, it is an important factor as it explains the association of F-
with others variables. Fluoride is the major hydrochemical variables affecting the
groundwater quality of the study area.

Plot of PC coordinates on a unit circle often makes easier to understand how well the
factors explain the variance. Because the current analysis is based on correlations, the
largest factor coordinate or loading that can occur is equal to 1.0. Hence, all factor
coordinates must fall within the unit circle (Fig 4.8). These circles provide a visual
indication (scale) of how well each variable is represented by the current set of PCs. That
means, the closer the variable plotted closer to a unit circle, the better the PC explains the
variance, and the closer the variable to the centre (far from unity), the poor the PC
explaining the variance.

97
Figure4. 8 Projection of variables on PC plane

As shown on Figure 4.8, K+, Cl-, SO42-, EC, Na+, Br-, F-, and SiO2 are ploted very close to
unity which are associated to PC-1 and PC-2. On the other hand, all variables except
Mg2+ and F- are plotted away from unity on PC-3 vs PC-4 coordinate plane suggesting
these two PCs do not explain the variance among variables (Fig 4.8, right).

Variables listed under II and III on PC-1 vs PC-2 plane, are the dominant variables in
ground waters circulating within the rift floor. These variables are independent to each
other and their concentration increases in the flow direction. On the other hand, variables
listed under I are major compositions of highland ground waters whose concentration are
decreasing towards the rift floor (Fig 4.6). The concentration of these variables (Ca2+,
Mg2+, HCO3-) in waters are strongly affected by the concentration of variables under II
and III (i.e., by the level of Na+, Cl+, SO42-, and F-). This suggests the geochemical
reaction involving the dissolution of Na-silicate and precipitation of Ca (Mg)-silicate
minerals and hydrochemical evolution along flow direction (Fisher et al., 1997; Demirel
and Guler 2006). This is in good agreement with stable isotope signatures which show

98
pattern of fractionation along flow direction (chapter 5). The high load of temperature on
PC-1 should be from the geothermal activity which is widely common in the basin interior
whereas the high F- in groundwater should come from the leaching of fluoride bearing
minerals such as CaF2 in response to loss of Ca2+ from solution. Thus, groundwater
quality of the study area is largely impaired by the level of variables listed under II and III
in Figure 4.8 (left).

4.7 Water quality, Hydrochemical facies, and inverse geochemical modelling

4.7.1 Introduction

Assessment of water quality and evolution mechanism of hydrochemical variables is one

of the most important aspects of groundwater study. This includes understanding type
and sources of factors affecting water quality as well as various reaction that groundwater
undergoes along its course of movement. There are various graphical methods including
Piper (1944), and Stiff (1951) commonly used for plotting major hydrochemical element
(Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, HCO3-, Cl-, and SO42-). These graphical methods are used to aid in
discrimination of samples into hydrochemical facies from which sources and generation
mechanisms of variables can be explained. The underlying principles and assumptions in
interpretation of graphical result include:1) The observed water chemistry is a results of
rock-water reactions such as dissolution and precipitation of minerals and reactions on
aquifer surfaces, 2) Distinct chemical signatures are related to specific sets of reactions,
3) Dissolved concentrations generally increase along flow path until major components
reach maximum values dictated by mineral equilibrium, and 4) Hydrochemical facies are
directly related to the dominant processes.

4.7.2 Water types of the study area

Plotting the results of hydrochemical data on the Piper plot resulted in five groups of
hydrochemical facies (Fig 4.9) and their distributions in the study area with stable isotopic
signature is show in Figure 4.10.

99
Figure4. 9 Piper plots of hydrochemical data

Figure4. 10 Water types at different physiographic locations. The stable

isotope shows the visual scale of isotope distribution
100
 Water group represented by Ca-Na-HCO3 and Na-Ca-HCO3 drain the fractured
ignimbrite, rhyolite and trachyte and are characterized by more diluted chemistry with
TDS below 500mg/l. These types of waters are located in the highland areas bounding
the rift floor. Mg-HCO3 water is marked by chemical composition in the order of Mg-Na-
Ca-HCO3 with TDS ranging from 400-600mg/l. This type of waters corresponds to
Bodede (number 32), Awash Arba (number 33), Awash MCCT (number 31) in north east,
and Melkasa (number 7), and D/N/Kusaye (number 21) in southwest near Boseti
Mountain (Figure 4.1).

The Na-HCO3-Cl and Na-Cl-HCO3 waters are highly mineralized with TDS >800mg/l.
These groups of waters are located in central rift floors within high geothermic areas, and
they are the evolved types from Ca-Na-HCO3, and Mg- HCO3 of the highland waters.
The spatial variability observed in Durov diagram provide good insight aquifer
heterogeneity, connectivity, groundwater flow direction as well as the physical and
chemical processes controlling water chemistry. As shown on Durvo’s diagram (Fig 4.11),
ground waters shows trends of hydrochemical evolution from Ca (Mg) -Na-HCO3 to Na-
HCO3-Cl type towards the rift floor.

Rift floor mineralized waters

Cluster III (Na-HCO3-Cl)

Groundwates near the base of the

escarpment
(Moderately mineralized)
Cluster II (Na-Ca(Mg)-HCO3)

Highland ground waters

(Slightly mineralized)
Cluster I (Ca-Na-HCO3)

Figure4. 11 Plots of hydrochemical variables on Durov diagram: Broken arrow shows

groundwater flow direction
101
Based on major chemical constituent of waters and the geology through which ground
waters are circulating, a summary of flow process and water mineralization is shown in
Figure 4.12
Horizontal flow Rift floor waters
Highland and escarpment Waters systems Cluster III
(Dilute waters, TDS<600mg/l)-Cluster I
(Saline waters, TDS
>800mg/l
Mg-HCO3 (dilute system, circulate within transitional and
alkaline basalt)
Eg.Bordede-in northeast margin,
Awash Melkasa, D/N/Kusaye near Boseti Mountain. This Rift floor mineralized
facies correspond to a volcanic environment with a mafic to
waters. Ground waters
intermediate composition in which magnesium comes from
ferromagnesian minerals (Appelo & Postma 1993; Freeze & circulate within silicic
Cherry1979) rocks, rhyolite,
pumice, tuff and
dissolution of Na-
silicate minerals and
precipitation of Ca-
Ca-
Ca-Na-
Na-HCO3 (dilute system); Water from Rhyolite, silicate, Mg-Silicate
trachyte and subordinate basalt) - This facies correspond to a
or Calcite.
volcanic environment with intermediate composition in
which calcium comes from plagioclase minerals.
Na-
Na-Ca-
Ca-HCO3 (water from Silicic rocks such as ignimbrite,
Na-
Na-HCO3-
HCO3-Cl-
Cl-SO4
tuff, trachyte with Rhyolite)
Dilute waters circulating in escarpment and highlands
Eg. Abomsa, Ashe Abasa and Ibseta Haxe
exchange
Vertical flow system

Na-Cl-
Na-Cl-HCO3-
HCO3-SO4
(Ca by Na+)
Cation
2+

Na-
Na-HCO3 (fresh water, TDS=184 mg/l)-water under fast
circulation (Mexaqoma deep well near Sire (depth 425m).
This facies corresponds to the cation exchange between
Ca2+ and Na+; Na picked-up in solution from clay (Albite) Na-Cl-
Cl-SO4-
SO4-HCO3
and Ca2+ fixed to solid surface (clay) from solution

Figure4. 12 Groundwater flow direction and evolution of hydrochemical facies

102
4.7.3 Groundwater flow paths, hydrochemical evolution and inverse geochemical
modeling

Groundwater flow paths are the individual pathways contributing to groundwater flow in a
catchment (Peters, 1994). Knowledge of hydrologic flow paths in catchments is critical to
the preservation of public water supplies and to understand the transport mechanism of
solutes or pollutants in water. Attempts to model the hydrology and chemistry of
groundwater with determination of weathering reactions that mobilize solutes along flow
paths are essential to fully understand the impacts of both natural and anthropogenic
perturbations on catchment function.

PHREEQC (Parkhurst and Appelo, 1999) was used to calculate aqueous speciation and
mineral saturation indices for samples along main flow paths. Inverse modeling in
PHREEQC uses the mass-balance approach to calculate all the stoichiometrically
available reactions that can produce the observed chemical changes between initial and
final solutions (Plummer and Glynn, 2005). This mass balance technique has been used
to quantify reactions controlling water mineralization along flow paths (Hidalgo and Cruz-
Sanjulian 2001) and quantify mixing of end-member components in a flow system (Kuells
et al., 2000). Minerals used in these inverse geochemical models are limited to those
common to the geology of the study area (Chapter 2) which comprises volcanic rocks,
lacustrine and alluvial sediments. Finally, the mineral reaction mode (dissolution or
precipitation) is constrained by the saturation indices for each mineral according to the
equation 4.3, and atmospheric gases carbon dioxide is included in the list of potential
reactive components.

The PHREEQC uses the equation (4.3) to calculate the saturation state of water with
respect to solid mineral phases:
 IAP 
SI = log   ( 4 .3)
 Kx 
where SI is the saturation index of mineral x, IAP is the ion activity product, and Kx is the
equilibrium solubility product of mineral x. Appositive saturation index indicates that the

103
solution is supersaturated with mineral x, and a negative value indicates that it is under
saturated, and the mineral, if present, should dissolve. Values near zero suggest that
saturation level has been reached.

The preliminary hydrochemical evolution is based on the behavior of individual

components within the context of facies examined by PCA. Main flow paths for
hydrochemical evolution representing groundwater flow system of the study area are
shown in Figure 4.13.

Four horizontal and two vertical flow paths have been chosen based on the
hydrogeological setting of the study area. Each selected end members falls on the same
flow paths. The first horizontal flow path is taken along the regional groundwater flow
taking the Melkasa well (sample number 7) which is Mg-Na-HCO3 water as an initial input
and the Ilala well (sample number 30) which is Na-HCO3-Cl water located in the basin
centre as final solution. Groundwater at Melksa drains the Pleistocene subrecent basalt
underlain by trachybasalt, tuff and ignimbrite. The Ilala groundwater circulates through
silicic rocks composed of scoria, welded tuff and pumice.

The second flow path represent groundwater flow from eastern highland to rift floor taking
the Ashe Abasa well (sample number 24) located on the Abomsa plateau as initial and
the same Ilala well as the final solution. Ground waters circulating in the eastern
highlands drain the alajae volcanics mainly the sub-alkaline basalt associated with
rhyolite, trachyte and ignimbrite. Hydrochemically, they are Ca-Na-HCO3 types.

The third flow path represent groundwater flow from north eastern highlands to central
north of the rift floor. Ground waters in north-eastern highland circulate through the
Cretaceous sandstone, basalt and trachyte of the Gumbi chains. Water representing this
flow system is the Bordede (sample number 32) which has Ca-Mg-HCO3 as initial and
Awash Arba (sample number 33) as final solution. Ground waters in rift floors including
the North Central rift have welded tuff, scoria, and pumice as major aquifers.

104
The fourth flow path represents the groundwater that drains the nothwest highlands,
through ignimbrite, tuff and alkaline basalt. Birsa Ababora water (Na-Mg-Ca-HCO3)
located near the northwest escarpment (number 34) is taken as an initial and the Tututti
water (Na-HCO3-Cl) located at North Central rift floor (number 27) is taken as the final
end members.

The vertical flow systems are selected for two flow system each with unique
hydrochemical property different from the surrounding waters. The first case corresponds
to the Mexaqoma groundwater (sample number 4) which has identical TDS with river
water despite its circulation within deeper zone (below 425m b.g.l) and the second case is
Burqa Hora spring (sample number 35) which is extraordinary saline and alkaline water
despite its short flow distance. For these two vertical flow systems, an attempt has been
made to trace the hydrochemical reactions undergoing with these flow systems.

For all cases, the fundamental premise is that TDS increases along flow direction as
water moves from the recharge to the discharge areas, and hydrochemical reactions
involve precipitation and dissolution of the aquifer materials along groundwater flow path.
The process of systematic increases in most parameters continues until either an upper
limit is reached due to mineral equilibrium or the water exits the study area. This
conceptual model is supported by PCA results which show the majority of variation in the
variables is related to components associated with dissolution of major aquifer minerals
(plagioclase, feldspar, clay minerals and to the limited extent calcite from secondary
precipitate) from which the major cations (sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium)
derived. In addition, pyrite, quartz and dry deposition of calcite, halite, and gypsum dust
can be additional possible sources for calcium, sodium, potassium, chloride and sulphate
(Hem, 1970). The available mineral phases in the PHREEQC database appropriate for
the study area were also used as supplementary data in the inverse geochemical
modeling. Results of inverse geochemical modeling for each selected flow path are
presented with their corresponding hydrochemical reaction including graphical
representation of mineral alteration phase (Fig 4. 14).

105
Figure4. 13 Main flow paths and hydrochemical facies. The arrow shows flow direction;
Sample number is the same as in Figure 4.1

106
4.7.3.1 Horizontal flow paths and inverse geochemical modeling
Flow Path 1 Reactant Mole transfer
(7 to 30) Albite (NaAlSi308) -0.1601
Calcite (CaCO3) 7.543
Anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) -7.543
Ca-Montimorillonite -0.235
(Cao.165Al233Si3.67OO10(OH)2
Illite (Ko.6MgO.25Al2.3Si35O10(OH)2 0.0795
Kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4 7.546
CO2(g) -7.541

( Mg − Na − Ca − HCO3 water ) + Plagioclase + Ca − montmorrillonite + CO 2( g ) →

Reactions: ( Na − HCO3 Water ) + Calcite + Clay (4.4)

Flow Path 2 Reactant Mole transfer

(24 to 30) Albite (NaAlSi308) -0.1601
Calcite (CaCO3) 7.443
Anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) -7.56
Ca-Montimorillonite -0.225
(Cao.165Al233Si3.67OO10(OH)2
Illite (Ko.6MgO.25Al2.3Si35O10(OH)2 0.0441
Kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH) 4 7.56
K-mica (KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 0.1682
CO2(g) -7.541

Reactions

(Ca − Na − HCO3 water ) + Plagioclase + Ca − montmorrillonite + CO 2( g ) →

( Na − HCO3Water ) + K − mica + Calcite + Clay
(4.5)

Flow Path 3 Reactant Mole transfer

(32 to 33) Albite (NaAlSi308) -0.1382
Calcite (CaCO3) 15.09
Anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) -16.5815
Ca-Montimorillonite 8.78
(Cao.165Al233Si3.67OO10(OH)2
Illite (Ko.6MgO.25Al2.3Si35O10(OH)2 0.0554
K-feldspar (KAlSi3O8) -6.0563
CO2(g) -15.083
K-mica (KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 6.0563

(Ca − Mg − HCO 3 water ) + Plagioclas e + K − feldspar + CO 2( g ) →

Reactions: ( Na − HCO 3 Water ) + K − mica + Calcite + Clay (4.6)

107
Flow Path 4 Reactant Mole transfer
(34 to 27) Albite (NaAlSi308) -0.2034
Calcite (CaCO3) 7.5432
Anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) -7.5432
Ca-Montimorillonite -0.3146
(Cao.165Al233Si3.67OO10(OH)2
Illite (Ko.6MgO.25Al2.3Si35O10(OH)2 0.03621
Kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4 7.5296
K-feldspar (KAlSi3O8) 0.1420
CO2(g) -7.54

Reactions:

( Na − Ca − HCO 3 water ) + Plagioclas e + Ca − Montimoril lonite + CO 2( g ) →

( Na − HCO 3 Water ) + K − feldspar + Calcite + Clay (4.7)

Table 4. 7 Calculated moles of Na+, Ca2+, H4SiO4 and HCO-3 for selected flow paths

Path 1 (7 to 30) Path 2 (24 to 30) Path 3 (32 to 33) Path 4 (34 to 27)
Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final
Ashe Borded Awash Birsa
Element Melkasa Ilala Abasa Ilala e a Ababora Tututti
+
Na 0.12 0.26 0.11 0.26 0.13 0.25 0.24 0.23
2+
Ca 0.03 0.02 0.07 0.02 0.26 0.06 0.07 0.02
+ 2+
Na /Ca 4.40 11.06 1.66 11.06 0.50 4.43 3.64 9.85
HCO3- 0.47 0.17 0.20 0.17 0.40 0.17 0.24 0.22
H4SiO4 0.12 0.09 0.13 0.09 0.12 0.13 0.11 0.13
HCO3/H4SiO4 3.86 1.97 1.57 1.97 3.41 1.30 2.18 1.69

108
Figure4. 14 Mole ratio of Na+ to Ca2+ against mole ratio of HCO3- to H4SiO4 plotted on
mineral alteration curves (Drever, 1982). The arrow shows direction of groundwater flow
from initial (tail) to final (head) solution

The feldspar composition corresponding to Na+/Ca2+ ratios on the coordinate are shown
on the right. As shown on Figure 4.14, the third flow path (Sample number 32 to number
33) falls between the theoretical curve for the alteration of plagioclase to kaolinite and all
the other flow paths fall within the area of the alteration of plagioclase to smectite towards
the albite field. This is in good agreement with hydrochemical reaction model given for
each flow paths..

4.7.3.2 Vertical flow system and hydrochemical reaction

For this flow system two flow cases have been considered. The first case is to understand
the hydrochemical reactions that could represent the hydrochemical property of
Mexaqoma deep groundwater. This well is located near Sire and Assela mountain chains

109
where it obtain water from rain that falls on Arsi highlands. The Dhera and Sire faults
dip toward each other and forms a downthrown garben structure in the middle
where the Mexaqoma borehole is sited. The volcanic rocks mainly ignmbrite, tuff
and sub-alkaline basalt make-up major units through which ground waters are circulating.
This well is the deepest of all wells drilled so far in the study area, but groundwater from
this well is the most fresh water (TDS 184mg/l). Furthermore, groundwater from this well
is Na-HCO3 type despite its location near the recharge area where Ca (Mg)-Na-HCO3
type would be expected like other ground waters located adjacent to this well such as
Halelu gassela ( sample number 1), Ashe Abasa (number 24) and Abomsa (number 25).
On the other hand, ground waters with Na-HCO3 type are marked by moderate to high
salinity with TDS above 600mg/l, but groundwater from Mexaqoma well is fresh water
similar to the adjacent Keleta River (172mg/l) despite its Na-HCO3 type.

A geochemical reaction involving cation exchange reaction could account for this
groundwater chemistry. This involves the removal of divalent cation (Ca2+/Mg2+) from
solution and uptake of monovalent cations (Na+) by solution from solid materials. Thus, to
attain the measured low salinity (TDS 183mg/l) with Na-HCO3 type of this groundwater, a
layer with low permeability (clay layer) should exist within the host rock through which
groundwater is moving which exerts strong and rapid cation exchange over short flow
distance. Lithological well log of Mexaqoma well shows clay layer intercalated at 260-
280m depth (Fig 4.15). It appears to be the consequence of the fact that Ca2+ is picked up
by this clay surface in exchange for Na+ depending on the nature of the surface charge of
the encountered clay materials and activity of the cations in solution. This exchange
process between monovalent and divelent cations (Na+ and Ca2+) can be represented by:

2Na-Clay + Ca2+ = Ca-Clay +2Na+ (4.8)

This equation explains that when dilute water dominant with Ca2+ composition which is
the major solute of highland ground waters, is encountered by Na-materials/clay, the Ca2+
is selectively adsorbed close to the site of introduction and Na+ is up taken into solution.
In this case, the Ca2+ displaced the Na+ cations on the exchange sites. Single possibility

110
that could accounts for very low mineralization (TDS<180 mg/l) of this deep groundwater
is the presence of rapid vertical recharge through fault system.

Depth (m)
Lithology & Well Construction Lithology Description
Thickness (m)

0 -0.50 Borehole 17½" Mud Drilling" 2.00 TS, yellowish, Moderately sticky.
10 0.00 10" Steel Surface Casing 10.00 TUFF, yellowish, Highly weathered
6.00 Cement grout
20 14.00 TUFF, yellowish, Moderately weathered with some accessory grains.
30 2.00 TUFF, yellowish, Moderately fractured and well welded
4.00 TUFF, yellowish, Fine grained, clay type & poorly welded
40
TUFF, yellowish, Lithic type well welded
50

60
54.00
70 TUFF, yellowish, brown, Highly weathered, almost changed to clay

80

90

100 Ignimbrite, grey, Trachitic basalt of pyroclastic component also found,

26.00
moderately fractured and fresh
110

120 6.00 Ignimbrite, grey, Highly fractured and fresh.

2.00 TRACHYTE, pink, Highly fractured and fresh.
130 4.00 TUFF, yellowish, Poorly welded and weathered
2.00 Ignimbrite, grey, Highly fractured, well welded with fiamme lithic
140 6 5/8" Steel Blind Casing 6.00 fragments & fresh
2.00 SCORIA, red, Moderately weathered
150
Ignimbrite, light, grey, Fresh and Highly fractured
160 28.00 TUFF, yellowish, Lithic type, Trachyte dominant, pyroclastic and highly
Observation Pipe (3/4") consolidated, fresh and highly fractured.
170 6.00 Ignimbrite, grey, Moderately fractured & fresh
180 12.00 SCORIA, grey, Fresh
TUFF, yellowish, Lithic type, moderately fractured and highly
190 2.00 consolidated
6.00 BASALT, grey, Highly fractured and fresh
200 TUFF, yellowish, Lithic type, highly welded and fractured light colored
10.00 matrix with grey Basaltic type componenet
210
Borehole 10 5/8" Foam Drilling" Ignimbrite, grey, Moderatley fractured and fresh
2.00
220 TUFF, yellowish, Lithic type, highly welded & weathered.
16.00 TUFF, yellowish, Poorly welded & highly weathered
230 TUFF, yellowish, Moderatley welded
240 Clay layer 2.00 Ignimbrite, grey, Moderately fractured & fresh
Scoracious Basalt, greyish, brown, Poorly fractured and fresh
250 TUFF, reddish, brown, Well welded and highly weathered
Ignimbrite, grey, Higher degree of pyroclastic component & highly
260 weathered
270
260-280m 18.00 Ignimbrite, grey, Intercalations of clay also observed, highly welded
fractured and weathered.
280 CLAY, greyish, brown, Moderately sticky
282.00
TUFF, pinkish, red, Lithic type, highly weathered and intercalated with
290 clay
295.45 6 5/8" Steel Screened Casing
300 SWL BASALT, dark, Fresh and highly fractured
6.00
306.00 SCORIA, pinkish, red, Moderatley weathered & poorly welded
310 6 5/8" Steel Blind Casing
312.00 BASALT, dark, Highly fractured and Moderatley weathered
Filter Gravel (6/9 mm)
320 8.00 SCORIA, pinkish, red, Moderately weathered and poorly welded
6 5/8" Steel Screened Casing
SCORIA, red, Moderately weathered
330 330.00
6 5/8" Steel Blind Casing
336.00 10.00 Ignimbrite, grey, Highly fractured and weathered
340
6 5/8" Steel Screened Casing
350 18.00 TRACHYTE, pink, Moderately fractured and fresh
354.00
6 5/8" Steel Blind Casing
360 360.00

370 6 5/8" Steel Screened Casing

28.00 BASALT, dark, grey, Highly fractured and fresh
380 378.00
6 5/8" Steel Blind Casing
384.00
390 8.00 BASALT, grey, Highly fractured & weathered
6 5/8" Steel Screened Casing
400 402.00
6 5/8" Steel Blind Casing
410 408.00 28.00 TUFF, yellowish, brown, Lithic & highly welded
Natural backfill
420 420.00

Figure4. 15 Mexaqoma well log; courtesy of ALNILE Drilling (2009)

111
The second vertical flow path represents Burqa Hora spring (sample numer
35) which emanates from eastern side of Boseti Mountains. This spring
circulate through Boseti alkaline basalt and rhyolite. It is strongly sodic water
characterized by high values of pH, SiO 2 , Na + , HCO 3 - , EC, F - , and NO 3 - (Fig
4.16). Its measured stable isotope is plotted very near to LMWL and has young
tritium signature showing that it is meteoric origin and local scale flow similar
to other springs in the highland areas (Appendix 13).

The chemical composition of this spring is very enigmatic as it has quite

extraordinary composition and strongly sodic water characterized by pH (10),
SiO 2 (248.5 mg/l), Na + (2030 mg/l), HCO 3 - (1025mg/l), EC (5370µS/cm), and F -
(72.5mg/l). The unique chemical composition of the spring suggests the
presence of strong reactive media through which the spring is circulating.
Considering the measured chemical composition of the spring, the geology
through which the spring is circulating and its isotopic data, the geochemical
process undergoing with the spring is discussed below.

The hydrochemical characteristics of this spring should be the result of ion

exchange reaction which consumes the divalent cations from solution in
exchange of the monovalent cation from aquifer materials. In the initial face,
the spring should acquire Ca 2+ (Mg 2+ ) from basaltic rock during rainwater
percolation down through rocks and the water become Ca (Mg)-HCO3 type. As
water moves further downward with this initial chemical composition and
encounters the acidic rhyolite rich in Na-silicate, the silica undergoes
dissociation which consumes H + leading the pH to rise (Drever 1982). This
cause precipitation in Ca 2+ (Mg 2+ ) and the Na + picked up by water and with
prolonged stay in rhyolite rock (i.e., under slow flow rate), further leaching of
Na-silicate occurs and the spring eventually becomes concentrated with
respect to Na + and silica.

112
Initial: H2O (rainwater) + CO2 (g) + O2 (g) + basaltic rock →
Mg (Ca)-HCO3 water + altered rock (4.9)

Final: Mg (Ca)-HCO3water + Rhyolite (Na-Silicate) + CO2 (g) →

Na-HCO3water + clay (Mg/Ca-Silicate) (4.10)

Equations 4.9 and 4.10 explain that as the spring travels slowly through rhyolitic
matrix, it acquires high level of elements from reactive rhyolite mineral assemblages
which are shown in Figure 4.16.

The high level of NO 3 - in this spring is not clear as there is no source in the
area from which NO 3 - can be derived.

Whatever the hydrochemical reaction it could be, this spring is undrinkable

and dangerous to health for two main reasons. In the first place, it is strongly
sodic water harmful to human tissues if consumed without treatment.
Secondely, its Fluoride content (72.5mg/l) is far beyond the permitted level
that can produce acute fluoride intoxication. Currently, local people are using
this spring as traditional curing, but because of the facts mentioned above, the
spring is rather toxic to human health. Oral information from local people
during the field work draw similar information as many people who drank this
spring has developed serious health problem.

113
Figure4. 16 Burqa Hora spring water chemistry (mg/l) and reconstructed host rock
through which the spring is circulating. This reconstruction is based on the most possible
reactive minerals from which the measured value could be derived. Mineral and the
corresponding rock type are based on Garrels classification (in Drever, 1982). Ab=albite,
Cr=Cryolite, Hb=hornblende, Or=K-feldspar

4.7.4 Fluoride

Fluorine (F) is the lightest member of the halogen group and is one of the most reactive of
all chemical elements (Fawel et al., 2006). It is the most electronegative of all the
elements (Hem, 1989) which means that it has strong tendency to acquire a negative
charge, and in solution forms F– ions. Complexes of aluminium and fluoride in the form of
AlF3 or AlF4− or beryllium and fluoride as BeF3− can occur when the two elements exist in
the same environment (Edmunds and Smedley, 1996).

Fluoride can be found at significant level in a wide variety of volcanic and sedimentary
rocks composed of fluoride-bearing minerals such as Fluorite (CaF2), rock phosphate
(Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl), cryolite (Na3AlF6), apatite (CaF), mica (XY2-3Z4O4(OH,F)2 and
114
hornblende (4Al(Si7Al)O22(OH,F)2 (Handa, 1975; Babulal et al., 2003; Abdelrahman et al.,
2009). It is commonly associated with volcanic and geothermal activities, especially those
of high pH (Edmunds and Smedley, 1996). One of the most well-known volcanic belts
associated with high Fluoride is the East African Rift system which runs from Jordan
down through Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. The high concentration of
Fluoride in this belt is aided by the presence of geothermal activities (Anasuya et al.,
1996).

The study area; Middle Awash basin; is located within the central part of this belt whose
groundwater is commonly known by high fluoride content. Many lakes in the Rift Valley,
especially the soda lakes, have extremely high fluoride concentrations up to 250mg/l
(Gizaw 1996, Ayenew 1998) and in Elmentaita and Nakuru of the Kenyan Lakes the value
1,640 mg/l and 2,800 mg/l, respectively has been measured (Nair et al., 1984).
MacDonald and Gibson (1969) found high fluoride concentration of 400mg/kg from
Obsidian of Chabbi and Corbetti volcanoes located in main Ethiopian rift. Ashely and
Burley (1994), and Peccerillo and Yirgu (1996) reported the Wonji and Gedemsa volcanic
terrain composed of mica, pyroxene and amphiboles as sources of high fluoride.

Concentration of fluoride in water is limited by fluorite solubility and presence of calcium

(Hem, 1989) whereby the absence of Ca2+ in solution allows higher concentrations of F-
to exist (Edmunds and Smedley, 1996; Chernet et al, 2001). In ground waters, low or
high concentrations of fluoride can occur, depending on the occurrence of fluoride-
bearing minerals and degree of water interaction with rocks containing fluoride minerals.

4.7.4.1 Previous study in Ethiopia

High fluoride in groundwater and its health significance were study by different
researchers which were focused on lakes, estate farms and town in the Main Ethiopian
Rift. Four areas, Wonji, Alemtena, Metahara and Awassa have been identified as cases
having fluoride problems. Lester (1974) reported problem of skeletal fluorosis in the Wonji
Shoa sugar estates. Olsson (1979) made a comprehensive survey on dental health of

115
children under 7 year-old living in Wonji and Awassa and reported that 99 % of 239 have
got serious dental fluorosis. A study conducted by (Haimanot et al., 1987) found similar
dental fluorosis in more than 80 % of 1,456 sampled children resident in the Ethiopian Rift
Valley among which 32 % were under 10-14 year old and showed severe dental mottling.
Wondwossen et al., (2004) examined dental fluorosis and caries in children living in two
villages (village A and village K) of the Wonji Shoa sugar estate and reported the
prevalence of severe dental fluorosis.

According (Haimanot et al., 1987), the highest incidence of fluoride was found at the
Wonji-Shoa sugar estates and he observed a linear relationship between the
development of crippling fluorosis with high fluoride concentration in drinking-water
supplies and period of exposure. This same study inspected the cases among workers
and found 98% of males were infected by skeletal fluorosis who had been consuming
water with fluoride content of more than 8 mg/l for over 10 years. According to the report
from the same author, 530 workers were retired between 1976 and 1984 from Wonji-
Shoa at the age of 45–50 years because of inability to perform their laborious jobs.
Among these workers, 46% were found to have skeletal fluorosis. In general, drinking
waters in highly populated areas of Wonji and Metahara sugar estates have fluoride
levels far in excess of the WHO guideline value, with Wonji-Shoa having levels between
3.7 and 17.0 mg/l, and Metahara 2.4 to 7.0 mg/l.

Recently, fluoride measurement in ground waters from all over Ethiopia have been
conducted on 138 sapmles collected from domestic wells and reported that 33 % of the
samples were found with fluoride above 1.5 mg/l with high fluoride concentrations
constrained within the Main Ethiopian Rift (Reimann et al., 2003). Chernet et al., (2001)
observed high fluoride content of thermal waters of the MER and noted the precipitation
of calcite in the presence of high temperature leads to increase of F- in solution.

116
4.7.4.2 Fluoride and its health implication

Fluoride has beneficial effects at low concentrations in drinking-water, but excessive

exposure to fluoride in drinking-water, or in combination with exposure to fluoride from
other sources, can give rise to a number of adverse effects. These range from mild dental
fluorosis to brain and neuron impact as the level and period of exposure increases
(Whitford, 1997; IPCS, 2002; WHO 2004; Fawel et al 2006, and Limeback et al 2007).

Dental fluorosis is a cosmetic effect that ranges in appearance from scarcely discernible
to a marked staining or pitting of the teeth in severe forms. It is caused by an elevated
fluoride level in, or adjacent to, the developing enamel (Beltran, 2007). Thus, it follows
that dental fluorosis can develop in children but not in adults. Dental fluorosis in an adult
is a result of high fluoride exposure when the adult was a child or adolescent

Ingesting too much fluoride can cause stiff and painful joints commonly referred to as
skeletal fluorosis. This skeletal problem is well documented and is known to occur with a
range of severity in several parts of the world, including China (Genxu and Guodong
2001; Lin et al., 2004; Choi 2007), India (Kumar et al., 2001), Kenya (Moturi et al., 2002),
Israel (Kafri et al., 1989), and Ethiopia (Haimanot et al. 1987; Gizaw 1996; Chernet et al
2001; Wondwossen et al. 2004). It is primarily associated with the consumption of
drinking-water containing elevated levels of fluoride. This is accompanied by a number of
factors like climate, nutritional status and diet, including additional sources of fluoride and
exposure to other substances that modify the absorption of fluoride into the body.
Crippling or skeletal fluorosis, which is associated with higher levels of exposure to
fluoride, can result in extreme bone deformity (IPCS, 2002).

US National Research Council (2006) further highlighted on new concern of F- as it is not

just only the teeth and skeleton but also the brain and neuron that may be impacted by
too much fluoride intake during infancy and childhood. When given at high doses,
fluoride has been found to damage virtually any tissue in the body, whether it is the

117
thyroid, the brain, or the reproductive system (Limeback et al., 2007). High silicofluorides
waters increases the erosion of lead from the water pipes connected with high
silicofluorides leading to high risk of exceeding the hazard for lead accumulation in blood
(Limeback et al., 2007; Maas, 2007)

4.7.4.3 Source and mechanism of Fluoride distribution in the study area

Lack of adequate potable water supply is a growing concern in Middle Awash basin which
is a well known area with high fluoride. Exposure of people to this high fluoride water
remained unresolved because of lack of alternative water supply sources.

The presence of fluoride in groundwater can be attributed to geological reasons, mainly

the presence of fluoride-bearing minerals and geothermal activities. Considering the
severity of fluoride in ground waters, a comprehensive survey of fluoride contamination in
groundwater was conducted in 45 water samples collected throughout the Middle Awash
basin (Sample sites are shown on Figure 4.1). In addition, 13 secondary data were used
as supplementary data in kriging the spatial distribution of fluoride (Appendix 15). The
objective of this study is to examine the association of fluoride with other hydrochemical
variables to understand the geochemical reaction enhancing fluoride enrichement in
groundwater. The hydrochemical analysis result shows that 60% of the samples have
fluoride above 1.5mg/l while 12.5% below 0.6mg/l (Fig 4.17).

118
 WHO permitted level (1.5 mg/l)

Figure4. 17 Fluoride level in water samples

4.7.4.4 Hydrochemical reaction and fluoride enrichment process in groundwater

Plot of variables on biavariate diagram (4.18) is used to assess the geochemical

processes involving hydrochemical facies change and fluoride enrichment in solution. As
shown on Figure 4.18 (a & b), F- has positive relation with pH, but negatively correlated
with HCO3-. On other hand, from correlation matrix presented in Table 4.4, HCO3- has
negative correlation with pH. The decrease in HCO3- with increase in pH could be due to
the conversion of HCO3- to CO32- in accordance to the stability faces of the carbonate
species in water as a function of pH. Furthermore, F- has strong positive correlation with
the ratio of monovalent to divalent cations (Na+/Ca2+), both increasing in the flow direction
(Figure 4.18d), because Na+/Ca2+ ratio is decreasing with increase in altitude (Figure
4.18c).

This increase of F- with Na+/Ca+2 ratio suggests a systematic hydrochemical reaction

which involve the removal of divalent cation (Ca2+) from solution and uptake of
monovalent cation (Na+) by solution from aquifer materials in the flow process. It appears
119
to be the consequence of the fact that Ca2+ is picked up by aquifer materials in exchange
for Na+ depending on the nature of the surface charge of the encountered materials and
activity of the cations in solution. This exchange process between monovalent and
divalent cations (Ca2+ by Na+) in the flow process can be represented by:

2Na-X + Ca2+ = Ca-X +2Na+, (4.11)

where, X represents aquifer minerals common to volcanic rocks (plagioclase, feldspar,

clay minerals and to the limited extent calcite from secondary precipitate) from which the
major cations (Na+, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+) can be derived.

The increase in the ratio of Na+/Ca2+ in the flow direction (Figure 4.18c) and equation
(4.11) explains that when dilute water dominant with Ca2+ composition such as the Ca-
Na-HCO3 type waters in highland areas, is encountered by Na-materials, the Ca2+ is
selectively adsorbed close to the site of introduction and Na+ is up taken into solution. In
this case, the Ca2+ displaced the Na+ cations on the exchange sites. This process
enhances the enrichment of F- in groundwater due to the removal of Ca2+ from solution.

This study found that ground waters show compositional change from Ca-Na-HCO3 to
Na-Ca-HCO3 and Na-HCO3-Cl-SO4 types from highland towards the rift floor. This
geochemical reaction causes a systematic removal of Ca2+ from solution and enhances F-
enrichment in groundwater along flow direction. This geochemical process which involves
hydrochemical facies change in the flow direction can be represented as:

(Ca-Na-HCO3 water)+ X1 → (Na-HCO3-Cl-SO4 water) + X2 (4.12)

where, X1 represent aquifer minerals (e.g., plagioclase and feldspar) encountered in the
flow path and involved in reaction depending on the saturation index of mineral, X2 is
altered rock materials (e.g., calcite, Ca-silicate, and clay).

Stable isotope has been used to further assess the hydrochemical reaction discussed
above. Isotopic fractionation is important behavior of water isotopes used to asses
various forms of hydrological processes within a catchment basin. As a result of

120
fractionation processes, waters develop unique isotopic compositions that are indicative
of the underlying geochemical reaction processes. With respect to this, the geochemical
18
reaction involving cation-exchange reaction should increase O in water as a result of
18 16
exchange between O from aquifer materials and O from solution, a process which
cause a shift in the δ18O (‰) of the water as shown on Figure 4.18e. As shown on this
figure, highland and escarpment waters have isotope composition close to local meteoric
waters indicating low rock-water reaction as explained by HCA. Moreover, stable isotope
discriminate two types of water circulating in rift floor which is in good agreement with
HCA result. The first one corresponds to mixing (dilute) waters from leakage of Awash
River (e.g., sample number 7 and 41) and the second group corresponds to the saline
waters of the rift (e.g., sample number 27, 29, and 30) resulted by rock-water reaction
causing positive shift in δ18O (‰). The positive correlation between Na+/Ca2+ ratio and
δ18O (‰) on Figure 6.10f provide further evidence for strong geochemical reaction
between waters and aquifer materials (Bradley, 1990).

121
 (a) (b)

r2=0.12
r2=0.45

(d)

2
(c) r2=0.85
r =0.09

(f)

(e)

r2=0.28

Figure4. 18 Bivariate plots of water variables. The symbols are the same as in Figure 4.1

From PCA, PC-4 is highly weighted by fluoride with high negative loading on Ca2+. This
PCA is also explained in PCA 1 which accounts for 46.46% of the total variance
associated with EC, Na+, Cl-, SO42-, alkalinity and negative loading of Ca2+ and HCO3-.
The cluster group corresponding to this PC is cluster III on HCA which are hot waters with
Na-HCO3-Cl and Na-HCO3-SO4 type. Therefore, fluoride is associated with Na-HCO3-Cl
and Na-HCO3-SO4 ground waters. This cluster groups are characterized by high
temperature above 350c circulating in the basin interior around the active tectonic belts of
122
Metahara, Gedemsa, Boseti and Sodere area. Ground waters of this cluster group
principally drains through scoria, tuff and pumice associated with rhyolite and ignimbrite.
On the other hand, ground waters marked by Ca-Na-HCO3, Na-Ca-HCO3 and Mg-
HCO3 facies are located on recharge areas and have a composition related to river
waters with Ca2+ and HCO3- nature and do not have high load of fluoride.
PCA 4 can be explained by hydrochemical reaction involving the dissolution of calcite and
fluorite in water (Rango et al., 2008; Sreedevi et al., 2006)

CaCO 3 + H +
(
→ Ca 2 + + HCO 3 − + CO 3
2−
)
K1 =
[ Ca ] [ HCO 3 ] [ CO ]
2+ −
3
2−

( 4 . 13 )
+
H

CaF 2 → Ca 2 + + 2 F −
[
K 2 = Ca 2 + ] [F ]− 2
( 4 . 14 )

where K1 and K2 are the equilibrium solubility products of calcite and fluorite dissolved in
water, respectively. From Eq. (4.14) it is apparent that a decrease in Ca2+ could be
followed by an increase in F-. This is explained by PC 4.
From equations (4.13) and (4.14) the following relation can be derived:

K1
=
[
HCO 3 − ] [ CO 3 ] 2−

K2 H+ [ ] [F ] −
( 4 . 15 )

From the multivariate result, pH and alkalinity increases along flow direction (i.e.,
decrease with increase of altitude), thus both Ca2+ and HCO3– tends to decrease in the
flow direction due to calcite precipitation and hydrochemical evolution. On the other hand,
F- shows positive correlation with total alkalinity as well as with pH, Na+, K+. Therefore, for
the equilibrium solubility of equation 4.15, an increase in CO32- in response to rise in pH
and alkalinity should accompanied by F- enrichment (Fig 4.18a) in the flow direction due
to progressive removal of Ca2+ by precipitation. Kim et al., (2005) reported that
weathering of sodium-rich alkaline volcanic rocks causes a pH increase resulting in an

123
increase in CO32- alkalinity by dissolution of CO2 leading calcite precipitation which results
in decrease in Ca2+. This causes dissolution of fluorite with ultimate increases of F-
concentration in water.

In the study area, ground waters located within WFB are thermal waters and contain high
load of fluoride. This indicates that fluoride is associated with geothermal activity which is
active in the basin interior. The Ca-Na-HCO3 waters in the highlands and near the base
of the escarpments have low fluoride content below 1.5mg/l whereas the Na-HCO3 and
Na-Cl-SO4 waters in rift floor have high load of fluoride above 4 mg/l (Fig 4.19). This
suggests high concentration of fluoride is expected in ground waters from calcium-poor
aquifers.

West East

Figure4. 19 Distribution of fluoride and hydrochemical facies across the rift valley

124
4.7.4.5 Geospatial distribution of F- concentration

Because of this marked heterogeneity of fluoride distribution, the geospatial variability of

fluoride within the entire basin was analyzed using geostatistics (Kitanidis, 1997). An
experimental omnidirectional variogram was calculated for F- concentration from data
points shown in Figure 4.20 (Left) and adjusted using an exponential model (Figure 4.20,
Right).

The general expression of an exponential model and the theoretical exponential model
are expressed by the following equations:
3h
γ(h) = C 0 + C1 [1 − exp(− )] (4.16)
a
3h
γ(h) = 14 [1 − exp(− )] (4.17)
14
where, C0 is the nugget effect, C= C0 + C1 is the sill, a is the practical range (distance at
which 95% of the sill has been reached), h is the distance between sampling points. The
range of the variogram gives the length scale of the spatial structure of the variable under
2
consideration. In this case, the parameters C and a are (14mg/l) and 20km,
respectively.In equation (4.17), the nugget effect is zero, meaning that micro-structure of
F- could not be detected. The range amounts to 20km, giving the scale of the spatial
structure.

The variogram is then used in the kriging procedure (Kitanidis, 1997) to produce an
estimation of the fluoride concentration to the basin scale (Figure 4.21). The krigged map
shows that the higher concentrations are located in the rift floor area, whereas in the
escarpments and the highland areas F- concentrations are much lower. Figure 4.22
shows the kriging standard error map, which highlights the uncertainty associated with the
krigged map. F- estimation in areas with higher variance are much uncertain than in areas
with smaller error. The kriging standard error map may in this way help to delineate areas
where supplementary data are required to improve knowledge about F- distribution in the
Middle Awash basin.
125
Figure4. 20 Fluoride data point distribution (left) and exponential variogram fitted to fluoride data
presented in appendix 13 and 15

126
Figure4. 21 Geospatial distribution of fluoride in Middle Awash basin

127
Figure4. 22 Kriging standard error map of fluoride distribution

128
4.8 Concluding remark
Both multivariate statistical analysis and isotope data discriminate two major
hydrogeochemical processes which are results of geological structures and geothermal
activities. Ground waters circulating in highlands areas are lightly mineralized and
depleted in heavy isotopes which marks fast circulation system. In this flow system,
water-rock reaction is restricted by geological structures whereby groundwater storage
and flow is predominately in fractures and joints which give short residence time and low
contact of surface area. On the other hand, the active tectonic belts of the basin interior
are marked as hydrogeological block where strong water-rock reaction is taking place.
Groundwater in this land setting are contains high load of hydrochemical variables
predominaltly Na+, K+, Cl-, SO42-, TDS and F.

The inverse geochemical modelling shows the evolution of hydrochemical facies towards
the albite field which involves the dissolution of Na-silicate and precipitation of Ca (Mg)
silicates in the rift floor. PCA further discriminate Na+, Cl-, SO42-, and F- as major
variables impairing groundwater quality in the flow direction. Fluoride concentrations in
groundwater of the Middle Awash basin vary from 0.1 to 73 mg/l which depends on
varying concentrations of fluoride-bearing minerals and magnitude of geothermal
activities along groundwater flow paths. Result from multivariate statistical analysis show
that fluoride is associated with thermal waters and non calcium waters of the Na-HCO3
and Na-Cl-SO4 type especially those of high pH located in the rift floor at the centre of the
basin. The geochemical reaction involving cation exchange reaction cause F- enrichment
in groundwater due to removal of Ca2+ from solution in reaction process. The kriging
procedure was used to produce an estimation of the F- distribution at the basin scale. The
active geothermal belts of the basin interior are hydrogeological blocks characterized by
high load of fluoride above 5 mg/l that could cause serious health problem. Thus, it is
highly recommended to conduct water quality analyses during borehole construction and
to monitor boreholes after handing over to the communities. pH and temperature
measurement at field level could give a good insight on the level of fluoridation of
groundwater. Sites away from geothermal area are expected to be non fluoridated
aquifers.
129
 . Chapter 5

Isotope Hydrology

5.1 Introduction and principles

Water has naturally complex and various forms of chemical constituents. Its molecular
constituents have got various forms of isotopes, of the most important scientific
application are the 2H and 18
O (Mazor, 1997). Isotopes are atoms of the same element
that have different masses (Fig 5.1)

Figure5. 1 Partial charts of elements. Each square representd a particular nuclide. The
shaded squares are stable atoms and the unshaded squares are radioactive nuclides.
Arrows at the left side of the diagram show the shift in proton and neutron number caused
by different decay mechanisms; beta decay (a), positron and beta capture (b), and alpha
decay (c); after Faure (1977)

The original isotopic compositions of planetary systems are a function of nuclear

processes in stars (Faure, 1986). Over time, isotopic compositions in terrestrial
environments change by the processes of radioactive decay, cosmic ray interactions,
mass-dependent fractionations that accompany inorganic and biological reactions, and
anthropogenic activities such as the processing of nuclear fuels, reactor accidents, and
130
nuclear-weapons testing. Two isotopes are identified as radioactive and stable isotopes.
Radioactive isotopes are nuclides that spontaneously disintegrate over time to form other
isotopes. During the disintegration, radioactive isotopes emit alpha or beta particles and
sometimes also gamma rays. Stable isotopes are nuclides that do not appear to decay to
other isotopes, but may themselves be produced by the decay of radioactive isotopes
(Fritz and Fontes, 1980).

Of all the methods used to understand hydrological processes in a catchment,

applications of isotope tracers have been the most useful in terms of providing new
insights into hydrological processes (Ferronsky and Polyakoc 1982; Kendall and
McDonnell 1998). Isotope tracers provide basic information about catchment behavior
and hydrological processes in addition to internal watershed point data such as
18
hydrochemistry and water level measurements. In particular, O, 2H (D), and 3H are
integral parts of natural water molecules that are ideal tracers of water (Dansgaard 1964;
Sklash 1990).

The basic principles in application of environmental isotope include:

1) Waters recharged at different times, in different locations, or that followed different
flow paths are often isotopically distinct
2) Unlike most chemical tracers, environmental isotopes are relatively conservative in
reactions with catchment materials. This is especially true for oxygen and
hydrogen isotopes in water. This means that meteoric waters retain their distinctive
fingerprints until they mix with waters of different compositions and in the case of
isotopes of dissolved species there are reactions with minerals and fluids which
involve isotope fractionation.
3) Solutes in catchment waters that are derived from atmospheric sources are
commonly isotopically distinct from solutes derived from geologic and biologic
sources within the catchment.
4) Both biological cycling of solutes and water-rock reactions often change isotopic
ratios of the solutes in predictable and recognizable directions; these interactions
often can be reconstructed from the isotopic compositions.
131
 5) If water from an isotopically distinctive source (e.g., rain with an unusual isotopic
composition) is found along a flow path, it provides proof for a hydrologic
connection, despite any hydraulic measurements or models to the contrary.

Stable isotope compositions of low mass (i.e., light elements such as oxygen and
hydrogen) are normally reported as values in units of parts per mill (‰) relative to a
standard of known composition as:

δ‰ = (Rx / Rs - 1) x1000 (5.1)

where, R denotes the ratio of the heavy to light isotope, and Rx and Rs are the ratios in
the sample and standard, respectively. δ‰ value can be positive or negative depending
on the amount of isotopic content of a sample relative to standards. A positive δ value
means that the isotopic ratio of the sample is higher than that of the standard whereas a
negative δ value denotes the isotopic ratio of the sample is lower than that of the
18
standard. D and O values are normally reported in δ ‰ relative to the SMOW standard
(Standard Mean Ocean Water) ( Craig, 1961).

Environmental isotopes are effective tracers of water sources because oxygen and
hydrogen are the integral constituents of water, thus move with water molecules. As water
moves from place to place isotopic fractionations can occurs (Fig 5.2) depending on the
environmental condition such as altitude, temperature, magnitude of precipitation, and
initial composition of materials to which water becomes in contact. This unique isotopic
composition is used as tracer of the evolution of water mass from its origin as
precipitation including recharge processes (Gat 1970; O'Neil 1986; Gat and Gonfiantini
1981; Gat 1996; Gat et al., 2003). Under favorable circumstances, waters flowing along a
particular flow path may have distinctive isotopic compositions because of isotopic
exchange with aquifer materials (Craig et al., 1956). Hence, the water isotopes are also
used as tracers of water flow paths including geochemical reaction processes which are
recognized as isotope fractionation.

132
Figure5. 2 Isotope composition of evaporated surface water water (δw), the original
precipitation prior to evaporation (δp), and the evaporated vapor (δE), all plotted along the
same evaporation line. Both precipitation (δp) and atmospheric vapor (δa) in equilibrium
condition are plotted along the MWL separated by the enrichment factor for the
environmental temperature (ε*). When the evaporated water (δε) mixes with the local
atmospheric vapor (δa), a new vapor (δ’a) is formed that plots above the MWL. If rain later
condenses from this vapor, it would plot along a new line parallel to the MWL but with a
higher d-excess value; after Gat et al., (1994).

Factors that control isotopic composition of precipitation can be regional or local. On the
regional base, latitude and continent exert important control. The continentality of a
location is important because continents remove more heavy waters from air masses than
marine areas as a result of elevation. In addition, areas far from the modifying influences
of coasts have extreme variations in temperature which could be reflected in the isotopic
content of precipitation.

When isotopic compositions of precipitation from all over the world are plotted relative to
each other on ‰δ18O versus ‰D plots, a linear band of data was obtained which is
described by the equation 5.2 (Craig, 1961) which is called Global Meteoric Water Line
(GMWL) or Craig line:

δD‰ = 8 δ18O‰ + 10 (5.2)

Local precipitation can differ from the above relation based on environmental condition
such as topography. Similarily, isotopes of particular water sample can deviate both from
133
Craige line and local meteoric water line depending on the isotope content of precipitation
from which it is derived and the underlying hydrological process. This departure of water
samples from local meteoric water line is the base for interpretation of the hydrological
processes of groundwater with respect to their corresponding local meteoric water line.

For this study, GNIP precipitation data at Assela and Addis Ababa station have been
used as local meteoric water lines (LMWLs) (Fig 5.3). Isotope data of water samples of
the study area were interpreted with reference to these two LMWLs which are part of
GNIP global precipitation network.

Rainfall
Moist-laden air mass

Topograph

Light rain, windward, under hot system

Evaporation during precipitation (winter Ethiopian rain)

Highland rain, lee-ward rain & heavy storm

under cold system (summer Ethiopian rain)

Mixed system

GMWL (δD=818O + 10)

LMWL at Addis Ababa (δD=7.1518O + 12.14)
LMWL at Assela (δD=8.1618O + 15.19)

Figure5. 3 Isotopic variations of local meteoric waters

134
plotted above the global and Addis Ababa meteoric water lines with d-excess of 15‰.
The isotopic variation between Assela and Addis Ababa station could be related to source
and topographic effect. The isotope composition of Ethiopian rainfall with physical factors
causing isotope variation of rainwater has been discussed by Kebede et al., (2005).

Isotopic fractionation is another important behavior of stable isotopes used to asses

various forms of hydrological processes within a catchment basin (Bradley, 1990). As a
result of fractionation processes, waters and solutes often develop unique isotopic
compositions (i.e., ratios of heavy to light isotopes) that are indicative of their source and
processes that formed them.

Two main types of phenomena produce isotopic fractionations: isotope exchange

reactions and kinetic processes. Isotope exchange reactions can be viewed as a subset
of kinetic isotope reactions where the reactants and products remain in contact in a
closed, well-mixed system such that backward reactions can occur and chemical
equilibrium can be established. Under such circumstances, isotopic equilibrium (i.e., the
ratio of heavy to lighter isotope in systems) can be also established. Detailed discussions
of isotope fractionations can be found in Craig et al., (1956), Gat and Gonfiantini, (1981),
O'Neil, (1986), and Bradley, (1990).

Isotope-exchange reactions involve the redistribution of isotopes of an element among

various species or compounds (in a strict sense, this only occurs in a closed, well-mixed
system at chemical equilibrium). At isotopic equilibrium, the forward and backward
reaction rates of any particular isotope are identical. This does not mean that the isotopic
compositions of two compounds at equilibrium are identical, but only the ratios of the
different isotopes in each compound are constant for a particular temperature.

During isotope exchange reactions, the heavier isotope generally preferentially

accumulates in the species or compound with the higher oxidation state. The most
important principles in this respect are among different phases of the same compound or
different species of the same element, the denser the material, the more it tends to be

135
enriched in the heavier isotope (Gat, 1996). This principle holds true for water rock
interaction. This is very important in equilibrium fractionation when water reacts with
rocks. During the processes of rock water interaction which involves ionic exchange
between solution and rock minerals (i.e., dissolution of rock mineral and precipitation of
solute from solution), the heavier isotope (18O) from rock proportionally taken up by
solution and the lighter isotope (16O) from solution goes to the solid materials so as to
attain the balance of isotopic ratios between the reacting systems. This fundamental
principle has been applied in the assessment of the geochemical reaction of the study
area.

5.2 Result and Discussion

This chapter describes the isotope result of 45 water samples of different sources
(Appendix 13) collected from various places of the Middle Awash basin. Sample sites and
sample numbers are shown on Fig 5.4

136
Figure5. 4 Water sampling sites for stable isotope analysis

137
Samples were collected in clean and dry plastic bottles filled completely to the top and
capped tightly so as to avoid evaporation of sample and exchange with atmospheric
water vapor.

Both stable isotope and Tritium were analyzed in the hydrogeological laboratory of Earth
Science Department of the Addis Ababa University by Liquid-Water Isotope Analyzer
(LWIA) and Electrolytic Enrichment and Liquid Scintillation Spectrometry (EELSS),
respectively. LWIA measures based on high-resolution laser absorption spectroscopy
which provides accurate isotope ratio measurements over wide range of delta values (i.e.,
highly depleted to highly enriched).

Because of the difficulty of measuring actual value of isotopes in a sample, the ratios of
the stable isotopes are measured relative to standards, a sample containing the element
in which the isotopic ratio is known. For measuring the stable isotope, untreated samples
were filtered using 0.25 µm filter paper to avoid possible clogging and syringe
contamination. After filtering the sample, 1.5 ml of water samples were filled in 2 ml
sample vial using disposable pipette, then the vial was immediately caped using Teflon
septa. During measurement, samples were configured with reference standards whose
isotope ratios are known interspersed between the samples and samples from each vial
were measured six times. The accuracy of the measurement was within ±0.6‰ for D/H
and ±0.2‰ for 18O/16O.

EELSS measures tritium by enrichment system whereby samples were initially distilled
prior to enrichment and measurement was conducted following run configuration
instruction provided with the instrument. The measured isotopic data is presented in
appendix 13.

Result from water isotopes were used to analysis source and recharge process (Rozanski
et al., 1993), interaction between surface water and groundwater, trace flow direction and
geochemical reaction (Edmunds et al., 1992; Fausto et al., 2006) as well as for semi-
quantitative groundwater age determination (Nir 1964; Clark and Fritz 1997) from 26
138
tritium data. It is attempted to integrate the isotope result with hydrochemical properties of
waters discussed under chapter 4. This integration of chemical and isotopic data is
important to understand the complex hydrogeological system of the Middle Awash basin
where other hydrogeological datasets such as borehole and groundwater table records
are scarce.

GNIP rainfall data at Assela and Addis Ababa stations have been used as local meteoric
water lines (LMWLs). The Assela rainfall corresponds to precipitation that falls on eastern
highlands of the study area. This rainfall is recharging ground waters that drain the
eastern watersheds of the basin whereas the Addis Ababa rainfall represents precipitation
that falls on western plateau of the rift valley which is source for ground waters draining
the western side of the rift (Fig 5.5).

Figure5. 5 Local meteoric waters and recharge system

139
The measured isotopes of water samples are plotted and interpreted with respect to these
two local meteoric water lines and the result is shown in figure 5.6.

Figure5. 6 Plots of stable isotopes. Sample symbols are the same as in Figure 5.4

Waters of the study area can be classified into three major groups based on their isotopic
signatures.

Group I

This group belongs to the cluster I and partly cluster II of HCA classification discussed
under chapter 5. Sample number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 11, 13, 15, 21, 23, 24, 25, 28, 31,
32, 34, 35, 38, 39, and 40 in Figure 5.4 belongs to this group. They include spring
water, shallow and deep ground waters in highland and escarpment areas. They area
slightly mineralized (TDS< 500mg/l) and are correspond to the Ca-Na-HCO3 and Na-Ca-
HCO3 type of the Piper plot (Chapter 5).They are highly depleted in heavy stable isotopes
but plotted closer to the LMWLs (Fig 5.6). The average isotopic composition of these
samples is -12.8‰δD and -3.5‰δ18O. The depletion of heavier isotopes in these samples
140
impy their source which is from summer heavy rain that falls on the highlands under cold
air condition. On the other hand, their isotopic plot closer to LMWLs suggests fast
percolation of rainwater. This means that the effectiveness of rock-water interactions and
isotopic fractionation in these samples are very low. This is in good agreement with the
salinity of highland waters discussed under chapter 5. High hydraulic gradient, rock
fractures and faults associated in highland areas could be important factors for such
hydrological processes in this group.

Group II

One of the application of stable isotopes in recharge studies include the identification of
mixed waters. This means that stable isotopes are indicators of recharge derived from
rivers, wetland, and lake rather than from infiltration through the vadose zone (Clark and
Fritz, 1997). This second group represents mixed waters between surface waters and
ground waters. They are enriched in heavy isotopes distinct from others.

Members of this second group are located closer to the Awash River (number 7, 9, 10,
and 41, in Figure 5.4). The average isotopic composition of these samples is -7.5‰δD
and -2.4‰δ18O which is closer to the isotope composition of Awash River (-6.31‰δD and
-1.84‰δ18O) indicating the presence of surface waters in these samples. This is also
described by HCA classification discussed under chapter 4. Awash River is flowing within
the extensional fault zone of the rift valley where geological materials are highly porous
and permeable. Thus, this river could leak to groundwater through the underlying porous
materials. Strong hydraulic connectivity between groundwater and surface water has
been revealed by 2D tomography conducted in Wonji plain (Chapter 5) which is in good
agreement with the isotopic data of these samples. Previous study by Kebede et al,.(
2008) also suggests mixing of Awash River with Sodere, Wonji and Southern Afar thermal
waters that emerge near the river.

Group III

Members of this group correspond to the Na-HCO3-Cl types of the Piper plot which are
circulating within the rift floor. Samples number 8, 19, 20, 22, 26, 27, 29, and 30 in Figure
141
5.4, belongs to this group. They are localized within the active tectonic zone of the rift,
thus they are found under the influence of geothermal activity that likely comes through
the Wonji faults belts (WFB). They are also depleted in heavy isotopes but somewhat
enriched compared to the first group with average isotopic composition of -9.9‰δD and -
2.7‰δ18O. The isotopic plot of this group is drifted towards the right with higher positive
oxygen shift, (Fig 5.6). This means that their δD (‰) is very close to rainwater δD (‰) but
their δ18O (‰) show a positive drift from the LMWLs that can be considered as selective
enrichment. Regression lines attributed to isotopic drift in these samples intersect the
LMWLs at the point -10.3δD (‰) and -3.4δ18O (‰) representing the isotopic composition
of the water prior to fractionation. Their isotopic depletion implies as they are also
originated from highland rain similar to group I waters. However, the positive oxygen shift
in this group indicates the possible high residence time which allowed strong rock-water
interaction and isotopic fractionation (i.e., isotopic exchange between water and rock
minerals during geochemical reaction). This is in good agreement with salinity and
hydrochemical facies of these samples discussed under chapter 5. The topography is
nearly flat leading slow groundwater velocity and this together with high geothermics of
the area enhances strong rock-water reaction involving isotopic fractionation in this group.

From the basic principle of thermodynamics equilibrium, natural systems including rock
water interaction which involves isotope exchange moves towards equilibrium (Drever,
1982). When two or more phases coexist under closed system, in this case water and
mineral in the flow path, the chemical potential including the isotopic component must be
identical in each phase.

Equilibrium approach is useful in that: 1) it provides information on isotope exchange

process, 2) it indicates the direction in which isotope exchanges and enrichment can take
place, 3) it is the base for understanding the rate of rock water interaction involving
isotope exchange accompanied in the flow direction since the farther the system is from
equilibrium, the more rapidly it will react towards equilibrium.

Fractionation can be observed in reactions between two chemically reacting systems

such as water with mineral assemblages in the flow direction. As rock water reactions
142
proceeds, the stable isotopes are fractionated between the reactants (solution) and the
products (altered rock) although by different amount for each isotope (Bradley, 1990).
Figure 5.7 shows the isotope exchange processes between groundwater and aquifer
materials and systematic enrichment of heavy isotope in groundwater along flow
direction. The isotope exchange between groundwater and aquifer materials can reach an
equilibrium condition depending on the duration of rock water interaction, the temperature
of the system and presence of reactive minerals, or it can be present in a state of
disequilibrium in which the partitioning of isotopes between reactants and products is still
occurring (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). Equilibrium fractionation requires sufficient time for
equilibrium to occur such that the total reservoirs of the isotopes in solution and mineral
can be identical.

As explained under chapter 5, alteration of silicate minerals from one phase to another
such as alterations of feldspars to clay minerals should cause a shift in δ18O (‰) of the
water. The magnitude of the shift depends on the mass ratio of water to react with
minerals in addition to temperature and initial isotopic composition. The deuterium content
of the rift floor waters is, however, similar with local precipitation, but they are more
enriched in δ18O (‰) than the LMWLs which could be due to isotope exchange
between water and aquifer materials in the process of geochemical reaction.

Selective enrichment in δ18O (‰) is due to the fact that rock naturally contains large
amount of oxygen but very little hydrogen (Drever, 1982). As a result, during rock -water
18 16
interaction, isotopic exchange between O from rock and O from solution occurs so as
to attain the equilibrium condition between the reacting systems. In other word, as
18
reaction between water and rock proceeds along flow path, some O is transferred from
16
the rock to the water, and some O from the water goes to rock as shown in Figure 5.7.
18
Kebede et al., 2008 reported similar O shift in Afar geothermal waters as a result of
exchange between the geothermal waters and the silicate rock matrix.

143
 Point of departure (Isotope

Highland groundwater composition

com of ground waters

(BH and springs) prior to isotopic exchange)

Deviation caused by
rock-
rock-water reaction

Rift floor ground waters

Steep hydraulic gradient. Fast flow

system. Weak rock-water reaction.
Weak isotopic exchange between
Highland wells water and aquifer materials Flat topography. Very slow groundwater
(e.g., 1, 2, 24, 25) velocity. Strong rock water reaction. Under the
influence of high geothermics; Strong isotopic
exchange between water and aquifer materials

Spgs (e.g no.3, 5) Rift floor borehole

Deep borehole near the (e.g. no.26

no.26,
26, 27,
27, 29)
29)
18O
16 O Escarpment (e.g
(e.g no.4, 28, 34, 42)
42)
18O
O
16
Ca-
Ca-Na-
Na-HCO3 water
O
16 16 O
Water table 16O 16O 16O
16O
18
O
O
18 O 18O
18 18 O 18 O 18O
Aquifer materials 18
O
Na-
Na-Ca-
Ca-HCO3 water
Na(Ca)-
Na(Ca)-HCO3 water+Rock → (Na-
(Na-HCO3 water)+altered rock
(e.g. Plagioclase → Smectite)

Figure5. 7 Mechanisms of rock-water reactions involving isotope exchanges

Isotopic data also used to assess the water balance of Lake Beseka which is located in
central part of the study area (Figure 5.4). Studies by Gizaw (1996), Zemedeagegneh and
Egizabher (2004), Alemayehu et al., (2006), Kebede et al., (2008), Ayalew (2009)
reported the ongoing grow of this lake due to excess inflow from groundwater. The stable
isotope data of this lake measured in different years indicate the notable progressive

144
depletion in heavier isotopes as shown (Figure 5.8). For examples, the lake had
6.5δ18O‰ (in 1998), +28.6D‰ and +6.2δ18O‰ (in 2006),
composition of +45D‰ and +6.5
and during this study time it has +25D‰ and +3.2δ18O ‰ (in 2009).

50

40
30 D
δ‰ (D , 18O)

20 18O
10
0

1998
2006
Year 2009

Figure5. 8 Isotope composition of Lake Beseka in different years

Progressive depletion in heavy is

isotope of this lake is implying that the lake is obtaining
excess lighter isotopes from water that is flowing into the lake.

From the basic water balance equation for a closed lake:

Inflow = Outflow ± ∆
In terms of stable isotope,, for the storage term (±∆)) to be at steady state, the heavy
isotopic enrichment produced by evaporation should be counter-balanced
balanced by the influx of
lighter isotopes from waterss flowing to the lake
lake. As Lake Beseka is a closed lake having
outflow exclusively via evaporation, the enrichment in heavy isotope of the lake would be
normally expected, but in contrar
contrary, the lake is progressively depleting in heavy isotopes.
A progressive depletion of heavy isotopes in this lake would mean that the lake is
obtaining much lighter isotope from inflow water than the heavier isotopes produced in the
lake by evaporation. This implies that the quantity of lake evaporation (outflow
outflow) is much
lower than the inflow component
component. As a result of this large discrepancy between inflow and
outflow component, the lake is growing and depleting in heavier isotopes as well as
145
chemically found under dilution process. In this respect, the lake should get recharge from
waters depleted in heavy isotopes which correspond to groundwater from highlands. The
hydrological mass balance of this lake basin is further assessed by numerical
groundwater flow modeling under chapter 8.

5.3 Tritium (3H)

Tritium is a heavier radioactive isotope of hydrogen with half life of 12.43 years and decay
to helium by beta emission (Mazor, 1991). Naturally, it is formed by bombardment of
nitrogen by neutrons in cosmic radiation with steady state supply of less 5-10 TU (tritium
units; 1TU= one 3H atom/1018 Hydrogen atom). The use of tritium as dating tool is based
on the huge influx of tritium that entered the atmosphere in the 1950s and 1960s as a
result of the hydrogen bomb. The input of bomb tritium into the atmosphere overwhelmed
the natural supply of tritium to above 1000 TU (Clark and Fritz, 1997). Tritium in
groundwater is not significantly affected by chemical processes thus the quantity of tritium
in waters forms a basis for separating pre-bomb (old) waters from post-bomb (young)
waters. Pre-bomb water contains no tritium detectable by normal procedures; whereas
post 1953 waters contain detectable levels of tritium. The applications of tritium to
groundwater problems generally fall into three groups: direct dating of the age of the
water, for estimation of recharge rate; to understand flow processes in fractured and
granular aquifer media.

Due to mixing effects that could take place in the aquifer of the Middle Awash basin
through the wide spread fault systems, absolute groundwater dating using tritium is
difficult. For this reason, a semi-quantitative age of waters is given from tritium level
measured in 26 water samples selectively collected at different physiographic regions (Fig
5.9). The result is presented in Figure 5.10 and Appendix 13. Semi-quantitative aging of
the water is based on Clark and Fritz (1997) groundwater age classification (Table 5.1)

146
Table 5. 1 Approximate ground waters recharge age for continental areas based on
tritium values (after Clark and Fritz, 1997)
3
H Value (TU) Relative age
<0.8 Sub modern-recharge prior to 1952
0.8-4 Mixture of Sub modern and recent recharge
5-15 Modern (5-10 years)
15-30 Some bomb tritium present
30-50 Considerable component of recharge from 1960s or 1970s
>50 Dominantly 1960s recharge

Figure5. 9 Tritium sampling sites. The polygon within the map is boundary of the study
area

147
 Old waterline (0.8TU)

Figure5. 10 Tritium content in selected samples

The high concentration of tritium in some samples (number 7, 10, 21, 35, in Figure 5.10)
can be due to preferential recharge through fractures and leakage from river. Didibsa
(number 18) and D/N/Kusaye (number 21) wells; each 180m deep located within same
basin have quite different tritium content with the former old water and the later very
young water. This large variation of tritium among closely located ground waters could be
due to the effect of fault plane acting as subsurface flow barriers between the Didibsa and
D/N/Kusaye flow systems. This subsurface structure should create rapid preferential flow
for D/N/Kussaye flow system. On the other hand, the low tritium in Didibsa water marks
the ongoing decay of tritium as groundwater moves slowly through granular media. This is
also in good agreement with the hydrochemistry of waters where Didibsa water is more
saline (TDS 884 mg/l) compared to the D/N/Kussaye water (TDS 448mg/l).

High tritium is also measured in Melkasa (number 7) and Ethio cutting (number 10) wells
which are located adjacent to the Awash River bank (Fig 5.9). This indicates mixing from
Awash River. This river leakage is also explained by water chemistry (chapter 4) and
stable isotopes. In general, majority of ground waters have tritium above 0.8TU indicating
that they are generally found under recharging system. The depleted value of tritium in

148
some deep wells such as Mexaqoma (number 4), Xadde (number 13), Fexo (number 22),
Borchota (number 23) and Didibsa (number 18) could be due to the ongoing decay of
tritium. Wells located at eastern highlands such as Sire Golo (number 1), Ibseta Haxe
(number 2), Abasa Gorba (number 24) and Abomsa (number 25) have high tritium
content relative to wells in the rift floor. This explains the fast recharge of rainwater in the
highlands which is in good agreement with result from stable isotope and hydrochemical
data of these samples. .

5.4 Concluding remark

Results from stable isotopes draw three important hydrological implications. The first
implication from stable isotopes is the discrimination of groundwater origin and recharge
dynamics. Waters in Middle Awash basin are generally depleted in heavy isotopes. This
indicates as they have origin from summer rainfall that falls on highlands that bounds the
rift. The second remark from stable isotopes is the detection of hydraulic connectivity
(mixing) between surface water and ground waters. The unique stable isotopes observed
in sample number 7, 10, and 41 are due to the presence of significant leakage of surface
waters to groundwater. The third observation from stable isotope is isotope fractionation
which indicates strong rock water reaction along flow paths.

Similar to stable isotopes, tritium result also marks three important hydrological processes
in the study area. The first observation from tritium is the identification of recharge rates.
Water samples marked by number 4, 13, 18, and 22 in Figure 5.10 are marked by very
low tritium content indicating low flow rate. On the other hand, high level of tritium in
sample number 2, 12, 21, 35, and 36 could be due to fast preferential recharge along
faults. The third implication from tritium data is leakage from surface water. This
corresponds to samples number 7 and 10 which have mixing water from Awash River.

In general, similar results are obtained from stable isotopes and tritium which discriminate
the various hydrological processes including recharge, flow paths, flow dynamics,
hydraulic connectivity (mixing), and water types. Rift geological structures (faults, fissures
149
and fractures) and geothermal activity exert strong influence on hydrological processes of
the Middle Awash basin. Result from stable isotopes and tritium is in good agreement
with river hydrograph discussed under chapter 3, hydrochemical data (chapter 4),
geophysical results conducted in selected areas (chapter 6 and 7) as well as numerical
groundwater flow modeling (chapter 8). Figure 5.11 provides the conceptual hydrological
system of the study area derived from hydrochemical and isotope results.

Eastern plateau
Western Rift floor

Rock-water reaction
Awash R Fast recharge
reaction
Fast recharge
River leakage
1.6
1.9
1.1 4.4 1.1
1.2
2.
0.6

Legend
Tritium GMWL
Max
LMWL (Addis Ababa)
LMWL (Assela)
Min
Groundwater flow
Rainfall
direction

Figure5. 11 Hydrochemical and isotope of waters at different locations

150
151
 Chapter 6

Characterization of the aquifer system of the Middle Awash basin

6.1 Introduction

Volcanic rocks are geological formations originated from eruption of volcanoes. These
rocks differ much in their appearance and composition depending on the condition under
which they are formed and their cooling process. They are generally marked by low
original porosity, but can form important aquifers when brought to on or near earth’s
surface and exposed to weathering processes by post-depositional faulting and fracturing.
The frequency and extent of weathering, jointing, fractures and flow contacts are the most
hydrogeological factors imparting porosity and permeability for volcanic aquifers.

Volcanic aquifers are the most exploited aquifers in Ethiopia (Alemayehu, 2006) providing
water through drilled wells as well as springs. This is partly due to the acceptable
chemical constituent of ground waters from these aquifers. Depths of groundwater
circulation in volcanic rocks are largely variable depending on geomorphology and
geological structures. With depth, the porosity and permeability tends to closed thus
sufficient secondary porosity should be developed for such rocks to be considered as
aquifers (Vernier, 1993).

The primary porosity of volcanic rocks largely varies depending on place of formation (i.e.,
at or near the surface or deeper from the surface) and mode of deposition (i.e., flow or
ejected). Flow volcanic rocks such as basalt, ignimbrite and rhyolite which occupy the
highland areas of the study area are generally massive and have low primary porosity
whereas the volcanic pyroclastics in the rift floor have high primary porosity. Primary
porosity in basalt includes columnar joints, and veins. Post depositional structures are the
most hydrologically important in flow volcanic rocks.
Depending on the places of formation, two categories of volcanic rocks are known as
extrusive and intrusive. Extrusive rocks are erupted from volcanoes and freeze quickly on
or near the surface under low pressures condition. Extrusive rocks exhibit great variation
152
in their water bearing character and capacity depending on their composition, mode of
formation as well as topography. The most common extrusive volcanic rocks in the study
area include basalt, ignimbrite, pumice, rhyolite, scoria, tuff and volcanoclastic sediments.
These are the most geological formations of the Middle Awash basin hosting the
groundwater of the basin. The various openings which impart porosity and permeability in
these rocks include scoria, columnar joints, gas vesicles, lava tubes, and fractures and
lineaments.

The intrusive rocks are those which solidify slowly at depth and do not release gases. As
a result, these rocks are non-porous, impermeable and do not hold groundwater (Freeze
and Cherry, 1979). The only possibility for intrusive rocks to hold groundwater is therefore
through the development of secondary porosity by faulting, folding and other geologic
activities. This rock group is not common in the study area.

6.2 The hydrostratigraphic units

Ground waters in the Middle Awash basin exclusively circulate within the extrusive
volcanic formation that ranges from the Miocene to recent Quaternary sediments. The
permeability of these rocks varies as a function of granulometry which depends on the
type and intensity of explosive processes and on the mechanism of their emplacement as
well as post-depositional alteration processes (Davis and DeWiest 1966, Vernier 1993,
Fetter, 2001).

The hydrochemical result discussed under chapter 5 classified the aquifer types of the
study area into two major groups based on the feldspar content of the rocks as calci
alkaline aquifers ( Ca-plagioclase feldspar) and alkaline aquifers (Na-rich feldspar). The
calc-alkaline aquifers which include basalt, ignimbrite and trachybasalt are localized in
plateau area bounding the rift floor. These rocks are fine-grained and their primary
porosity is generally limited, thus their effective aquifer depends mainly on structures such
as cooling joints and through development of post-depositional structures like cracks and
joints. Lithological well logs tapping these calci alkaline rocks (appendix, 17) dictate that

153
 groundwater is restricted within the zone of fractured and weathered portion of these
rocks.

The alkaline aquifers which include the vesicular extrusive igneous rock such as scoria,
pumice, welded tuff, and weathered rhyolite as well as volcanoclastic sediments occupy
the central rift floor of the study area. These rocks contain cavities (due to escape of gas
during cooling) and are deeply weathered by volcanotectonics including geothermal
activities which is active in the basin interior.

The hydrology of rocks and depth of groundwater circulation have been discussed from
the converging evidence of well data, geophysics conducted at selected sites (Fig 6.1),
hydrochemical and isotope results.

39000”E 40000”E

9000”N 9000”N

8000”N 8000”N

39000”E 40000”E

Figure 6. 1 Location of wells and VES sites

154
Aquifer systems of the Middle Awash basin are strongly controlled by geological
structures, topography, and rock type. Lithologic units are highly intermixed, tectonics
structures are complex, rocks are laterally discontinuous, aquifers are heterogeneous and
hydrodynamics of ground waters are highly variable. The lateral and longitudinal
permeability of rocks are different as rocks near the base of the mountain foot are stiff
while hardness generally decreases towards the valley (formed by faults) and rift floor
affected by volcanic activities. The permeability of rocks is mainly secondary as a result of
tectonic activity. In plateau lands of the rift, groundwater is laterally confined between
mountains blocks that dip towards each other, a condition which creates
compartmentalized and isolated flow systems.

Depth to groundwater considerably varies from highland to rift floor and shows a general
decreasing trend towards rift floor. Within the highland and escarpment, the depth to
groundwater significantly varies from 50 to 400 m below ground surface and locally
confined between massive layers and fault planes. At regional scale, the depth to
groundwater varies depending on physiography and rock permeability. In recharge area
of the highland and escarpment areas, the rocks are typically massive and have low
permeability. In this flow region, groundwater circulates within deeper basalts controlled
by fault systems.

Two major problems were encountered in proper assessment of aquifer systems of the
study area. The first one is lack of hydrogeological data in large parts of the study area
(Fig 6.1). This leads to ill-definition of hydrogeological characteristics of the basin.
Furthermore, the available wells are unevenly distributed and concentrated to southwest
around towns (Nazert, Wonji and Welenchiti) and to north central sector near Metahara.
This data limitation was the main problem encountered in proper assessment of the
hydrogeological system of the basin. Geophysical survey was conducted in selected
areas to fill data gaps.

The second problem is related to data quality. The available wells do not have records of
hydraulic parameters which are the important for aquifer characterization. Data scarcity
and lack of hydraulic parameters as well as unevenly distributions of wells within the
155
study area were the major limitation in proper description of the aquifer systems of the
basin. Therefore, more general hydrogeological system of the basin is discussed from
the combined result of hydrochemistry, water isotopes, geophysics and limited well data.
An attempt has been made to scrutinize results of these datasets with geological
framework and rock lithology to characterize the aquifer systems of the basin. The local
stratigraphic column from well data and the local geological map are re-labelled to
understand the relative position of aquifers in landscapes of the study area. Groundwater
information from well data such as hydrostatic information, yield record, water table depth
and well lithologic logs (appendix 17) were used to identify the aquifer type as well as
hydrostratigraphy of rocks.

Hydrochemical data and water isotopes reveals the effect of geological structures and
types of aquifer lithology as well as the various hydrological processes including recharge
system, flow mechanism, interaction of groundwater with deeper materials and surface
waters. Well data were used to construct hydrostratigraphy, aquifer lithology, estimate
hydraulic parameter as well as to construct groundwater head distribution. Results from
geophysical survey were used to understand the lateral variation of aquifers, groundwater
connectivity with surface waters and infer the effect of subsurface geological structures
on the continuity and distribution of the aquifers (Fig 6.2).

156
 1

13
(a)
Compartmentalized flow system
(Groundwater flow laterally disconnected)

S N
8

(b)
14
S N

15

(c)
E W

(d)

E W

Figure 6. 2Geoelectric sections and groundwater flow direction at selected sites. X and Y-
coordinates are in log scale, x-axis is layer resistivity (Ωm) and y-depth (m bgl). The arrow
show groundwater flow direction

157
From the converging evidence of datasets discussed above, aquifers in different
physiographic regions of the study area have been separately discussed.

6.2.1 Aquifer systems in highland areas

These comprise aquifers in the uplands that bound the rift floors in both sides where the
elevation is above 2000 m.a.s.l. This highland region is characterized by a series of giant
steps of faults each producing a steep escarpment and a flat top. The silicic and basaltic
rocks form the principal formation in the highlands furnished by well-developed fracture
systems which make them effective aquifer systems. The aquifers in this region have
generally acceptable water quality unaffected by volcanotectonics and geothermal
activities. Ground waters in these aquifers are lightly mineralized because water-rock
reaction is restricted by structures whereby groundwater storage and flow is
predominantely in fissures and joints giving short residence time and low contact of
surface area. Laterally, the aquifers are intercepted by bedrock at the mountain edges
and lack lateral continuity impeded by slice of mountains blocks (Fig 6.2a). These lateral
barriers create discrete hydraulic conductivity prevailed in NNE-SSW direction and
groundwater flow is commonly along fault lines. This forms series of compartmentalized
flow systems in plateau areas. To the east and south-east of the basin, highly weathered
parts of these rocks, more than 400 m thick have been marked from drilled wells.

Wells are tapping various volcanic formations, but the scoreaous basalt and weathered
ignimbrite are the main aquifers in the plateau areas. Hydraulic heads vary from 50 m to
350 m bgl at the southeast corner of the study area. In place, local faults systems within
the plateau landmasses form local barrier to groundwater and create local flow systems
or perched type aquifers. Paleosols and clay layers are found as intercalation almost in
all wells lithology at various depths. The thickness of the aquifer is not known since full
penetration of the aquifer is not yet reported.

158
Depending on the depth of groundwater circulation, aquifers in this plateau area can be
grouped into two as shallow and deep aquifers. The shallow aquifers comprise the young
Quaternary basalts and have local scale extension meaning that groundwater in theses
aquifers flows away from upland areas toward the adjacent local topographic lowlands.
The depth to groundwater is limited within 50 to 100 meters below ground level. On the
other hand, the deeper aquifers are confined below 200 meters below ground level and
circulate within the oldest formation that underlay the rift. More than 75 % of the drilled
wells in highland areas tap these deeper aquifers. Well data tapping the deeper aquifer
show rise of pizometeric surface by 50 to 100 meters. This shows that the aquifers exist
under semi-confined conditions, where the water bearing rocks are sandwiched between
massive layers.

Despite variation in depths of circulation, both shallow and deep flow systems have
identical water chemistry (Ca/Mg-HCO3 type) with TDS less than 400 mg/l as well as
contain modern waters (Fig 6.3a). This indicates direct precipitation forms the main
source of recharge to the aquifer. Thus, highland aquifers can be considered as local
scale flow. Large scale fault systems and joints could play significant role for fast vertical
recharge. As groundwater level is lower than the river beds (Arba Abomsa, Keleta and
Kessem rivers), aquifers can also obtain significant amount of water from these rivers.

6.2.2 Aquifers in Escarpments

The escarpments are the transitional sector between the rift floor and the highlands
defined by chain of NE–SW oriented volcanic ridges with elevation between 1500 and
2,000m.a.s.l. Rock formations in this sector are similar with highland areas but more
deeply weathered. Depth to groundwater circulation is shallow compared to the ground
waters in highland areas. The thickness of the aquifer is also unknown as full aquifer
penetration has not yet achieved. Direct recharge from precipitation is expected to be
lower compared to highland areas because of the lower rainfall and higher

159
evapotranspiration of this region. However, the presence of fractured rock exposures in
wide areas could favour indirect and localized recharge from precipitation. Aquifers in this
region get water as an inflow from rainfall that fall on plateau area. The groundwater is
generally Na-Ca (Mg)-HCO3 type water with TDS range 400-800mg/l.

6.2.3 Rift floor aquifers

Rift floor is the most active tectonic centres of the study area. Elevation ranges from 800
to 1,500 m.asl and is characterized by flat topography, low precipitation (<700 mm/yr
average) and high evapotranspiration exceeding annual rainfall. It is the highly fractured
and weathered terrain with new fissures in the processes of opening (Williams et al.,
2003). A series of structures in the form of graben and horst are spatially distributed
throughout the rift floor that can alter groundwater flow direction. In place, massive ridges
such as the Boseti rhyolite and Fantale volcanics locally form lateral barriers to
groundwater flow. Rift floor can be considered as discharge zone where groundwater
discharge upward caused by the change in slope of the hydraulic head from being steep
in the plateau area to being relatively flat at rift floor.

The principal rock units can be divided into two groups. The fluvo-lacustrine deposits are
distributed locally in depresional plains of Wonji, Merti, Abadir and near lake Beseka, and
the volcanic rocks predominantly pumice, scoria, and lithic volcanoclastic dispersed
throughout the wider areas of this land setting. Lithological wells log indicates that the
scoria, unwelded tuff, pumices and scoraceous basalt form the main aquifers. The pluvial
sediments which consist of lacustrine and fluvial deposits form shallow aquifers in valley
plains. The groundwater heads in this region are flat and follow ground topography.
Depth to groundwater varies from tenth to 300 meters and becomes progressively deeper
outward from rift centres. Hydrochemically, the ground waters are Na-HCO3 with TDS
above 800mg/l. This region is the spreading belt of the rift where mantle materials

160
propagate to the groundwater regime and physiochemical characteristics of groundwater
is heavily altered. As a result, ground waters in rift floor are commonly hot waters (400C,
in average) and saline as well as marked by high load of fluoride above 5 mg/l activated
by active geothermics in the area.

Result from hydrochemistry (chapter 4) and water isotopes (chapter 5) indicates aquifers
in the rift floor are getting recharge mainly from rain that falls on the mountains bounding
the rift as inflow compared to local vertical recharge. The groundwater continuity and
inflow to the rift floor is facilitated by the nature of the bounding faults (Kebede et al.,
2008) and hydraulic gradients. Although from a water balance point of view direct
recharge is not important in the rift floor (chapter 3), depressional valleys such as
Welenchiti, Wonji, Gedemsa and Birsa Ababora are often occupied by seasonal ponds
and occasional surface runoff from which surface waters can enter into groundwater
through volcanic cracks and joints. In addition, local vertical recharge to the groundwater
can occur from seasonal rivers which are widely common in this land setting.

6.3 Role of geological structures on groundwater flow

The geological structures of the study area are complex largely intercepted and
superimposed causing interaction of groundwater with river, lake and irrigation water. A
lava tubes and tunnels are other structures in the rift floor locally important for
groundwater circulation. These types of subsurface structures are reported as circulation
loss on lithological well log drilled in the rift floor.

The effect of geological structures on groundwater flow system in the study area is
substantial. Faults breached the continuity of an aquifer. For example, D/N/ Kusaye
(number 10) and Didibsa (number 11) wells each 180m deep and located within the
Welenchiti basin close to each other (Fig 6.1) have quiet different groundwater quality
(Fig 6.3c). D/N/Kusaye water is Mg-HCO3 type with modern water (6.4TU and TDS

161
450mg/l). This indicates the groundwater is obtaining rain water that fall on the adjacent
highlands. On the other hand, Didibisa groundwater is Na-HCO3 water with TDS 890mg/l
and contains 0.11TU. An impervious subsurface fault plane could create isolated flow
systems between these two ground waters as shown in Figure 6.3c. This indicates the
continuity of aquifers is highly dissimilar in space affected by geological structures. Faults
also brought two separate aquifers (upper and lower aquifers) in contact at Wonji basin
(chapter 7) and connect groundwater with Lake Beseka.

The nature of the fault planes could exert an important control on groundwater flow
systems. Fault planes can be impermeable where they are filled with materials of low
permeability, a condition which isolates two adjacent flow systems as discussed above.
On the other hand, faults form compartmentalized groundwater flow systems such as the
Wolenechit and Wonji sub basins as well as create preferential recharge. This is
particularly common in rift volcanic terrains in which volcanic rocks hosting numerous
faults retains large apertures enabling the preferential flow zones as dictated by
groundwater chemistry and water isotopes.

162
 (a) Well number Identical chemistry (fast vertical flow)
1 2 3 4

Chemical conc.(mg/l)
Well depth (m bgl)

(b) Well number

5 6 7 8

Chemical conc.(mg/l)
Depth (m bgl)

Hot waters
(c) Well number
10 11 (acidic aquifer) 12

Chem.conc. (mg/l)
Well depth (m bgl)

Impervious
(basic aquifer)

fault plane
Cold water

Figure 6. 3 Effect of geological structures on groundwater chemistry; the arrow (→) show
groundwater flow direction. Location of wells are shown in Figure 6.1

163
6.4 Hydraulic property of rocks

Hydraulic conductivity is the most fundamental parameter of an aquifer affecting the

movement of groundwater. It is the property of the aquifer used to estimate groundwater
flow dynamics, to characterize aquifer heterogeneity and to parameterize numerical
groundwater flow model (chapter 8). However, hydraulic conductivity is one of the difficult
aquifer parameter to measure as it requires proper aquifer tests at the basin scale. This
involves full penetration of the aquifer materials, proper screening of the aquifers with
provision of observation wells, and conducting accurate pumping test which further
require selection of appropriate pump for the test, accurate measurement of well yield,
drawdown and well recovery.

Because of the costs related to drilling and costs for performing all these activities as well
as expertise required to perform pumping tests and analyze the data, proper and well-
defined aquifer tests are not encouraged in most of the domestic water supply wells. This
is particularly common for rural water supply wells in the study area where pumping tests
are conducted only to meet the pre-defined purpose (i.e., to estimate the well yield, pump
type to be used, define pump installation depth and for designing type of distribution
system). In such wells, the duration of pumping test seldom exceeds 24 hours, pumping
test data are not accurately measured, aquifers are partially penetrated, pump used for
the test is often inappropriate, observation wells and aquifers are not properly screened.
As a result, hydraulic data obtained from such traditional wells are often irrelevant and
vague.

There are about 74 domestic wells documented in the study area which have only
measured well yield, water table and drawdown (appendix 17) but the important hydraulic
parameters are missed. Furthermore, lithologic well log of few wells show partially
penetration of aquifers where aquifer penetration seldom exceeds 50 meters. Therefore,
lack of data related to hydraulic parameters was one of the major problems in the
assessment of the spatial aquifer property of the study basin. One way of overcoming
such problem is to invoke the empirical relation established between transsmissivity and
164
specific capacity of volcanic aquifers. Thus, the hydraulic parameters of the study area
were estimated employing the empirical relation established between transmissivity and
specific capacity relevant to the study basin using the available well yield and drawdown
records.

As specific capacity is, in part, a function of the hydraulic properties of the aquifer
(Thomasson et al, 1960) and because of the abundance of specific capacity data (yield
and drawdown), the empirical relation between transmissivitity and specific capacity has
been used to estimate transmissivity from specific capacity (Eagon and Johe 1992;
Razack and Huntley 1991; Mace 1997; Hovoka et al., 1998).

Jalludin and Razack (2004) assessed the relationship between transmisivity and specific
capacity of the Djibouti volcanic aquifer and produced an empirical relation:

T = 3.64( Sc) 0.938

(6.1)
2 2
where, T is transmissivity (m /d), and Sc is specific capacity (m /d)

Yitbarek (2009) has thoroughly assessed the relationship between transmissivity and
specific capacity of the Upper Awash volcanic aquifer using the transmissivity and specific
capacity data from 214 exploratory databases and established the empirical relationship
between transmissivity and specific capacity as:

T = 1.25( Sc)1.003 (6.2)

As Middle Awash basin is located between these two aquifer systems (Djibouti and Upper
Awash volcanic aquifers), the empirical relations established for both system can be
considered as relevant for the study area. However, considering the proximity of the
Upper Awash basin to the study area and its hydrogeological setting which is more similar
with Middle Awash basin as well as taking into account the extensive data used in
establishing the relation, the empirical equation established for Upper Awash basin was
considered as more relevant that can fairly define the hydraulic parameters of the study
area. Thus, this empirical relation was used to estimate the aquifer transmissivity from the
available well yield and drawdown data presented in Appendix 17. In fact, up-scaling of
165
transmissivity derived from simple empirical relation to wider and complex volcanic basin
is hardly applicable as the hydraulic property of the volcanic rocks can vary in many
orders of magnitude over short distance. The conditions under which volcanic rocks
formed, geological activities that have been taking place in rocks, depth and intensity of
rock weathering can be highly variables which result in porosity and permeability of the
volcanic rocks to be different and variable. With this fact, the empirical relation
established for one basin could not accurately replicate the hydraulic parameters of other
basin. However, in areas where there is no transmissivity data, the empirical relation
remains the sole method to estimate the spatial distribution of transmisivity from specific
capacity.

The other method to assess transmissivity of aquifers is to use time-drawdown tests

(Ferris, 1962) where transmissivity is analyzed using type curves (Theis, 1963) or other
graphs from water level change and well yield measured at fixed pumping rate over a
given period of time. In the study area, there are only six wells which have time drawdown
and pumping rate data from which transmissivity has been estimated using this analytical
method (appendix 18). As these wells represent limited portion of the basin, transmisivity
determined from these few wells were not up-scaled to the whole basin. However,
transmissivity determined from these wells were used to assess the level of confidence of
the empirical relation (Eq. 6.2) by comparing the transmissivity obtained by the two
methods. The result shows that both methods are in good agreement with a correlation
coefficient of 0.99 (Fig 6.4).

166
Figure 6. 4 correlation of transimissivity computed by empirical equation (Eq 6.2) and
analytical methods (Appendix 18)

Once the transmissivity is estimated from specific capacity, hydraulic conductivity was
computed from transmisivity taking the recorded aquifer penetration
netration depth as aquifer
thickness. This hydraulic conductivity is up-scaled to basin scale using kriging method via
variogram fitted to calculated hydraulic conductivity (Fig 6.5).

Figure 6. 5 Exponential variogram model fitted to hydraulic conductivity data presented in

Appendix 17

This hydraulic conductivity was imposed in numerical groundwater flow modeling. As

shown in Figure 6.6, higher hydraulic conductivity show a remarked trend constrained
167
within the highly fractured zone of the basin interior where strong volcanics and
geothermics are taking place. Regional groundwater flow is also constrained along this
zone.

Figure 6. 6 Hydraulic conductivity (top) and transmissivity (bottom) maps

168
6.5 Conceptual model of groundwater flow system of the Middle Awash basin

Because of the arid climatic nature and erratic rainfall of the study area where surface
waters are scarce, ground waters become immensely important for human and livestock
water supply and the sole resources to depend upon for sustainable development.
However, the fact that groundwater is circulating in highly complex lithologies strongly
controlled by structures, the effective use of the resources remain as one of the major
problems in the area.

For such complex hydrogeological scenarios, conceptual groundwater flow model is

useful to understand major groundwater components including the recharge, flow
mechanism, aquifer system and various geological factors affecting groundwater
movement in a more simplified form. A conceptual model of groundwater flow is a
qualitative representation of hydrogeological framework of the field situation with
consideration of major hydrogeological parameters. It is an important vehicle which
provides awareness of major groundwater issues related to:

• Identification of potential zones of groundwater reserves specifically areas

identified as recharge and discharge
• Identify zone of susceptible aquifers to the effects of over-abstraction
• Identify groundwater susceptibility related to factor in land use activities such as
large scale irrigation farms,
• Identify natural as well as human made potential factors affecting the quality of
groundwater resources.
• Used to promote effective management and development of groundwater through
providing aquifer framework with groundwater occurrence and flow system.

Development of the hydrogeological conceptual model of the Middle Awash basin is

based on the converging evidence of primary data including digital elevation models
(DEM), geological maps and structures, lithological well logs, geophysical data,
hydrochemistry and water isotope. This conceptual model include the basic
hydrogeological components such as sources of water to the basin and outflow of water

169
from the region, the physical boundaries of the region, and the distribution of hydraulic
properties within the basin. The hydrochemical and isotope data are used for
characterization of the system as recharge and discharge zone as well as to understand
structural relation between various physical boundaries and aquifer systems. The
geophysical result marks aquifer continuity and the subsurface structures connecting
groundwater with surface waters as well as horizontal flow barriers.

The basin receives water from Upper Awash basin as regional influx in southwest corridor
of the basin constrained by geological structures and physiography while locally obtains
inflow mainly from precipitation that falls on the highlands on both sides of the rift floor.
The hydrochemical, isotope and geophysical results show water is also added to the
groundwater system from surface water bodies such as lakes (Koka and Beseka) and
Awash Rivers. Water is lost from the system through river flow, subsurface flow,
evaporation, and at a minimum by human withdrawal (pumping from boreholes).

Maps describing the recharge and discharge components of the groundwater flow system
were developed using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Landsat Multispectral satellite
data acquired in 2004 were evaluated to produce a land use and land cover map. This
land cover map was combined in a GIS to delineate areas of ET, including wetland,
shrubby and pasture land, rock exposures and vegetated areas. Approximated water-use
rates for these land cover features were evaluated using standards and groundwater
recharge rate were estimated by incorporating data related to varying soil moisture
conditions (including meteorological element, elevation, slope aspect, parent material,
and vegetation) into commonly used soil-water balance method. GIS methods were used
to combine these data to produce a map describing recharge potential on a relative scale.
This map of recharge potential was used to describe groundwater infiltration as a
percentage of average annual precipitation. Quantification of well discharge was achieved
by developing a point-based GIS map containing well locations, elevation, and discharge
rate.
Two conceptual groundwater flow models were constructed along main flow paths (Fig
6.7) using the well data presented in Appendix 17. The first model is constructed along rift

170
floor in SSW-NNE direction (Fig 6.8, top) that reflects the prototype of regional
groundwater flow system. In this conceptual model groundwater head represents the
regional groundwater table along with major geological sections which marks most
important aquifers and physical boundaries such as flow barriers, surface waters and
wells. The second model is constructed across rift floor in W-E direction (Fig 6.8, bottom)
which represents the various flow components as local and intermediate flow systems
generated due to the effects of structures and physiography. Most of the precipitation that
falls on plateau areas recharges these flow systems. Some of the recharged water
discharges to the nearby depressions along the edges of the plateau contributing base-
flow for highland streams (Keleta, Arba Abomsa and Kessem) and the remaining moves
through the rocks to the deeper aquifers towards the rift floor and joins the regional flow
system. As large part of the Middle Awash basin (74%) lies within the rift floor where
lithological units are deeply weathered by the ongoing rift volcanic activities, the aquifers
are considered as unconfined aquifers. These conceptual models were used to discretize
and parameterize the numerical groundwater flow model in GV’s package for
groundwater simulation (Chapter 8).

Figure 6. 7 Main groundwater flow direction of the study area: Regional flow ( A to C), and
local to intermediate flow system (D to E)
171
 A
B C

Plateau Rift floor Plateau

Recharge Recharge

Abomsa BH
Birsa Ababora BH

Fexo BH

Bole Merti BH

E
D

Zone of groundwater interaction with magmatic materials

Local flow system

Intermediate flow system

Figure 6. 8 Conceptual groundwater flow models along regional flow (top) and across the rift
floor (bottom)

172
6.6 Concluding remarks

Two important aquifer and flow systems are marked from the converging results of
various datasets used in this study. Aquifers in highland and escarpments are mainly
calci-alkaline rocks composed of basalt, ignimbrite, and trachybasalt. Columnar joints,
fractures, veins and scoria are important geological structures making effective aquifers of
these rocks. Groundwater in these regions circulate in deeper basal within the weathered
portion and flow is generally towards rift floor. On the other hand, aquifers in rift floor are
Na rich alkaline composed of scoria, pumice and pyroclastic deposits. Groundwater of the
study area is strongly processed and physiochemically altered in this rift floor due to
interaction with mantle materials. Rift floor is also zone of active tectonics and high
hydraulic conductivity as a result of intensive rock weathering. Geological structures play
substantial role in isolating, connecting and mixing various flow systems as well as create
preferential flow paths.

173
 Chapter 7

The hydrogeology of Adama-Wonji Basin

7.1 Introduction

Irrigation is fundamental for economic development and plays a vital role in improving the
welfare of a society. However, irrigation is not always a blessing as it can create
problems of salinization and alter groundwater hydrology as well as cause adverse
environmental damage. Unpredicted environmental problems could arise when the
consumptive water demand of crop and water supplies mismatch leading to abnormal
hydrological flow situation. This could result in rising of shallow groundwater table induced
by excess recharge from irrigation, a condition which violates the natural recharge-
discharge system of the watershed environment. Studies by Schilfgaarde (1994),
Mohammad et al., (2004), Jensen (2007) reported that salination, soil alkalinity,
waterlogging, soil acidification, deterioration in water quality, ecological degradation and
change in groundwater level are most common problems and threats attached to
irrigation projects.

Wonji irrigation farm, established in 1954 (Michael and Sileshi, 2007), is one of the largest
commercial farms in Ethiopia which irrigates about eight thousand hectares of land by
diverting Awash River to the irrigation field. It uses furrow irrigation method where large
quantity of water is artificially constrained to flow in trenches and canals through sugar
cane plants. This irrigation state farm currently started to use the more efficient spray
technique in some parts of the irrigation. However, the furrow irrigation technique is still
used for large parts of the irrigation field.

In irrigation sites where furrow irrigation method is used, knowledge of hydrological

systems of the area including mode of interaction between surface water and the aquifer
system is important to avoid unpredicted environmental effects (Jensen, 2007). This
requires knowledge of the hydrogeological setting which involves mapping the
configuration and characteristics of aquifer geometry and hydraulic properties of formation
174
underlying the irrigation site. One important issue that has been traditionally overlooked in
furrow irrigation method is the interaction between surface water and groundwater (Wright
1980; Keller 1986; Wolf et al, 1995). In large part, this is due to the persistent knowledge
gaps in precise crop-water requiremnet and lack of awareness about the interactions
between irrigation water and groundwater including understanding the underlying
geology, and geological structures (Raine et al., 2007). Such information provides a
useful context and reduces the uncertainty of understanding the extent and direction of
groundwater-surface water interaction. Effective management of irrigation water at Wonji
requires an understanding of these components as well as the linkages between them to
secure sustainable irrigation development.

Rise in groundwater level has recently becomes a concern at Wonji irrigation field; a
concern for possible loss of irrigable land. If groundwater level grows exceedingly beyond
its natural condition, groundwater flooding will be inevitable (Smith, 2008).This can
cause difficult and unhealthy environment that enhance ecological and environmental
damage. Likewise, if the shallow groundwater at Wonji irrigation field continues growing,
land flooding by groundwater will take place resulting in loss of the productive lands; the
problem that possibly becomes economical and social crises. Therefore, knowledge of
hydrological systems and clear definition of natural recharge and discharge systems
including geology of the area as well as ensuring effective use of irrigation water are
essential to alleviate such environmental hazard.

175
7.2 Description of Adama-Wonji basin

Adama-Wonji basin is part of the Middle Awash basin located in southwest corridor of the
area bounded within the geographic limit of 80, 05’ to 80, 40’N latitude and 380, 55’ to 390,
28’E longitude (Figure 7.1). The area is 1650 Km2 wide.

Figure 7. 1 Location map of Adama-Wonji basin

7.3 Geological setting

The gross geological framework in Adama-Wonji Basin is part of the geological

architecture of the MER which was propagated during the Miocene-Quaternary Period
(Woldegabriel et al., 1992). The main features of the geological and structural events are
176
the intersecting and interrupting features of several fault systems with intermingled
volcanic products. Localized piles of basaltic flows and caldera are widespread in the
areas, which are associated with extensive faults and fractures important for groundwater
recharge. The geological structures and volcanic series of the MER including the Adama-
Wonji basin have been described by Woldegabriel et al., (1992), Boccaletti et al., (1999),
Mahatsente et al., (1999), Abebe et al., (2007), Acocella et al., (2003), and Korme et al.,
(2004).

The Miocene formation which comprise tuff, ash flow and pantelleritic ignimbrite is the
lower unit in Adama-Wonji basin. The ignimbrite flow of the Nazert group is highly
fractured and its exposure is widely observed in highland areas near Adama and Iteya.
The older trachyte and trachyte basalts are found overlying the pantelleritic ignimbrite of
the Nazert formation. These units are massive and its outcrop is observable between
Wonji and Adama. The Pleistocene Wonji formation consisting unwelded rhyolite, tuff,
pitchstone and basalt uncomformably overlies the trachybasalt. The recent Holocene
formation of the alluvial and lacustrine sediments deposited in valley around Koka and in
Adama-Wonji low-lands. Main geological units and typical stratigraphic sequence with
associated fault systems of the Adama-Wonji basin is shown in (Figure 7. 2)

177
Figure 7. 2 Geological map of Adama-Wonji basin

7.4 Hydrogeological setting

The Quaternary tectonics and volcanic activities result in land deformation where Adama-
Wonji basin is the result of a series of rift-in-rift process. The volcanic unit embedded
along the NE-SW aligned faults undergoes collapse and create caldera such as Boku and
Gademsa (Abiye and Tigistu 2008). The diversified fault patterns in the Adama Wonji are
associated with intensive fractures systems (Acocella et al., 2002) that can play an
important role in controlling groundwater movement.

The north and south west massive volcanic out crops are truncated by intersected faults
that favors groundwater recharge. The contrasting tilting direction of the south, southwest
and north mountain masses give rise to a trough and graben like structures for Adama-

178
Wonji basin. The complex tectonic interaction among faults and the pilling of massive
volcanic products in the south west around Iteya and the Adama rim in north form
circular physiographic relief with synformal geometric shape, a condition which constrain
the convergence of surface water and groundwater flow towards low-lying plain of the
Wonji irrigation field. Regional flow to the basin is constrained on the western side
through Quaternary sediments and fractured volcanic which includes ignimbrite and older
alkaline basalts. The volcanic product, typically basalt, trachyte and ignimbrites erupted
from axial zone of the main faults forming the recharging mountain masses whereas the
volcano sediments in Wonji low-lying plain are the discharging zones

Analyses of groundwater level of long terms from boreholes around Wonji irrigation site
(Appendix 16) indicate rise of groundwater level beneath the irrigation field (Fig 7. 3).
Recently in 2007, about 23 plastic tubes were installed in the irrigation field (Fig 7.3, Top)
to monitor the groundwater level. Six month data from these observation tubes shows the
increment of groundwater level by 0.44m over six months (Table 7.1) and currently the
depth to groundwater is between 1 to 3m below ground surface which was inferred to be
about 22 meter before 1952. However, the real cause for groundwater level rise is not
known.

179
Table 7. 1 Groundwater level measured in Wonji irrigation

GW Level below ground surface ( cm)

Change
Site Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar observed
N0. N E (2007) (2007) (2007) (2008) (2008) (2008) (cm)
18 8.4384 39.2391 198 194 175 175 140 120 78
182 8.4277 39.2621 152 60 88 41 208 102 50
105 8.3908 39.2621 190 82 113 200 190 174 16
202 8.4081 39.2612 96 170 187 98 105 80 16
101 8.3908 39.2429 65 84 86 79 57 56 9
123 8.3810 39.2345 136 124 104 29 115 85 51
178 8.4277 39.2429 175 97 110 105 85 130 45
52 8.4156 39.2429 132 76 100 69 95 114 18
195 8.4156 39.2626 180 79 98 187 90 94 86
192 8.4222 39.2653 80 25 175 38 59 44 36
131 8.3818 39.2696 47 39 50 82 41 20 27
159 8.3714 39.2345 208 132 94 205 210 146 62
198 8.3695 39.2534 126 97 103.4 93 163 86 40
82 8.3997 39.2534 219 116 145 67 21 128 91
22 8.3802 39.2401 92 168 109 74 115 105 -13
62 8.3795 39.2612 138 185 110 87 123 160 -22
WRS 8.3896 39.2566 265 212 112 206 205 200 65
La-9 8.8215 39.8510 69 104 143 90 26 43
La-46 8.8313 39.8685 143 141 134 70 68 75
S-34 8.8283 39.9430 149 157 118 117 65 84
W-7 8.8119 39.8701 147 21 10 41 106
Y-5 8.8260 39.8666 78 70 102 79 67 11
Z-28 8.8674 39.9426 143 252 131 209 115 28
Z-39 8.8725 39.9549 200 268 278 213 136 64
Change in groundwater Storage (average) 44.42

Source: Wonji Factory (Courtesy of Megersa, 2008)

180
Figure 7. 3 Location of groundwater monitoring wells (top) and groundwater level in
different years (bottom)

An integrated study based on geophysical resistivity imaging and vertical deep sounding
were conducted at Wonji irrigation field to realize the position of hydraulic head in aquifers
relative to surface water, a research intended to understand the link between irrigation

181
water and the shallow aquifer system. Furthermore, the survey is aimed at analyzing the
interaction between various groundwater flow systems and their aquifer geometric
configuration from the combined result of 2D tomography and electrical sounding surveys.
A resistivity imaging provides sufficient information about the potential hydraulic
connection between groundwater and surface water systems as the method takes into
account the conductance of the geological materials as an indicator of water movement
such as direction and magnitude of seepage flux. The focus of this assessment is to
acquire baseline information and describe the characteristics of subsurface geological
features with respect to their hydrological role across the Wonji irrigation field.

It is anticipated that this study provide basic understanding of the hydrological system of
Wonji basin and gives signals for decision makers and irrigation managers for effective
water use towards sustaining the irrigation farm as well as for future sound and
sustainable mitigation measures.

7.5 Methods and material

Prior to field data acquisition, several preliminary surveys were conducted including
interpretation of physical features from satellite images, geological descriptions;
understanding the geomorphologic set-up and hydrological systems. In the initial step, the
regional faults and fracture patterns have been identified to accurately map its spatial
position and to understand relief geometry of Adama Wonji basin. Field prelimineary
survey was conducted to select transect routes for data acquisition that well elucidate the
objective of the study.

Sites for geophysical data acquisition were selected across Wonji irrigation field taking the
orientation of geological structures into account to better track the lateral variation in
hydrogeological system of the area. The geophysical transects extend from basaltic area
in the south and covers distances of about 20 km passing through centre of the irrigation
field to north direction (Fig 7.4). Four transects were chosen for tomography each with

182
three stations of data acquisition point from which information about lateral aquifer
configuration was examined. A total of 12 stations in four transects have been conducted
by 2D tomography covering Wonji irrigation field (Figure 7.4).

Deep electrical sounding was conducted along one transect with six stations starting from
south and moving north crossing Wonji irrigation field (Fig 7.8, top) to trace the orientation
and location of fault and geological contacts which have considerable effect on
groundwater hydrology as well as to map the various aquifer systems. Result from
geophysical imagery has been integrated with other datasets including well data and
geological informations to assist in the interpretation of groundwater surface water
interactions.

Figure 7. 4 2D imaging transects and stations

183
Geophysical survey was conducted using the SYSCAL R1 PLUS Switch-72 multinode
resistivity imaging unit. This automated resistivity system perform stationary surveys with
the electrode cable laid along the horizontal line. It features an internal switching board for
72 electrodes and an internal 200W power source. Four strings of cables with 18
electrode take-out each 5 m spacing are connected to electrodes plugged into the
ground. The output current is automatically adjusted to optimize the input voltage values
and ensure the best measurement quality. Its typical resistivity accuracy is 0.5% and
performs noise reduction through continuous stacking selectable from 1 to 255 stacks. In
the resistivity meter itself are located the relays which ensure the switching of those
electrodes according to a sequence of reading predefined and stored in the internal
memory of the unit. The various combinations of transmitting (A, B) and receiving (M, N)
pairs of electrodes construct the mixed profiling section. In the field, data analysis was
conducted as it allows on-the-spot determination of the optimum survey parameters and
an assessment of the degree of success of the instrument (Max and Montague, 1995).

ELECTRE II software permits to load a preset sequence of measurement (Schlumberger-

Wenner, in this case) the internal memory of the resistivity meter. This program displays
the theoretical depth of penetration reached by the sequence (65m in this case). The
acquired data is transferred from the SYSCAL Unit to PC by PROSYS software, which
also performs an automatic filtering such as noise elimination and topographic correction.
After performing all necessary correction and filtering under PROSYS software
environment, data are exported to RES2DINV Inversion software which performs pseudo-
section inversion to true resistivity 2D section.

7.6 Results and Discussions

The obtained resistivity data has been transformed to its corresponding layer taking into
account the geology of the area and the obtained resistivity value. Fault systems and
aquifer geometry has been traced from the geoelectrical section drawn from successive
stations determined according to topographical set-up and geological structures. Corriols

184
and Dahlin (2008) applied similar geophysical method to obtain detailed information about
the geometry of the different hydrogeological layers in Nicaragua. Figure 7.5 and 7.7
shows the 2D and 1D inversion whereas Figure 7.6 and 7.8 show their corresponding
geoelectrical sections.

185
Figure 7. 5 Interpreted 2D inversion

186
Figure 7.5 2D inversion (Cont’d)

187
Figure 7.5 2D Inversion (Cont’d)

188
Figure 7. 6 Geoelectric sections from 2D imaging

189
Figure 7. 7 1D curve and its corresponding lithology

190
 Figure 7.7 1D curve (Cont’d)

Figure 7. 8 Electrical sounding stations and geoelectric sections

191
The geoelectric section from 2D tomography (Fig 7.6) and electrical sounding (Fig 7.8)
show the aquifer geometry, including the lithological profile and geological structures
which have significant role in controlling groundwater circulation. The obtained apparent
resistivity values typically reflect the variations in fluid content of the subsurface
materials across the Wonji farm that explains the subsurface geological profile and
hydrogeological condition. Sites of strong hydraulic connection between irrigation water
and shallow aquifer system including saturation depth have been identified by the 2D
tomography (Fig 7.5, Im-2, Im-3, Im-7, Im-9 and Im-10). The orientation and localization
of major faults are marked from the geoelectric sections constructed from successive
profiling along selected transects (Fig 7.6 and Fig 7.8). Geoelectric sections describe
the lateral and vertical variation in conductivity of rocks which corresponds to variations
in lithology, presences of structures and degree of saturation (Meju et al., 1999).
Fissures and fractures associated in rock which have significant role in connecting
aquifers and controlling groundwater movements are traced by the 2D tomography (Fig
7.5 Im-1, Im-3, Im-5, Im-6, Im-9, and Im-11).

The combined result from geophysical data shows the first top layer of 40 to 50 m
beneath Wonji irrigation field as low resistivity layer with narrow ranges of resistivity
value (1-5 Ωm) (Fig 7.5 Im-6, Im-8, Im-9, Im-11 and Fig 7.6). This corresponds to the
homogeneous saturated alluvial sediment. The high conductivity value (low resistivity)
of the formation is due to salinity caused by groundwater evapotranspiration that leaves
salts in the soil, a problem that could affect soil fertility. This layer corresponds to the
alluvial and lacustrine aquifers which have strong hydraulic connection with irrigation
water. This layer has the maximum thicknes up to 100m in the axial centre of the N-S
running fault (Fig 7.8 VES-5) and shortly pinch-out laterally away from Wonji farm.
Formation below this unit is marked by intermediate resitivity with wide range of
resistivity value (10-80 Ωm) and in place truncated by faults (Fig 7.6 and 7.8). This
corresponds to the ignimbrite bed which is partially fractured and weathered. This
formation is considered as leaky layers as fissures and fractures are associated in this
rock. These geological structures are controlling the vertical groundwater flow and

192
create preferential flow as well as act as conduit through which local and regional flow
systems are connected.

Further result from geophysical survey is that the saturated layers progressively
become deeper outward from Wonji farm. This geophysical result is in good agreement
with well data in the area (Appendix 16) where well located away from Wonji have deep
groundwater table. This remarkable variation in depth of groundwater head in Wonji
area suggests structurally controlled flow systems which can be related to the
orientation of faults and type and characteristics of lithology as described in
geoelectrical section (Fig 7.8).

Previous study (Abiye and Haile, 2008) suggests the existence of fault systems around
Boku, adjacent to Wonji farm site that control deep hydrothermal circulations. With this
geophysical imagery, the location and orientation of two fault systems controlling
groundwater circulation have been traced. The first fault system corresponds to the NW-
SE oriented faults south of Wonji farm and the second fault oriented in N-S northeast of
Wonji farm near Boku ridge (Fig 7.8). These two major fault systems play significant role
in groundwater flows which create a down throw of the Wonji land mass giving a
synformal geometric outline whereby hydrological flow is strained to concentrate at
Wonji plain and laterally confined by side standing ridges which impede lateral
groundwater flow. Study by Ghiglieri et al., (2009) noted similar geological structures in
hydrogeology of the Nurra Region, Sardinia (Italy), where such geological structures
and lithology exert the main control on recharge and groundwater circulation.

As a general remark, the layers under Wonji floor can be categorized into three
resistivity layer models. The first layer is the top layer with very low resistivity between
1-10Ωm. This corresponds to the alluvial and gravel sediments saturated with saline
water. The salinity in this case could be due to the effect of groundwater
evapotranspiration which leaves dissolved chemicals in the top soil horizon during
groundwater evaporation process. The thickness of this layer range from 1m to 45
meters but as thick as 100m at Wonji farm centre (VES-05) also observed which is due
193
to the effect of faults. In this layer, the local flow systems from surrounding escarpments
predominate. The second layer between 45 to 60m depth is marked by intermediate
resistivity layer between 20-100Ωm with large lateral variation in electrical conductivity
(Fig 7.6, Right-bottom). Large contrast in resistivity of this layer corresponds to the
fractured ignimbrite emplaced between the upper and lower flow systems as a leaky
layer. As the resistivity of this layer varies laterally, this layer creates preferential vertical
flow of groundwater between the upper and lower aquifers. The third layer below 60
meters is marked by low resistivity between 40-80Ωm and corresponds to weathered
ignimbrite and the lower trachybasalts which are also saturated. The bottom limit of this
lower aquifer is not attained with this geophysical imagery but as it is located on fault
zone, it can reach up to depth of 500-600m b.g.l. This layer can be considered as
regional aquifer through which groundwater from Upper Awash basin is circulating.

According to result from 2D tomography, rise of groundwater table under Wonji irrigation
site is related to excess recharge from irrigation water to shallow unconfined aquifers
that result from the improper use of surface water (Legesse and Ayenew, 2006). As
Wonji irrigation site is located in flat area where hydraulic gradient is very low, water
hold in canals for prolonged period is expected recharging the shallow groundwater
causing significant change in groundwater storage.

As noted by Nachabe et al., (1999), furrow irrigation technique is not the most efficient
irrigation method, but its low-running cost, low-tech and lesser receptiveness of
evaporation makes this method selective and advantageous than other irrigation
methods such as law-energy spray, centre pivot, and drip irrigation methods. However,
the long-term drawback of furrow irrigation is that it can induce voluminous of surface
water to subsurface causing the rise of groundwater in underlying shallow aquifers, a
phenomenon which in due course can change the area to swarm or marsh land.
According to Ayars et al., (2006), even about 50% of water from irrigation canals which
uses furrow method will be wasted mainly by infiltration and does not get used by the
crops. Previous similar studies mentioned above and result from 2D tomography gives
conclusive remarks that the mounding nature of groundwater table beneath Wonji
194
irrigation field could be the effect of irrigation water. As none of the earth materials are
absolutely impervious to water (Reilly 2001), water held in canals for extended time
period could slowly soak through alluvial sediments and recharge to shallow
groundwater. If the ongoing rise of groundwater tables continues, environmental
flooding in farm area could take place in future resulting in loss of the productive lands;
the problem that possibly environmental misfortune. In many circumstance particularly
during heavy rain event, Awash River (regulated river for hydropower upstream of
Wonji) spill over its natural canal and overwhelm wider areas of land including high
preamble areas; an event when momentous infiltration to groundwater through fissures
and fractured rocks is inferred. Study by Smith (2008) reported similar problems of Ord
River irrigation area in northern Australia where groundwater level has risen in elevation
by 10–20m over 40 years.

This study depict various combinations of hydrogeological factors identifying shallow

aquifer and depth to water table, elevation of groundwater surface, aquifer types,
aquifer boundaries, geological structures, and specific hydrogeological features such as
faults and fissures. This result was used to develop conceptual and predictive models
(Fig 7.9) showing the broader understanding of the nature and configuration of
groundwater systems and its relationship with irrigation water. This understanding gives
the opportunity for those involved in management of Wonji irrigation project to assess
and revise their position within the overall scheme of effective water use for sustainable
irrigation development without causing unpredicted lateral environmental damage and
future challenges and threats as discussed by Raine and Dalton (2003).

195
Figure 7. 9 Conceptual model of the hydrological system of Adama-Wonji basin

From the basic equation of water budget for a basin:

Inflow=Outflow ± Change in Storage, (7.1)

The equation for Wonji basin groundwater budget can be defined as:

From the conceptual model (Fig 6.9), this equation can be rewritten as:

RGI+LGI+RAR+RIW+RSR = GO+GET±∆S (7.2)

Where RGI = Groundwater inflow, LGI = Local groundwater inflow

RAR = Recharge from Awash River, RIW = Recharge from irrigation water
RSR = Recharge from surface runoff, GO = Groundwater out flow
GET = Groundwater evapotranspiration, ±∆S = Change in storage

Under normal hydrological flow condition, the parameter RGI, LGI, RSR, and GO are
constant which are not heavily affected by human activities. Hence, cancelling these
terms, the equation becomes,

RAR+RIW=GET ± ∆S (7.3)

196
These terms are the major water budget components for Wonji basin sensitive to
human activities which needs proper management. This equation is further assessed by
numerical groundwater flow modeling of Adama-Wonji basin under chapter 8.

7.7 Concluding remark

The geology of the Wonji irrigation area with fault system is clearly mapped by electrical
sounding and 2D tomography. The vertical and horizontal contacts between the
different geological series of the Wonji area are resolved with two-dimensional high-
resolution geophysical imaging which is a very effective means of characterizing
shallow fractured aquifers.Result from geophysical surveys show that the Wonji aquifers
locally consist of alluvial sediments and fractured ignimbrites, generally within high-
permeability formations. Thus, it can be difficult to plan the exact water requirement for
irrigation which is based on furrow irrigation techniques as large loss of ponded water
into the groundwater could occur through the high permeable formation. The
geophysical surveys in this regard reveal the existence of strong hydraulic connection
between irrigation water and the shallow unconfined aquifer at Wonji irrigation field. As
to the recommendation, Wonji irrigation should work towards ensuring sustainability of
irrigation development and maintain natural environment. A stable relationship should
be maintained between these two objectives both now and in the future, while potential
conflicts between these objectives should be reduced through appropriate irrigation
practices which will be realized through full understanding of the watershed including
hydrgeological and hydrological systems. This can be realized when management of
irrigation in closed basins like Wonji take into account the basin water balance (Jensen,
2007) which is useful in reducing the negative impacts of irrigation practices on
sustainability of the environment. This research provides baseline information towards
this endeavor.

197
 Chapter 8

Numerical groundwater flow modelling

8.1 Introduction

There is a mathematical model for just about everything. Numerical groundwater flow
modelling is one among them which has been written to describe the flow of
groundwater in the aquifers. The purpose of mathematical model is to produce
numbers. These numbers are the model’s predictions of what a nature or man-made
system will do under a certain excitation regime. Numerical groundwater flow modelling
is a quantitative way of investigating the hydrogeological response of a basin. Because
of the complexities of subsurface geological materials and uncertainties of
hydrogeological system, numerical groundwater flow modelling is a tool used to
describe the groundwater flow and transport processes using mathematical equations in
simplified assumptions.

Because of the simplified assumptions embedded in numerical groundwater modelling

and many suspicions of data required by the model, the model could not be considered
as the exact replica of the field condition. This is particularly true for modelling the
groundwater flow system of the Middle Awash basin where the geology is very complex
associated with intricate structures that can have profound effect on the groundwater
flow systems but difficult to accurately characterize in the model. However, numerical
groundwater modelling is a useful tool for groundwater resource investigation in a
quantitative way including mass balance, magnitude and direction of groundwater flow,
and head distribution. It is a tool used to identify the hydrological processes and to
understand the dynamics of the flow system. It is also used to gain knowledge about
relationship between groundwater and surface water, assess the effect of environmental
factors on groundwater as well as inform optimal use and protection of groundwater
resources.

198
A calibrated numerical groundwater flow model allows for prediction of the impacts of
changes to the hydrologic conditions on subsurface flow. However, this requires precise
definitions of the physical boundaries of the region, the water fluxes into and out of the
system, and the hydraulic properties distributed throughout the region.

Numerical groundwater flow model simulates the groundwater flow condition using the
equations governing groundwater flow (Anderson and Woessner, 1992):

∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂ ∂h ∂h
( K xx ) + ( K yy ) + ( K zz ) − Q = S c (8.1)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t

where, Kxx, Kyy, Kzz are hydraulic conductivity (L/T) along the X, Y, Z axes which are
assumed to be parallel to the major axes; h is piezometeric head (L); Q is volumetric
flux per unit volume representing source and sink terms; Sc is specific storage
coefficient defined as the volume of water released from storage per unit change in
head per unit volume of porous material; and t is time (T)

In numerical groundwater flow modelling, this equation can be solved in a discrete

solution obtained in both space and time domains by using two techniques: Finite
Difference Method, and Finite Element Method.

A finite-difference model is constructed by dividing the model domain into square or

rectangular regions called blocks or cells. Head, drawdown, and concentration are
computed at discrete points within the model called nodes. The network of cells and
nodes forms grid or mesh. In this method of groundwater flow modeling, parameters
(head, drawdown and concentrations) are measured either at the center of the
rectangular cell or block, called block-centered or at the intersection of the grid lines
called mesh-centered. Finite Element Method is constructed by dividing the model
domain into irregular polygons where parameters are computed at their intersection
points.
199
In this study, groundwater flows modelling of four basins have been attempted each
with specific objectives. The first model is for the entire basin intending to describe the
mass balance and hydrogeological response of the study area at a basin scale. Thus,
output from this basin scale model can be considered as regional preliminary result. In
the study area, there are three sub basins which have well defined boundary conditions
and hydrogeological importance. The hydrogeological conditions and objective of the
modelling of the sub flow systems is discussed under their respective sections. In all
models, the system was simulated as steady-state where the input parameters
represent long-term average conditions. Furthermore, the aquifer is considered as
single layer unconfined aquifers as discussed under chapter 7.

8.2 Model design

Models generally require data of four main types (Doherty, 2004): Fixed data (which
define the system, e.g. shape of the aquifer); Parameters (properties of the system, e.g.
hydraulic conductivity and storage); Excitation (quantities which derive the system e.g.
recharge); Control data (which provide settings for the numerical solution method by
which the system equation are solved, e.g. model grid). Model design includes the
specification of all these data which includes model grid, boundary condition and model
property as major model components.

For this numerical groundwater flow modelling, the model was created in MODFLOW
software (McDonald and Harbaugh, 1988) build in Groundwater Vistas (GV). GV is a
sophisticated Windows graphical user interface for 3-D groundwater flow and transport
modeling. It is a model-independent graphical design system which couples MODFLOW
(88/98), MODPATH, MT3DMS, MODFLOWT, MODFLOWSURFACT, MODFLOW2000,
MODFLOW2005, PATH3D, SEAWAT, UCODE and PEST (the model-independent
calibration code). The combination of PEST, UCODE and GV's automatic sensitivity
analysis makes GV a good calibration tool. GV displays the model design in both plan
and cross-sectional views using a split window (both views are visible at the same time).

200
Model results are presented using contours, shaded contours, velocity vectors, and
mass balance.

8.2.1 Model grid

This includes the specification of the number of columns, rows, layers and cell size in
the model design. The entire Middle Awash basin was modelled in two dimensional one
layer model by discritezing the area into uniform finite-difference grid of 100 rows and
105 columns with uniform cell size of 2km (Fig 8.1). The size of the model grid was
constructed taking into account data availability, size of the basin and purpose of the
model which is to assess groundwater head distribution, hydraulic interaction between
various flow types, and mass balance at regional scale.

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100105

5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
50000 Meter
100

Figure 8. 1 Finite difference model grid with 2km cell size. The polygon within the mesh
is boundary of the study area; Middle Awash basin

201
8.2.2 Model boundary conditions

Boundary conditions can be grouped into specified head (Dirichlet), specified flux
(Neumann), and head-dependant flow (mixed type or Cauchy) (Franke et al., 1987).
Specified head boundary cells are called constant head cells and are assigned for a
head that does not varies throughout the simulation. Specified flux boundary cells are
represented using no flow, wells, or recharge. Mixed-type boundary conditions are
represented by rivers, general-head boundaries, and streams. Boundary conditions
represent constraints put on model grid to characterize the interaction between the
active simulation grid domain and the surrounding environment. These boundaries were
defined based on hydrogeological conditions of the study basin (Fig 8.2).

8.2.2.1 No flow

Middle Awash basin is situated between three rivers basins namely Blue Nile basin in
northwest, Lake Basin in south and Wabishebelle basin in east. The hydrological
boundaries between these basins are assumed to be area where groundwater and
surface water divides coincide, and thus characterized as zero flux (no flow)
boundaries. Isotope result discussed in chapter 5 also confirms local scale flow systems
in which the basin receives waters laterally from rain that falls on plateau bounding the
basin and suggests no regional groundwater flux across these hydrogeological
boundaries. The basin also consists of isolated massive volcanic hills spatially
distributed within the basin which can impede lateral groundwater flow. These patches
of massive volcanic hills are also characterized as no flow boundary within the model
domain.

8.2.2.2 Constant flux and general head boundary

Regional inflow to the basin occurs in southwest corridor of the study area through Koka
alluvial plain whereas outflow takes place in north-central low lands. This corridor

202
across which the regional inflow takes place is represented as a specified or constant
flux boundary (well in GV) whereas the north central margin across which water leaves
the basin is imposed as general head boundary. As the study basin is concomitant to
the Upper Awash basin in the downstream side, the amount of regional influx is equal to
outflux from Upper Awash basin (3.608*1010m3/yr) estimated by Yitbarek (2009).

8.2.2.3 Wells

There are 74 wells unevenly distributed in the study basin from which groundwater is
pumped for domestic water supply. Even though the amounts of abstraction from these
wells do not cause considerable effect on the regional groundwater storage, discharges
from these wells (1.59*107m3/yr) were considered in the model. The piezometeric
surfaces measured in these wells were also used as targets for model calibration.

8.2.2.4 Sinks
Sinks represent physical features through which water can be uptaken from or
recharged to groundwater. Plantation in the irrigation fields such as Wonji, Metahara,
and Bole-Merti could uptake waters from shallow groundwater and discharge to the
atmosphere in the form of transpiration. With regard to this, these plantations can be
represented as a major sinks. However, because of the difficulties associated in
quantification of this outflow as well as taking into account the size of the irrigation land
compared to the wider basin, this sinks was not considered in this modeling. Other sinks
are not documented in the study area.

8.2.2.5 River boundary

As discussed in chapter 4, there are four major rivers in the Middle Awash basin namely
Awash, Kessem, Keleta, and Arba Abomsa. The hydrograph analysis of these rivers,
hydrochemistry and isotope data point out that rivers have hydraulic connection with
groundwater in the form of either losing or gaining water. The exchange between

203
aquifers and rivers is simulated in MODFLOW river package according to the following
relation:

Qriv = Criv(Hriv-h), when h > Rbot (8.2)

Qriv = Criv(Hriv-Rbot), when h ≤ Rbot (8.3)

where, Qriv : the rate of leakage through the river bed

Hriv : head in the river (river stage)(m a.s.l)
Rbot : bottom river elevation (m a.s.l)
h : head in aquifer (m a.s.l)
Criv : river bed hydraulic conductance (m2/d), computed by:

KLW
C riv = (8.4)
M

where,
K : hydraulic conductivity of the river bed (m/d)
L : length of the river reach contained in the cell under consideration (m)
W : width of the river (m)
M : thickness of the river bed (m)

8.2.2.6 Constant head

Constant head boundaries are areas where an infinite supply of water to the aquifer
takes place and includes major surface waters. In this case, area enclosed by lake Koka
and Beseka were considered as constant head boundary.

204
 Target

Well

Constant Head
River
Well (Constant influx)
10.2.3 Model property GHB
No Flow

Figure 8. 2 Model boundary conditions

8.2.3 Model Property

These parameters represent the most physical quantities of interest such as hydraulic
conductivity, recharge, and evapotranspiration which are distributed within the entire
model domain and used in model calibration. Layer top and bottom elevations are also
considered as model property. GV allows the representation of these physical quantities
as either a matrix or in zones of equal value over which the parameter is constant.

8.2.3.1 Hydraulic conductivity

As explained under chapter 6, there is no direct measured hydraulic conductivity data in

the study area. The hydraulic conductivity used in this modelling is derived from
available well yield and drawdown data (specific capacity) using the empirical relation
between T and Sc (Eq.6.2) The spatial continuity of hydraulic conductivity over the
205
entire basin was estimated by up-scaling the point data to the basin scale using
geostatistical kriging. The model domain was divided into four hydraulic conductivity
zones based on similarity in aquifer properties obtained from geostatistical kriging (Fig
6.3). The hydraulic conductivity derived by empirical equation were imposed as initial
input to the model and then adjustement has been made in the calibration process to fit
the model result with the bserved head.

8.2.3.2 Groundwater evapotranspiration

As discussed in chapter 2, wide portion of the Middle Awash basin is covered by short
throny bushes which have short rooting depths whose roots do not reach groundwater
and abstract large quantities of water. In other word, ground waters in the study area
are circulating in the deeper zone where groundwater surface is much deeper than the
rooting zone. Thus, groundwater evapotranspiration is thought to be negligible and
considered as zero in this modelling. In fact, in areas where irrigation activities are
intensive such as in Wonji large scale farm, hydraulic connection between irrigation
water and groundwater is detected (chapter 7). Thus, groundwater evapotranspiration
can take place in this irrigation field through transpiration from plantation or from
saturated soil as evaporation. However, because of difficulties in measuring
groundwater evapotranspiration as well as with consideration to the small size of the
irrigation area which shares only 3% of the total area, this term is assumed causing no
effect on groundwater storage at basin scale and not considered in this model.

8.2.3.3 Groundwater Recharge

Recharge is one of model sensitive parameters used in calibration process. The

hydrochemical and water isotopes discussed in previous chapters show that the basin
receives recharge from precipitations that falls on the highlands bounding the rift. River
hydrograph analysis that drains the highlands also illustrates the direct consequential

206
effect of rainfall on base flow component (chapter 3). These imply the ongoing fast
recharge rate in highland areas. According to result from soil water balance (chapter 3),
the eastern and western highlands are high recharge zones whereas rift floor region,
which account for 76 % of the basin area, is distinguished as zero in-place recharge due
to the higher potential evapotranspiration and low annual rainfall in this portion of land
setting. However, zero recharge calculated in rift floor could not be expected in real
case as recharge can occurs through numerous geological structures (fractures,
fissures, joints, veins and scoria); factors overlooked by soil water balance model. Due
to the mentioned limitation of soil water balance method and difficulties in accurate
measurement of recharge over the entire basin, recharge of 42 mm/yr estimated for
Beseka sub basin; located in central rift floor, by water level fluctuation method (Ayalew,
2009) was taken in this model input for rift floor. Ayenew (1998) estimated 0.01mm/d as
recharge for rift floor in Lake Basin which was adjust to the study area. Table 8.1 shows
recharge zone imposed to the model.

207
Table 8.1 Estimated recharge for four physiographic regions imposed to the model
Western Eastern Southwestern Rift floor
highlands highlands escarpment
mm/yr 365 240 81 42
mm/day 1 0.66 0.22 0.115

As accurate measurement of hydraulic conductivity and recharges are not possible,

calibration of these parameters was performed using the multiplication arrays built in
GV.

8.2.4 Model geometry

The ground surface is taken as upper boundary of the model layer. As explained in
Chapter 7, bottom limit of the aquifer is not known. The maximum depth drilled so far is
425m, however, aquifer bottom elevation is not yet reached at this depth. As a result,
the actual thickness of the aquifer is not clearly defined, adding further uncertainty to
this numerical groundwater flow modelling. In basin with heterogeneous formations,
thicknesses of the aquifers can be spatially variable depending on physiographic
setting, type of formation, and degree of rock weathering. In this regard, the thickness of
the aquifers in highland areas which are composed of fractured massive rocks can be
different from intensively weathered rift floors aquifers. However, as there is no data
which confirm the actual aquifer thickness in various physiographic regions, a uniform
aquifer thickness was considered and the bedrock below 600 meter was set as zero flux
bottom boundaries. Bottom boundary is also assumed to be parallel to the top boundary
meaning that it follows the physiographic configuration of land surface. Figure 8.3
shows hydrological parameters imposed to the model.

208
 Hydraulic Conductivity
Zone Value Recharge
1 1.500 Zone Value
2 0.750 1 2.190e-004
3 9.000 2 6.580e-004
4 108.0 3 1.000e-003
4 1.150e-004

Top Elevation
Zone Value Bottom Elevation
4090 Zone Value
3490

3506 2906

2922 2322

2337 1737

1753 1153

1169 568.7

-15.66
584.3
-600.0
0.000

Figure 8. 3 Model properties: Hydraulic conductivity and recharge are in m/d, whereas
top and bottom elevations are in meter above seal level (m a.s.l)

8.2.5 Aquifer type

As revealed by hydrochemical and isotope data (chapter 4 and 5), there exist strong
hydraulic connection between local scale (upper aquifer) and deep flow system.
Geophysical data conducted at selected sites show similar result (chapter 6 and 7).
These suggest that lithological units are highly weathered and aquifer systems are
interconnected as well as no large scale impermeable confining layers between
aquifers. Thus, the system was considered as a single layer unconfined aquifer.

209
8.3 Model simulation and Discussion

After setting appropriate model boundary conditions and properties described above,
the model was simulated in MODFLOW packages build in GV under steady-state
condition. The steady state modelling refers to the arrival of a condition in groundwater
regime when hydraulic heads are no longer changing and the magnitude and direction
of the flow velocity becomes constant with time. In fact seasonal variation in outflow
(due to changes in pumping) and inflow or recharge (due to changes in precipitation or
climate) can happen but there is no time variable data of these parameters to be used
for transient groundwater flow model.

8.3.1 Model Calbiration

One of the advanced features of GV is its capability of providing appropriate parameters

to which the model has to be calibrated along with suggested multiplication factor to
which the initial parameters to be changed. The previous method of model calibration
was based on trial and error method whereby a given model parameter was randomely
altered and run the model several times until the minimium possible residual between
observed and model computed values is attained. Trial and error calibration technique
is not only tedious process, but also the desired minimum residual was difficult to attain.

After the intial run of the model, parameter to which the model will be calibrated was
assessed from the output of the initial simulation. To facilitate this, GV runs sensitivity
analysis and provide residual statistics with the associated parameters along with
suggested multiplication factor to which the initial parameters needs to be altered to
attain the least possible residual (Fig 8.4).

210
Figure 8. 4 residual statistics for uncalibrated model

Calibration involves the adjustment and refinement of parameter structure and values to
provide the best match between measured and simulated values. It checks how the
simulation is reproducing the field conditions (McDonald and Harbaugh, 1988). After
performing initial run, the model was calibrated using automatic calibration code PEST
(Doherty, 2004); independent nonlinear parameter estimation and optimization package
built in GV. PEST is able to take control of model, running it as many times as it needs;
in this case for 25 times; while adjusting parameters until the discrepancies between
model output and complementary set of field measurements is reduced to minimum in
the weighted least-squares sense (Fig 8.5). Detailed PEST application can be found in
Doherty (2004).

211
Figure 8. 5 Model calibrated statistics: sum of squared residual (top) and observed vs
computed (bottom)

8.3.2 Model sensitivity analysis

Sensitivity analysis is an integral part of model calibration. Sensitivity analysis is the

process whereby model parameters or boundary conditions are altered slightly and the
effect on model calibration statistics is observed. By producing a series of simulations
with different values of parameters, the model is calibrated. In this regard, sensitivity
analysis is the process of identifying the model parameters that have the most effect on

212
model predictions. Sensitivity analysis evaluates the effect of change in a model
parameter or boundary condition on the calibration statistics. GV provides two methods
of performing sensitivity analysis. The first one is single sensitivity run in which single
model parameter is changed by a given multiplication factor and calibration statistics is
computed for the run. The second method is the automatic sensitivity analysis in which
GV runs MODFLOW several times and computes calibration statistics for each
simulation. In this model, an auto sensitivity analysis was performed using recharge and
hydraulic conductivity and the model was found more sensitive to hydraulic conductivity
in zone four (Fig 8.4) which corresponds to the alluvial and weathered volcanic
formations in southwest corridor of the study area (Fig 8.3) through which regional influx
from Upper Awash basin is taking place (Chapter 7). The less sensitivity of the model to
recharge seems reasonable as the basin is getting high volume of water from Upper
Awash basin as regional influx compared to the local rechage which is limited in the
highlands areas (Chapter 3).

8.3.3 Model convergence and performance assessment

Calibration result was evaluated by assessing the convergence and mass balance of
the model output. Convergence assessment is quantitative performance measure which
involves mathematical or statistical description of residuals. For this assessment, GV
offers three types of plot options for assessing the quality of calibration or convergence.
The first is the scatter plot where observed target values are plotted versus the values
computed by the model (Fig 8.5, bottom). In an ideal calibration, points which fall on a
straight line with a 45 degree slope suggests best calibrated model. In other word, the
degree of scatter about this 45 degree line is a measure of overall calibration quality
and convergence.

Result from calibration statistics indicates that majority of scatter plots falls almost near
the 45 degree line with correlation coeffeicient (R2) of 0.65 in the observed versus
computed plot. A similar scatter plot was plotted with observed value on the X-axis and
residual on the Y-axis (Fig 8.6, left). The residual is computed by subtracting the model
213
computed value (head) from observed value. In the calibration statistics, negative
residuals indicate that model’s predicted value is too high and a positive residual is
where the model predicted value is too low. Because both positive and negative
residuals are used in the calculation, this value should be close to zero for a good
calibrated model. In other words, the positive and negative errors should balance each
other for good calibrated model. In this modeling of the entire Middle Awash basin, the
minimum residual mean attained after automatic calibration (i.e., after running the model
for 25 times through PEST) was 16.54m which seems too high.

Lack of good convergence (i.e., weak correlation between observed vs computed,

R2=0.65, in Figure 8.5, and high residual value of 16.54m), could be due to lack of
measured observation data in large areas of the basin, particulary in northwest and east
highland areas. This high residual is mainly related to large water table contrast in
highland area where piezometric heads varies by more than 200 m over short horizontal
distances (Chapter 6).

The number of targets which cause large errors was evaluated using cumulative sum of
squared residuals as a function of target numbers to assess whether just a few targets
are biasing the sum of the residuals (Fig 8.6, right). The sum of squared residuals is
computed by squaring all residuals and adding them together and this was used by
inverse models in the automated calibration process.

214
 Number of targets with large
errors
62 targets with small errors

12

Figure 8. 6 Plot of observed vs residual (left) and cumulative sum of squared residuals as a

As shown in Figure 8.6 (right), about 12 targets seems biasing the sum of the squares.
These targets are wells located in highland areas where the topography is rugged and
piezometeric surface are highly irregular ranging from 100 to 350 meters over short
distances. Thus, high piezometric contrast and scarce of data could be potential
limitation for the obtained high residual mean of the model output.

Assessment of mass balance is another method of quantitative calibration performance

measures used to check solution accuracy by comparing total simulated inflow and
outflow. In steady state simulation, an equilibrium solution is desired for heads such that
all the inflows and outflows to the aquifer domain are in perfect balance (Anderson and
Woessner, 1992). The mass balance error is expressed in percentage representing the
difference between total inflow and total outflow including change in storage divided by
total inflows or outflows. The water balance computed for the entire basin is given in
Table 8.2

215
Table 8. 2 Water balance of the Middle Awash basin (M3/yr)
Flow component Inflow Outflow Inflow-outflow
Constant head 2.883*108 2.948*1010 -2.92*1010
Constant flux 3.608*1010 - 3.608*1010
Wells - 1.59*107 -1.59*107
River leakage 1.03*1010 2.07*1010 -1.04*1010
Head depend 3.03*1010 2.998*1010 3.23*108
boundary
Recharge 3.23*109 - 3.23*109
Total 8.0186*1010 8.0185*1010 1*106
Percent discrepancy 1.24E-07

Water budget computed by the model (Table 8.2) provides quantitative information on
mass balance of individual flow terms useful to understand flow direction in the
groundwater and surface waters. From the regional mass balance, both constant head
and river leakage components have higher outflow than inflow component. The higher
outflow in these flow component are suggesting as surface waters are gaining more
water from groundwater than they are losing to groundwater. This corresponds to areas
where head in aquifers are higher than surface water bottom elevations. In other hand,
the excess out flow in constant head term is associated to lakes (Koka and Beseka)
which are also obtaining more waters than they are losing to groundwater. This is in
good agreement with isotope data discussed under chapter 5 as well as with the field
condition of the lake Beseka where the lake has been found growing since four
decades. This is further assessed under modelling the sub flow systems.

8.4 Head distribution and groundwater contours

Groundwater flow characteristics have been analysed from the calibrated model. Figure
8.7 shows elevation of groundwater contour in meters above sea level showing spatial
drift of groundwater head in the direction of flow. The arrows within the field view
indicate the pathway which groundwater could be likely to follow through the aquifer. It
is also shown that groundwater head is related to topographic elevation where it is
highly variable in steep topographic areas whereas nearly flat with uniform elevation in
the rift floor.
216
Figure 8. 7 Groundwater head contour contour (m a.s.l) from calibrated model

8.5 Modelling selected sub flow systems

The study area is composed of various sub flow systems which are the results of
volcanotectonics. Three sub basins namely Adama-Wonji, Welenchiti and Beseka have
been chosen for numerical groundwater flow modelling based on their hydrogeological
importance and data availability for model input. The location of these sub basins within

217
 the entire basin is shown in Figure 8.8. The Adama-Wonji and Welenchiti sub basins
are parts of the southwestern flow system whereas the Beseka basin is part of the
central flow system located in the basin interior.

Similar procedures discussed above has been followed in modelling of these subflow
systems
39000”E 40000”E

9000”N 9000”N

8000”N 8000”N

39000”E 4040000”
000”E

39000”E
40000”E

Figure 8. 8 Location of sub basins

218
8.5.1 Adama-Wonji sub basin

Adama-Wonji basin is part of the southwest flow system of the Middle Awash basin and
has an area of 1650 km2. This sub basin receives regional inflow from Upper Awash
basin in west through the Koka plain. Detailed description of this basin including its
hydrogeological issue is explained in chapter 6.

A model composed of 40 rows and 44 columns with uniform cell size of 1km was
simulated using 7 calibration targets. The purpose of the model is to assess the water
budget of the basin and understand groundwater flow direction across selected sections
as suggested in chapter 8. Groundwater recharge was computed by soil water balance
taking the long term average of meterological elements measured at Wonji, Koka,
Melkasa, Iteya, and Adama as well as taking into account the land cover features of the
basin. Awash River is taken as river boundary where as the area covered by Lake Koka
is imposed as constant head boundary. The western boundary across which regional
influx occurs was taken as constant flux. Outflow occurs principally in east of Wonji
through Melkasa to Sodere graben. These boundaries across which outflow occur was
taken as general head boundary. The south and north massive volcanic hills which
forms hydrogeological water divides with the adjacent basin were characterized as no
flow boundaries.

The system was simulated as steady-state unconfined condition using 10 selected

targets for model calibration. The model is found sensitive to hydraulic conductivity
while insensitive to both river conductance and recharge (Fig 8.9, right).

219
Figure 8. 9 Adama-Wonji basin groundwater head distribution from calibrated model (left) and model
sensitivity (right). The arrow within the map shows direction of groundwater flow

Koka Adama Arsi highland

Wonji

Wonji

A B
C D

Figure 8. 10 Adam-Wonji basin groundwater head profile and flow direction along selected
direction
220
The model was calibrated employing PEST taking hydraulic conductivity as calibration
variable. Calibrated model result is shown in Figure 8.11 and Table 8.3.
This subbasin situated in area where regional groundwater influx from Upper Awash is
taking place, thus the basin receive inflow principally from Upper Awash basin and to
the minor extent from local rainwater that falls on bounding highlands. As the basin is
receiving regional inflow much higher than local recharge, the model is found insensitive
to recharge (Fig 8.9 right).

1620
Computed value (m a.s.l)

1600
1580
1560
R² = 0.99
1540
1520
1500 1550 1600 1650
Observed value (m a.s.l)

Figure 8. 11 Head statistics for calibrated model

Table 8. 3 Adama Wonji sub basin model calibration statistics and water balance
Calibrated target statics Water balance (m3/yr)
Easting Northing Obser Compu Residua Component Inflow Outflow In-Out
536788 928710 1534 1535.3 -1.3 Storage - - -
536500 929734 1535 1536.4 -1.4 Constant head 1.54*108 2.746*1010 -2.73*1010
516683 928502 1572 1571.8 -0.2 Influx 3.608*1010 - 3.608*1010
515450 928240 1578 1580.3 -2.3 Wells - 2.094*106 -2.094*106
523616 944501 1581 1580.5 0.5 River leakage 4.454*109 1.36*1010 -9.146*109
502362 929483 1607 1608.6 -1.6 Head Dep Boun 9.226*108 7.56*108 1.67*108
520546 919422 1571 1570.7 0.4 Recharge 2.163*108 - 2.163*108
510993 919790 1542 1540.4 1.6
502299 927995 1588 1589.3 -1.3
-0.7
511774 941182 1524 1524.7
Sum of squared residuals (m2) 11.91 Total 4.184*1010 4.182*1010 9.6*106
Residual mean (m) -0.8 % Discrepancy 0.02
Absolute residual mean (m) 1.08
Residual standard deviation (m) 1.03

221
As shown in Figures 8.9 and Figure 8.10, groundwater flow converges towards Wonji
irrigation site. The head calibrated statistics (R2=0.99) shown in Figure 8.11 and the
residual mean (-0.8m) in Table 8.3 indicates that the model is best calibrated
representing the field situation. From the water balance (Table 8.3), the inflow of river is
much less than its outflow component implying that river is gaining more water from
groundwater than it is losing. This means that head in aquifers is higher than river
bottom elevation. As discussed under chapter 6, the hydraulic connection between
surface water and groundwater has been revealed by 2D tomography conducted at
Wonji irrigation farm. This model result is in good agreement with the geophysical result
providing quantitative information on the amount of water exchanged between surface
water and the underlying shallow unconfined aquifer in this area.

8.5.2 Welenchiti sub basin

The Welenchiti basin is part of the local scale flow systems of the Middle Awash basin
located in southwest corner of the area. It has an area of 464 km2 and is bounded by
Pleistocene massive ignimbrite in north, west, southwest and the Boseti massive
(peralkaline rholyite and massive basalt) in east which forms no flow boundaries. The
scoraceous basalt is the principal aquifers of the basin. The basin receives water from
rain that fall on the highlands bounding the basin. Outflow from the basin is restricted to
south and north east directions constrained by massive volcanic hills. Outflow is
represented by general head boundary (GHB) in the model. Water is lost from the
system through surface runoff, subsurface flow, evaporation, and human withdrawal
from pumping through wells.

For basins which have local scale flow, it is important to understand the water budget of
the basin for the effective use of the groundwater resource. Thus, the objective of model
this sub flow system is mainly to assess the water budget of the basin that can be useful
for optimum and sustainable use of the groundwater resource. This is particularly

222
 important for future large scale projects that will be planned to use the groundwater
resource of this basin for irrigation purpose.

In this modeling, the basin was discritized into 67 rows and 50 columns with uniform cell
size of 0.5 km. Recharge was estimated by soil-water balance method taking the land
cover features and meteorological elements measured at stations located in and
adjacent the basin (Welenchiti, Arerti, Adama). Hydraulic conductivity was derived from
the available specific capacity measured in 14 domestic wells in the basin using the
empirical equation (Eq 7.2). No other boundary is recognized in this basin. The model
was simulated under steady state condition and calibrated using the heads measured in
15 wells as calibration targets. Model results are shown in Figure 8.12 and Table 8.4.
Groundwater head profile and flow direction across selected cross-section is also
shown in Figure 8.13

Figure 8. 12 Welenchiti basin groundwater head distribution from calibrated model (left) and model
sensitivity plot (right). The arrow within the map shows groundwater flow directions

223
 A B D
C

Figure 8. 13 Welenchiti basin groundwater head profile and flow direction along selected
directions

Model calibration was made employing PEST taking both hydraulic conductivity and
recharge as calibration variables (Fig 8.12, right). Calibrated model result is shown in
Figure 8.14 and Table 8.4.

The welenchiti subflow system is found to be sensitive to both recharge and hydraulic
conductivity. Groundwater in this sub flow system has local scale flow obtaining water
from rainwater that fall on the adjacent highlands. Thus, unlike models for the entire
basin and Adama-Wonji sub basin, this model is sensitive to both hydraulic conductivity
and recharge.

1480
Computed head (m a.s.l)

1470
1460
1450
1440
1430
R² = 0.99
1420
1410
1400 1420 1440 1460 1480
Observed head (m a.s.l)
Figure 8. 14 Welenchiti head statistics for calibrated model

224
Table 8. 4 Welenchiti sub basin model calibration statistics and water balance
Calibrated target statics (head m asl) Water balance (m3/yr)
Easting Northing Observed Computed residual Component Inflow Outflow In-Out
543079 942437 1425 1424.8 0.2 Storage - - -
547922 959185 1418 1416.4 1.6 Const.head - - -
538498 950940 1473 1472.4 0.6 Influx - - -
537891 957417 1444 1445.6 -1.4 Wells - 1.74*106 -1.74*106
535918 945906 1466 1465 0.9 Head.Dep.bo 3.411*109 3.52*109 -1.08*108
un
539213 940271 1431 1432 -1.0 Recharge 1.13*108 - 1.13*108
538000 948000 1471 1473.8 -2.8 Total 3.5242*109 3.521*109 3.31*106
542960 956925 1435 1437.3 -2.3 %
discrepancy 0.09
546991 958304 1419 1421.4 -2.4
541516 949046 1453 1454 -1.0
542000 958250 1435 1437.2 -2.2
538245 962488 1439 1438.2 0.8
541738 943425 1432 1433.8 -1.8
544786 951428 1444 1441.8 2.2
537591 962318 1437 1438.8 -1.8
Sum of squared residuals 44.6
Residual mean -0.72
Absolute residual mean 1.56
Residual standard deviation 1.56

8.5.3 Beseka basin

This sub basin is characterized by flat topography located in the active tectonic belt of
the basin interior and has an area of 172 km2. Regional flow from southwest and the
local scale flow systems from both sides of the escarpments tend to converge towards
Lake Beseka; a terminal lake situated in central part of the basin. In this regard, this
basin can be considered as discharge zone. As the basin is located in active tectonic
belts of the rift where new geological structures (fissures, cracks, and lava tubes) are
developing, excess irrigation water from Metahara and Abadir farms also expected
recharging the basin through these geological structures. Surface runoff from all
225
direction flow towards the Lake constrained by topography but groundwater inflow
occurs in south and west and leaves the basin in east and north direction. Thus the
basin can be considered as closed system for surface waters but an open system for
subsurface flow system.

Previous studies by Gizaw, (1996), Zemedeagegnehu and Egizabher, (2004),

Alemayehu et al. (2006), Kebede et al. (2008), and Ayalew, (2009) indicate the
progressive grow of Lake Beseka (Fig 8.15) creating a concern for Matahara, and addis
Ketema towns as well as for state irrigation farms located near to the lake. Long-term
isotope data discussed under chapter 5 indicates that the lake is progressively depleting
in heavier isotopes which implies mixing condition of this lake with waters of lighter
isotopes. This means the lake has direct hydraulic link with groundwater system.

Lake surface area Lake stage

50 955
45 954
Lake surface area (km2)

40 953

Lake stage (m asl)

35 952
30
951
25
950
20
15 949
10 948
5 947
0 946
1976 1986 1996 2006

Figure 8. 15 Beseka lake level changes

The objective of modeling this basin is to assess the hydrological mass balance of the
basin and examine. This is useful to understand flow direction and quantitatively assess
the amount of groundwater flowing into and out from the lake.

Groundwater head distribution and flow in this sub basin is assessed by

numerical groundwater flow modeling which consist of 46 rows and 33
226
columns with 500m uniform cell size. As the basin has flat topography,
groundwater flow occurs across boundaries in all direction except the
massive Fantale volcanic hill in northeast. Thus, all boundaries were set as
general head boundary taking the Fantale massive as no flow boundary (Fig
8.16, left). The area covered by Lake Beseka was specified as constant head
boundary. No other boundary is recognized in this basin. Hydraulic
conductivity and recharge estimated for rift floor were taken as model
property and these are set as parameters in calibration process. The model
was simulated under steady state one layer unconfined condition. The model
was calibrated using heads measured in 7 wells as calibration targets setting
hydraulic conductivity and recharge (sensitive parameters, Figure 8.16, right)
as calibration parameters. The calibrated targets statics and mass balance
are presented in Figure 8.18 and Table 8.5.

Figure 8. 16 Beseka basin groundwater head distribution from calibrated model (Left)
and model sensitivity plot (right). The arrow within the map shows groundwater flow
directions.

227
 Abadir farm

Metahara

L. Beseka town
L. Beseka

A B C D

Figure 8. 17 Beseka basin groundwater head profile and flow direction

Figure 8. 18 Beseka basin calibrated model head statistics

228
Table 8. 5 Beseka sub basin model calibration statistics and water balance
Calibrated target statics (head in m asl) Water balance (m3/yr)
Easting Northing Observed Computed Residual Component Inflow Outflow In-Out
591942 994317 1020 1018.5 1.5 Storage - - -
9
592742 986659 1003 1005.8 2.8 Cons.head - 4.65*10 -4.65*109
600000 980500 960 958.2 1.8 Influx - - -
601430 983172 957 957.4 0.4 Wells - 3.15*106 -3.15*106
597520 978674 961 959.3 1.7 Head
dependant
boundary 1.36*1010 8.94*109 4..66*109
7
595378 976157 969 966.8 2.2 Recharge 1.06*10 - 1.06*107
592326 982208 977 976.4 0.6 Total 1.3594*1010 1.3592*1010 1.75*106
Sum of squared residuals 25.8 % discr 0.01
Residual mean 0. 34
Absolute residual mean 1.8
Residual standard deviation 1.89

The groundwater velocity vectors (Fig 8.16, left) show groundwater flow convergence
towards the lake almost in all directions. According to the mass balance computed by
the model (Table 8.5), the lake is obtaining about 4.65*109 m3/yr of water from
groundwater indicating that head in aquifer is higher than lake bottom elevation.
However, the water balance computed by the model provides important information on
the causes for lake expansion. As the lake is a closed lake, the only way through which
water lost from the system is through evaporation. Ayalew (2009) estimated 6.16 x107
m3/yr of evaporation from the lake. This quantity is much less than the inflow component
computed by this model. Because of this large discrepancy between the inflow and
outflow components, the lake continues expanding at high level (Fig 8.15). This model
result quantitatively supports the isotopes result and previous studies providing the
mass balance of waters flowing into and leaving out of the lake. However, the computed
zero inflow for constant head seems uncertain as the lake interusion into groundwater is
dictacted in north east direction by geophysical result (chapter 6). This needs further
assessment through the accurate measurement of groundwater head.

229
8.6 Model limitation

In developing this model, a number of simplified assumptions have been considered

where a complex volcanic system of the Middle Awash basin was represented with a
set of simplified mathematical equations. Thus, errors associated to this model are
related to uncertainty with the approximations, assumptions, and simplifications of the
complex system of the Middle Awash basin. Errors typical to numerical groundwater
flow modeling are the consequence of a combination of (1) input data, (2)
representation of the physical processes by the algorithms of the model, and (3)
parameter estimation during the calibration procedure. With respect to these, the
following could be potential limitation to this modeling:

As discussed in chapter 6, data on types and thicknesses of hydrogeologic units, water

levels, and hydraulic properties were not properly defined and represent only
approximations of actual values. Most of the data were concentrated at specific areas
near towns and data distribution is highly scattered and uneven. The paucity of data in
most of the study area was another deficiency of the model which needs additional data
to constrain the model. It is typical that large areas, especially those in mountainous
terrain, have sparse observation data which are not sufficient for hydrogeological
analysis using numerical modeling. The lack of spatially distributed information, most
notably the relatively small area within which there are available water table elevation
measurements resulted in large errors in modeling the entire basin. The majority of the
available domestic water supply wells are confined to areas with higher population
densities around Nazert, Metahara, and Wonji.

The definition of spatially distributed hydraulic conductivities is one of the most

challenging aspects of subsurface hydrology. This parameter has greatest impacts on
the movement of groundwater. Due to a pervasive lack of data, a highly simplified
description of the distributed hydraulic conductivity was used in this model. The
hydraulic conductivity was derived from specific capacity using a simple empirical
equation which is more applicable for homogenous aquifer system. Examination of well
230
logs and water table elevation measurements indicates that water resides
predominantly within fractured rock (chapter 6). Fractured rocks are extremely
heterogeneous. Thus, the hydraulic conductivity of the basin is highly controlled by
fracture patterns and fracture density. However, it was practically difficult to characterize
these multifaceted fracture patterns in the model. Moreover, no data exist that provide
information about aquifer thickness. All wells yield water from few portions of aquifers
within 30 to 50m thickness. Thus, the lower boundary of the model was not clearly
known and an estimated uniform aquifer thickness was considered that can add further
uncertainty to this numerical groundwater flow modelling.

The effect of geology, geological structures and topographic contrast on groundwater

flow is supposed to be complex far from simplified assumptions (homogenous, isotropic,
and flat topography) embedded in numerical groundwater flow equation. Thus, it is
practically difficult to accurately introduce and capture all the complex physical
processes of the Middle Awash basin in the model. As a result, the simplified
assumptions and generalizations that were incorporated into the model undoubtedly
produced large residuals in the modeling of the entire basin.

Acceptable low residual errors were attained in modeling of the three sub basins. But,
these outputs may not yet properly represent the actual system because of the complex
system and many uncertainties inherent to the basin. In other words, an acceptable
degree of agreement between simulated and measured values does not guarantee that
the estimated model parameter values accurately represent the actual parameter
values. There could be large dissimilarities of hydrogeological parameters in the real
conditions. Detail hydrogeological data and more refined model are required for
accurate description of the actual field condition.

The highland regions bounding the rift with relatively high precipitation and with thin
coverage of low field capacity soils were identified as more likely to contribute water to
the aquifer. Whereas, rift floor which shares 74% of the study area is considered as
area with zero recharge due to the prevalence of potential evapotranspiration over the
231
rainfall of this region (chapter 3). Thus, recharge estimated for Beseka sub basin was
considered which may not match the actual recharge in the rift floor. While the soil-
water balance produces significant estimation of recharge useful to understand the
water resources of the basin, it is not doubtful that many limitations are associated with
the estimated recharge. In addition, accurate recharge beneath rivers is not known and
must be characterized more completely to allow for the integration of surface and
subsurface hydrological system. This can be achieved more readily through gauging
rivers at several places to identify regions of gaining and losing streams to quantify river
bed conductivity. Furthermore, recharge that could occur from seasonal or ephemeral
streams in the study area is unknown. Specifically, the relative contributions of slow
continual recharge and rapid, event-based recharge, particularly in the rift floor are also
not known. Therefore, these significant data gaps have to be filled to transform these
simplified models to more realistic models.

232
233
 Conclusion and Prospects

In this study the hydrogeological system of the complex volcanic terrain of

the Middle Awash basin has been described. But, this was not without
difficulties. Being the first study for the basin, a lot of challenges and
constraints was encountered. Hydrogeological data are generally very scarce
and poorly distributed in the study area; concentrated to specific localities around towns
while deficit in large areas. Almost all domestic wells do not have hydraulic conductivity
data which is the important parameter for aquifer characterization. This parameters was
determined indirectly from the drawdown and yield data using empirical relation
between specific capacity and transmissivity. Thus, it is not undoubtful that some of the
estimated value of these parameters could deviates from actual value. Lack of
observation wells for groundwater level monitoring and data acquisition was another
problem. Initially, it was planned to conduct complete hydrochemical analysis
including 14C and trace elements. But, the analysis of 14C and trace
elements has been declined because of the encountered financial shortage
to cover the laboratory expenses.

In this study an effort has been made to apply various disciplines and
synchronize datasets to maximize the reliability of the study representing the
most likely field situation.

The study begins with the assessment of geomorphic features to get insight into the
hydrological process that could be generated at various physiographic regions. This
knowledge was acquired in the initial stage for the interpretation of other hydrological
datasets including river hydrograph, hydrochemistry, and isotope data. Topography of
the study basin was classified according to their degree of inclination from the DEM of
the study area which is important aspects to understand flow dynamics.

234
Maps describing the recharge and discharge components of the groundwater flow
system were developed using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Landsat
Multispectral satellite data were evaluated to produce a land use and land cover map.
This land cover map and ancillary data sets were combined in a GIS to delineate areas
into six land cover features as Lakes, wetland, open forest, agricultural land,
rock exposure and grass and bush land. Approximated water-use rates for these
land cover features were evaluated through conventional approach and groundwater
recharge rate was estimated by incorporating data related to varying soil moisture
conditions which includes meteorological element, elevation, slope aspect, parent
material, and vegetation into commonly used soil-water balance method. GIS methods
were used to combine these data to produce a map describing recharge potential on a
relative scale.

The geology with associated tectonic structures of the area was scrutinized
with other datasets such as geophysics, hydrochemistry and borehole data to
well understand its hydrogeological role. This was the integral part of the
study towards understanding flow processes and for characterization of the
hydrogeological systems of the basin. Geological structures have known
playing significant roles in forming barrier or conduit to groundwater flow,
create preferential flow path, enhance the mixing of groundwater with fluids
and gasses from magmatic source, setback and step-up groundwater flow
rate, enhance interaction of surface water and groundwater, and create
various hydrological flow systems as local, intermediate and regional flow
systems. According to location and extent, geological structural are classified
in two broad groups. The first group corresponds to tectonic structures
associated in rift floor oriented to the 000 0 -020 0 which are related to the
Wonji Fault belt. Regional flow system from the adjacent basin; Upper Awash
basin; and the intermediate flow systems from both sides of mountains
bounding the rift converge to this fault zones. This belt is the active volcanic
centers marked by seismic, volcanic, and low magnitude earth quakes.
Furthermore, this belt is a hydrogeological zone where the physiochemical
235
composition of groundwater is highly altered because of the strong
interaction between ground waters and magmatic materials such as heat,
gas, and recent volcanic products. The second geological structures
correspond to rift marginal fault system associated in mountains that bound
the rift floor in both side. These landmasses are notable by crowd of minor
duplicated rift systems dipping to each other and forming local garben and
horst structures. These structural architectures create isolated or
compartmentalized flow systems in the highland areas with flow constrained
along faults.

Geological structures of the study area are largely intercepted and superimposed
causing interaction of groundwater with river, lake and irrigation as well as cause mixing
of groundwater with magmatic materials. In general, result from hydrochemistry,
geophysics and isotopes reveal that geological structures create the breaching of
aquifer continuity, brought two separate aquifers (upper and lower aquifers) into contact,
form compartmentalized groundwater flow systems as well as create preferential
recharge.

Middle Awash basin is a typical environment where assessment of groundwater

recharge is one of the challenges and difficult to determine precisely as the annual
precipitation is much lower than annual average potential evapotranspiration of the
area. Annual average aerial precipitation of the study area was assessed by arithmetic,
Thiessen and Isohytes methods to get reasonable estimation from the three averages.
Evapotranspiration was estimated by the commonly used Penman method which
embodies the concepts of potential transpiration and actual evaporation from an
extensive soil and open-water surface. This method is commonly selected as it takes
into account various variables as input for evapotranspiration. All these results were
combined with land cover features to assess the actual evapotranspiration and available
excess water for recharge. Actual evapotranspiration was estimated by semi soil-water
distributed method that calculate the water budget for individual soil type based on
average monthly effective precipitation, potential evapotranspiration and available water
236
capacity of soil. Result from soil-water balance show that the highland regions with
relatively high precipitation and thin coverage of low field capacity soils are identified as
contributing water to the aquifer whereas rift floor is considered as area with zero
recharge due to the prevalence of potential evapotranspiration over the rainfall of this
region. This implies that rift floor is found under moisture deficit conditions where the
available precipitation does not satisfy soil water requirement. In such case, one has to
assume that much of the recharge can be indirect through geological structures. Thus,
more localized indirect recharge could occur in rift floor through geological structures
and macropores such as desiccation cracks and interface between vesicles in
outcropping volcanic materials like scoarie and unwelded tuff that can provide pathways
for surface runoff to enter into aquifer materials. Furthermore, conspicuous ephemeral
stream channels are widely present in the rift floor where indirect recharge by means of
channel leakage can also occur. In this land setting, large scale faults, surface
depressions can provide bypass routes for runoff to rapidly flow from the surface to
groundwater, even prior to soil field capacity. In this regards, the zero recharge
estimated in rift floor can be considered as unrealistic. This bias could be associated to
the random and sporadic nature of precipitation, spatial variability in soil characteristics,
complex geology, topography, and land cover features of the study area.

Detail assessment of river hydrograph is carried out from long terms daily time-series
record of stream flow of three perennial rivers that drains different physiographic regions
to understand the hydrological response of the basin including recharge dynamics.
Analysis of the relationship between magnitude and frequency of stream flow
components with rainfall event was evaluated to understand the dynamics and rate of
recurrence of groundwater recharge. The result show that relative contributions of quick
flow and base flow components varies over slight time span to rainfall events indicating
the consequential effect of rainfall on both flow components with the quick flow event
caused due to steep slope and the underlying bed rock in mountains areas while the
quick rises and secede of base flow following the onset and cease of rainfall is caused
by large preferential recharge of rainwater to groundwater through geological structures.
This is in good agreement with hydrochemistry and isotope results.
237
Furthermore, regional estimation of river flow duration characteristics was assessed
which has practical importance in design of dam for water storages and understand the
effect of topography, rainfall, geology, and contribution of base flow to stream flow.

Hydrochemical variables including fluoride are analyzed to trace host rocks,

mechanism of hydrochemical evolution as well as to characterize
groundwater according to hydrochemical property and water quality.
Similarly, environmental water isotopes were used to trace recharge and flow
dynamics and to assess interaction process of groundwater with rocks. Both
hydrochemical and isotope results discriminate two major hydrogeochemical
processes which are the results of geological structures and geothermal
activities. Ground waters circulating in highland areas are lightly mineralized
with TDS <500mg/l and depleted in heavy isotopes which marks fast
circulation system. In this flow system, water-rock reaction is low restricted
by geological structures whereby groundwater storage and flow is
predominately in fractures and joints which give short residence time and low
contact of surface area. The aquifers in the highlands are mainly calc-alkaline
which include basalt, ignimbrite and trachybasalt.

On the other hand, the active tectonic belts of the basin interior are marked
as hydrogeological block where strong water-rock reaction is taking place.
The aquifers in this land setting are sodic-alkaline which include the vesicular rock such
as scoria, pumice, welded tuff, and volcanoclastic sediments. These rocks contain
cavities due to escape of gas during cooling and deeply weathered by volcanotectonics
including geothermal activities which is active in the basin interior. Groundwater in
this land setting are saline with TDS >800mg/l and contains high load of
hydrochemical variables dominated by Na + , K + , Cl - , SO 4 2- , and F - . The
inverse geochemical modelling corresponding to this flow system shows the
evolution of hydrochemical facies towards the albite field which involves the
dissolution of Na-silicate and precipitation of Ca (Mg) silicates. Result from
multivariate statistical analysis also discriminate Na + , Cl - , SO 4 2- , and F - as

238
major variables impairing groundwater quality in the flow process. The
stable isotopes corresponding to ground waters in the rift floor also show a
positive oxygen shift suggesting the isotope fractionation caused by water
rock reaction which is in good agreement with PCA and inverse geochemical
modelling.

High load of Fluoride is one of the major problems affecting groundwater quality of the
study basin. The concentration of this variable in 43 water samples collected throughout
the basin has been measured and its spatial distribution is assessed using geospatial
analyst. The result shows that more than 60% of the samples have F- above 1.5mg/l
and concentration range from 0.1 to 73 mg/l which depends on varying concentrations
of fluoride-bearing minerals and magnitude of geothermal activities along groundwater
flow paths. The geostatistical result discriminate the active geothermal belts of the basin
interior as hydrogeological blocks with high load of fluoride above 5mg/l, whereas
ground waters circulating exterior to this geothermal belts have low load of fluoride
below 1.5 mg/l.

Result from stable isotopes and tritum are in good agreement with hydrochemistry and
geophysical results which reveals three important hydrological implications. Waters in
Middle Awash basin are generally depleted in heavy isotopes. This indicates that
aquifers are obtaining water from summer rainfall that falls on highlands that bounds the
rift. Water isotope also mark hydraulic connectivity (mixing) between surface water and
ground waters as well as fractionation in rift floor which suggests strong rock water
reaction along flow paths. Majority of ground waters have high content of Tritium above
0.8TU and in some samples tritium above 4TU has been measured which marks a
preferential flow path and fast flow rate along faults, as well as leakage from Awash
River.

As the lateral and vertical variation of subsurface formations and geological

structures of the study area are highly variable, geophysical survey was
conducted in selected fields where further subsurface information were necessitated

239
to improve the understanding of the role of geology and structures in
controlling groundwater movement. Result from geophysical survey was
combined with other datasets such as borehole data, geology and
hydrochemistry to trace the aquifer geometry and subsurface geological
structures having profound effect on groundwater circulation and storage. To
this end, an integrated study based on geophysical 2D tomography and vertical
electrical sounding were conducted at Wonji irrigation field to understand the link
between irrigation water and the shallow aquifer system, and result show that the Wonji
aquifers locally consist of alluvial sediments and fractured ignimbrites, generally within
high-permeability. Furthermore, the study reveals the existence of strong hydraulic
connection between irrigation water and the shallow unconfined aquifer beneath Wonji
irrigation field.

Geophysical result further depict various combinations of hydrogeological features such

as identify shallow aquifer and depth of saturation, elevation of groundwater head,
aquifer materials, typical aquifer boundaries, geological structures, and specific
hydrogeological features such as faults and fissures. Result from geophysical survey
was used to develop conceptual and predictive models showing the broader
understanding of the nature and configuration of groundwater systems and its
relationship with irrigation water. This conceptual model was transformed into
numerical groundwater flow model to quantitatively understand the various hydrological
components and relative aquifer position (piezometric head) with respect to surface
waters.

The numerical groundwater flow Model show that groundwater flow converges towards
Wonji irrigation and the inflow of river is much less than its outflow. This implies river is
gaining more water from groundwater than it is losing. This means that head in aquifers
is higher than river bottom elevation which is in good agreement with geophysical result.
This understanding gives the opportunity for those involved in management of Wonji
irrigation project to assess and revise their position within the overall scheme of

240
effective water use for sustainable irrigation development without causing unpredicted
lateral environmental damage and future changes and threats.

The aquifer systems, hydrolithological units and groundwater circulation systems has
been discussed from the various datasets including well data, hydrochemistry,
geophysics, isotope and river hydrograph and the converging evidence of these
datasets was used to conceptualize the hydrogeological system of the basin. This
conceptual model is transformed in numerical groundwater flow model to understand
the hydrological mass balance at basin scale as well as for the Adama-Wonji,
Welenchiti, and Beseka sub basins which are chosen according to their hydrogeological
importance. Finally, a simplified hydrogeological map of the study area is produced from
the combined results of the various datasets used in this study (Appendix 19).

It is anticipated that this study has both practical and scientific importance. The study
provides the outline of aquifer system according to their groundwater quality which is
useful for local water authorities towards their effort in water supply projects. The study
also proved basic information on hydrogeological property of the basin highlighting the
susceptibility of groundwater to anthropogenic activities like the effect of furrow method
irrigation. This gives awareness for water and irrigation authorities to work toward
ensuring sustainable development without perturbing the natural environment. The
hydrological mass balance computed for selected sub basins can be useful for future
large scale projects that will use groundwater resource. On the other hand, being the
first study describing the complex volcanic system in multidisciplinary approach,
concepts, methods, and synthesis embedded in this study can be useful reference for
future analogous research that will be conducted in similar volcanic environments.
Furthermore data, maps and illustrations provided in this study can be data basis for
future detailed hydrogeological and related studies that will be conducted in this same
basin.

241
Recommendations

• The effect of volcanotectonics and geological materials on groundwater

flow is highly complex. The geological map used in this study is with
small scale providing broader information rather than detail. Thus,
more refined geological map of the area with acceptable scale; for
example 1:50,000 or 1:100,000; will improve the understanding of
geological role on groundwater flow system of the area.
• The hydrological balance is computed from limited meteorological data.
Thus, it is not undoubtful that the estimated result deviates somewhat
from the actual value. More realistic result can be attained by
improving the aerial coverage of meteorological stations, span of data
type and quality of data records.
• Middle Awash basin is the area where data related to hydraulic property are ill-
defined and vague. Important hydraulic parameters such as hydraulic
conductivity, transmissivity and aquifer thickness are generally not measured.
These parameters have greatest impacts on the movement of groundwater. Due
to a pervasive lack of these data, a highly simplified description of hydraulic
conductivity derived from yield and drawdown was used in this study. Thus, it is
highly recommended to accurately conduct aquifer test and measure these
parameters and properly record in away useful for hydrogeological researches.
• Access to data is the most difficult job because of data disorganization and
mismanagement. In most of the cases, data are decentralized and their
locations are unknown. As the matter of this fact, data collection is tedious and
time consuming. Thus, centralized electronic method of data management is
highly encouraged.
• In Most of cases, unproductive wells have been abandoned, but, these wells
would have substantial importance for hydrogeological study. Thus, protection
and management of unproductive wells is highly recommended.
• It is proved that geophysical result is effective in portraying subsurface
information useful from hydrogeological point of view. Geophysical survey is
242
 cost-effective compared to other methods such as drilling. Thus, it is highly
recommended to conduct hydrogeophysical survey throughout the basin.
• Hydrochemical and isotope data reveals fast groundwater circulation and the
system containing modern waters. It is important to further verify this by other
method such as applying 14C.
• The hydrochemical analysis and groundwater quality provided in this study is
from the assessment of major hydrochemical element and fluoride concentration.
In most of the cases, ground waters with high constituent of fluoride especially
those from volcanic aquifers are commonly associated with high level of trace
elements (Babulal et al., 2003). Thus, complete analysis of hydrochemical
variables including trace elements is required for further detail assessment of
groundwater quality and understands hydrochemical characteristics of the study
area.
• The active geothermal belts of the basin interior are discriminated as
hydrogeological blocks with high load of fluoride above 5 mg/l that could cause
serious health problem. Thus, it is highly recommended to conduct water quality
assessment prior to supplying water and to monitor boreholes after handing over
to the communities. pH and temperature measurement at field level could give a
good insight on the level of fluoridation of groundwater. Sites away from
geothermal area are expected to be non fluoridated aquifers.
• Hydrogeological behavior including hydraulic connectivity between groundwater
and surface water is clearly described from the result of 2D tomography at Wonji
irrigation field. This provides good awareness for Wonji irrigation authority to
work towards ensuring sustainability of irrigation development and maintain
natural environment. A stable relationship should be maintained between these
two objectives both now and in the future, while potential conflicts between these
objectives should be reduced through appropriate irrigation practices which will
be realized through full understanding of the watershed including hydrgeological
property of the area. Toward this end, installation of observation wells throughout
the irrigation field and regular monitoring of groundwater level is necessary to
understand the time series ground water level change.
243
 Reference

Abebe B., Acocella V., Korme T., Ayalew D., (2007). Quaternary faulting and
volcanism in the Main Ethiopian Rift. Journal of African Earth Sciences 48:115–124
Abebe T., Mazzarini F., Innocenti F., Manetti P., (1998). The Yerer-Tullu Wellel
Volcanotectonic lineament: a transtensional structure in central Ethiopia and the
associated magmatic activity. Journal of African Earth Sciences 26 (1):135-150
Abebe T., Mazzarini F., Innocenti F., Manetti P., Pecksay, Z., (2005). Geological map
(Scale 1:200,000) of the northern Main Ethiopian Rift and its implications for the
volcano-tectonic evolution of the rift. Geological Society of America, Map and Chart
Series, MC11094
Abdelrahman M., Abdelgawad A., Watanabe K., Shinji Takeuchi S., Takashi Mizuno T.,
(2009). The origin of fluoride-rich groundwater in Mizunami area, Japan-
Mineralogy and geochemistry implications. Engineering Geology 108:76–85
Abiye T.A., Tigistu H., (2008). Geophysical exploration of the Boku geothermal area,
Central Ethiopian Rift. Geothermics. doi:10.1016/j.geothermics.2008.06.004
Acocella V., Korme T., Salvini F., Funiciello R., (2002). Elliptic calderas in the Ethiopian
Rift: control of pre-existing structures. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal
Research 119:189-203
Acocella V., Korme T., Salvini F., (2003). Formation of normal faults along the axial
zone of the Ethiopian Rift. Journal of Structural Geology 25:503–513
Alemayehu T, (2006). Groundwater occurrence in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa University
Press,99pp, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
AlemayehuT., Ayenew T., Kebede S., (2006). Hydrogeochemical and lake level
changes in the Ethiopian Rift. Journal of Hydrology 316: 290–300
Allen R., Pereira L., Raes D., Smith M., (1998). Crop evapotranspiration guidelines for
computing crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and drainage paper 56.
Rome, Italy
Allison G.B., Hughes M.W., (1978). The use of environmental chloride and tritium to
estimate total recharge to unconfined aquifer. Aus.Jour.Soil Res., 16:181-195.
Alley W.M, (1984). On the treatment of Evapotranspiration, soil moisture accounting,
and aquifer recharge in monthly water balance models. Water Resources
Research 20 (8):1137-1149
Anasuya A., Bapurao S., Paranjape P., (1996). Fluoride and silicon intake in normal and
endemic fluorotic areas. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 10:
149–155.
Anderson T. W., (1984). An introduction to multivariate statistical analysis: John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 675 p.
Anderson M.P., Woessner W.W., (1992). Applied Groundwater Modeling: Simulation of
flow and advective transport, Academic Press, Inc, NY,381pp
Anderson, T. W., (1984). An introduction to multivariate statistical analysis: John Wiley
& Sons, NewYork, 675 p.
Angel M., (2006). “El Nino” The Oxford Campanion to Ships and the Sea. Oxford
University Press.
244
Anthony J., (2008). Rainfall and irrigation controls on groundwater rise and salinity risk
in the Ord River Irrigation Area, northern Australia. Hydrogeology Journal
16:1159-1175
Appelo C., Postma D., (1993). Geochemistry, Groundwater and Pollution. Balkema:
Rotterdam; 536pp.
Arthur N., Roisenberg A., Jandyra M., Fachel G., Mesquita G., Danieli C., (2008).
Fluoride characterization by principal component analysis in the hydrochemical
facies of Serra Geral Aquifer System in Southern Brazil. Anais da Academia
Brasileira de Ciências 80(4): 693-701.
Ashely R., Burley M., (1994). Controls on occurrence of fluoride in groundwater in the
rift valley of Ethiopia. In Nash H., McCall G.(eds.). Groundwater Qaulity. Chapman
and Hall, London:45-54
Ayars J., Christen E., Soppe R., Meyer W., (2006). The resource potential of in-situ
shallow groundwater use in irrigation agriculture: a review. Irrig Sci 24: 147-160.
Ayalew E., (2009). Growing lake with growing problems: Integrated hydrogeological
investigation on Lake Beseka, Ethiopia. PhD Thesis, Ecology and Develo.Series
64; Univ.of Bonn, Germany
Ayenew T., (2004). Environmental implications of changes in the levels of lakes in the
Ethiopian Rift since 1970. Reg.Environ. Change, Springer-Verlag:192-204.
Ayenew T., (1998). The hydrogeological system of the Lake District basin, Central Main
Ethiopian Rift.PhD Thesis, ITC Publication 64
Babulal D., Talukdar J., Sarma S., Gohain B., Robin K., Himangshu B., Subhash C.,
(2003). Fluoride and other inorganic constituents in groundwater of Guwahati,
Assam, India. Current Science 85:5-10
Baker B., Wohlenberg J., (1971). Structure and rift evolution of the Kenyan rift
valley:Natu.229:538-542.
Balcha T., (1978). Geological Map of Nazerth. Ethiopian Institue of Geological Survey,
Sheet NC 37-15, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Barberi F., Tazieff H.,Varet J., (1972). Volcanism in the Afar depression: Its tectonic and
magmatic significance. Tectonophysics 15:19-29
Beltran E., (2007). Prevalence of enamel fluorosis among 12-19 Year-Olds, U.S., 1999-
2004. IADR/AADR/CADR 85th General Session and Exhibition.
Boccaletti M., Mazzuoli R., Bonini M., Trua T., Abebe B., (1999). Plio-Quaternary
volcanotectonic activity in the northern sector of the Main Ethiopian
Rift:relationships with oblique rifting. Joumal of African Earth Sciences 29 (4): 679-
698
Bonan G., (2002). Ecological Climatology. Cambridge, U.K.: CUP.
Boorman D., Sefton.M., (1997). Recognising the Uncertainty in the Quantification of the
Effects of Climate Change on Hydrological Response. Climatic Change 35 (4):
415-434.
Bradley R., (1990). Quaternary Palaeoclimatology: Methods of palaeoclimatic
reconstruction. Unwin Hyman Pub., Boston, USA. 472pp

245
Brown C.A., (1998). Applied Multivariate Statistics in Geohydrology and Related
Sciences. Springer 248
Brutsaert W.H., (1982). Evaporation the Atmosphere: theory, history, and applications.
Dortrecht, Holland:
Chebotarev J.I., (1955). “Metamorphism of natural waters in the crust of weathering.”
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 8:137-170.
Chernet T., Travi Y., Valles V., (2001). Mechanism of degradation of quality of natural
water in the lakes region of the Ethiopian Rift valley. Water Resour 35:2819-2832
Choi A., Grandjean P., (2007). Potentials for developmental fluoride neurotoxicity. XXVII
Conference of the International Society for Fluoride Research, Beijing, China
Chorowicz J., ( 2005). The East African rift system. Jour.of African Earth Sciences
43:379–410
Clark I.D., Fritz P., (1997). Environmental isotopes in Hydrology. Lewis Publishers
328pp, NY,USA.
Cornwell D., Mackenzie G., England R., Maguire P., Asfaw L., Oluma B., (2006).
Northern Main Ethiopian Rift Crustal Structure from New High Recision Gravity
Data. Geological Society of London, Special publications 259: 307-321
Coulie E., Quidelleur X., Gillot P., Courtillot V., Lefevre J., Chiesa S.,(2003).
Comparative K/Ar and Ar/Ar dating of Ethiopian and Yemenite
Oligocene volcanism: implications for timing and duration of the
Ethiopian traps. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 206:477-492
Corriols M., Dahlin T., (2008). Geophysical characterization of the León-Chinandega
aquifer, Nicaragua. Hydrogeology Journal 16: 349–362
Craig H., (1961). Standards for reporting concentration of deuterium and oxygen-18 in
natural waters. Science 133:1833-1834.
Craig, H., Boato G., White D., (1956). Isotopic geochemistry of thermal waters. Nat.
Acad.Sci.Natl. Counc. Pub., 400:29-38
Damte A., Mario B., Assefa G., Roberto M., Luigi T., (1992). Geological Map of the
Nazert-Dera Region (Main Ethiopian Rift). Universite della Calabria, 87030 Ronde
(CS), Italy
Dansgaard W., (1964). Stable isotopes in precipitation. Tellus 16, 436-468.
Davis J.C., (1986). Statistics and Data Analysis in Geology, 2nd edn. John Willey and
Sons: NY; 646pp.
Davis S.N., De Wiest R.J., (1966). Hydrology. Wiley, NY.
Demirel Z., Guler C., (2006). Hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater in
Mediterranean coastal aquifer, Mersin-Erdemli basin (Turkey). Enviro.Geol. jounal
49:477-487
Dingman S.L., 1994. Physical hydrology. Prentice-Hall, NewJersy, 557pp.
Djuric,(1994). The role of the ITCZ in generating tropical depression.
www.newmediastudio.org
Doherty J., (2004). PEST-model independent parameter estimation software. S.S.
246
 Papadopulos and Assocites, Inc.
Doorenbos J., Pruitt W.O., (1977). Crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and
Drainage Paper 24, Rome, Italy.
Drever J., (1982). The geochemistry of natural water. Prentice-Hall,Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N.J. USA
Droogers, P., (2000). Estimating actual evapotranspiration using a detailed agro-
hydrological model . Journal of Hydrology 229 (2):50-58
Dunne T., Leopold B.L., (1978). Water in environmental planning. Freeman, San
Fransisco, 815pp.
Eagon H.,Johe D., (1992). Practical solutions for pumping tests in carbonate rock
aquifers: Groundwater 10 (4):6-13
Ebinger C., Casey M., (2001). Continental break up in magmatic provinces: an
Ethiopiam example. Geology 29 (6):527-530
Eckhardt K., (2005). How to construct recursive digital filters for baseflow separation.
Hydrological processes 19 (2): 507-515.
Edmunds W., Darling D., Kinniburgh., Kotoub S., Mahgoub S.,(1992). Sources of
recharge at Abu Deliag, Sudan. Journal of Hydrology 13:1-24
Edmunds W.M, Smedley P.L, (1996). Groundwater geochemistry and health: an
overview. Geological Society of America Special Publication 113: 91–105.
FAO., (1998). Crop Evapotranspiration: Guidelines for Computing Crop Water
Requirements. FAO, Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56. Rome, Italy
Fausto G., Giorgio C., Rocco F., Salvatore I., (2006). Chemical and isotopic
composition of waters and dissolved gasses in some thermal springs of Sicily and
adjacent Volcanic islands, Italy. Appl.Geophysics 163:781-807.
Faure G., (1977). Principles of isotope geology. Wiley, NY, 464p.
Faure G.,(1986). Principles of isotope geology, 2nd Ed., John Wiley and Sons,NY,589p.
Fawell J.K., Bailey J., Chilton E., Dahi L., Magara Y., (2006). Fluoride in Drinking-water.
IWA Publication, London, UK. www.iwapublication.com
Ferris J.G., Knowles D.B., Brown R.H., Stallman R.W., (1962). Theory of Aquifer Test.
USGS water supply paper 1536E
Ferronsky V., Polyakoc I., (1982). Environmental isotopes in the hydrosphere. Wiley
and Sons, NY
Fetter, C.W., (2001). Applied hydrogeology, 4th edition, Prentice-Hall, New Jersy.
Fisher R., Stephen M., William F., (1997). Hydrochemical Evolution of Sodium-Sulfate
and Sodium-Chloride Groundwater Beneath the Northern Chihuahuan Desert,
Trans-Pecos, Texas, USA. Hydrogeology Journal 5: 4-16.
Frank R., Shannon M., (2005). Infant methemoglobinemia: The Role of Dietary Nitrate
in Food and Water. American academy of Pediatrics clinical report 3: 116pp
Franke O.L., Reilly T.E., (1987). The effects of boundary conditions on the steady state
response of three hypothetical groundwater systems-result and implications of

247
 numerical experiments. USGS Water supply paper 2315, 19pp
Freeze R.A., Cherry J.A., (1979). Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.USA
Fritz P., Fontes J., (1980). Handbook of Environmental Isotope Geochemistry. Elsevier
Pub.Co., NY.
Gat J., Gonfiantini R., (1981). Stable Isotope Hydrology: Deuterium and Oxygen-18 in
the Water Cycle. IAEA Technical Report Series 210, Vienna, 337pp.
Gat J., Klein B., Kushnir Y., (2003). Isotope composition of air moisture over the
Mediterranean Sea: an index of the air-sea interaction pattern. Tellus 55B:953-
965.
Gat J., (1996). Oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in hydrologic cycle. Annual Review of
Earth and Planetary Sciences 24:225-262
Gat J.,Bowser C., Kendall C., (1994). The contribution of evaporation from the Great
Lakes to the continental atmosphere: estimate based on stable isotope data.
Geophys.Res. Letters 21:557-560.
Gat J., (1970). Evolution of the isotopic composition of atmospheric waters in the
Mediterranean Sea area. Jour. Geophys.,75:3039-3048.
Gemechu D., (1977). Aspects of climate and water budget in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa
university press 71pp, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Genxu W., Guodong C., (2001). Fluoride distribution in water and the governing factors
of environment in arid north-west China. Jour. Arid Environ 49: 601–614.
Ghiglieri G., Oggiano G., Fidelibus M., Alemayehu T., Barberi G., Vernier A., (2009).
Hydrogeology of the Nurra Region, Sardina (Italy): basement-cover influences on
groundwater occurrence and hydrochemistry. Hydrogeology Journal 17:447-466
Gizaw B., (1996). The origin of high bicarbonate and fluoride concentrations in waters of
the Main Ethiopian Rift Valley, East African Rift system. Journal of African Earth
Science 22 (4):39 1-402
Güler C., Thyne G., (2004). Hydrologic and geologic factors controlling surface and
groundwater chemistry in Indian Wells-Owens Valley area, southeastern
California, USA. J. Hydrol. 285: 177-198
Haimanot R., Fekadu A., Bushra B., (1987). Endemic fluorosis in the Ethiopian Rift
Valley. Tropical and Geographical Medicine, 39(3): 209–217.
Handa B.K., (1975). Geochemistry and genesis of fluoride-containing ground waters in
India. Groundwater, 13, 275–281.
Helen B., Pardo M., Barrado V., Fernandez J., Fernandez L., (2000). Temporal
evolution of ground water composition in an alluvial aquifer (Pisuerga River,
Spain) by principal component analysis. Water Research 34: 807–816.
Hem J.D., (1992). Study and interepretation of the chemical characteristics of natural
water.3rd edition, US Geological Survey water supply paper 2254: 264pp
Hem J.D., (1989). Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics of Natural
Water. Water Supply Paper 2254, 3rd edition, US Geological Survey, 263 pp.
248
Hem, J.D., (1970). Study and interpretation of the chemical characterstics of natural
waters, US.Geological survey. Water supply paper 1473:363pp
Hidalgo M.C., Cruz-Sanjulian J., (2001). Groundwater composition, hydrochemical
evolution and mass transfer in a regional detrital aquifer (Baza basin, southern
Spain). Applied Geochemistry 16 (7):745-758
Horton R.E., (1933). The role of infiltration in the hydrological cycle. Trans. Am.
Geophys. Union 14: 446-460
Hovorka S., Mace R., Collins E., (1998). Permeability structure of the Edwards aquifer,
South Texas. Implications for aquifer management: Bureau of Economic
Geology, University of Texas at Austin, Report of Investigations 250:55p
Invernizzi A., Oliveira S., (2004). Hydrochemical characterization of a watershed
through factor analysis. Aguas Subterraneas 18: 67–77.
IPCS., ( 2002). Fluorides, Environmental Health Criteria 227. WHO, Geneva.
Jalludin M., Razack M., (2004). Assessment of hydraulic properties of sedimentary and
volcanic aquifer systems under arid conditions in the Republic of Djibouti .
Journal of Hydrogeology 12:159-170
Jensen M.E., (2007). Beyond irrigation efficiency. Irrig Sci 25:233–245
Join J., Coudray J., Longworth K., (1997). Using principal components analysis and
Na/Cl ratios to trace ground water circulation in a volcanic island: The example of
Reunion. Journal of Hydrology 190 (2): 1-18.
Jon E., Elizabeth B.,Sleshi T., Assefa M., Emmanuel T., Dennis P., (1982). Geology and
stratigraphy of Neogene deposits, Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia. Nature 298:17-25
Kafri U., Arard A., Halicz L., (1989). Fluorine Occurrence in Groundwater in Israel and
its significance. Journal Hydrol 106: 109–129.
Kazmin, V., (1979): Stratigraphy and correlation of volcanic rocks of Ethiopia. Ethiopian
Instituete of Geological survey. Note number 106:1-26
Kazmin, V. and Berhe, S.M., (1978): Geological development of the Nazert area,
North Ethiopian Rift. Ethiopian Institute of Geological Survey, Note Number 11,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Kazmin, V., Berhe , S.M., Nicoletti, M., and Pertucciani,C., (1980): Evolution of the
northern part of the Ethiopian rift: Sheet NC37-15, Memoir No.3,26pp
Kebede S., Yves T., Asrat A., Alemayehu T., Ayenew T., Tessema Z., 2008.
Groundwater origin and flow along selected transects in Ethiopian rift volcanic
aquifers. Hydrogeology journal 16: 55-73.
Kebede S., Travi Y., Alemayehu T., Ayenew T., (2005). Groundwater recharge,
circulation and geochemical evolution in the source region of Blue Nile River,
Ethiopia. Appl.Geoch., 20:1658-1676.
Keep M., McClay K., (1997). Analogue modelling of multiphase rift systems.
Tectono.273: 239-270
249
Keir D., Ebinger C., Stuart G., Daly E., Ayele A., (2006). Strain accommodation by
magmatism and faulting as rifting proceeds to break up. Seismicity of the northern
Ethiopia rift. Journal of Geophysical Society of America 32 (11): 949-952
Keller J., (1986). Irrigation system management. In: Nobe KC, Sampath RK (eds)
Irrigation management in developing countries, studies in water policy and
management, Westview Press 8: 329–352
Kendall C., McDonnell J.J., (1998): Isotope tracers in catchment hydrology. Elsevier
Science:51-86
Keranen K., Klemperer S., (2007). Discontinous and diachronous evolution of the Main
Ethiopian Rift: Implication for development of continental rift. Earth and Planetary
Science letters 265: 96-11
Kinnaird J. A.,(1998). Aspect of tensional magmatism. Jouof Afr.Earth Sci,26 (1):1-3
Kim J.H,, Kim R.H., Lee J., Cheong T.J., Yum B.W., Chang H.W., ( 2005). Multivariate
statistical analysis to identify the major factors governing groundwater quality in the
coastal are of Kimje, South Korea. Hydrological Process 19: 1261–1276
Kitanidis P.K., (1997). Introduction to Geostatistics. Application in Hydrogeology.
Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
Korme T., Acocella V., Abebe B., (2003). The Role of Pre-existing Structures in the
Origin, Propagation and Architecture of Faults in the Main Ethiopian Rift.
Gondwana Research 7 (2):467-479
Kuells C., Adar E., Udluft P., (2000). Resolving patterns of ground water flow by inverse
hydrochemical modeling in a semiarid Kalahari basin. Tracers and Modeling in
Hydrogeology 262: 447–451.
Kumar V., Sai C., Rao P., Rao C., (2001). Studies on the distribution of fluoride in
drinking water sources in Medchal Block, Ranga Reddy District, Andhra Pradesh,
India. Jour. Fluorine Chem 55: 229–236.
Kunz. , Krewzer K., Muller P., (1975). K/Ar determination of trap basalts of the
southeastern part of the Afar Rift, In: Pilger, A. and Rosely, A. (eds.).Afar
Depression of Ethiopia: Stuttgart, West Germany, Scheizerbart: 370-374.
Lambrakis N., Antonakos A., Panagopoulos G., (2004). The use of multicomponent
statistical analysis in hydrogeological environmental research. Water Research
38: 1862–1872.
Legesse D., Ayenew T., (2006). Effect of improper water and land resource utilization
on the central main Ethiopian rift lakes. Quat.interna 148:8-18.
Lester F.T., (1974). Fluorotic myelopathy - A rare case, with a review of the literature.
Ethiopian Medical Journal 12:39–49.
Lillesand J., Thomas M., (2000). Remote Sensing and image interpretation. 4th ed. NY
Limeback H., Thiessen K., Isaacson R., Hirzy W., (2007). The EPA MCLG for fluoride in
drinking water: new recommendations. Society of Toxicology 46th Annual

250
 Meeting, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA
Lin N.F., Tang J., Bian L., (2004). Geochemical environment and health problems in
China. Environ Geochem Health 26: 81–88.
Linsley R., Kohler M., Paulhus J., Wallace J., (1958). Hydrology for engineers. NY
Luis A., Max A., Meju., (2003). Characterization of heterogeneous near-surface
materials by joint 2D inversion of dc resistivity and seismic data. Geophysical
research letters 30 (13):1658p
Maas R.P., (2007). Effects of fluoridation and disinfection agent combinations on lead
leaching from leaded-brass parts. Neurotoxicology 28(5):1023-1031.
MaceR., (1997). Determination of transmissivity from specific capacity tests in Karst
aquifer, Ground Water 35 (5):738-742
Maguire P., Klemperer S., Keranen K., Thybo H., Asfaw L., Khan M.A., Amha
M., (2006). Crustal structure of the Northern Main Ethiopian Rift from the
EAGLE controlled-source survey, a snapshot lithospheric break-up.
Geological Society of London, special Publications 259:269-292
Mahammad R., Emdad A., Steven R., Raine R., Rod J., Smith A., Hossein F., (2004).
Effect of Water quality on soil structure and infiltration under furrw irrigation.
Irrigation Sci 23:55-60
Mahatsente R., Jentzsch G., Jahr T., (1999). Crustal structure of the Main Ethiopian Rift
from gravity data 3-dimensional modeling. Tectonophysics 313:363–382
Maillet E., (1905). Essais d’Hydraulique Souterraine et Fluviale. Hermann Paris, 218pp
Mario M., Roberto M., Marco B., Taresa T., Abebe B., (1999). Plio-Quaternary
volcanotectonic activity in the northern sector of main Ethiopian Rift. Jou. Afr.Ear
Sci. 29 (4):679-698.
Martin S., Barbara B., Vico G., Porporato A., (2009). Probabilistic description of
topographic slope and aspect. Journal of Geophysical Research 1: 114-128.
Max A. M., Montague M., (1995). Basis for a flexible low-cost automated resistivity data
acquisition and analysis system. Compturers & Geosciences 21(8): 993-999
Mazor E., (1991). Applied chemical and isotope groundwater hydrology. NY:274pp
Mazor E., (1997): Chemical and isotopic groundwater hydrology: The applied approach.
NY, 413 pp.
McDonald R., Gibson J., (1969). Pantelleritic obsidian from the volcano Chabbi
(Ethiopia).Contributions Mineralogy Petrology 24: 239-244.
McDonald M.G., Harbaugh A.W., (1988). A modular three-dimensional finite-difference
ground-water flow model, USGS TWRI Chapter 6-A1, 586 pp.
McDonnell J.J. , Kendall C., (1992). Isotope tracers in hydrology-report to the Hydrology
Section: EOS Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union 73: 260-261.
Melesse A., Wendy D., Graham W., Jonathan D., Jordan J., (2003). Spatially distributed
watershed mapping and modeling: Thermal maps and vegetation indices to
enhance land cover and surface microclimate mapping. Part 2. Journal of
Spatial Hydrology 3 (2).
Meju M., Fontesz S., Oliveiraz M., Limaz J., Ulugergerli E., Carrasquilla A., (1999).
251
 Regional aquifer mapping using combined VES-TEM-AMT/EMAP methods in the
semiarid eastern margin of Parnaiba Basin, Brazil. Geophysics 64 (2): 337–356
Melloul A., and Collin M., (1992). The principal components statistical method as a
complementary approach to geochemical methods in quality factor identification –
application to the Coastal Plain aquifer of Israel: J. Hydrol., 140: 49–73.
Melloul, A. J., (1995). Use of principal components analysis for studying deep aquifers
with scarce data Application to the Nubian sandstone aquifer, Egypt and Israel:
Hydrogeol. J., 3 ( 2) : 19–39.
Meng S., Maynard J., (2001). Use of statistical analysis to formulate conceptual models
of geochemical behavior:Water chemical data from the Botucata Aquifer in Sao
Paulo state, Brazil. Journal of Hydrology 250: 78–97.
Michael M., Seleshi B., (2007). Irrigation Practices in Ethiopia: Characteristics of
Selected Irrigation Schemes. International Water Management Institue,80P (IWMI
Working Paper 124). Colombo, Sri Lanka ISBN 978-92- 9090-683-4
Milanovsky E.,(1987).Rifting evolution in geological history. Tectonophysics
143:103-118
Mimikou M., Kaemaki S., (1985). Regionalization of flow duration characterstics.
Journal of Hydrology 82 (1-2):77-91
Mohr P., (1967). The Ethiopian rift system. Bulletin of geophysics. Obs. Addis Ababa
university No.11
Mohr P., (1970). The geology of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa University press 1-268
Mohr P., Wood C.A., (1976). Volcano spacing and lithospheric attenuation in eastern rift
of Africa. Earth and Planetary Science letters 33:173-189.
Mohr P., (1968). Transcurrent faulting in the Ethiopian rift systems. Nature 218:938-941
Mohr P., (1987). Patterns of faulting in the Ethiopian rift valley. Tectonophy., 143:169- 179.
Morgan P., Ramberg I., (1987). Physical changes in the lithosphere
associated with thermal relaxation after rifting. Tectonophysics l: 1-11
Moturi W., Tole M., Davis T., (2002). The contribution of drinking water towards dental
fluorosis: a case study of Njoro Division, Nakuru District, Kenya. Environ Geochem
Health 24: 123–130.
Nachabe M., Ahuja L., Butters G., (1999). Bromide transport under sprinkler and flood
irrigation for no-till soil condition. Journal of Hydrology 214 (1): 8-17
Nair K.R., Manji F., Gitonga J.N., (1984). The occurrence and distribution of fluoride in
ground waters of Kenya. In: Challenges in African Hydrology and Water Resources.
Proceedings of the Harare Symposium, IAHS Publ. 144: 75–86.
Niadas I.,(2005). Regional flow duration curve estimation in small ungauged catchments
using instantaneous flow measurements and a censored data approach. Journal of
Hydrology 314:48-66.
Nir A., (1964). On the interpretation of tritium ‘age’ measurements of groundwater.
Journal of Geophysical Res., 69: 2589-2595
Olsson B., (1979). Dental findings in high-fluoride areas in Ethiopia. Community

252
 Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology 7: 51–56
O'Neil J., (1986). Theoretical and experimental aspects of isotopic fractionation.
Reviews in Mineralogy 16:1-40.
Pan M., Sjo berg L., Asfaw L., Asenjo E., Alemu A., Hunegnaw A., (2002). An
analysis of the Ethiopian Rift Valley: GPS campaigns (1994 &1999).
Journal of Geodynamics 33:333–343
Papatheodorou G., Lambrakis N., and Panagopoulos G., (2007). Application of
multivariate statistical procedures to the hydrochemical study of a coastal aquifer:
an example from Crete, Greece. Hydrol. Process. 21:1482–1495
Parker G., (2006). Automated Baseflow Separation for Canadian Datasets
(ABSCAN):”User’s manual”.Thinknew analytics. Ottawa, Canada.
http://www.thinknew.ca/analytica
Parkhurst D.L., Appelo C.A.J., (1999). User's guide to PHREEQC (v 2) - a computer
program for speciation, batch-reaction, one-dimensional transport, and inverse
geochemical calculations. US Geology SurveyWater Resource Investigation
Report: 99–4259.
Peccerillo A., Yirgu G., (1996). Geochemical behaviour of fluorine in the volcanic
systems of the Ethiopian Rift valley: Implications for the problem of high fluorine
waters. In: program and abstracts of the third Ethiopian Geosciences and mineral
Engineering congress, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Penman H., (1948). Natural evaporation from open water, bare soil, and grass. Proc.
Roy. Soc. A193: 120–145. London, U.K.
Peters N., (1994). Hydrologic studies: A Tool for Environmental Research, Scope report
51:207-228
Piper A.M., (1944). A graphic procedure in the geochemical interpretation of water
analysis. Trans.Am. Geophys.Union 25:914-923
Plummer L.N., Glynn P.D., (2005). Geochemistry and understanding of groundwater
systems. Hydrogeology journal 13:263-287.
Raine S., Dalton P., (2003). Final Report: An Investigation of In Field Irrigation
Management Practices to Improve the Efficiency of Furrow Irrigated Cotton
Production Systems. National Centre for Engineering in Agriculture Publication
1000006/1, NCEA, Toowoomba
Raine S., Meyer W., Rassam D., Hutson J., Cook F., (2007). Soil-water and solute
movement under precision irrigation: Knowledge gaps for managing sustainable
root zones. Irrig Sci 26:91-100:
Rango T., Bianchini G., Beccaluva L., Ayenew T., Colombani N., (2008).
Hydrogeochemical study in the Main Ethiopian Rift: new insights to the source and
enrichment mechanism of fluoride. Environ Geol 58:109–118
Razack M., Huntley D., (1991). Assessing transmissivity from specific capacity data:
Water Resources Bulletin 27 (1):47-58
Reily T., (2001). System and boundary conceptualization in groundwater flow
simulation. Application of hydraulics, Book-3.
Reimann C., Bjorvatn K., Frengstad B., Melaku Z., Tekle-Haimanot R., Siewers U.,(
253
 2003). Drinking water quality in the Ethiopian section of the East African Rift
valley–data and health aspects. Science of the Total Environment 311: 65–80.
Riehl H., (1979). Climate and Weather in the Tropics, Academic Press 61 pp, London.
Rogers N., Macdonald R., Godfrey J., George R., Smith M., Barreiro
B.,(2000). Two mantle plumes beneath the East African rift system:Sr,
Nd and Pb isotope evidence from Kenya Rift basalts. Earth and
Planetary Science Letters 176:387-400
Rozanski K., Araguas-Araguas L, Gonfiantini R., (1993). Isotopic patterns in modern
global precipitation. In climate change in continental isotopic records. Geophysical
Monograph series 78. American Geophysical Union: 1-36
Ruiz F., Gomis V., Blasco P., (1990). Application of factor analysis to the hydrochemical
study of a coastal aquifer. Journal of Hydrology 119:169–177.
Schoeller H, (1962). Les eaux souterraines. Masson & Cie, Paris 642pp.
Schilfgaarde J.V., (1994). Irrigation-a blessing or a curse. Agricultural Water
Management 25:203-219
Seifu M., Kazmin V., Aguma A., Medhanie A., Desta B., Megersa B., W/Michael B.,
Hailu T., Kebede G., Strack O., Haitjema H., (1981). Modeling double aquifer flow
using a comprehensive potential and distributed singularities. Solution for
homogenous permeabilities. Water Resour, 17(5):1535-1549
Shanko D., Camberlin P., (1998). The effects of the southwest Indian Ocean Tropical
Cyclones on Ethiopian drought. Int. J. Climatol. 18:1373–1388
Shaw E.M., (1988). Hydrology in practice. Second edition, Chapman and Hall, New
York, 539pp
Shuttleworth J., (1992). Evaporation. Handbook of Hydrology 4 (1):4-53, NY
Sikdar P., Chakraborty S., Adhya E., Paul P., (2004). Land Use/Land Cover Changes
and Groundwater Potential Zoning in and around Raniganj coal mining area,
Bardhaman District, West Bengal –A GIS and Remote Sensing Approach. Journal of
Spatial Hydrology 4,v2
Singh V., (1992). Elementary Hydrology. Prentice Hall, Engelwood Cliffs, N. J, USA
Sklash M., (1990). Environmental isotope studies of storm and snowmelt runoff
generation. Process Studies in Hillslope Hydrology 401-435pp, Chichester U.K.
Smith A.J., (2008). Rainfall and irrigation controls on groundwater rise and salinity risk
in the Ord River Irrigation Area, northern Australia. Hydrogeology Journal 16:
1159-1175
Smith M., (1992). Expert consultation on revision of FAO methodologies for crop water
requirements. FAO Publication 73, Rome
Sreedevi P., Ahmed S., Made B., Ledoux E., Gandol J., (2006). Association of
hydrogeological factors in temporal variations of fluoride concentration in a
crystalline aquifer in India. Environmental Geology 50: 1–11.
Stat Soft Inc,(2008). STATISTICA data analysis software v 8.0, 2300 East, 14th St,
Tulsa, OK 74104.
Stumm W., Morgan J., (1970). Aquatic chemistry, John Wiley & Sons 583pp, NY
Stiff H.A., (1951). The interpretation of chemical water analysis by means of patterns.
254
 Journnal of Petrol.Techno., 3:15-17
Suk H., Lee K., (1999). Characterization of a ground water hydrochemical system
through multivariate analysis: clustering ground water zones. Ground Water
37(3): 358–366.
Tadesse T., (1994). The influence of the Arabian Sea storms:depressions over the
Ethiopian weather, in Proceedings of the International Conference on Monsoon
Vanability and Prediction, ICTP, Trieste, 9–13 , WMO:TD 619: 228–236.
Theis C.V., (1963). Estimating the transmissivity of a water table aquifer from specific
capacity of a well. USGS water supply paper 1536I:332-336
Thomasson H., Olmstead F., LeRoux E., (1960). Geology, water resources, and usable
groundwater storage capacity of part of Solan County, CA:USGS Water Supply
paper:1464, 693p
Thornwaite C.W., (1948). An approach towards a rational classification of climate.
Geographical Review 38: 55–94.
Thornthwaite C.W., Mather J.R., (1957). Instructions and tables for computing potential
evapotranspiration and the water balance, Publ.Climatol.Lab. Drexel Inst.Technol
10(3):185-311.
Toth, J., (1963). A theoretical analysis of groundwater flow in small drainage basins.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 68(16):4795-4812
Tsegaye H., Girma K., Seifu M., Tilahun B., (1978). Geological map of Nazerth area.
Ethiopian Institute of Geological survey, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Tulinave B., Richard J., Felix W., ( 2008). Eco-hydrology of the Pangani River
downstream of Nyumbaya Mungu reservoir, Tanzania physics and chemistry of
the Earth, Part A/B/C 33:695-700
US National Research Council., (2006). Fluoride in drinking water: A scientific review of
EPA’s standard. US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) homepage.
Valadon Y., (1992). Variability of tropical cyclones over Southwestern Indian Ocean. J.
Afr. Meteorol. Soc., 1: 45–51.
Vernier A., (1993). Aspect of Ethiopian hydrogeology: from geology and mineral
resources of Somalia and its surrounding regions. Ist.Agron Oltremare Firenze
Relaz Monogr 113:687-698
Voudouris K., Panagopoulos A., Daniil D., (2000). Implications to surface water quality
of Korinthos Prefecture from anthropogenic activities, Proc. International
Conference Protection and Restoration of the Environment :235-242.
Voudouris K., Panagopoulos A., Koumantakis J., (2000). Multivariate statistical
analysis in the assessment of hydrochemistry of the Northern Korinthia
Alluvial Aquifer system (Peloponnese, Greece). Natural Resources
Research 9: 135–145.
Wackernagel H., (1995). Multivariate Geostatistics: An introduction with application.
Springer-Verlage, Berlin.
255
Wang Y., Ma T., Luo Z., (2001). Geostatistical and geochemical analysis of surface
water leakage ground water on a regional scale: A case study in the Liulin karst
system, northwestern China. Journal of Hydrology 246 (1-4): 223–234.
Waterloo Hydrogeologic Inc., (2006). Aquachem version 5.1.33 for water quality
analysis. Plotting and Modelling Waterloo Hydrogeologic Inc., (2002). Aquifer
test Pro (Pumping Test & Slug Test Analysis) v.5, Ontario, Canada.
Weisman.R, 1977. The effect of evapotranspiration on stream flow recession.
Hydrological Sciences-Bulletin 22( 3 9)
Whitford G.,(1997). Determinants and mechanisms of enamel fluorosis. Ciba
Foundation Symposium, 205, 226–241.
WHO., ( 2004). Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. v 1. Recommendations. 3rd ed.
Williams F., Williams M., Aumento F., (2004). Tensional fissures and crustal extension
rates in the northern part of the main Ethiopian Rift. J.Afr.Eart Sci 38.
WMO., (1992). International Meteorological Vocabulary, 2nd edn. Geneva, Switzerland.
Publication 182.
Wolf J.M., Gleason J.E., Hagan R.E., (1995). Conversion to drip irrigation: Water
savings, fact or fallacy-lessons from the Jordan Valley. In: Proceedings of the
1995 water management seminar, irrigation conservation opportunities alimitations.
US Committee on Irrigation and Drainage, Sacramento, CA, 5-7, 209–217 pp
Wondwossen F., Astrom A., Bjorvatn K., Bardsen A., (2004). The relationship between
dental caries and dental fluorosis in areas with moderate- and high-fluoride
drinking water in Ethiopia. Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology 32:337-344.
Woldegabriel G., Robert C., Walter T., James L., William K., (1992). Geochronology
and distribution of silicic volcanic rocks of Pliopleistocene age from the central
sector of the Main Ethiopian Rift. Quaternary International 13(14):60-76
Woldegebriel G., Aronson J., Walter R., (1990). Geology , geochronology, and rift
basin development in central sector of the Main Ethiopian Rift. Geological
Society of America Bulletin 102:439-458.
Woldegebriel G., Haile-Selassie Y., Renne P., William K., Stanley H., Asfaw B.,
Heiken G., White T., (2001): Geology and palaeontology of the Late Miocene
Middle Awash valley, Afar rift, Ethiopia. Nature 412:175-178
Wood J., (1996). The Geomorphological Characterization of Digital Elevation Models,
Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Geography, University of Leicester, UK
Wright C.E., (1980). Surface water and groundwater interaction. UNESCO-Studies and
reports in Hydrology 1:29-129
Yitbarek A., (2009). Hydrogeological and hydrochemical framework of complex
volcanic system in Upper Awash River basin, Central Ethiopia: with special
emphasis on inter-basins groundwater ransfer between Blue Nile and Awash
rivers, Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of Poitiers, France
Zemedagegnehu E., Egizabher R.,(2004). Determination for the cause of rising water
levels in Lake Beseka and design of remedial measure. Ethiopian Engineers
Asso.Jour., Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

256
 Appendices
Appendix 1 Land use and land cover map processed from MSS Landsat image

Appendix 2 Major soil types of the study area: Adapted from FAO (1998)

257
Appendix 3 Simplified geological map of Ethiopia (Kazmin, 1979)

258
Appendix 4 Rainfall data (mm)
Alt Average rainfall (mm)
(masl)
NAME Data span Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
ASSELA 3000 1966-2006 21.38 45.63 99.45 122.18 119.8 133.06 204.49 206.47 164.1 61.14 19.59 14.21 1211.5
Diksis 3400 1987-2007 22.75 40.64 66.75 128.91 124.49 135.1 195.4 210.96 179.76 89.08 23.48 21.39 1238.71
Bedesa 2000 1957-2007 9.63 21.64 72.58 146.01 127.26 86.33 128.68 159.35 143.28 74.8 29.52 10.23 1009.31
Gelmso 2200 1956-2007 21.2 34.22 80.63 164.18 126.39 86.44 161.81 171.74 135.99 80.94 37.27 15.68 1116.49
Kora 2600 1962-2006 15.46 45.43 81.27 106.46 75.65 47.87 118.85 128.07 97.74 45.95 28.97 14.79 806.51
Meiso 1100 1952-2006 15.41 27.27 71.04 81.76 42.23 52.72 124.92 144.35 88.71 50.24 35.17 12.06 745.88
Melka were 850 1974-2001 3.31 48.5 67.91 58.06 38.45 25.26 115.52 131.26 58.96 24.74 8.28 2.54 582.79
D/ Berhane 2600 1954-2006 13.62 21.01 54.89 45.68 38.58 54.89 295.12 271.44 85.65 23.63 6.07 4.06 914.64
Ginager 2800 1959-2006 41.73 76.73 168.1 164 109.88 96.77 345.44 409.54 192.89 88.51 49.77 46.79 1790.15
Meki 1600 1965-2007 14.23 42.22 63.34 63.27 64.61 79.6 185.02 156.32 88.53 33.68 9.2 3.61 803.63
Metahara 950 1984-2006 9.05 30.25 51.8 54.47 32.14 27.95 127.22 125.58 45.29 19.22 3.03 7.13 533.13
Mojo 1750 1962-2007 14.45 30.94 49.64 58.91 60.88 103.65 253.59 230.73 117.27 27.24 10.63 3.52 961.45
Nazeret 1650 1953-2007 15.24 30.14 54.11 54.12 56.58 68.9 216.73 225.1 103.86 32.53 7.96 7.76 873.03
Nura era 1650 1977-2007 30.52 30.45 62.16 57.52 34.88 40.89 128.43 140.69 46.54 43.4 5.01 11.61 632.1
Sendafa 2700 1954-2007 23.33 31.9 56.31 79.93 61.57 112.56 324.53 312.62 125.97 22.51 5.41 6.07 1162.71
Sheno 2400 1962-2007 11.72 22.33 48.87 68.78 46.92 75.68 304.57 290.84 95.89 18.25 7.16 6.3 997.31
S/Gebeya 2400 1962-2006 10.91 24.08 49.18 66.01 50.31 65.7 287.23 300.37 96.98 27.78 8.7 4.36 991.61
Wonji 1550 1965-1994 11.03 36.87 47.69 50.97 64.71 71.36 203.01 202.61 99.62 27.59 12.88 3.56 831.9
Koka dam 1600 1976-2007 13.02 21.86 40.04 54.59 41.93 61.6 174.24 221.1 80.29 24.09 4.56 4.38 741.7
Awash7 kilo 890 1976-2006 22.73 37.71 65.33 68.94 50.71 29.08 125.54 132.49 64.23 32.83 14.22 15.28 659.09
Alelitu 2450 1974-2005 15.93 17.93 64.15 71.56 52.3 100.7 310.03 324.02 119.71 21.87 3.81 2.17 1104.18
Welenchiti 1450 1975-2005 22.11 49.97 82.54 76.55 54.56 62.27 209.75 246.26 93.81 42.18 8.68 9.74 958.42
Ankober 2750 1962-2005 76.1 64.45 150.4 178.01 86.3 83.84 316.54 381.44 178.94 114.63 82.73 48.02 1761.4
Alyu Amba 2650 1976-2004 83.04 93.09 143.8 152.74 90.87 44.69 248.01 323.57 143.79 65.93 32.3 48.16 1469.99

259
 Appendix 5 Effective rainfall (mm) of the stations computed by Thiessen method

Polygon
Station Area Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Assella 617 21.0 44.9 95.4 129.6 114.1 142.3 203.4 209.5 158.6 59.5 18.7 14.0 1211.0
Diksis 1760 21.2 37.1 71.8 125.6 124.6 140.1 200.0 216.9 172.6 85.4 22.3 21.5 1239.0
Bedessa 288 9.0 20.5 75.8 142.7 126.1 87.4 137.6 152.8 141.0 77.1 29.7 9.9 1009.6
Gelmso 751 23.1 31.7 78.3 161.1 123.9 94.2 165.3 177.8 130.2 79.1 36.9 14.4 1116.0
Kora 642 15.7 44.2 80.2 104.9 74.1 51.7 120.7 131.1 95.8 44.7 28.4 14.4 806.0
Me'isso 39 15.3 29.0 75.2 83.7 45.8 49.7 128.0 144.7 86.7 48.4 30.7 8.8 746.0
M/ Werer 678 3.3 48.5 67.9 58.1 38.5 25.3 115.5 131.3 59.0 24.7 8.4 2.0 582.3
B/Berhan 21 13.3 20.5 53.6 44.6 42.6 60.6 292.1 270.5 83.5 23.0 5.9 3.9 914.0
Ginagir 971 41.7 74.7 163.8 159.8 115.1 107.2 350.8 402.0 193.5 90.3 45.7 45.3 1790.0
Meki 200 13.4 41.0 68.0 68.6 67.0 87.3 174.7 156.2 84.0 31.9 8.5 3.4 804.0
Metahara 1871 8.6 28.9 49.4 52.0 33.7 32.7 130.2 126.6 43.0 18.3 2.9 6.8 533.0
Mojjo 16 13.6 29.9 49.2 56.7 57.7 106.2 258.2 238.2 111.4 25.9 10.1 3.3 960.5
Nazerath 465 14.9 29.4 54.1 52.9 55.2 71.4 222.1 224.6 101.4 31.7 7.8 7.6 873.0
Nura Era 2134 27.6 27.7 59.5 56.5 36.8 44.2 131.3 144.0 46.0 43.5 4.6 10.5 632.0
Sendafa 219 22.8 31.1 55.0 79.9 60.1 121.9 327.5 308.2 122.3 22.0 5.3 5.9 1162.0
Sheno 966 11.4 21.8 47.6 67.1 45.6 79.6 305.0 291.6 96.4 17.8 7.0 6.2 997.0
S/Gebeya 971 10.6 23.5 48.1 64.5 49.1 69.2 288.5 303.6 94.8 27.1 8.5 4.3 992.0
Wonji 765 10.6 35.5 45.9 49.2 66.3 76.6 203.8 204.1 96.9 26.5 12.3 3.4 831.0
Koka 873 12.6 21.9 40.0 52.8 41.9 68.6 175.0 213.4 81.1 24.1 4.7 4.9 741.0
Awash 7 1540 22.7 36.5 63.1 66.7 49.0 33.1 129.1 133.9 65.9 31.7 13.7 14.7 660.0
Aleltu 326 15.4 17.4 62.1 69.3 50.6 107.5 312.7 326.2 115.8 21.1 3.7 2.1 1104.0
Welenchiti 2036 21.3 48.2 79.6 73.9 52.7 66.3 212.8 250.1 94.7 40.7 8.4 9.4 958.1
Ankober 190 73.3 62.1 151.8 179.7 86.2 84.9 316.6 382.3 180.8 116.7 79.9 46.2 1760.4
Alyu
Amba 958 80.2 89.9 145.8 155.5 92.7 47.1 251.2 325.4 141.0 63.6 31.2 46.5 1470.0
Study area 19297 22.2 38.8 73.0 86.7 66.6 70.8 197.2 214.5 100.4 44.8 15.1 13.9 944.0

Appendix 6 Mean daily temperature (0C) of selected Stations

Alt Mean
Station (m.s.l) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Assela 3000 14.4 15.4 16.2 16.5 16.5 15.8 14.9 14.8 14.7 15.0 14.1 13.7 15.2
Bedesa 2000 19.2 19.6 20.1 20.1 19.9 20.0 20.1 19.7 19.6 19.1 18.3 17.0 19.4
Gelmso 2200 19.3 20.2 21.0 20.5 20.9 21.1 20.6 20.3 20.1 18.9 18.3 18.5 20
Mi'esso 1100 20.1 21.5 23.2 23.9 25.2 25.5 23.9 23.3 23.4 22.4 20.4 19.1 22.7
M/ Werer 850 23.4 25.5 27.2 27.9 30.1 33 31.8 29.5 29.3 27.9 24.3 23.3 27.9
D/Berhan 2600 12.2 13.1 14.0 14.2 14.5 14.8 13.8 13.6 13.3 11.2 10.7 11.1 13
Metahara 950 23.1 24.5 26.3 27.0 30.9 32.2 29.7 28 28.8 27.3 24.2 22.4 27
Mojjo 1750 19.0 20.5 21.9 22.1 22.2 21.4 19.5 19.5 19.8 19.7 18.6 18.4 20.2
Nazarath 1650 19.7 23.2 24.1 24.6 27.1 26 20.7 20.6 21.1 20.1 19.5 19.2 22.2
N/Era 1650 20.9 22.5 25.9 26.6 27.4 28.6 26.3 26 24.3 23.0 21.3 20.3 24.6
Sheno 2400 12.4 12.9 13.3 13.7 14.1 14.1 12.4 12.5 12.7 12.6 12.5 12.5 13
S/Gebeya 2400 13.5 14.8 15.7 15.9 16.6 16.0 14.1 14.0 14.3 13.8 13.0 12.9 14.6
Wonji 1550 18.4 22.2 23.7 24.6 24.1 24.5 22.8 22.5 22.4 21.1 20.1 18.0 22.5
Koka 1600 21.5 22.1 23.5 23.5 24.0 23.4 22.5 22.4 22.9 22.2 21.6 21.4 22.6
Awash 7 890 24.5 26.0 28.3 29.3 31.9 32.6 29.9 29.1 30 29 27.3 25.2 28.6

260
Appendix 7 Sunshine (hr/d)
Station Data span Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Assela 1980-1996 8.2 6.9 7.5 6.0 6.8 9.2 5.1 5.0 5.1 5.8 8.1 8.8
Melkasa 1985-2003 9.3 9.1 8.4 8.2 9.2 8.4 7.2 7.5 7.9 8.9 10.0 9.8
S/ Gebeya 1989-2007 8.1 8.1 7.6 7.1 8.2 6.6 4.1 4.1 5.8 7.6 9.4 8.9
Metahara 1984-2007 12.5 9.4 8.8 8.5 9.2 8.7 7.4 7.4 7.7 8.9 9.6 9.6
D/ Berahane 1980-2007 9.2 8.5 7.5 7.1 8.2 7.5 5.1 5.3 6.1 8.1 9.3 9.2
Nura Era 1983-2001 9.0 8.5 8.5 8.0 9.3 7.7 6.6 7.6 7.4 8.5 9.7 8.7
Wonji 1972-1994 8.8 8.4 8.6 8.5 8.9 8.5 7.2 7.1 7.5 8.8 9.6 9.3
Nazert 1990-2007 12.7 8.9 8.4 8.3 9.2 8.5 10.7 7.1 12.7 8.8 9.8 9.6

Appendix 8 Monthly mean Wind speed (m/Sec), measured above 2 m

Station Data span Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Melka Were 1980-1990 2.8 1.5 3.5 2.5 3.8 4.0 2.5 2.1 1.6 3.5 5.8 4.2
Assela 1980-1991 3.4 3.1 3.2 2.9 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.1 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.3
Meisso 1992-2004 1.5 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.4 2.9 2.3 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4
S/ Gebeya 1989-2005 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.5 2.8 2.2 1.9 1.8 1.7 2.2 2.0 2.0
Sheno 1989-1995 2.0 2.3 2.4 2.2 2.6 2.0 2.3 1.9 1.7 2.6 2.1 1.9
Metahara 1984-2005 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.6 1.6 2.2 2.4 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.7
Nazerath 1990-2005 3.1 3.1 2.8 2.5 2.5 3.1 3.2 2.6 1.9 2.2 2.8 3.1
Nura Era 1984-2005 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.9 2.9 3.1 2.4 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.5
Wonji 1973-1994 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.5 1.6 1.3 0.8 1.5 1.3 1.4
Koka 1963-1985 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.9 1.6 1.2 0.8 0.7 0.9 1.0

Appendix 9 Relative humidity (%)

Station Data span Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Wonji 1951-1993 44 44 42 42 41 47 61 64 55 40 41 44
M/ were 1980-1986 51 50 52 52 48 40 51 57 53 47 54 54
Assela 1980-1995 55 59 63 70 69 67 76 78 77 70 62 62
Metahara 1986-2005 54 53 54 55 49 47 57 60 57 49 48 52
S/Gebeya 1992-2005 60 51 56 59 53 61 77 81 73 63 58 58
D/ Berhane 1982-2005 68 64 67 67 62 63 81 83 77 70 66 65
Nura era 1983-2005 46 46 44 43 37 39 50 53 45 39 39 45
Sheno 1989-1995 69 73 67 71 55 64 83 85 78 67 68 70
Nazert 1990-2005 54 51 55 55 51 56 68 69 67 58 50 51

261
Appendix 10 Mean actual evapotranspiration computed from river discarhge (mm)

Catchment Parmeter Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
P 21 41 84 128 119 141 202 213 166 72 21 18 1225
discharge 4 5 7 9 11 9 26 56 48 18 6 4 203
Keleta
(1967-2003) AET 17 36 76 118 109 132 176 157 118 54 14 14 1022
P 24 32 66 91 81 92 166 180 109 64 13 16 936
Arba
discharge 1.3 0.8 1.3 1 0.6 0.4 3.2 11 6.3 0.6 0.5 0.2 28
Abomsa
(1994-2000) AET 22.7 31.2 64.7 90 80 91.6 162 169 102 63 12.5 15.8 908
P 34 45 92 105 70 80 291 312 127 51 25 22 1254
discharge 2 2 3 3 2 3 30 64 25 6 3 2 145
Kessem
(1969-2000) AET 32 43 89 102 67 77 261 248 102 45 22 19 1108

262
Appendix 11 Plot of total Monthly River discharge (mcm)

263
Appendix 12 River total monthly flow (mcm)
Kessem river flow (mcm). Catchment area): 3113 Sq.Km

YEAR JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
1970 7.3 4.4 17.9 3.1 2.5 1.3 141.9 425.4 232.5 68.8 39.1 28.6
1971 31.5 24.3 24.6 36.8 43.7 2.6 116.6 402.4 175.8 0.0 0.0 0.0
1972 0.4 0.8 0.4 2.0 0.5 0.6 54.4 138.7 39.1 4.7 2.4 2.3
1973 2.9 1.2 0.7 0.5 1.6 1.7 78.4 290.0 164.2 37.2 21.0 18.5
1974 16.2 12.2 25.1 12.3 11.1 22.9 267.7 262.7 62.3 13.6 8.3 5.3
1975 4.1 4.4 4.4 9.0 1.8 46.8 229.4 124.4 83.1 9.1 4.2 2.7
1976 2.0 1.0 1.6 2.2 5.6 2.1 28.2 189.3 43.4 7.7 6.1 3.3
1977 6.6 3.3 2.1 5.7 5.0 4.7 74.1 185.2 51.4 40.1 17.1 8.2
1978 5.9 11.3 9.6 2.9 2.8 5.7 78.4 166.3 77.4 16.9 4.4 4.1
1979 6.4 3.6 7.6 1.8 4.6 2.3 62.6 123.1 26.5 5.9 2.4 2.4
1980 4.9 4.8 2.7 3.6 0.8 1.7 198.1 153.2 43.5 8.6 2.2 1.5
1981 1.4 1.1 58.9 20.9 2.1 1.0 94.3 163.1 106.1 11.1 3.8 2.4
1982 2.5 2.5 2.4 4.8 3.9 1.2 11.3 136.1 41.2 30.1 7.4 11.1
1983 8.6 8.2 8.7 11.9 7.2 8.5 30.4 112.9 32.2 13.2 3.6 1.9
1984 1.7 1.7 1.5 0.3 2.7 11.7 96.9 93.9 26.9 2.8 2.6 2.6
1985 2.4 1.0 1.4 2.7 18.0 1.0 71.2 251.2 33.4 15.4 4.9 2.3
1986 0.9 2.9 8.4 10.0 9.1 49.1 54.6 102.7 54.7 7.8 3.2 2.9
1987 2.2 1.5 11.1 9.6 21.3 17.2 14.6 58.7 11.1 5.2 1.8 1.6
1988 3.0 8.0 1.1 5.6 2.5 4.5 100.1 358.2 401.6 17.3 4.5 2.9
1989 3.2 2.9 1.9 8.4 1.9 1.2 20.2 139.1 44.6 8.0 1.5 4.6
1990 4.4 9.7 7.6 5.1 2.1 2.7 46.9 224.5 35.7 6.8 0.7 0.4
1991 0.6 1.9 1.5 2.5 0.9 1.1 242.9 136.4 30.8 5.8 1.5 1.9
1992 1.0 4.4 0.5 2.6 1.0 0.8 13.9 184.4 61.7 29.1 5.8 6.1
1993 11.9 33.1 6.1 17.0 24.4 13.9 44.5 174.3 76.9 38.0 18.3 15.3
1994 14.3 11.0 12.0 12.0 15.1 15.9 122.1 134.6 79.1 19.7 15.0 12.4
1995 11.0 9.4 19.8 12.9 8.1 4.6 30.0 178.5 63.6 13.2 9.6 8.2
1996 10.5 5.4 12.7 9.1 15.1 26.9 93.7 251.0 59.0 18.5 10.3 7.0
1997 8.0 4.4 7.9 11.5 3.7 10.5 111.0 144.0 21.1 15.4 13.0 8.5
1998 7.8 4.9 5.9 8.5 5.7 10.6 169.8 225.9 65.3 59.8 20.2 10.8
1999 6.1 6.0 9.0 4.2 2.7 23.9 107.6 303.7 68.6 19.8 4.4 2.0
2000 7.8 5.1 6.7 9.4 11.8 9.1 86.3 225.8 66.9 48.8 29.7 26.1

264
 Keleta River. Catchment area 749 Sq.Km
YEAR JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
1967 2.1 1.7 2.5 4.6 7.7 3.7 23.0 45.4 56.8 49.4 16.6 5.0
1969 3.6 7.6 26.5 5.1 6.8 7.1 35.7 80.6 24.0 5.7 2.8 2.0
1970 3.1 2.8 13.6 7.9 10.1 3.6 30.4 79.1 35.3 7.1 1.7 1.1
1971 0.9 0.9 1.0 3.7 6.6 12.9 18.0 24.5 19.0 1.7 0.6 0.3
1972 0.3 1.3 1.3 5.7 7.6 8.1 23.7 41.8 28.1 4.7 2.4 1.9
1973 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.5 5.8 4.6 13.1 32.6 23.4 8.6 1.7 1.4
1974 1.2 1.0 2.9 1.7 1.1 1.8 10.1 50.7 49.5 10.7 2.7 2.1
1975 1.7 1.5 1.3 3.1 3.0 5.2 21.8 44.4 43.9 12.9 4.2 3.1
1976 2.8 2.1 2.8 4.0 7.4 3.9 17.0 36.6 25.3 4.8 5.4 2.5
1977 3.2 3.8 4.3 7.0 6.3 7.4 22.0 35.2 17.4 29.2 10.8 2.9
1978 1.9 4.4 4.3 1.8 1.7 2.9 15.8 31.3 20.3 17.3 0.9 0.6
1979 1.1 1.3 1.9 2.4 5.3 4.2 15.2 36.7 26.6 7.6 2.8 2.2
1980 1.9 2.2 3.4 1.8 2.1 3.0 14.8 16.3 11.0 7.2 1.5 1.2
1981 1.0 1.1 10.4 19.4 2.3 0.3 12.6 45.1 98.1 11.9 5.5 4.8
1982 4.8 5.7 4.3 11.8 15.4 12.7 28.0 46.3 3.6 17.6 5.3 5.1
1983 4.1 4.0 9.0 9.1 38.4 20.7 38.6 50.8 55.9 15.3 2.8 1.5
1984 1.2 0.9 1.4 1.2 4.4 4.8 14.9 22.9 30.0 2.0 0.9 0.8
1985 0.6 0.6 0.7 2.7 3.6 1.5 12.8 23.8 25.4 4.5 2.3 1.8
1987 1.8 2.2 13.5 14.5 22.2 21.2 16.1 24.6 28.4 13.6 7.9 7.4
1988 7.1 7.9 6.7 9.0 7.6 7.6 20.3 67.6 78.7 23.7 10.7 9.0
1990 8.8 27.8 31.6 39.3 14.1 12.2 32.8 60.3 80.2 10.7 3.2 2.9
1991 2.7 2.8 7.9 4.1 3.7 4.3 15.7 50.0 16.4 4.9 2.9 3.0
1992 3.6 4.8 3.3 4.8 4.2 5.4 13.4 84.9 121.4 37.9 6.4 5.3
1993 5.7 7.1 3.9 8.2 13.2 4.7 28.2 67.7 40.1 12.4 3.4 2.3
1997 2.3 0.9 1.1 1.5 2.1 3.3 31.3 23.8 13.2 9.9 11.4 6.5
1998 8.0 6.2 9.6 5.6 8.5 6.9 16.4 39.5 29.9 19.1 5.3 3.7
2000 3.5 3.0 3.2 3.6 7.5 6.7 12.1 38.1 18.7 37.9 5.0 3.3
2001 0.6 0.5 2.4 1.4 8.7 11.0 21.0 47.4 14.6 6.1 3.5 2.8
2002 3.7 2.8 3.5 3.4 5.7 4.9 6.7 22.4 12.1 4.8 3.3 3.0
2003 3.4 4.4 4.1 14.4 3.0 10.5 16.3 27.7 20.6 3.4 1.0 3.6

Arba Abomsa River. Catchment area 140 Sq.Km

YEAR JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
1994 7.6 6.9 7.0 0.2 1.2 0.5 13.1 17.9 10.8 0.5 1.0 0.4
1995 0.1 0.1 1.9 6.5 0.9 0.3 0.8 7.2 2.8 0.1 0.0 0.0
1996 0.3 0.0 1.4 1.0 1.5 2.3 2.6 10.1 11.7 1.0 0.2 0.2
1997 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.2 5.3 10.6 2.3 0.7 0.4 0.5
1998 4.3 1.2 1.3 0.6 1.0 0.4 0.8 10.4 12.1 0.6 0.5 0.2
1999 0.2 0.0 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.3 6.6 9.2 10.2 0.8 1.0 0.3
2000 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.9 0.3 2.6 49.6 11.9 0.6 3.4 0.9

265
 Appendix 13 Hydrochemical data
0
E-Easting, N-Northing, Alt (m asl), T ( c), EC (mS/cm), stable isotope in (‰), and 3H (TU), and the rest in mg/l
HCO3- F- Br- δ18O δD 3H
Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+
Site_N Source Sa_NO E N Alt T pH EC TDS Tot HCO3- CO32- Cl- SO42- NO3- SiO2
Abomsa-old well 25 591729 938934 1544 32 6,86 0,402 243 604 366 234 7,4 4,8 3,3 69,2 9,5 49,2 7,8 39,0 0.8 ND -3.10 -9.5 1.49
1.6 0.2 -3.31 -9.8 0.52
Adama Uni-1 well 11 530624 947396 1673 34,6 7,2 0,667 397 427 244 180 14,3 19,8 7,0 30,0 7,7 145,8 13,2 40,7
1.7 0.1 -3.43 -11.3 NA
Adama Uni-2 well 14 536788 928710 1529 46,7 7,44 0,636 373 714 512 198 12,9 20,2 14,5 35,6 4,7 149,4 12,8 43,8
35,4 6,4 17,3 0,9 15,1 0.4 ND NA NA NA
Keleta R River R1 543783 915206 1586 18 7,06 156 223 854 488 360 2,6 2,4 0,5
55,4 8,7 47,3 5,1 41,6 0.8 ND -2.78 -9.75 1.25
Ashe Abasa well 24 581780 932602 1878 25,5 6,82 0,454 269 659 348 306 5,3 3,9 1,1
Awash Arba well 33 628761 1009132 824 31,6 7,3 0,679 407 244 244 0 41,0 33,4 5,4 25,2 96,0 52,7 7,9 38,1 0.6 0.2 -2.51 -8.12 0.71
0.7 0.3 -3.21 -11.3 0.64
68,5 9,9 143,0 10,2 45,4
Awa CMCT well 31 632509 998246 890 37,6 7,22 0,732 432 366 244 120 38,6 55,4 2,8
Awash R River R2 536788 928710 1529 30,7 8,16 0,639 387 756 488 264 16,0 10,2 2,7 50,0 5,3 55,9 4,1 9,9 1.7 ND -1.84 -6.3 NA
Melkasa well 7 536587 929734 1547 29,1 6,92 1,06 646 410 273 134 68,0 34,5 5,2 6,1 257,9 56,6 14,6 40,2 1.6 0.3 -2.12 -6.7 4.39
4,4 0,2 230,2 8,7 34,0 8.5 0.1 -2.56 -7.8 NA
Bati-Bora well 8 516683 928502 1624 33,2 8,23 0,748 450 427 305 120 24,8 34,2 0,0
6,8 0,7 182,8 9,3 29,1 4.4 0.1 -2.39 -6.3 NA
Bati-qallo well 9 515450 928240 1604 28,4 8,09 0,592 355 824 604 216 15,5 25,0 1,4

Birsa Ababo well 34 546408 971443 1674 34,6 7,26 0,547 329 305 171 132 11,6 15,2 2,8 52,7 9,5 110,2 12,7 36,0 1.5 0.1 -3.7 -12.3 1.17
4,6 1,5 348,8 19,3 37,6 5.6 0.2 -3.68 -10.9 0.34
Borchota well 23 560362 969076 1222 36,6 8,17 1,245 743 381 264 115 53,0 46,2 5,1
<0.1 0.4 -2.89 -9.1 0.97
Bordede well 32 652678 996374 1107 34,9 7,18 0,96 567 273 156 115 67,9 58,0 9,5 16,6 149,2 54,3 16,5 46,7
Burka Hora Spring 35 557925 938561 1333 26,5 9,98 5,37 3280 1025 586 432 86,7 62,1 29,2 0,1 0,1 2030,1 15,4 248,5 72.5 2.5 -2.69 -7.3 2.86

Buta Badhas well 17 547968 961046 1467 35,3 7,53 0,64 385 366 244 120 15,0 17,3 1,3 28,2 9,3 171,5 12,7 37,8 2.5 0.1 -3.91 -12.9 NA
Challe well 20 541738 943425 1484 56,1 7,83 1,925 1130 256 189 66 73,6 57,4 0,0 5,4 2,6 562,3 20,5 56,4 10.5 0.4 -2.87 -9.97 1.07
1.5 ND -4.03 -12.9 1.02
Chemir Jawis well 28 537591 962318 1659 29,5 7,5 0,501 300 366 207 156 6,3 9,0 2,4 70,2 8,8 70,5 12,9 40,3
D/N/Kusaye well 21 544786 951428 1465 27,5 7,35 0,735 448 488 342 144 9,9 13,4 22,2 4,6 178,4 54,2 15,7 42,2 1.7 0.2 -3.76 -11.1 6.44
3.3 0.1 -3.74 -14.2 NA
Darer Dambe well 37 510132 937817 1639 32,7 8,2 0,83 497 488 342 144 21,7 24,8 0,0 2,2 0,1 250,3 15,7 50,8
Dhebiti well 26 591942 994317 985 39,7 8,2 1,813 1077 201 128 72 120,7 85,0 3,1 4,8 2,6 502,8 27,8 31,8 4.4 0.4 -2.58 -9.78 0.81
11,9 1,4 364,2 24,1 60,2 8.4 0.3 -3.33 -11.8 0.11
Didibsa well 18 535920 945900 1475 47,6 7,96 1,508 884 195 134 60 61,2 53,1 4,0
20,7 16,1 167,0 15,3 39,8 1.8 0.2 -3.31 -11.7 0.01
Fexo well 22 552559 959214 1374 33,9 7,59 0,875 526 293 98 192 38,4 39,7 2,5
52,1 5,7 89,5 17,5 38,5 1.9 0.3 -4.01 -12.4 0.81
Galdiya well 16 507929 957419 1569 35 7,64 0,458 275 622 403 216 7,8 10,5 1,4
10,7 2,0 427,1 28,7 58,0 7.0 0.3 -3.1 -9.4 1.12
Goro Wagilo well 19 539209 940243 1525 48,4 7,43 1,717 1025 146 93 53 64,8 52,2 0,0

Gurja Furda well 12 538755 950839 1484 32,8 7,16 0,628 373 1098 732 360 5,8 6,8 2,3 53,9 3,7 155,8 26,8 31,7 2.0 Nd -3.43 -11.6 1.64

266
 Appendix 13 cont’d
HCO3-
HCO3- CO32- Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ F- Br- δ18O δD 3H
Site_N Source Sa_NO E N Alt T pH EC TDS (Tot) Cl- SO42- NO3- SiO2
70,4 13,4 93,8 9,3 29,6 0.5 0.1 -3.59 -10.7 NA
Halelu-gasa well 1 550684 915701 1803 26,7 7,41 0,547 328 824 567 252 12,6 12,5 5,2
83,0 15,8 83,1 12,1 37,7 0.7 ND -3.21 -10.7 1.17
Ibseta Haxe well 2 551954 919261 1727 28,4 7,31 0,602 357 915 677 234 8,5 7,9 3,5
0,0 0,4 436,8 37,4 28,9 4.8 0.3 -2.36 -9.3 NA
Ilala well 30 592742 986659 981 37,1 8,65 1,964 1174 250 165 84 129,0 93,0 2,8
54,8 9,6 90,5 14,0 41,4 1.2 ND -3.48 -12.1 NA
Jogo gugedo well 15 523616 944501 1733 29,9 6,8 0,481 287 1171 830 336 5,9 4,3 1,7
3,1 1,0 456,7 35,8 51,5 32.1 0.4 -2.82 -8.34 3.29
Ethiocutting well 10 502362 929483 1598 27,8 8,23 2,06 1235 205 142 62 107,3 16,8 2,4
2,1 0,8 1403,4 77,4 42,5 27.6 2.5 4.51 26.78 NA
L Beseca Lake L1 596113 984664 957 25,3 9,32 5,6 3370 n.a. ? n.a. ? n.a. ? 477,0 477,9 9,0
Mexaqoma well 4 542261 916155 1662 28,8 8,29 0,318 183,9 915 915 0 10,7 9,8 trace 26,6 6,8 56,2 4,3 7,1 1.1 ND -3.13 -9.76 0.22
Shanan sil well 36 520546 919422 1692 30,4 7,18 2,02 1199 122 68 53 149,1 92,4 8,0 41,6 4,2 401,9 35,4 48,3 9.9 0.5 -2.55 -9.58 1.9
87,8 19,9 116,4 13,6 26,1 1.0 0.3 -2.29 -7.70 NA
Sifa well 41 564317 944152 1232 32,6 8,31 0,724 428 415 268 144 24,7 27,0 32,0
Sire Golo Spring 5 555851 915058 2027 27,5 6,94 0,577 355 842 659 180 11,6 6,5 18,4 31,2 22,4 53,3 8,5 33,3 0.7 ND -3.47 -10.2 1.72
13,6 8,4 532,9 49,5 60,4 9.1 0.9 -3.1 -9.1 NA
Sodere spg Spring 6 542758 928967 1344 67,7 6,82 3,04 1814 378 226 150 173,7 139,0 1,0
8,7 1,8 238,5 22,5 50,7 3.2 0.1 -3.88 -13.4 NA
Wachu laafa well 42 537676 948420 1491 44 7,51 0,806 484 303 185 115 23,6 23,7 1,6
37,5 17,0 54,0 9,0 36,0 0.7 0.1 -2.50 -8.8 NA
Xabbo-Chac well 3 552769 914086 1883 26,8 7,05 0,573 346 878 695 180 12,8 6,1 7,6
7,6 4,3 394,0 37,7 37,2 4.9 0.4 -2.98 -10.5 NA
XadachaDhe well 29 589728 993150 992 39,4 8,19 1,922 1140 146 88 58 130,8 92,5 9,6
49,4 8,8 78,3 17,2 44,1 1.1 ND -4.17 -13.9 0.14
Xadde well 13 518552 947121 1850 31,1 7,22 0,48 290 305 244 60 5,9 6,3 0,7
0,0 1,2 451,9 34,9 42,1 6.8 0.4 -2.23 -9.78 1.07
Xuxuxxi well 27 591942 994317 985 44,3 8,26 2,34 1383 176 122 53 136,0 97,8 3,0
18.4 1.8 6.7 1.6 38.4 0.1 ND -3.15 -11.8 NA
Sendafa well 38 506902 1016138 2678 19 7.2 225 187.5 856 716 139 2.1 1.8 3.4
15 3.8 5.2 3.1 45.4 0.1 ND -4.33 -14.3 NA
Sheno spring 39 564889 1028218 2688 17 7.36 110 87 689 599 90 0.9 0.9 2.7
13.4 2.4 5.2 1 50.6 0.1 ND -4.2 -13.7 NA
Ankober spring 40 580996 1053990 3260 15 6.8 109 85 779 710 69 1.3 1.1 5.8

NA-Not Analyzed, ND-None Detectable

267
Appendix 14 Distribution histogram of variables and their correlation with field parameters

Alt Depth TDS Alk

T pH EC

HCO3T

Cl-

SO42-

Ca2+

Mg2+

Na+

K+

SiO2

F-

Br-

268
Appendix 15 Fluoride data obtained from Water Resources Bureau used as
supplementary data in geospatial kriging
E : easting ; N : northing ; Alt : altitude (m asl)
F Data F Data
Source E N Alt (Mg/l) source Source E N Alt (mg/l) source
well 651005 997619 1056 0.96 1 well 607452 1008792 786 14.0 1
well 628772 1009130 836 1.68 1 well 608430 1009677 787 8.0 1
well 629018 1008155 799 1.10 1 well 611700 1011072 773 14.0 1
well 639589 1029161 805 4.8 1 well 615346 1012359 765 12.4 1
well 642583 1025817 834 3.0 1 well 619023 1013214 763 10.0 1
well 633220 1027479 793 8.4 1 well 632434 1031652 749 7.0 1
well 629583 1031834 750 5.5 1 well 633818 1034813 751 4.0 1
602849 985294 1.7
well 629138 1030680 748 3.0 1 well 957 2
597018 982055 1.8
well 624642 1018056 791 6.2 1 well 956 2
598962 985941 8.6
well 625926 1021380 755 7.0 1 well 955 2
600257 979463 4.0
well 625442 1021844 750 4.8 1 well 955 2
589245 978816 10.0
well 624389 1021567 761 5.5 1 well 955 2
596370 976872 8.5
well 623363 1023251 770 4.0 1 well 956 2
605440 987237 6.7
well 625498 1027360 752 9.5 1 well 955 2
589892 978816 8.9
well 629852 1027420 757 8.0 1 well 955 2
602849 985294 5.7
well 644336 1047036 741 2.0 1 well 954 2
606735 984646 4.4
well 645303 1048976 749 5.5 1 well 956 2
595836 986245 6.0
well 644823 1047546 746 7.0 1 well 955 2
598312 977104 18.5
well 628214 1008615 830 5.5 1 well 956 2
well 605024 1012199 821 <0.1 1
well 608884 1011449 786 7.0 1

1-Water Works Construction Enterprise, 2-Oromia Regional Water Bureau

269
Appendix 16 Boreholes in Adama-Wonji basin

Water table Water

Well (Below table
Altitude Depth ground altitude
Site_Name (masl) Year UTM_E UTM_N (m) level) (m) (masl)
Wonji Sugar Factory 1540.00 1952 525200 935020 41 21 1519.00
Wonji Sugar Factory 1540.00 1953 525500 935300 33 21 1519.00
Wonji Sugar Factory 1540.00 1958 525800 935040 33 20 1520.00
Shoa Sugar Factory 1540.00 1962 523450 928350 52 18.1 1521.90
Wonji camp K 1540.00 1963 525690 924757 69 21.2 1518.80
Wonji Sugar Factory 1540.00 1970 525010 935030 24 18.6 1521.40
Wonji Suger Cane 1540.00 1980 525000 935000 35 16.18 1523.82
Wonji Suger Cane 1540.00 1981 528000 938000 28 10.06 1529.95
Wonji Suger Cane 1540.00 1982 523000 928000 18 10.93 1529.07
Wonji melkahidha 1540.00 1991 526026 937613 11 8 1532.00
Wonji kuruftu 1540.00 1993 525381 935748 10 7 1533.00
KOKA 4 1600.00 1953 518000 937000 44 27.4 1572.60
KOKA 5 1600.00 1956 518100 937000 44 25.9 1574.10
KOKA 6 1600.00 1958 502600 932100 44 29 1571.00
HVA Koka Dam 1603.00 1661 521900 937000 60 14 1589.00
HVA Koka Dam 1584.00 1962 520000 937800 81 23 1561.00
HVA Koka Dam 1595.00 1964 520900 937060 100 45 1550.00
HVA Koka Dam 1578.00 1965 520200 937030 80 31 1547.00
HVA Koka Dam 1600.00 1967 520200 937230 80 50 1550.00
HVA Koka Dam 1574.00 1968 524600 937000 100 27 1547.00
HVA Koka Dam 1560.00 1969 528000 937030 107 29 1531.00
HVA Koka Dam 1577.00 1970 520040 937050 73 31 1546.00
NAZRET TANKEGNA 1640.00 1953 531000 946200 128 108 1532.00
NAZRET TANKEGNA 1640.00 1996 531000 946200 128 108 1532.00
NAZRET ETCA 1620.00 1997 530000 943000 187 116 1504.00
NAZRET WSSA 8 1720.00 1999 532500 950500 199 172.7 1547.30
Wonji sugar cane 1540.00 2007 525000 935000 3 1.0 1539.00
Wonji Sugar cane 1540.00 2008 528000 938000 3 0.6 1539.4

Source: East Shoa water office (2008), Dachasa (1999), Hydrogeology of Nazerta (Getahun, 1987)

270
Appendix 17 Well data, with T determined from specific capacity (Sc)
Alt Depth WT
N0. Site_name N E (m asl) (m bgl) (m asl) Q(M3/d) S (m) K (m/d) Sc(m2/d) T (m2/d) Well log (m, bgl)

1 Golbo bitinti 942366 543079 1503 236 1351 466.56 16.00 1.23 29.16 36.82 Pumice (0-36m), Scoria (36-110m), basalt (110-236m)

Pumice (0-53m), basalt (53-152m), Sand and gravel (152-

2 Buta Dengore 959185 547922 1466 182 1466 311.04 18.00 0.88 17.28 21.79 158m), basalt (158-152m)

Clay (0-2m), Pumice with ash (2-40m), Sand and gravel

3 Bofa 933081 546420 1343 82 1317 743.04 4.00 9.54 185.76 235.87 (40-62m), Pumice (62-78m), Massive basalt (78-82m)

4 Guraja ferda 950940 538498 1495 164 1411 259.20 24.00 0.55 10.80 13.60 Soil & sand (0-28m), Sand with clay (150-164m)

Clay (0-15m), Pumice (15-30m), Clay (30-70m), basalt

5 Guldiya 957417 537928 1572 145 1468 302.40 22.00 0.69 13.75 17.32 (70-90m), Scoria (90-95m), NS (95-145m)

Pumice (0-9m), Clay (9-61m), Pumice (61-69m), Sand (69-

6 Dibibisa 945906 535918 1483 136 1483 311.04 21.00 0.75 14.81 18.66 86m), basalt (86-136m)

Clay (0-20m), Scoria (20-30m), basalt (30-1150m), Gravel

7 Wakemia 932328 532673 1558 132 1475 691.20 4.00 8.78 172.80 219.36 (115-132m)

9.64 Dom-Basic(0-32m), pyroclast(32-66m), gravel(66-12m),

8 Melkasa 929743 536580 1549 150 1435 751.68 4.00 187.92 238.62 basalt(>126m)
Clay (0-6m), Pumice (6-19m), Scoria (19-26m), Basalt (26-
44m), Scoria (44-67m), Basalt (67-151m), Gravel (151-
9 Goro wagilo 940271 539213 1523 205 1346 466.56 8.00 3.56 58.32 73.79 173m), Basalt (173-205m)

10 Mexaqoma 916154 54226 1664 420 1368 293.76 12.00 1.69 24.48 30.89 (See Mexaqoma well log, Figure …)

11 Birsa Abaora 971443 546408 1674 172 1616 604.80 6.00 5.78 100.80 127.76 Soil (0-8m), ignimbrite (8-134m), basalt (134-172m)
Soil (0-4m), scoria (4-120m), No sample/Circulation loss
12 Tututti 982057 584972 995 216 837 760.32 35.70 1.5 21.30 26.87 (120-214m)

soil (0-20m), ignimbrite (20-22m), clay with gravel (22-

13 Halelu gasela 915701 550684 1803 233 1681 466.56 28.30 1.4 16.49 20.78 84m), ignimbrite (84-130m), volcanic deposits (130-233m)
soil (0-2m), ignimbrite (2-7m), tuff (7-80m), scoria with
pumice (80-132m), ignimbrite (132-147m), tuff (147-
14 Galiye migira 918502 512683 1614 236 1477 354.24 12.60 1.98 28.11 35.50 183m), ignimbrite (183-236m)
Endeto-
15 Sedika 859315 58687 2371 180 2311.75 613.44 2.30 13.56 266.71 339.03 clay soil (0-2m), basalt (2-180m)

271
Appendix 17 cont’d

N0. Site_name N E Alt (m asl) Depth (m bgl) WT (m asl) Q(M3/d) S (m) K (m/d) Sc(m2/d) T (m2/d) Well log (m, bgl)
clay (0-18m), tuff (18-38m), ignimbrite (38-42m),
pyroclasts (42-60m), paleosol (42-60m), basalt (60-
1.08 154m), clay (154-168m), basalt (168-224m), tuff
16 Dembeka Iftu 943550 591377 1893 261 1730.4 354.24 33.95 10.43 13.13 (224-261m)

17 Hela- Andode 941455 609703 1889 252 1717.7 380.16 23.75 0.95 16.01 20.18 basalt (0-252m)

silt (0-51m), pumice (51-58m), clay (58-65m),

18 Koka 929321 502329 1604 130 1598.6 2160.00 0.95 242.45 2273.68 2908.78 ignimbrite( 65-88m), basalt (>88m)
Dom-Basic (0-15m), sand (15-88m), ignimbrite (88-
96m), sand (96-145m), ignimbrite (145-165m),
19 Nazert 940960 530748 1593 192 1443.3 216.00 12.15 1.57 17.78 22.41 scoria (>165m)

20 Wonji Gefersa 936474 523531 1556 50 1545 734.40 3.00 20.7 244.80 311.09

21 Wonji Shewa 928661 523310 1553 114 1546.1 440.64 1.92 11.64 229.50 291.59 Dom-Basic(0-54m), clay(54-70m), scoria (>70m)
Dom-Basic (0-15m), sand (15-88m), ignimbrite (88-
96m), sand (96-145m), ignimbrite (145-165m),
22 Nazert 940526 530792 1618 210 1445.4 354.24 21.50 0.84 16.48 20.77 scoria (>165m)
Clay (0-20m), Scoria (20-30m), basalt (30-115m),
23 Wake miya 932122 532590 1550 130 1466.7 656.64 6.00 0.83 109.44 138.74 Gravel (115-132m)

24 Nazert 947062 536113 1693 195 1533 267.84 12.20 1.12 21.95 27.69 Acidic Rock

25 Malmalle 943100 515109 1772 160 1704.4 483.84 2.96 9.45 163.46 207.47 Acidic Rock
clay(0-51m), Pyroclast(51-121m),
26 Golge dildima 949730 521269 1914 283 1914 224.64 4 3.55 56.16 71.05 Ignimbrite(>121m)
Dome-Acidic (0-6m), Clay (6-20m), trachyte(20-
54m), Ash (54-94m), ignimbrite (94-160m), tuff
27 Koka 937459 506728 1669 129.66 1615.7 561.60 2.71 11.43 207.23 263.21 (>160m)

28 Koka 930527 503210 1610 100 1588 673.92 1.20 28.6 561.60 715.46

29 Awash Arba 996250 652500 910 84 853.2 492.48 9.00 3.63 54.72 69.22

Sand and gravel (0-52m), Ignimbrite (52-124m),

30 Melka Werer 1031500 629000 750 79 739.4 950.40 5.00 9.64 190.08 241.35 Baslt (124-185m)

272
Appendix 17cont’d

K (m/d)
N0. Site_name N E Alt (m asl) Depth (m bgl) WT (m asl) Q(M3/d) S (m) Sc(m2/d) T (m2/d)
1.04
31 Kulumsa 885000 516750 2180 120 2091 362.88 17.00 21.35 26.93
0.62
32 Dibadiba 950500 510000 1800 77 1765 259.20 21.00 12.34 15.54
2.86
33 Sendafa1 1016194 503454 2530 76 2502 604.80 12.00 50.40 63.74
4.95
34 Sendafa2 1019087 511478 2564 74 2560 691.20 8.00 86.40 109.45
1.27
35 Sheno 1030000 530000 2850 105 2845.5 432.00 19.00 22.74 28.69
1.23
36 Sire 915250 550550 1800 143 1684 345.60 8.00 43.20 26.19
0.76
37 Wachulafa 948000 538000 1480 160 1366.5 172.80 11.00 15.71 19.80
1.81
38 Welenchiti 958250 542000 1500 160 1378.7 259.20 8.00 32.40 40.92
Kessem 4.4
39 Kebena 1010568 593365 913 185 900.3 380.16 4.00 95.04 120.43
Rokecha 0.5
40 bokere 949046 541516 1465 199 1333 129.60 16.00 8.10 10.19
5.45
41 Melkasa 930961 536336 1567 154 1442 380.16 4.00 95.04 120.43
31.08
42 wonji 935748 525381 1550 10 1543 673.92 1.20 561.60 715.46
20.52
43 wonji 936530 525328 1561 23 1539 630.72 1.70 371.01 472.07
15.48
44 Wonji 936223 526178 1556 15 1542 639.36 2.10 304.46 387.16

45 Bole 955009 584888 1169 150 1116 1296.00 6.80 9.68 190.59 242.02
2.72
46 Ferti 974833 609185 1010 259 885 432.00 8.00 54.00 68.31
0.68
47 Hela Akiya 954004 604040 1830 217 1660 311.04 23.00 13.52 17.04
6.40
48 Melka sedi 1022005 625645 832 196 831 380.16 3.00 126.72 160.72
3.04
49 Molalita 1015684 627277 823 192 747 423.36 7.00 60.48 76.54
3.84
50 kerensa 1017845 624546 836 81 790 457.92 6.00 76.32 96.65
Shanan 1.04
51 Silase 919422 520546 1692 185 1542 293.76 14.00 20.98 26.47
0.8
52 Feexo 959214 552559 1374 210 1209 259.20 16.00 16.20 20.42
3.64
53 Borcheta 969076 560362 1222 235 1035 578.88 8.00 72.36 91.62
0.96
54 Challe 943425 541738 1484 170 1349 302.40 16.00 18.90 23.83

273
Appendix 17 cont’d
K(m/d
Site_name N E Alt (m asl) D (m bgl) WT (m bgl) Q (m3.d) S(m) ) Sc (m2/d) T (m2/d)
4.8
55 Dhebiti 994317 591942 985 90 942 760.32 8.00 95.04 120.43
4.6
56 Xadacha dhera 993150 589728 992 74 954 691.20 7.60 90.95 115.23
6.04
57 Ilala 986659 592742 981 85 947 717.12 6.00 119.52 151.56
0.96
58 Chemir Jawis 962318 537591 1659 187 1524 345.60 18.00 19.20 24.21
1.23
59 D/N/Kusaye 951428 544786 1465 180 1321 276.48 12.00 23.04 29.07
1.45
60 Bati Bora 928502 516683 1624 94 1555 328.32 14.00 23.45 29.59
1.32
61 Bati Qallo 928240 515450 1604 71 1571 362.88 16.00 22.68 28.62
0.98
62 Didibsa 945900 535920 1475 180 1355 293.76 18.00 16.32 20.57
0.45
63 Xadde Dildima 947121 518552 1850 254 1646 216.00 25.00 8.64 10.87
0.56
64 Jogo gudedo 944501 523616 1733 120 1647 198.72 21.00 9.46 11.91
2.65
65 Darer Dambel 937817 510132 1639 162 1524 501.12 9.00 55.68 70.44
4.32
66 Sifa 944152 564317 1232 167 1147 751.68 5.00 150.34 190.77
0.75
67 Ashe Abasa 932602 581780 1878 268 1696 311.04 24.00 12.96 16.32
2.32
68 Awash Kela 998246 632509 890 187 842 570.24 14.00 40.73 51.48
0.87
69 Kara-gasala 915701 550684 1803 77 1761 311.04 25.00 12.44 15.67
0.89
70 Ibsata-Haxe 919261 551954 1727 190 1627 276.48 21.00 13.17 16.58
1.06
71 Borded 996374 652678 1107 135 1033 371.52 18.00 20.64 26.04
0.98
72 Kora 991199 678298 1520 153 1410 302.40 18.00 16.80 21.18
0.79
73 Kelbo 918972 511831 1618 350 1343 259.2 19 13.64 17.19
1.34
74 Abomsa 938934 591729 1545 288 1392 380.16 16.6 22.9 28.9

274
Appendix 18 Transmissivity determined by analytical method

275
Appendix 18 cont’d

276
Appendix 19 Simplified hydrogeological map of the Middle Awash basin

277
Appendix 20 Manuscripts

278
Environ Earth Sci
DOI 10.1007/s12665-010-0619-y
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
The hydrogeology of Adama-Wonji basin and assessment
of groundwater level changes in Wonji wetland, Main Ethiopian
Rift: results from 2D tomography and electrical sounding methods
Wakgari Furi • Moumtaz Razack • Tigistu Haile •
Tamiru A. Abiye • Dagnachew Legesse
Received: 2 November 2009 / Accepted: 12 June 2010
Ó Springer-Verlag 2010
Abstract Rise of groundwater level becomes an emerg-
ing concern at Wonji irrigation field, Main Ethiopian Rift.
An integrated study based on geophysical resistivity
methods is conducted at Wonji wetland to understand the
link between irrigation water and the shallow aquifer sys-
tem as well as to confirm the current concern of ground-
water rise. The study was also intended to improve the
uncertainty of understanding the hydrogeology of Wonji
wetland including the extent and direction of groundwater–
surface water interaction. The vertical and horizontal
contacts between the different geological series of the
Wonji area are resolved with 2D high-resolution geo-
physical imaging. Results from both VES and 2D tomog-
raphy show low resistivity layers under Wonji irrigation
field with narrow ranges in resistivity variation which
corresponds to a homogeneous saturated layer. The geo-
electric sections reveal two fault systems running NW–SE
and N–S directions which impede lateral groundwater flow.
Furthermore, groundwater is converged towards the Wonji
irrigation site strained by these fault systems. The geo-
physical results show strong link between irrigation water
and the shallow unconfined aquifer as well as among the
local and regional flow systems.
W. Furi (&)  M. Razack
Department of Hydrogeology UMR CNRS 6269,
University of Poitiers, 86022 Poitiers Cedex, France
e-mail: wakawakgari@yahoo.com
T. Haile  D. Legesse
Department of Earth Sciences, Addis Ababa University,
1176 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
T. A. Abiye
School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand,
Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa
Keywords 2D tomography  Aquifer  Groundwater 
Main Ethiopian Rift  Wonji
Introduction
Irrigation is fundamental for economic development and
plays a vital role in improving the welfare of a society.
However, irrigation is not always a blessing as it can
create problems due to mismanagement of land and water,
which results in salinization of land and water resources,
as well as adverse environmental damage. Unpredicted
environmental problems could arise when the consump-
tive water demand of crop and water supplies mismatch.
This could cause abnormal hydrological flow situation
such as rising of shallow groundwater table induced
by excess recharge from irrigation, a condition which
violates the natural recharge–discharge system of the
watershed environment. Mahammad et al. (2004) and Kos
(2008) have noted that salinization, soil alkalinity,
waterlogging, soil acidification, deterioration in water
quality, ecological degradation and change in groundwater
level are the most common problems and threats attached
to irrigation projects.
Wonji irrigation farm, established in 1954 is one of the
largest commercial farms in Ethiopia which irrigates about
8000 ha of land by diverting Awash River to the irrigation
field. It uses furrow irrigation method where large quantity
of water is artificially constrained to flow in trenches and
canals through sugar cane plants. According to Michael
and Seleshi (2007), Awash River is exclusively used for
irrigation through pumping the river with eight pumps at
the rate of 55 m3/s and the entire farm is fed through
network of extensive irrigation and drainage canals of
length 300 and 200 km, respectively. The report also
123

indicates that the irrigation interval vary from 10 to
28 days depending on soil property. Taking the indicated
canal length of 500 km and assuming 1 m (average) for
width and depth of the canals as well as the irrigation
interval, the estimated amount of water stored or circulat-
ing in the irrigation field can be between 1.6 9 105 and
4.6 9 105 m3 per day. This irrigation farm currently starts
to apply the more efficient spray irrigation technique in
peripheral parts (new irrigation sites); however, the furrow
irrigation technique is still used for large parts of the irri-
gation field.
In irrigation sites where furrow irrigation method is
used, knowledge of hydrological systems of the area
including the mode of interaction between surface waters
and the aquifer system is important to avoid possible
environmental risk. This requires awareness of the hydro-
geological setting including the configuration and charac-
teristics of aquifer geometry and hydraulic properties of
formation underlying the irrigation site. One important
issue traditionally overlooked in furrow irrigation method
is the interaction between irrigation water and groundwa-
ter. In large part, this is due to the persistent gaps in
awareness about the interactions between irrigation water
and groundwater including understanding the underlying
lithology and geological structures. Such information
improves the uncertainty of understanding the extent and
direction of groundwater–surface water interaction. Effec-
tive management of irrigation water at Wonji requires an
understanding of these components as well as the linkages
between them.
Rise in groundwater level has recently become a serious
concern at Wonji irrigation field, a concern for possible
loss of irrigable land and increase in soil salinity. If
groundwater level grows exceedingly beyond its natural
flow, groundwater flooding will be inevitable (Smith 2008).
This can cause difficult and unhealthy environment that
enhance ecological and environmental damage. Likewise,
if the shallow groundwater at Wonji wetland continues
growing, land flooding by groundwater will take place that
result in loss of the productive lands. This problem can
possibly be transformed into economical and social crises.
Thus, knowledge of hydrological systems and clear defi-
nition of natural recharge and discharge systems including
geology of the area as well as ensuring effective use of
irrigation water are essential to avoid such possible envi-
ronmental hazards.
Description of the study area
The study area is located in central part of the Main
Ethiopian Rift (MER), in the geographic coordinate of 80,
050 to 80, 400 N and 380, 550 to 390, 280 E (Fig. 1).
123
Environ Earth Sci
Geological setting
The general geological framework in Adama-Wonji basin
is part of the geological architecture of the MER which was
propagated during the Miocene-Quaternary period. The
main features of these geological and structural events are
the intersecting and interrupting features of several fault
systems with intermingled volcanic products. Localized
piles of basaltic flows and caldera are widespread in the
areas, which are associated with extensive faults and
fractures, important for groundwater recharge. The geo-
logical structures and volcanic series of the MER including
the study area have been well described (WoldeGabriel
et al. 1992; Abebe et al. 1998; Boccaletti et al. 1999;
Mahatsente et al. 1999; Mario et al. 1999; Abebe et al.
2007; Acocella et al. 2003; Korme et al. 2003).
The Miocene formation consist tuffs, ash flows and
pantelleritic ignimbrites constitute the lower unit in Adama-
Wonji basin. The ignimbrite flow of the Nazaret group is
highly fractured and exposures are widely observed in
highland areas near Adama and Iteya. The older trachyte
and trachyte basalts are found overlying the pantelleritic
ignimbrites of the Nazaret formation. These units are
massive and exposed between Wonji wetland and Adama.
The Pleistocene Wonji formation consists of unwelded
rhyolites, tuffs, pitchstones and basalts uncomformably
over the trachybasalts. The recent Holocene formations are
made of alluvial and lacustrine sediments deposited in
valleys around Koka, Adama and Wonji plains. Main
geological units and major stratigraphic sequences with
associated fault systems are shown in Fig. 2.
Hydrogeological setting
The Quaternary tectonics and volcanic activities cause land
deformation in Main Ethiopian Rift where Adama-Wonji
basin is the result of a series of rift-in-rift processes. The
volcanic units embedded along the NE–SW faults have
undergone collapsed, which created calderas such as Boku
and Gademsa (Acocella et al. 2002). The diversified fault
patterns in the Adama-Wonji basin are associated with
intensive fracture systems which could play an important
role in controlling groundwater recharge and discharge
systems.
The north and south-west massive volcanic outcrops are
truncated by intersected faults that favor groundwater
recharge. The contrast tilting direction of the south,
south-west and north mountain masses form circular
physiographic relief with synformal geometric shape. This
condition creates the convergence of surface water and
groundwater flow towards the low-lying plain of the
Wonji wetland. Regional groundwater inflow to the basin
is restricted to southwest of the study area through
Environ Earth Sci
Fig. 1 Location map of the
study area
Quaternary sediments and fractured ignimbrites. The
massive volcanic rocks typically basalts, trachytes and
ignimbrites makeup the recharging high relief areas
whereas the low-lying plain of Wonji is covered by high
permeable volcanic and alluvial sediments. The calibrated
numerical groundwater flow model of this basin estimate
hydraulic conductivity value of 9,112 m/day for formation
underlying the irrigation field. This value is large enough to
carry voluminous surface water to shallow aquifers
underlying Wonji farm.
The massive geological process of Miocene era gener-
ated the buildup of distinct slices of geomorphologic series
(Kinnaird 1998; Williams et al. 2004) that range in altitude
from 3,000 at Iteya to 1,500 m above sea level (m a.s.l) at
the Wonji plain. This topographic variation forms three
distinct climatic zones as humid around Iteya highlands
with altitude above 2,500 m a.s.l., sub-humid around Koka
with altitude between 1,600 and 1,800 m a.s.l. and semi
arid zone at Adama-Wonji lowlands where the altitude is
below 1,600 m a.s.l.
Rainfall and temperature varies with topography
(Fig. 3a). Annual rainfall range from 600 to 1,000 mm and
its distribution is highly tailored by topographic effects
whereas temperature varies from 15°C at the southern
highlands of Iteya to 24°C at the central lowlands near
Lake Koka. Assessment of long-term average annual
rainfall record at Adama, Wonji, and Koka stations located
within the studied area (Fig. 1) show no remarkable change
in rainfall trend during the study time (Fig. 4, middle) and
inter-annual rainfall pattern is poorly correlated with
groundwater level change (R2 = 0.26, Fig. 4, bottom)
which explains that rainfall could not be the factor for
groundwater level change.
Problem definition and objective
Analyses of groundwater level over 50 years span
(Table 1) from boreholes around the Wonji irrigation site
(Fig. 4, top) indicate rise of groundwater level beneath
Wonji wetland by about 20 m (Fig. 4, middle). This raises
the water table by 0.4 m/year, on average. Recently, in
2007, about 23 plastic tubes were installed within irrigation
field (Fig. 4, top) to monitor the groundwater level. Six
123
 Environ Earth Sci

Fig. 2 a Geological map and

rock stratigraphy; b geological
section across AB

Fig. 3 Rainfall and temperature

correlation with altitude (top)
and annual average areal rainfall
of Wonji area (bottom)

123
Environ Earth Sci
Fig. 4 Location of observation
well (top), inter-annual rainfall
pattern (average of three
stations) and annual
groundwater level change
(middle), and correlation
between rainfall trend and
groundwater table rise (bottom)
month data from these observation tubes show rise of
groundwater level by 0.44 m/over 6 months (Table 2).
Currently the depth to groundwater is 1–2 m below ground
surface, which was inferred to be 22 m before 1952. But,
there was no hydrogeological study conducted so far that
could explain the cause of this groundwater level changes
including mode of surface water and groundwater
interaction.
An integrated study based on geophysical resistivity
imaging (2D) and vertical deep sounding (VES) was con-
ducted at the Wonji irrigation field to understand the link
between irrigation water and the shallow aquifer system as
well as to realize the current concern of groundwater rise.
Furthermore, the study was aimed to analyze the interaction
between various groundwater flow systems including aqui-
fer configuration from the combined results of 2D tomog-
raphy and electrical sounding surveys.
A 2D imaging provides sufficient information about the
potential hydraulic connection between groundwater and
surface water systems as the method takes into account the
conductance of the geological materials as an indicator of
water movement such as direction and magnitude of
seepage flux. The focus of this assessment is to acquire
baseline information and describe the characteristics of
subsurface geological features with respect to their
hydrological response across the Wonji irrigation field.
It is anticipated that this scientific evidence will provide
basic understanding of the hydrological system of the
123
 Environ Earth Sci

Table 1 Boreholes in Adama-Wonji basin

Site name Altitude Year UTM_E UTM_N Well Water table (below Water table
(masl) depth (m) ground level) (m) altitude (masl)

Wonji Sugar Factory 1,540.00 1952 525200 935020 41 21 1,519.00

Wonji Sugar Factory 1,540.00 1953 525500 935300 33 21 1,519.00
Wonji Sugar Factory 1,540.00 1958 525800 935040 33 20 1,520.00
Shoa Sugar Factory 1,540.00 1962 523450 928350 52 18.1 1,521.90
Wonji camp K 1,540.00 1963 525690 924757 69 21.2 1,518.80
Wonji Sugar Factory 1,540.00 1970 525010 935030 24 18.6 1,521.40
Wonji Suger Cane 1,540.00 1980 525000 935000 35 16.18 1,523.82
Wonji Suger Cane 1,540.00 1981 528000 938000 28 10.06 1,529.95
Wonji Suger Cane 1,540.00 1982 523000 928000 18 10.93 1,529.07
Wonji melkahidha 1,540.00 1991 526026 937613 11 8 1,532.00
Wonji kuruftu 1,540.00 1993 525381 935748 10 7 1,533.00
KOKA 4 1,600.00 1953 518000 937000 44 27.4 1,572.60
KOKA 5 1,600.00 1956 518100 937000 44 25.9 1,574.10
KOKA 6 1,600.00 1958 502600 932100 44 29 1,571.00
HVA Koka Dam 1,603.00 1661 521900 937000 60 14 1,589.00
HVA Koka Dam 1,584.00 1962 520000 937800 81 23 1,561.00
HVA Koka Dam 1,595.00 1964 520900 937060 100 45 1,550.00
HVA Koka Dam 1,578.00 1965 520200 937030 80 31 1,547.00
HVA Koka Dam 1,600.00 1967 520200 937230 80 50 1,550.00
HVA Koka Dam 1,574.00 1968 524600 937000 100 27 1,547.00
HVA Koka Dam 1,560.00 1969 528000 937030 107 29 1,531.00
HVA Koka Dam 1,577.00 1970 520040 937050 73 31 1,546.00
NAZRET TANKEGNA 1,640.00 1953 531000 946200 128 108 1,532.00
NAZRET ETCA 1,620.00 1957 530000 943000 205 116 1,504.00
NAZRET WSSA 1,720.00 1959 532500 950500 199 172.7 1,547.30
Nazerath Itegu Hotel 1,650.00 1961 536000 944200 120 100 1,550.00
Nazerath Military Camp 1,600.00 1969 535100 952300 128 108 1,492.00
NAZRET TANKEGNA 1,640.00 1996 531000 946200 128 108 1,532.00
NAZRET ETCA 1,620.00 1997 530000 943000 187 116 1,504.00
NAZRET WSSA 8 1,720.00 1999 532500 950500 199 172.7 1,547.30
Wonji sugar cane 1,540.00 2007 525000 935000 3 1.0 1,539.00
Wonji Sugar cane 1,540.00 2008 528000 938000 3 0.6 1,539.4
Source: East Shoa water office (2008), (Dachasa 1999), Hydrogeology of Nazerta (Getahun 1987)

Wonji basin and give signals for decision makers and
irrigation managers for effective water use towards sus-
taining the irrigation farm as well as for future sound and
sustainable mitigation measures.
Materials and methods
Prior to field data acquisition, several preliminary surveys
were conducted including interpretation of geological
descriptions, geomorphologic set-up and hydrological
systems. In the initial step, the regional faults and fracture
patterns were identified to accurately map its spatial posi-
tion and to understand relief geometry of the Adama Wonji
basin. Field survey was conducted to select transects routes
for data acquisition that well elucidate the objective of the
study.
Sites for geophysical data acquisition were selected
across Wonji irrigation field taking into account the ori-
entation of geological structures to better track the lateral
variation in hydrogeological system of the area. The geo-
physical transects extend from basaltic area in the south
and covers distances of about 20 km passing through the
center of the irrigation field to the north direction (Fig. 5).
A total of 11 stations in four transects have been conducted
by 2D tomography covering Wonji irrigation field. VES
was conducted along one transect with six stations starting
from south and moving north, crossing Wonji irrigation
field (Fig. 8) to trace the orientation and location of fault

123
Environ Earth Sci

Table 2 Groundwater level measured in observation wells (2007/2008)

Site no. Location GW level below ground surface (cm) Change observed (cm)
Lat (X) Long (Y) Oct (2007) Nov (2007) Dec (2007) Jan (2008) Feb (2008) Mar (2008)

18 8.4384 39.2391 198 194 175 175 140 120 78

182 8.4277 39.2621 152 60 88 41 208 102 50
105 8.3908 39.2621 190 82 113 200 190 174 16
202 8.4081 39.2612 96 170 187 98 105 80 16
101 8.3908 39.2429 65 84 86 79 57 56 9
123 8.3810 39.2345 136 124 104 29 115 85 51
178 8.4277 39.2429 175 97 110 105 85 130 45
52 8.4156 39.2429 132 76 100 69 95 114 18
195 8.4156 39.2626 180 79 98 187 90 94 86
192 8.4222 39.2653 80 25 175 38 59 44 36
131 8.3818 39.2696 47 39 50 82 41 20 27
159 8.3714 39.2345 208 132 94 205 210 146 62
198 8.3695 39.2534 126 97 103.4 93 163 86 40
82 8.3997 39.2534 219 116 145 67 21 128 91
22 8.3802 39.2401 92 168 109 74 115 105 -13
62 8.3795 39.2612 138 185 110 87 123 160 -22
WRS 8.3896 39.2566 265 212 112 206 205 200 65
La-9 8.8215 39.8510 69 104 143 90 26 43
La-46 8.8313 39.8685 143 141 134 70 68 75
S-34 8.8283 39.9430 149 157 118 117 65 84
W-7 8.8119 39.8701 147 21 10 41 106
Y-5 8.8260 39.8666 78 70 102 79 67 11
Z-28 8.8674 39.9426 143 252 131 209 115 28
Z-39 8.8725 39.9549 200 268 278 213 136 64
Change in groundwater Storage over 6 months (average) 0.44 m
Data source: Megersa (Wonji Sugar Factory, 2008)

and geological contacts which have considerable effect on
groundwater circulation, as well as to map the various
aquifer systems. Results from geophysical imagery have
been integrated with other datasets including well data and
geological information to assist in the interpretation of
groundwater and surface water interactions.
Geophysical survey was conducted using the SYSCAL
R1 PLUS Switch-72 multinode resistivity imaging unit.
This automated resistivity system perform stationary sur-
veys with the electrode cable laid along the horizontal line.
It features an internal switching board for 72 electrodes and
an internal 200 W power source. Four strings of cables
with 18 electrode take-out each 5 m spacing are connected
to electrodes plugged into the ground. The output current is
automatically adjusted to optimize the input voltage values
and ensure the best measurement quality. Its typical
resistivity accuracy is 0.5% and performs noise reduction
through continuous stacking selectable from 1 to 255
stacks. In the resistivity meter itself are located the relays
which ensure the switching of those electrodes according to
a sequence of reading predefined and stored in the internal
memory of the unit. The various combinations of trans-
mitting (A, B) and receiving (M, N) pairs of electrodes
construct the mixed profiling section. In the field data
analysis was conducted as it allows on-the-spot determi-
nation of the optimum survey parameters and an assess-
ment of the degree of success of the instrument.
ELECTRE II software (provided with SYSCAL unit)
permits to load a preset sequence of measurement
(Schlumberger-Wenner, in this case) into the internal
memory of the resistivity meter. This program displays the
theoretical depth of penetration reached by the sequence
(65 m in this case). The acquired data is transferred from
the SYSCAL Unit to a PC by PROSYS software (also
provided with SYSCAL Unit), which performs an auto-
matic filtering such as noise elimination and topographic
correction. After performing all necessary correction and
data filtering, data were exported to RES2DINV Inversion
software which performs a rapid pseudo-section inversion
to true resistivity 2D section (Luis et al. 2003).

123

Fig. 5 Location map of 2D imaging
Results and discussions
The obtained resistivity data have been transformed to the
corresponding layer taking into account the geology of the
area and the obtained resistivity value. Fault systems and
aquifer geometry have been traced from the geoelectrical
section constructed from successive stations determined
according to topographical set-up and geological struc-
tures. Corriols and Dahlin (2008) applied similar geo-
physical method to obtain detailed information about the
geometry of the different hydrogeological layers in Nica-
ragua. Figure 6 shows selective 2D inversion whereas
Figs. 7 and 8 are the geoelectric sections constructed from
2D and VES inversions.
The geoelectric section from 2D tomography (Fig. 7)
and electrical sounding (Fig. 8) are both in good agreement
showing the aquifer geometry, including the lithological
profile and geological structures, important for groundwa-
ter circulation. The apparent resistivity values reflect large
variations in moisture content of the subsurface materials
which explain the complexity of the geological and
hydrogeological condition of Wonji basin. Sites where
strong hydraulic connection between irrigation water and
shallow aquifer system exist have been identified by the 2D
tomography (Fig. 6). The orientation and location of major
faults including fissures and fractures are well depicted
both by 2D tomography and VES profiling conducted along
selected transects (Figs. 7 and 8).
Result from both 2D tomography and VES show that the
first top layer of 40–50 meters beneath the Wonji wetland
is characterized by very low resistivity ranges (1–5 Xm)
123
Environ Earth Sci
which corresponds to homogeneous saturated sediments.
The low resistivity of the formation indicates high salinity
which could be resulted by groundwater evapotranspiration
that leaves salts in the soil (Maxwell 2006). This layer
corresponds to the alluvial and lacustrine aquifers which
have strong hydraulic connection with irrigation water.
This unit attains its maximum thickness up to 100 m in the
axial zone of the N–S running fault (Fig. 8, VES-05) and
shortly pinches out laterally away from Wonji irrigation
center. The formation below this unit is marked by inter-
mediate resistivity (10–80 Xm) and in places truncated by
faults. This corresponds to the ignimbrite bed which is
partially fractured and weathered. This unit could be a
leaky layer as it is associated with fissures and fractures
through which the local and regional groundwater flow
systems are connected.
Further explanation from both 2D tomography and VES
is that the saturated layers progressively become deeper
outward from the irrigation field (Fig. 8). This remarkable
variation in saturation depth in Wonji area suggests struc-
turally controlled flow systems which is related to the
orientation of faults described in the geoelectrical sections.
Previous study (Abiye and Haile 2008) suggests the
existence of fault systems around Boku, adjacent to Wonji,
that control deep hydrothermal circulations. In this geo-
physical imagery, the location and orientation of two major
faults that control groundwater circulation have been
traced. The first fault oriented NW–SE and located south of
Wonji farm whereas the second fault runs N–S and located
north-east of Wonji near Boku ridge. These two major fault
systems create a down throw of the Wonji land mass. This
gives a synformal geometric outline for Wonji basin which
constrains the hydrological flow towards Wonji plain.
Ghiglieri et al. (2009) noted similar geological structures in
hydrogeology of the Nurra Region, Sardinia (Italy), and
reported the significance of geological structures in con-
straining recharge and groundwater circulation.
As a concluding remark, the layers under Wonji wetland
can be categorized into three resistivity layer models. The
first layer is the top layer with very low resistivity between
1 and 10 Xm. This corresponds to the saturated alluvial and
gravel sediments. The thickness of this layer range from
1 m to 45 meters but a 100 m thickness at center of irri-
gation field is also detected (Fig. 8, VES-05). This large
variation in depth over short horizontal distance could be
caused by NW–SE and N–S oriented faults. In this layer
the local flow systems recharged from local rainfall are the
major flow systems. The second layer corresponds to the
weathered ignimbrite which is found at the depth of
45–60 m. This layer is marked by intermediate resistivity
values between 20 and 100 Xm. Large contrast in resis-
tivity of this layer corresponds to lateral variation in degree
of rock weathering. This layer act as a leaky layer through
Environ Earth Sci

Fig. 6 Selective 2D inversion in Winji irrigation field

which preferential vertical flow of groundwater occur. The regional flow systems from Upper Awash basin
third layer below 60 m is marked by low resistivity predominate.
between 40 and 80 Xm and corresponds to weathered and Legesse and Ayenew (2006) have pointed out the
saturated ignimbrites and trachybasalts. In this layer, the excess use of surface water for irrigation that could cause

123

Fig. 7 Geoelectrical section from the 2D Imaging
change in groundwater hydrology in MER. Wonji irri-
gation is one of the large scale irrigation located within
this MER where water hold in canals is expected to
recharge the shallow unconfined aquifer and cause rise in
groundwater table.
As discussed in (Nachabe et al. 1999), furrow irrigation
technique is not the most efficient irrigation method, but its
low-running cost, low-tech and lesser receptiveness of
evaporation makes this method selective and advantageous
than other irrigation methods such as low-energy spray,
center pivot, and drip irrigation methods. The long-term
drawback of furrow irrigation is that it can induce volu-
minous surface water to subsurface causing the rise of
groundwater in underlying shallow aquifers, a phenomenon
which in due course can change the area to marsh lands.
According to Ayars et al. (2006), about 50% of water from
irrigation canals which use furrow method is wasted
mainly by infiltration and are not used by the crops. As
none of the earth materials is absolutely impervious to
water (Reily 2001), water held in canals for extended time
period could slowly soak through alluvial sediments and
recharge to shallow groundwater.
123
Environ Earth Sci
If the ongoing rise of groundwater tables continues,
groundwater flooding in farm area could take place which
result in the loss of productive lands. In addition to irri-
gation water, voluminous of water could also infiltrate to
shallow aquifer from Awash River. Awash River discharge
has been regularly measured at Wonji station and 35 years
of data show that the discharge of the river varies from
1.26 9 108 to 1.533 9 109 m3/year. However, the dis-
charge measured at Wonji could not represent the natural
flow of the river due to the fact that the river flow is reg-
ulated at Koka dam upstream of Wonji for hydropower
purpose. In many circumstances, particularly during heavy
rain events, Awash River spill over its natural canal and
overwhelm wider areas. During such events, momentous
infiltration to groundwater could occur through fissures and
fractured rocks. Anthony (2008) has reported similar
problems of Ord River irrigation area in northern Australia
where groundwater level has risen in elevation by 10–20 m
during the past 40 years.
This study depicted important geological structures such
as faults and fissures through which irrigation water and
shallow groundwater are connected. This result can be used
Environ Earth Sci
Fig. 8 VES inversions and geoelectrical section across VES stations. Note that both depth and resistivity are in log scales
to develop broader understanding of the nature and con-
figuration of groundwater systems and their relationships
with irrigation water. This is particularly important for
those involved in management of Wonji irrigation project
to assess and revise their position within the overall scheme
of effective water use for sustainable irrigation develop-
ment without causing unpredicted lateral environmental
damage and future changes and threats.
From the basic equation of water budget for a basin:
Inflow ¼ Outflow  Change in storage
This equation for Wonji basin groundwater budget can be
defined as:
Groundwater inflow ¼ Groundwater outflow  D
Expanding Eq. 2 into flow component as:
RGI þ LGI þ RAR þ RIW þ RSR ¼ GO þ GET  DS
where RGI = Regional groundwater inflow; LGI = Local
groundwater inflow; RAR = Recharge from Awash River;
RIW = Recharge from irrigation water; RSR = Recharge
from surface runoff; GO = Groundwater out flow;
GET = Groundwater evapotranspiration, ±DS = Change
in storage.
Assuming that the parameters RGI, LGI, RSR, and GO
are constant under normal hydrological conditions and
canceling these terms, the equation becomes:
RAR þ RIW ¼ GET  DS ð4Þ
These terms are the major water budget components for the
Wonji basin, sensitive to human activities which need
proper management that can be realized through under-
standing modes of flow process with subsurface geology. A
numerical groundwater flow modeling has been carried out
ð1Þ
to evaluate the water budget of this basin and understand
the position of groundwater head with respect to surface
waters. The model is composed of 40 rows and 44 columns
ð2Þ with uniform 1 km cell size. The size of the model was
constructed taking into account data availability and pur-
pose of the model described above.
The studied area is concomitant to the Upper Awash
ð3Þ basin in downstream side, thus the basin receives regional
groundwater inflow exclusively from Upper Awash basin
in its western boundary. This boundary across which
regional inflow is taking place is imposed as constant influx
boundary condition. The amount of this influx is equal to
the outflow from Upper Awash basin (3.608 9 1010 m3/
year) determined by previous study (Yitbarek 2009). The
eastern boundary across which outflow is taking place is
123
 Environ Earth Sci

The system was simulated with MODFLOW software

Fig. 9 Adam-Wonji basin model properties with computed contours
of ground water head. The arrow shows ground water flow direction
whereas the polygon within the field is Wonji irrigation site
(McDonald and Harbaugh 1988) under steady state
condition.
The model was calibrated employing the automatic
calibration code PEST (Doherty 2004) built in Ground-
water Vista (GWV) using heads measured in available
wells located within the model domain. The water budget
of the calibrated model (Table 3) shows that the outflow of
river leakage is much higher than its inflow suggesting the
river is gaining more waters from groundwater than it is
losing. This means that head in aquifer is above river
bottom elevation. This is in good agreement with result
from 2D tomography which reveals the hydraulic connec-
tivity between surface waters and groundwater at Wonji
farm site.

Conclusion
Table 3 Adama-Wonji basin water balance and model performance
statistics The vertical and horizontal contacts between the different
3
Water balance (m /year) geological series of the Wonji area are resolved using two-
Component Inflow Outflow In–out
dimensional high-resolution geophysical imaging method
which is a very effective means of characterizing shallow
Storage – – – fractured aquifers. Results from geophysical surveys show
8 10
Constant head 1.54 9 10 2.746 9 10 -2.73 9 1010 that the Wonji aquifers locally consist of alluvial sediments
10
Influx 3.608 9 10 – 3.608 9 1010 and fractured ignimbrites, generally within low electrical
6
Wells – 2.094 9 10 -2.094 9 106 resistivity. The low electrical resistivity corresponds to
9 10
River leakage 4.454 9 10 1.36 9 10 -9.146 9 109 high permeable and saturated formations. Thus, it can be
8 8
Head Dep Boun 9.226 9 10 7.56 9 10 1.67 9 108 difficult to plan the exact water requirement for irrigation
Recharge 2.163 9 108 – 2.163 9 108 which is based on furrow irrigation techniques as large loss
Total 4.184 9 1010 4.182 9 1010 9.6 9 106 of ponded water could soak into the groundwater through
% Discrepancy 0.02 the highly weathered and fractured formation. This situa-
Model performance measures
tion is observed from geophysical result which clearly
shows the existence of strong hydraulic connection
Sum of residual mean -0.8 m between irrigation water and the shallow unconfined
Sum of squared residuals 11.91 m2 aquifer at the Wonji wetland. Result from numerical
Absolute residual mean 1.08 m groundwater flow model also suggests head in aquifer
Residual standard deviation 1.03 m above the bottom elevation of river bed which is in good
Correlation coefficient (R2) 0.99 agreement with result of 2D tomography. Furthermore, the
model also propose high hydraulic conductivity layer under
Wonji which can transmit large quantity of surface water to
considered as general head boundary (GHB) whereas the the underlying aquifers.
massive volcanic hills in south and northeast of the area Excessive and continuous recharge to shallow ground-
which forms water divide with adjacent river basins are water will cause groundwater flooding which could result
imposed as no flow boundaries of the model (Fig. 9). in loss of productive land. Therefore, it is highly recom-
Recharge and hydraulic conductivity for the model were mended to work towards ensuring sustainability of irriga-
determined by soil–water balance method and pumping tion development and maintain natural environment.
tests, respectively. As revealed by 2D tomography, the A stable relationship should be maintained between these
layer forming aquifer is composed of alluvial sediment and two objectives both now and in the future, while potential
weathered ignimbrite, thus unconfined one layer was con- conflicts between these objectives should be reduced
sidered as model layer property. Furthermore, Lake Koka through appropriate irrigation practices which will be
and Awash River are taken, respectively, as constant head realized through full understanding of the watershed
and river boundary conditions in model parameterization. dynamics including hydrogeological systems. This can be

123
Environ Earth Sci
realized when irrigation development takes into account
the basin water balance which is useful in reducing the
negative impacts of irrigation practices on sustainability of
the environment (Jensen 2007). This research could pro-
vide baseline information towards this effort.
Acknowledgments This study was undertaken in the framework of
the MAWARI research project (Sustainable Management of Water
Resource in the East-African Rift system), funded by the French
Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs. The financial support
(grant for the first author related to his PhD at the University of
Poitiers in France and the field works in Ethiopia) received through
the CIFEG (Centre International pour la Formation et les Echanges
en Géosciences) is highly acknowledged. East Shoa Water office
(Oromia Regional State) and Wonji irrigation Factory are warmly
appreciated for their valuable contribution in providing data and
unreserved cooperation during field work.
References
Abebe T, Mazzarin F, Innocenti F, Manetti P (1998) The Yerer-Tullu
Wellel Volcanotectonic lineament: a transtensional structure in
central Ethiopia and the associated magmatic activity. J Afr
Earth Sci 26(1):135–150
Abebe B, Acocella V, Korme T, Ayalew D (2007) Quaternary
faulting and volcanism in the Main Ethiopian Rift. J Afr Earth
Sci 48:115–124
Abiye TA, Haile T (2008) Geophysical exploration of the Boku
geothermal area, Central Ethiopian Rift. Geothermics. doi:
10.1016/j.geothermics
Acocella V, Korme T, Salvini F, Funiciello R (2002) Elliptic calderas
in the Ethiopian Rift: control of pre-existing structures.
J Volcanol Geotherm Res 119:189–203
Acocella V, Korme T, Salvini F (2003) Formation of normal faults
along the axial zone of the Ethiopian Rift. J Struct Geol 25:503–
513
Anthony J (2008) Rainfall and irrigation controls on groundwater rise
and salinity risk in the Ord River Irrigation Area, northern
Australia. Hydrogeol J 16:1159–1175
Ayars J, Christen E, Soppe R, Meyer W (2006) The resource potential
of in situ shallow groundwater use in irrigation agriculture: a
review. Irr Sci 24:147–160
Boccaletti M, Mazzuoli R, Bonini M, Trua T, Abebe B (1999) Plio-
Quaternary volcanotectonic activity in the northern sector of the
Main Ethiopian Rift: relationships with oblique rifting. J Afr
Earth Sci 29(4):679–698
Corriols M, Dahlin T (2008) Geophysical characterization of the
León-Chinandega aquifer, Nicaragua. Hydrogeol J 16:349–362
Doherty J (2004) PEST-model independent parameter estimation
software. S.S.Papadopulos & Associates, Inc. http://www.sspa.
com
Ghiglieri G, Oggiano G, Fidelibus M, Alemayehu T, Barberi G,
Vernier A (2009) Hydrogeology of the Nurra Region, Sardina
(Italy): basement-cover influences on groundwater occurrence
and hydrochemistry. Hydrogeol J 17:447–466
Jensen ME (2007) Beyond irrigation efficiency. Irr Sci 25:233–245
Kinnaird J (1998) Aspect of tensional magmatism. J Afr Earth Sci
26(1):1–3
Korme T, Acocella V, Abebe B (2003) The role of pre-existing
structures in the origin, propagation and architecture of faults in
the Main Ethiopian Rift. Gondwana Res 7(2):467–479
Kos C (2008) The environmental effect of salinity load in Great
Menderes Basin irrigation schemes. Environ Monit Assess
146:479–489
Legesse D, Ayenew T (2006) Effect of improper water and land
resource utilization on the central main Ethiopian rift lakes. Quat
Int 148:8–18
Luis A, Gallardo Max, Meju A (2003) Characterization of heteroge-
neous near-surface materials by joint 2D inversion of dc
resistivity and seismic data. Geophys Res Lett 30(13):1658
Mahammad R, Emdad A, Steven R, Raine R, Rod J, Smith A, Hossein
F (2004) Effect of Water quality on soil structure and infiltration
under furrow irrigation. Irr Sci 23:55–60
Mahatsente R, Jentzsch G, Jahr T (1999) Crustal structure of the Main
Ethiopian Rift from gravity data: 3-dimensional modeling.
Tectonophysics 313:363–382
Mario M, Roberto M, Marco B, Taresa T, Abebe B (1999) Plio-
Quaternary volcanotectonic activity in the northern sector of
main Ethiopian Rift. J Afr Earth Sci 29(4):679–698
McDonald MG, Harbaugh AW (1988) A modular three-dimensional
finite difference groundwater flow model, Chapter 6-A1. USGS
TWRI, 586 pp
Michael M, Seleshi B (2007) Irrigation practices in Ethiopia:
characteristics of selected irrigation schemes. International
Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 80P (IWMI
Working Paper 124). ISBN 978-92-9090-683-4
Nachabe M, Ahuja L, Butters G (1999) Bromide transport under
sprinkler and flood irrigation for no-till soil condition. J Hydrol
214(1):8–17
Reily E (2001) System and boundary conceptualization in ground-
water flow simulation. Application of hydraulics, Book 3. USGS.
ISBN-0-0607-96648-3
Smith AJ (2008) Rainfall and irrigation controls on groundwater rise
and salinity risk in the Old River irrigation area, Northern
Australia. Hydrogeol J 16:1159–1175
Williams F, Williams M, Aumento F (2004) Tensional fissures and
crustal extension rates in the northern part of the main Ethiopian
Rift. J Afr Earth Sci 38:183–197
WoldeGabriel G, Robert C, Walter T, James L, William K (1992)
Geochronology and distribution of silicic volcanic rocks of
Pliopleistocene age from the central sector of the Main Ethiopian
Rift. Quat Int 13(14):6–76
Yitbarek A (2009) Hydrogeological and hydrochemical framework of
complex volcanic system in the Upper Awash River basin,
Central Ethiopia: with special emphasis on inter-basins ground-
water transfer between Blue Nile and Awash rivers. PhD Thesis,
University of Poitiers, France
123
 Elsevier Editorial System(tm) for Journal of African Earth Sciences
Manuscript Draft

Manuscript Number:

Title: Geospatial distribution and enrichment mechanism of fluoride in volcanic aquifers of the Middle
Awash basin, Northern Main Ethiopian Rift

Article Type: Research Paper

Keywords: Fluoride; Geothermics; Groundwater; Main Ethiopian Rift; Middle Awash basin;
Geostatistics

Corresponding Author: Mr Wakgari Furi Konchi, MSc

Corresponding Author's Institution: University of Poitiers

First Author: Wakgari Furi Konchi, MSc

Order of Authors: Wakgari Furi Konchi, MSc; Moumtaz Razack, Professor; Tamiru Alemayehu,
Professor; Tenalem Ayenew, Professor; Dagnachew Legesse, PhD

Abstract: Considering the anomalous concentration of fluoride in the ground waters of the Middle
Awash basin, a comprehensive survey on the enrichment mechanism as well as its association with
common hydrochemical variables was conducted using multivariate statistical methods, hierarchal
cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA). Results from HCA indicate a marked
heterogeneous spatial distribution of fluoride concentration where the magnitude of concentration
varies more slowly in SSW-NNE along the Wonji Fault Belt (WFB) than it does in E-W away from this
belt. This is strongly associated with the geothermics in the area which are prominent in the basin
interior. Furthermore, result from PCA show the magnitude of fluoride concentration is higher in
groundwater derived from non calcium aquifers which are widely distributed in the rift floor.
Hydrochemical processes which involve cation exchange reaction cause a systematic removal of Ca2+
from solution from highland towards the rift floor. This geochemical reaction enhances the enrichment
of F- in groundwater along flow direction. In this regard, the geothermal belt of the basin interior is a
hydrogeological block marked by high load of fluoride whereas plateau areas are low fluoride zones.
The geospatial distribution of fluoride to the basin scale was estimated using the kriging procedure.
Appropriate discrimination of the local and regional aquifer is important in order to secure low
fluoride water supply for the community in the basin.
Cover letter

Dear Editors,

This work is based on the fluoride problem which is affecting the groundwater resources in Ethiopian
Rift valley (East Africa). More than one million peoples are exposed to this high level of fluoride in
groundwater due to lack of alternative resources. Furthermore, exposure to this high fluoride waters
remains unsolved mainly due to lack of adequate knowledge on fluoride enrichment mechanism in
groundwater as well as its spatial distribution. This study provides such basic information that can be
useful for water resources authorities in study basin towards their effort in providing potable water
for the community. The methodology and concepts embedded in this research can be also a
reference for future analogous researches. Thus, we hope the editors will take this into
consideration during their reviewing process.
Regards,

The Authors,
Abstract
Click here to download Abstract: Abstract submited.doc

Considering the anomalous concentration of fluoride in the ground waters of the Middle Awash basin,
a comprehensive survey on the enrichment mechanism as well as its association with common
hydrochemical variables was conducted using multivariate statistical methods, hierarchal cluster
analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA). Results from HCA indicate a marked
heterogeneous spatial distribution of fluoride concentration where the magnitude of concentration
varies more slowly in SSW-NNE along the Wonji Fault Belt (WFB) than it does in E-W away from
this belt. This is strongly associated with the geothermics in the area which are prominent in the basin
interior. Furthermore, result from PCA show the magnitude of fluoride concentration is higher in
groundwater derived from non calcium aquifers which are widely distributed in the rift floor.
Hydrochemical processes which involve cation exchange reaction cause a systematic removal of Ca 2+
from solution from highland towards the rift floor. This geochemical reaction enhances the enrichment
of F- in groundwater along flow direction. In this regard, the geothermal belt of the basin interior is a
hydrogeological block marked by high load of fluoride whereas plateau areas are low fluoride zones.
The geospatial distribution of fluoride to the basin scale was estimated using the kriging procedure.
Appropriate discrimination of the local and regional aquifer is important in order to secure low
fluoride water supply for the community in the basin.

Keyword: Fluoride, Geothermics Groundwater, Main Ethiopian Rift, Middle Awash

basin, Geostatistics
*Research Highlights

Research highlight

 Groundwater circulating in the Middle Awash basin interior has high load of fluoride much
higher than the permitted standard that can cause serious fluoride intoxication
 High geothermics in the basin interior is triggering fluoride enrichment in groundwater
 Multivariate Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and result from stable isotopes indicate
geochemical reaction involving cation exchange reaction is removing Ca2+ from solution in
the flow direction. This process is leading to the progressive enrichment of fluoride along
flow direction towards rift floor
 Multivariate Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) and geospatial kriging of fluoride distribution
shows a remarkable trend of high fluoride in groundwater constrained within the active
tectonic zone of the Wonji fault belt
 Groundwaters marked by high temperature and pH contain high level of fluoride.
 Field measurement of pH and water temperature can provide information on the level of
fluoride content of groundwater. This can be cost effective method of groundwater quality
assurance at insitu before well construction and handing over to community.
*Manuscript
Click here to download Manuscript: Flouride article ( submittedl).doc Click here to view linked References

1 Geospatial distribution and enrichment mechanism of fluoride in volcanic aquifers of the

2 Middle Awash basin, Northern Main Ethiopian Rift

1
3 Wakgari Furi*, Moumtaz Razack1, Tamiru Alemayehu2, Tenalem Ayenew3, Dagnachew Legesse3
4
1
5 Department of Hydrogeology UMR 6269, University de Poitiers, 86000 Poitiers, France
6 * Corresponding author, email: wakawakgari@yahoo.com
2
7 Schools of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa,
3
8 Department of Earth Sciences, Addis Ababa University, P.O.Box 1176 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia ,
9
10
11 Abstract
12 Considering the anomalous concentration of fluoride in the ground waters of the Middle Awash basin, a
13 comprehensive survey on the enrichment mechanism as well as its association with common
14 hydrochemical variables was conducted using multivariate statistical methods, hierarchal cluster analysis
15 (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA). Results from HCA indicate a marked heterogeneous
16 spatial distribution of fluoride concentration where the magnitude of concentration varies more slowly in
17 SSW-NNE along the Wonji Fault Belt (WFB) than it does in E-W away from this belt. This is strongly
18 associated with the geothermics in the area which are prominent in the basin interior. Furthermore, result
19 from PCA show the magnitude of fluoride concentration is higher in groundwater derived from non
20 calcium aquifers which are widely distributed in the rift floor. Hydrochemical processes which involve
21 cation exchange reaction cause a systematic removal of Ca2+ from solution from highland towards the rift
22 floor. This geochemical reaction enhances the enrichment of F- in groundwater along flow direction. In
23 this regard, the geothermal belt of the basin interior is a hydrogeological block marked by high load of
24 fluoride whereas plateau areas are low fluoride zones. The geospatial distribution of fluoride to the basin
25 scale was estimated using the kriging procedure. Appropriate discrimination of the local and regional
26 aquifer is important in order to secure low fluoride water supply for the community in the basin.
27
28
29
30 Keyword: Fluoride, Geothermics Groundwater, Main Ethiopian Rift, Middle Awash basin,
31 Geostatistics
32

1
33
34
35 Introduction
36 Fluoride has beneficial effects at low concentration in drinking-water, but exposure to excessive fluoride
37 is known to giving rise to a number of adverse health effects. High dose of fluoride is known to cause
38 mild dental fluorosis and damage brain and neuron as well as reproductive system as the level and period
39 of exposure increases (Whitford, 1997; WHO 2004; Fawel et al., 2006; US National Research Council,
40 2006). Studies by Limeback et al., (2007), and Maas (2007) showed that high fluoride in waters can
41 increase the erosion of lead from water pipes connected with high fluoride waters leading to high risk of
42 lead accumulation in blood. Ingesting of high concentration of fluoride is known to cause severe skeletal
43 fluorosis and extreme bone deformity in several parts of the world, including China (Genxu and
44 Guodong, 2001; Lin et al., 2004), India (Kumar et al., 2001), Kenya (Moturi et al., 2002), Israel (Kafri et
45 al., 1989), and Ethiopia (Haimanot et al., 1987; Gizaw, 1996; Chernet et al., 2001; Wondwossen et al.,
46 2004). It is primarily associated with the consumption of drinking-water containing elevated levels of
47 fluoride.
48 One of the most well-known volcanic belts of the world associated with high fluoride is the East
49 African Rift system which runs from Jordan down to Mozambique in the south (Alemayehu, 2000). Study
50 by MacDonald and Gibson (1969) found high fluoride concentration of about 400mg/kg from Obsidian of
51 Chabbi and Corbetti volcanoes located in the Main Ethiopian rift. Peccerillo and Yirgu (1996) reported
52 the Wonji and Gedemsa volcanic block composed of mica, pyroxene and amphiboles as sources of high
53 fluoride.
54 High fluoride in lakes, water supply of the estate farms and towns as well as its health impact has
55 been reported by different studies conducted in the Main Ethiopian Rift. Four areas, Wonji, Alemtena,
56 Metahara and Awassa have been identified as areas having fluoride problems. Lester (1974) noted the
57 skeletal fluorosis in the Wonji Shoa sugar estates due to consumption of high fluoridated waters. Various
58 studies (Olsson, 1978; Haimanot et al., 1987; Wondwossen et al., 2004) also showed the prevalence of
59 severe dental fluorosis and caries of children living in Wonji and Hawassa areas.
60 Recently, fluoride measurement in 138 domestic wells collected from all over Ethiopia was
61 conducted and reported that 33 % have fluoride above 1.5 mg/l with the high magnitude constrained
62 within the Main Ethiopian Rift (Reimann et al., 2003). Few authors reported high fluoride content of
63 thermal waters of the MER and noted that the precipitation of calcite in presence of high temperature led
64 to increase of fluoride in solution (Gizaw, 1996; Chernet et al., 2001; Alemayehu et al., 2006)
65
66 Description of the study area

2
67 The studied area, the Middle Awash basin, is located in central part of the Main Ethiopian Rift
68 (MER) within the limits of 70, 50’ to 90, 40’N latitude and 380, 55’ to 400, 45’E longitude (Figure
69 1). The area is characterized by intense commercial and traditional farming with sparse
70 population settlement. Agricultural activities and settlement are envisaged to increase in the
71 future in the basin which demands provision of clean water supply.
72
73 [Figure 1]
74
75 Geological and hydrogeological setting
76 Middle Awash basin is marked by two distinct landscapes created by the Miocene -Pliocene
77 geological activities of the rift. These land groups are the mountain blocks bounding the
78 rift floor and the central rift floor trending NNE -SSW. The mountain blocks are
79 characterized by a series of giant step faults each producing a steep escarpment and flat top plateau. The
80 calci-alkaline rocks composed of basalt, ignimbrite, and trachybasalt occupy these landmasses. On the
81 other hand, the extensional rifting forms a downward throw of landmass below 1000 m
82 a.s.l in the central part of the area that corresponds to the rift floor. The rift floor is
83 covered with relatively recent formations mainly composed of pumice, scoria, tuff and lithic
84 volcanoclastic (Acocella et al., 2002). The lowland of the rift is dominated by active
85 volcanic centers which are marked by seismic, volcanic, and low magnitude earth quakes
86 (Boccaletti et al., 1999). Tectonics in the form of tensional fissures and faults with low
87 vertical displacement are localized within this rift floor (Ebinger and Casey, 2001; Abebe
88 et al., 2005; Keir et al., 2006; Keranen and Klemperer, 2007). Figure 2 shows the geology
89 of the study area with associated faults.
90
91 [Figure 2]
92
93 The massive rocks in the highlands are characterized by well-developed fracture systems which
94 make them effective aquifers. Groundwater in these regions circulates in the deeper unit within the
95 fractured portion of the formation and flow is generally towards the rift floor from the adjacent highlands.
96 Ground waters circulating in the highland regions are slightly mineralized because of fast circulation
97 enhanced by high hydraulic gradient whereas those in the rift floor are highly mineralized because of flat
98 topography and high geothermics of this region which allow strong water-rock reaction.

3
 99 Two principal rock groups form the main aquifers in the rift floor. The alluvial sediment which
100 consists of lacustrine and fluvial deposit forms local shallow aquifers in valley plains whereas the
101 volcanic rocks predominantly pumice, scoria, and lithic volcanoclastics which occupy wider areas of this
102 land setting are the main aquifers. Groundwater of the study area is strongly processed and
103 physicochemically altered in this rift floor due to strong interaction between groundwater with mantle
104 materials.
105
106 Problem definition and Objective
107 In Middle Awash basin, surface waters are generally scarce due to the arid climate and erratic rainfall of
108 the area and groundwater, the main water supply source, is largely contaminated by high load of fluoride.
109 Thus exposure of people to high fluoride water supply across the rift is still the main health problem due
110 to the lack of study to identify alternative water supply sources.
111 Therefore, the main objective of the study is to understand the spatial distribution of fluoride in
112 natural waters and the mode of enrichment. As a matter of fact, a comprehensive survey of fluoride in the
113 groundwater was conducted to understand its mode of enrichment and its geospatial distribution
114 throughout the studied basin. In this study, fluoride association with common hydrochemical variables
115 and hydrogeochemical processes that cause high level of fluoride in groundwater have been examined. It
116 is anticipated that this study will provide valuable information on geospatial distribution of fluoride in the
117 basin that can be useful in identifying sites of productive aquifers towards effective use of groundwater
118 resources of the area.
119
120 Methodology
121 This work is part of the extensive research on groundwater resources evaluation and quality assessment of
122 the Middle Awash basin. To attain this objective, all the necessary data have been thoroughly collected by
123 repeated explorations in the field. The hydrogeochemical characteristics of water were obtained from
124 physicochemical laboratory and in situ analyze of water samples. The collected samples include 37 wells,
125 5springs, 2 rivers, and a lake at different physiographic regions. The sampling sites are shown on Figure
126 1.
127 In order to fetch water for analysis from wells, the water was initially purged for some
128 time before taking the sample and samples were collected at the wellhead while keeping
129 pumping. Springs were sampled at their emerging points using plastic syringe. To account the
130 physiochemical change that would take place, all field based parameters such as temperature, pH, EC, Eh
131 and alkalinity were measured in situ. Hydrochemical compositions of water samples were analyzed
132 at the laboratory of the University of Poitiers, France, by flame atomic absorption spectrometry (for Ca2+,

4
133 Mg+, Na+, K+, and SiO2) and ion chromatography (for F-, Br-, Cl-, NO3-, and SO42-). Table 1 shows the
134 hydrochemical results from samples collected in the field. Table 2 contains fluoride data obtained from
135 regional water authorities used as supplementary data in kriging process.
136
137 [Table 1]
138 [Table 2]
139
140 Results and discussion
141 The hydrochemical results obtained from field data (Table 1) show that 60% of the samples have fluoride
142 above the permitted WHO standard (>1.5 mg/l) while 12.5% are below the limited standard (< 0.6 mg/l).
143 Some samples such as Burqa Hora (number 35), Ethiocutting (number 10), Challe (number 20), Bati
144 bora (number 8), Shanan silase (number 36), and Tututti (number 27), and Didibsa (18) in Figure 1, have
145 fluoride concentration much higher than the permitted level and can cause adverse health problem.
146 Multivariate statistical methods were used to resolve samples into distinctive clusters and produce
147 the associations among hydrochemical variables according to their loadings to infer the underlying
148 geochemical factors related to fluoride enrichment in ground waters of the study area. Results from HCA
149 (Hierarchical Cluster Analysis) and PCA (Principal Component Analysis) were evaluated with
150 observed hydrochemical facies and stable isotopes data to understand the geochemical reaction processes
151 causing fluoride enrichment in water. Furthermore, local physiography, climate and geological conditions
152 have been taken into consideration in analyzing the hydrochemical data. Viero et al., (2008) used similar
153 technique to study the origin of fluoride in the granitic aquifer of Porto Alegre, Southern Brazil.
154
155 Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA)
156 The purpose of HCA is to organize different samples into distinct clusters according to common
157 characteristics they share. This method is used to define the magnitude of fluoride concentration in
158 individual cluster with respect to other variables to understand the underlying geochemical factors
159 enhancing fluoride enrichment in solution. Result from HCA is the hierarchical tree shown in Figure 3.
160 HCA differentiates three distinct water families according to common variables they share using
161 14 dimensions space (T, Alkalinity, TDS, pH, Na + , K + , Mg 2 + , Ca 2 + , Cl - , HCO 3 - , SO 4 2 - F-
162 SiO 2 and Br - ).
163
164 [Figure 3]
165

5
166 The clusters in Figure 3 are ordered from right to left in the increasing order of T
167 and F . Low values of Ca 2 + , Mg 2 + and higher T, F - , Cl - , SO 4 2 - , Na + , and K + concentrations
-

168 are present in Cluster III. They are located in the central part of the basin along the WFB
169 (Figure1). The low-fluoride areas are associated with Cluster I and Cluster II which are
170 located outside of this fault belt in the plateau and transitional areas.

171 Cluster I

172 Fourteen samples (sample number 1, 2 , 3, 4, 5, 15, 24, 25, 38, 39, 40, 41, R1 and R2, in
173 Figure 3) are grouped under this cluster. They are low mineralized waters (TDS < 500
174 mg/l) located at the recharge zones of the highlands bounding the rift valley. This group
175 drains ignimbrite, trachyte and the sub-alkaline basalts and has Ca 2 + , Na + , and HCO3 - as
176 dominant elements. Members of this group are generally cold waters (20 0 C, in average)
177 and have chemical composition close to river waters (R1 and R2), which indicates the
178 ongoing fast recharge rate in the highland regions. The principal source of water for this
179 cluster is the rainfall that falls on the highlands, thus they are considered as local flow
180 systems. Fluoride concentration in this cluster range from 0.1 to 1.7mg/l.
181
182 Cluster II
183 This group includes eighteen samples (sample number 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 21, 22,
184 23, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37 and 42, in Figure 3). These samples are located near the base of
185 the plateau in transitional escarpments between highland and rift floor where hydr aulic
186 gradient is low. Thus, groundwater flow rate is slow compared to the first cluster. The
187 bedrock is similar to rocks in highlands largely composed of ignimbrite, trachyte and
188 rhyolite associated with basalt. The aquifers corresponding to this cluster obtain water
189 from rainfall that falls on the highlands and thus they correspond to the intermediate flow
190 systems characterized by moderate salinity (TDS ranges from 500 -800mg/l). Cluster II
191 samples have Ca 2 + , Na + , and HCO 3 - as dominant elements similar to cluster I. However,
192 the concentration of Ca 2 + and HCO 3 - in this cluster are somewhat decreased compared to
193 the first cluster while Na + , K + , Cl - , and SO 4 2 - concentrations are increased. Furthermore,
194 their temperature is slightly higher (28 0 C, in average) and their fluoride content ranges
195 from 1.5 to 4.5 mg/l, except sample s number 31 and 33, which have fluoride content below
196 1.0 mg/l. Both cluster I and cluster II have diluted waters (TDS below 800mg/l) in Ca-Na-
197 HCO3 facies and contain lower fluoride compar ed to the third cluster discussed below.
198

6
199
200 Cluster III
201 Thirteen samples including a lake (sample number 6, 8, 10, 18, 19, 20, 26, 27, 29, 30, 35,
202 36, and L1, in Figure 3) located within the WFB (Figure 1) are categorized under this
203 cluster. They are thermal waters (40 0 C, in average) and contains high load of fluoride
204 ranging from 3 to 32 mg/l. They are highly mineralized waters ( TDS: 800-1400mg/l)
205 compared to the other two clusters. The hydraulic gradient of the area is nearly flat
206 producing slow groundwater velocity. This leads to long residence time of waters in host
207 rocks and together with high geothermics of the area enhances strong rock -water reaction.
208 As a result, they are more saline (TDS: 800-1400 mg/l) and alkaline waters ( pH: 8-10) in
209 Na-HCO 3 and Na-Cl facies. The aquifer is composed of mixtures of various volcanic
210 products predominately pumice, welded tuff, and scoria. Na + and HCO 3 - are major
211 components, but Cl - and SO 4 2 - are abundant in significant amount compared to the first
212 two clusters. Ca 2 + and Mg 2 + are very low and in some samples of this group (sample
213 number 30 and 37, in Table 1), these divalent cations are below detection limit. The low
214 level of Ca 2 + and Mg 2 + in this group could be due to precipitation of these cations as
215 calcite and Mg-silicate along groundwater flow direction. pH increased but the
216 concentration of HCO 3 - is significantly decreased in this cluster which could be due to the
217 conversion of HCO 3 - to CO 3 2 - in response to pH level.
218 Some samples located within WFB are categorized under cluster I (sample number
219 41) and cluster II (sample number 7, 31, and 33) despite their location where they would
220 be expected to be members of cluster III. These samples contain low fluoride below
221 1.6mg/l and have physiochemical proper ties quite different from samples located within
222 the WFB. Groundwaters corresponding to these samples should have sources distinct from
223 samples under cluster III. Sample number 7 and 41 are located close to Awash River bank
224 (Figure 1), thus they should obtain significant fraction of water from Awash River
225 leakage. Their stable isotope compositions are plotted close to the isotopic composition of
226 Awash River which suggests mixing of surface water and groundwater . On the other hand,
227 samples number 31 and 33 located in northeast margin of the study area are Ca (Mg) -
228 HCO3 facies and contain fluoride below 1.0 mg/l. Groundwaters corresponding to these
229 samples drain sedimentary rocks which are common in northeast margin of the study area
230 and have local scale flow. The Low level of fluoride in these samples could be due to the
231 presence of high level of Ca 2 + in solution derived from sedimentary aquifers.

7
232 Sample 35, marked as outlier in Figure 3, joins all the three clusters at very far
233 linkage distance. This sample corresponds to Burqa Hora spring which emerges from
234 Boseti Mountain which is composed of basalt and rhyolite rocks. The chemical
235 composition of this spring is very enigmatic as it has quite extraordinary composition and
236 strongly sodic water characterized by pH (10), SiO 2 (248.5 mg/l), Na + (2030 mg/l), HCO 3 -
237 (1025mg/l), EC (5370µS/cm), and F - (72.5mg/l). This spring has stable isotopes similar to
238 local meteoric water and contains high tritium (2.4 TU). These isotopic compositions of
239 the spring suggest modern water under fast recharging condition. However, the unique
240 chemical composition of the spring suggests the presence of strong reactive media through
241 which the spring is circulating. Considering the measured chemical composition, the
242 geology through which the spring is circulating and isotopes signature, the geochemical
243 process undergoing with the spring is discussed. The hydrochemical characteristics of this
244 spring should be the result of ion exchange reaction which consumes the divalent cations
245 from solution in exchange of the monovalent cation from aquifer materials. In the initial
246 face, the spring should acquire Ca 2 + (Mg 2 + ) from basaltic rock during rainwater
247 percolation down through rocks and the water become s Ca (Mg)-HCO3 type. As water
248 moves further downward with this initial chemical composition and encounters the acidic
249 rhyolite rich in Na-silicate, the silica undergoes dissociation which consumes H + leading
250 the pH to rise (Drever 1982). This cause s precipitation in Ca 2 + (Mg 2 + ) and the Na + picked
251 up by water and with prolonged stay in rhyolite rock (i.e., under slow flow rate), further
252 leaching of Na-silicate occurs and the spring eventually concentrated with respect to Na +
253 and silica. These processes are summarized in the following equations:
254
255 Initial phase:
256 H2O (rainwater) + CO2 (g) + O2 (g) + basaltic rock → Mg (Ca)-HCO3 (gw) + altered rock (1)
257 Final phase:
258 Mg (Ca)-HCO3 (gw) + Rhyolite (Na-Silicate) + CO2 (g) → Na-HCO3 (gw) + clay (Mg/Ca-Silicate) (2)
259
260 where (gw) is groundwater, (g) is gaz
261 Equation (1) and (2) explain that as the springwater travels slowly through rhyolitic matrix, it
262 acquires high level of elements from reactive rhyolite mineral assemblages which are shown in
263 Figure 4.
264 [Figure 4]

8
265 Currently the local people are using the spring as traditional curing, but the fact that its
266 fluoride content is much higher than the permitted level, consumption of this spring can
267 produce acute fluoride intoxication. Oral information from local people during the field
268 work draws similar information as many people who drank the spring have developed a
269 serious health problem.

270

271
272 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
273 PCA was used to understand the underlying parameters used by HCA in the classification
274 process. Result from PCA is used to extract related variables and infer processes that
275 could control water quality and F - concentration in solution. The correlation matrix
276 between the 15 variables is shown in Table 3.
277
278 [Table 3]
279
280 The PCA was performed on 14 variables, excluding the altitude. Four PC which explain 88% of the
281 total variance were retained and the loading for each PC is reported in Table 4. Factor loading of the
282 variables on the corresponding PC is shown on Figure 5. Results from PCA were interpreted with
283 respect to other environmental variables such as topography, geology, rai nfall and
284 physical features to convey the underlying geological and hydrochemical factors
285 contributing high F - in groundwater
286
287 [Table 4]
288 [Figure 5]
289
290 The coefficient in Table 4 indicates the measure of the extent or loading to which each factor is
291 associated with corresponding variable. The communality explains how well the variance of a
292 corresponding variable is described by the four chosen PCs. The sign on the loading in Figure 5 shows
293 how variables are correlated. For this data analysis, the most commonly used varimax rotation was used
294 which has the effect of producing a set of uncorrelated variables having high loadings on some PC and
295 near zero loading on others to make the factors easier for interpretation (Helen et al., 2000; Wang et al
296 2001).

9
297 From Figure 5, PC 4 is highly weighted by F- (positive loading), and Ca2+ (negative loading). Thus
298 this PC can be considered as the fluoride axis. The opposite loading between F - and Ca2+ on this PC
299 explains the removal of Ca2+ accounting for the enrichment of fluoride in solution. PC 1 which accounts
300 for 46.4% of the total variance is associated with high positive loading of EC, Na +, Cl-, SO42-, K+, Br-,
301 moderate positive loading of F-, high negative loading of HCO3- and moderate negative loading of Ca2+.
302 The cluster group corresponding to this PC is cluster III which includes hot waters located in the central
303 part of the rift valley. This cluster waters principally circulate through scoria, tuff and pumice associated
304 with rhyolite and ignimbrite. PC2 accounts for 20.6% of the total variance and shows substantial positive
305 loadings for SiO2 and is fairly weighted for temperature (positive loading). This factor is also related to
306 cluster III waters circulating in rift floor marked by higher SiO2 and T compared to the other two clusters.
307 On the other hand, PC 3 which accounts for 11.6% of the total variance is associated exclusively with
308 Mg2+ with a negative correlation. High level of Mg2+ on this factor should come from selective
309 weathering of rocks containing magnesium minerals principally basaltic rocks that are first to be
310 dissolved by infiltrating water. Four samples (sample number 7, 21, 32, and 33, Table 1) have high Mg2+
311 content as major cation composition.
312
313 Hydrochemical reaction and fluoride enrichment process in groundwater

314 Plot of variables on bivariate diagram further explains the geochemical processes involving
315 hydrochemical facies change and fluoride enrichment in solution. As shown on Figure 6 (a, b), F - has
316 positive relation with pH, but is negatively correlated with HCO3-. On other hand, from correlation matrix
317 presented in Table 3, HCO3- has negative correlation with pH. The decrease in HCO3- with increase in pH
318 could be due to the conversion of HCO3- to CO32- in accordance to the stability faces of the carbonate
319 species in water as a function of pH (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). Furthermore, F- has strong positive
320 correlation with the ratio of monovalent to divalent cations (Na +/Ca2+), both increasing in the flow
321 direction (Figure 6, d), because Na+/Ca2+ decrease with increase in altitude (Figure 6, c).

322 [Figure 6]

323 This increase of F- with Na+/Ca+2 ratio (Figure 6,d) suggests a systematic hydrochemical reaction which
324 involves the removal of divalent cation (Ca2+) from solution and uptake of monvalent cation (Na+) by
325 solution from aquifer materials in the flow process. It appears to be the consequence of the fact that Ca 2+
326 is picked up by aquifer materials in exchange for Na+ depending on the nature of the surface charge of the
327 encountered materials and activity of the cations in solution. This exchange process between monovalent
328 and divalent cations (Ca2+by Na+) along flow process can be represented by

10
329 2Na-X + Ca2+ = Ca-X +2Na+, (3)

330 where, X represents aquifer minerals common to volcanic rocks (plagioclase, feldspar, clay minerals and
331 to the limited extent calcite from secondary precipitate) from which the major cations (Na +, K+, Mg2+, and
332 Ca2+) can be derived.

333 The increase in the ratio of Na+/Ca2+ in the flow direction (Figure 6,c) and equation (3) explain that when
334 dilute water dominant with Ca2+ composition, such as the Ca-Na-HCO3 type waters in highland areas, is
335 encountered by Na-materials, the Ca2+ is selectively adsorbed close to the site of introduction and Na+ is
336 up-taken into solution. In this case, the Ca2+ displaced the Na+ cations on the exchange sites. This process
337 enhances the enrichment of F- in groundwater due to the removal of Ca2+ from solution.

338 This study found that ground waters show compositional change from Ca-Na-HCO3 to Na-Ca-
339 HCO3 and to Na-HCO3-Cl-SO4 types from highland towards the rift floor. This geochemical reaction
340 causes a systematic removal of Ca2+ from solution and enhances F- enrichment in groundwater along flow
341 direction. This geochemical process which involves hydrochemical facies change in the flow direction
342 can be represented as:

343 (Ca-Na-HCO3 water)+ X1 → (Na-HCO3-Cl-SO4 water) + X2 (4)

344 where, X1 represent aquifer minerals encountered in the flow path which release Na + to solution such as
345 plagioclase and feldspar and involved in reaction depending on the saturation index of mineral, X2 is
346 altered rock materials which consume Ca2+ from solution such as calcite, Ca-silicate, and clay.
347 Stable isotopes have been used to further assess the hydrochemical reaction discussed above.
348 Isotopic fractionation is an important behavior of water isotopes used to asses various forms of
349 hydrological processes within a catchment basin. As a result of fractionation processes, waters develop
350 unique isotopic compositions that are indicative of the underlying geochemical reaction processes. With
351 respect to this, the geochemical reaction involving cation-exchange reaction discussed above should
352 increase 18O in water as a result of exchange between 18
O from aquifer materials and 16O from solution, a
353 process which cause a shift in the δ18O (‰) of the water as shown on Figure 6 (e). As shown on this
354 figure, highland and escarpment waters have isotope composition close to local meteoric water indicating
355 low rock-water reaction as previously explained by HCA. Moreover, stable isotopes discriminate two
356 types of water circulating in rift floor which is in good agreement with HCA result. The first one
357 corresponds to mixing (dilute) waters from leakage of Awash River (e.g., samples number 7 and 41) and
358 the second group corresponds to the saline waters of the rift (e.g., samples number 27 and 29) resulted by
359 rock-water reaction causing positive shift in δ18O (‰). The positive correlation between Na+/Ca2+ ratio

11
360 and δ18O (‰) on Figure 6 (f) provide further evidence for strong geochemical reaction between waters
361 and aquifer materials (Bradley, 1990) in the rift floor.
362 Furthermore, the relation of F- with pH and HCO3- can be explained by hydrochemical reaction
363 involving dissolution of CaCO3 and fluoride bearing minerals (Sreedevi et al., 2006) such as CaF2
364 (Rango et al,. 2008).

CaCO3  H   Ca 2

 HCO 3   CO 3
2
 (5)

K1 
Ca   HCO 3
2 
  CO3 
2

H  
(6)
365
2
CaF2  Ca  2F  (7)

K 2  Ca 2
 F   2
(8)
366

367 where: K1 and K2 are the equilibrium solubility products of calcite and fluorite dissolved in water,
368 respectively. From Eq. (8) it is apparent that a decrease in Ca 2+ could be followed by an increase in F-.
369 This is explained by PC 4 and PC 1.
370 From equations (6) and (8) the following relation can be derived:

371
K1


HCO3  CO3 2  
K2 H F    (9)

372 From the correlation matrix presented in Table 3, F-, pH and alkalinity have positive correlation but
373 negative relation with HCO3-. Therefore, for the equilibrium solubility of equation 9, an increase in CO32-
374 in response to rise in alkalinity or pH should cause enrichment in F- in the flow direction due to
375 progressive removal of Ca2+ from solution and conversion of HCO3- to CO32- as previously discussed.
376 Various studies (Alemayehu, 2000; Kim and Jeong, 2005; Rango et al,. 2008) indicated that the
377 weathering of sodium-rich alkaline volcanic rocks causes a pH increase resulting in an increase in CO 32-
378 alkalinity by dissolution of CO2 leading to calcite precipitation which results in decrease in Ca2+.
379 It is found that hot ground water circulating within WFB are characterized by high fluoride load.
380 This suggests the association of fluoride with geothermal activity which is common in the basin interior.
381 Furthermore, the magnitude of fluoride concentration is higher in groundwater derived from non calcium
382 bearing aquifers which are also common in the rift floor. In general, the magnitude of fluoride
383 concentration varies more slowly in SSW-NNE along WFB than it does in E-W away from this belt. In
384 this respect, rift floor can be considered as high fluoride zone whereas plateau areas are low fluoride zone

12
385
386 Geospatial distribution of F- concentration
387 Because of this marked heterogeneity of fluoride distribution, the geospatial variability of fluoride within
388 the entire basin was analyzed using geostatistics (Kitanidis, 1997). An experimental omnidirectional
389 variogram was calculated for F- concentration from data points shown in Figure 7 (Left) and adjusted
390 using an exponential model (Figure 7, Right).
391
392 [Figure 7]
393
394 The general expression of an exponential model and the exponential model fitted to the
395 experimental variogram are expressed by the following equations:
3h
396 γ(h)  C 0  C1 [1  exp( )] (10)
a
397
3h
398 γ(h)  14[1  exp( )] (11)
20000
399 where, C0 is the nugget effect, C= C0 + C1 is the sill, a is the practical range (distance at which 95% of the
400 sill has been reached) , h is the distance between sampling points. The range of the variogram gives the
401 length scale of the spatial structure of the variable under consideration. In this case, the parameters of the
402 exponential model are : C0 = 0, C = 14 (mg/l) 2 , a = 20000m.
403 In equation (11), the nugget effect is zero, meaning that micro-structure of F- spatial distribution
404 could not be detected. The range amounts to 20km, giving the scale of the spatial structure. The
405 variogram is then used in the kriging procedure (Kitanidis, 1997) to produce an estimation of the fluoride
406 concentration to the basin scale (Figure 8). The krigged map shows that the higher concentrations are
407 located in the rift floor area, whereas in the escarpments and the highland areas F - concentrations are
408 much lower. Figure 9 shows the kriging standard error map, which highlights the uncertainty associated
409 with the krigged map. F- estimation in areas with higher standard error are much uncertain than in areas
410 with smaller standard error. The kriging standard error map may in this way help to delineate areas where
411 supplementary data are required to improve knowledge about F- distribution in the Middle Awash basin.
412
413 [Figure 8]
414 [Figure 9]
415
416 Conclusion

13
417 Fluoride concentrations in groundwater of the Middle Awash basin vary from 0.1 to 72.5 mg/l which
418 depends on varying concentrations of fluoride-bearing minerals and magnitude of geothermal activities
419 along groundwater flow paths. Result from multivariate statistical analysis show that fluoride is
420 associated with thermal waters and non calcium waters of the Na-HCO3 and Na-Cl-SO4 type especially
421 those of high pH located in the rift floor at the centre of the basin. The geochemical reactions involving
422 cation exchange reaction cause F- enrichment in groundwater due to removal of Ca2+ from solution in
423 reaction process. The kriging procedure was used to produce an estimation of the F - distribution at the
424 basin scale. The active geothermal belts of the basin interior are hydrogeological blocks characterized by
425 high load of fluoride above 5 mg/l that could cause serious health problem. Thus, it is highly
426 recommended to conduct water quality analyses during borehole construction and to monitor boreholes
427 after handing over to the communities. pH and temperature measurement at field level could give a good
428 insight on the level of fluoridation of groundwater. Sites away from geothermal area are expected to be
429 non fluoridated aquifers.
430
431 Acknowledgement
432 This study was undertaken in the framework of the MAWARI research project (Sustainable Management
433 of Water Resource in the East- African Rift system), funded by the French Ministry of Foreign and
434 European Affairs. The financial grant for the first author related to his PhD study at the University of
435 Poitiers in France and the field works in Ethiopia received through the CIFEG (Centre International pour
436 la Formation et les Echanges en Géosciences) is highly acknowledged. East Shoa Water Office (Oromia
437 Regional State), Department of Earth Science at Addis Ababa University and Water Works Design and
438 Supervision Enterprise (WWDSE) are warmly appreciated for their valuable contribution in providing
439 data and unreserved cooperation during the field work.
440
441 Abbreviations
442 WFB: Wonji Fault Belt
443 WHO: World Healt Organization
444
445 References
446 Abebe T, Mazzarini F, Innocenti F, Manetti P, Pecksay Z., (2005): Geological map (1:200,000) of the northern Main
447 Ethiopian Rift and its implications for the volcano-tectonic evolution of the rift. Geological Society of America,
448 Map and Chart Series MC1109
449 Acocella V, Korme T, Salvin F, Funiciello R., (2002): Elliptic Calderas in the Ethiopian Rift: control of pre-existing
450 structures. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 119:189-203
451 Alemayehu T, 2000: Water pollution by natural inorganic chemicals in the central part of the main Ethiopian rift.

14
452 Addis Ababa University press
453 Alemayehu T, Ayenew T, Kebede S., (2006): Hydrogeochemical and lake level changes in the Ethiopian Rift.
454 Journal of Hydrology 316:290-300Alemayehu T, (2000) Water pollution by natural inorganic chemicals in the
455 central part of the Main Ethiopian Rift. Ethiopian Journal of Science, 23(2): 197-214.
456 Boccaletti M, Mazzuoli R, Bonini M, Trua T, Abebe B., (1999): Plio-Quaternary volcanotectonic activity in the
457 northern sector of the Main Ethiopian Rift: relationshiops with oblique rifting. Journal of African Earth Science
458 29(4):679-698
459 Bradley R., (1990): Quaternary Palaeoclimatology. Methods of palaeoclimatic reconstruction. Unwin Hyman
460 Publication. Boston, USA, 472pp
461 Chernet T, Travi Y, & Valles V., (2001): Mechanism of degradation of the quality of natural water in the lakes
462 region of the Ethiopian Rift Valley. Water Resource. 35:2819-2832
463 Drever J, (1982): The geochemistry of natural water. Prentice-Hall.Inc. Englewood, New Jersey, USA.
464 Ebinger C and Casey M, (2001): Continental breakup in magmatic provinces: An Ethiopian example. Geology
465 29(6):527-530
466 Fawel J, Bailey K, Chilton J, Dahi E, Fewtrell L, Magara Y., (2006): Fluoride in drinking water. IWA publishing,
467 London, UK
468 Freeze R.A, Cherry J.A., (1979): Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA.
469 Genxu W and Guodong C, (2001): Fluoride distribution in water and the governing factors of environment in arid
470 north-west China. Journal of Arid Environment 49:601-614
471 Gizaw B, (1996): The origin of high bicarbonate and fluoride concentrations in waters of the Main Ethiopian Rift
472 Valley, East African Rift system. Journal of African Earth Science 22(4):391-402
473 Haimanot R, Fekadu A, & Bushura B., (1987): Endemic fluorosis in the Ethiopian Rift Valley. Tropical and
474 Geographical Medicine 39(3):209-217
475 Helen B, Pardo R, Vega M, Barrado E, Femandez J, & Fernandez L., (2000): Temporal evolution of groundwater
476 composition in an alluvial aquifer (Pisuerga River, Spain) by principal component analysis. Water Research
477 34:807-816
478 Kafri U, Arad A, & Halicz L., (1989): Fluorine occurrence in groundwater in Israel and its significance. Journal of
479 Hydrology 106:109-129
480 Keir D, Ebinger C, stuart G, Daly E, & Ayele A., (2006): Strain accommodation by magmatism and faulting as
481 rifting proceeds to breakup: seismicity of the northen Ethiopian rift. Jourmal of Geophysical Society of America
482 32 (11):949-952
483 Keranen K, and Klemperer S, (2007): Discontinuous and diachronous evolution of the Main Ethiopian Rift:
484 Implication for development of continental rift. Earth & planetary Science letters 265:96-11
485 Kim K, & Jeong G, (2005): Factors influencing natural occurrence of fluoride-rich groundwaters: a case study in the
486 Southestern part of the Korean Peninsula. Chemosphere 58:1399-1408
487 Kitanidis P.K., (1997): Introduction to Geostatistics. Application in Hydrogeology. Cambridge Univ. Press,
488 Cambridge, UK.

15
489 Kumar V, Sai C, Rao P, & Rao C., (2001): Studies on the distribution of fluoride in drinking water sources in
490 Medchal Block, Rangea Reddy District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Journal of Fluorine Chem 55:229-236
491 Lester F, (1974): Fluorotic myelopathy-A rare case with a review of the literature. Ethiopian Medical.
492 Journal 12:39- 49
493 Limeback H, Thiessen K, Isaacson R, & Hirzy W., (2007): The EPA MCLG for fluoride in drinking water: new
494 recommendations. Society of Toxicology 46th Annual Meeting, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA.
495 Lin N, Tang J & Biam J., (2004): Geochemical environment and health problems in China. Environmental Geochem
496 Health 26:81-88
497 Maas R, (2007): Effects of fluoridation and disinfection agent combinations on lead leaching from leaded-brass
498 parts. Neurotoxicology 28(5):1023-1031
499 MacDonald R, & Gibson J, (1969): Pantelleritic obsidian from the volcano Chabbi (Ethiopia). Contributions
500 Mineralogy Petrology 24:239-244
501 Moturi W, Tole M, & Davis T., (2002): The contribution of drinking water towards dental fluorosis: a case study of
502 Njoro Division, Nakuru District, Kenya. Environmental Geochem Health 24:123-130
503 Olsson B, (1978): Dental findings in high-fluoride areas in Ethiopia. Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology
504 7:51-56
505 Peccerillo A, & Yirgu G, (1996): Geochemical behaviour of fluorine in the volcanic systems of the Ethiopian Rift
506 Valley: Implication for the problem of high fluorine waters. In program and abstracts of the third Ethiopian
507 Geosciences and Mineral Engineering Congress, 15-17 Nov, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
508 Rango T, Bianchini G, Beccaluva L, Ayenew T, Colombani N., (2008): Hydrogeochemical study in the Main
509 Ethiopian Rift: new insights to the source and enrichment mechanism of fluoride. Environ Geol 58:109–118
510 Reimann C, Bjorvatn K, Frengstad B, Melaku Z, Tekle-Haimanot R, & Siewers U., (2003): Drinking water quality
511 in the Ethiopian section of the East African Rift Valley I-data and healt aspects. Science of the Total
512 Environment 311:65-80
513 Steedevi P, Ahmed S, Made B, Ledoux E, & Gandol J., (2006): Association of hydrogeological factors in temporal
514 variation of fluoride concentration in a crystalline aquifer in India. Environmental Geology 50:1-11
515 US National Research Council (2006): Fluoride in drinking water: A Scientific review of EPA’s standard. US
516 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Homepage
517 Viero A. P, Roisenberg C, Roisenberg A, Vigo A, (2008) : The origin of fluoride in the granitic aquifer of Porto
518 Alegre, Southern Brazil. Environmental Geology 56:1707–1719
519 Wang Y, Ma T, & Luo Z., (2001): Geostatistical and geochemical analysis of surface water leakage into
520 groundwater on a a regional scale : a case study in the Liulin karst system, norhwestern China. Journal of
521 Hydrology 246:223-234
522 Whitford G, (1997): Determinants and mechanism of enamel fluorosis. Ciba Foundation Symposium 205:226-241
523 WHO (2004): Guidline for Drinking water quality. Volume 1. Recommendations. 3 rd edition, Geneva
524 Wondwossen F, Astrom A, Bjorvatn K, & Bardsen A., (2004): The relationship between dental caries and dental
525 fluorosis in areas with moderate and high fluoride drinking water in Ethiopia. Community Dentistry and Oral

16
526 Epidemiology 32:337-344
527
528
529
530
531

17
Table
Click here to download Table: List of Tables-submitted to journal.doc

Table 1 Hydrochemical result from samples collected in the field

Site_N : site name ; Sa_No : sample number ; E : easting ; N : northing ; Alt : altitude (m asl) ; T : temperature (°C) ; EC : electrical conductivity (mS/cm) ; other variables are in
mg/l; ND: None detectable; NA: Not analyzed

Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ F- Br-

Site_N Source Sa_No E N Alt T pH EC TDS HCO3- Cl- SO42- SiO2
69,2 9,5 49,2 7,8 39,0 0.8 ND
Abomsa-old well 25 591729 938934 1544 32 6,86 0,402 243 604 7,4 4,8
30,0 7,7 145,8 13,2 40,7 1.6 0.2
Adama Uni-1 well 14 530624 947396 1673 34,6 7,2 0,667 397 427 14,3 19,8
35,6 4,7 149,4 12,8 43,8 1.7 0.1
Adama Uni-2 well 11 536788 928710 1529 46,7 7,44 0,636 373 714 12,9 20,2
35,4 6,4 17,3 0,9 15,1 0.4 ND
Keleta R River R1 543783 915206 1586 18 7,06 156 223 854 2,6 2,4
55,4 8,7 47,3 5,1 41,6 0.8 ND
Ashe Abasa well 24 581780 932602 1878 25,5 6,82 0,454 269 659 5,3 3,9
25,2 96,0 52,7 7,9 38,1 0.6 0.2
Awash Arba well 33 628761 1009132 824 31,6 7,3 0,679 407 244 41,0 33,4
68,5 9,9 143,0 10,2 45,4 0.7 0.3
Awash CMCT well 31 632509 998246 890 37,6 7,22 0,732 432 366 38,6 55,4
Awash R River R2 536788 928710 1529 30,7 8,16 0,639 387 756 16,0 10,2 50,0 5,3 55,9 4,1 9,9 1.7 ND
Melkasa well 7 536587 929734 1547 29,1 6,92 1,06 646 410 68,0 34,5 6,1 257,9 56,6 14,6 40,2 1.6 0.3
4,4 0,2 230,2 8,7 34,0 8.5 0.1
Bati-Bora well 8 516683 928502 1624 33,2 8,23 0,748 450 427 24,8 34,2
6,8 0,7 182,8 9,3 29,1 4.4 0.1
Bati-qallo well 9 515450 928240 1604 28,4 8,09 0,592 355 824 15,5 25,0
52,7 9,5 110,2 12,7 36,0 1.5 0.1
Birsa Ababora well 34 546408 971443 1674 34,6 7,26 0,547 329 305 11,6 15,2
4,6 1,5 348,8 19,3 37,6 5.6 0.2
Borchota well 23 560362 969076 1222 36,6 8,17 1,245 743 381 53,0 46,2
16,6 149,2 54,3 16,5 46,7 <0.1 0.4
Bordede well 32 652678 996374 1107 34,9 7,18 0,96 567 273 67,9 58,0
Burka Hora Spring 35 557925 938561 1333 26,5 9,98 5,37 3280 1025 86,7 62,1 0,1 0.1 2030,1 15,4 248,5 72.5 2.5
Buta Badhaso well 17 547968 961046 1467 35,3 7,53 0,64 385 366 15,0 17,3 28,2 9,3 171,5 12,7 37,8 2.5 0.1
5,4 2,6 562,3 20,5 56,4 10.5 0.4
Challe well 20 541738 943425 1484 56,1 7,83 1,925 1130 256 73,6 57,4
70,2 8,8 70,5 12,9 40,3 1.5 ND
Chemir Jawis well 28 537591 962318 1659 29,5 7,5 0,501 300 366 6,3 9,0
4,6 178,4 54,2 15,7 42,2 1.7 0.2
D/N/Kusaye well 21 544786 951428 1465 27,5 7,35 0,735 448 488 9,9 13,4
2,2 0,1 250,3 15,7 50,8 3.3 0.1
Darer Dambel well 37 510132 937817 1639 32,7 8,2 0,83 497 488 21,7 24,8
4,8 2,6 502,8 27,8 31,8 4.4 0.4
Dhebiti well 29 591942 994317 985 39,7 8,2 1,813 1077 201 120,7 85,0
Table 1 cont’d

Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ F- Br-

Site_N Source Sa_No E N Alt T pH EC TDS HCO3- Cl- SO42- SiO2
11,9 1,4 364,2 24,1 60,2 8.4 0.3
Didibsa well 18 535920 945900 1475 47,6 7,96 1,508 884 195 61,2 53,1
20,7 16,1 167,0 15,3 39,8 1.8 0.2
Fexo well 22 552559 959214 1374 33,9 7,59 0,875 526 293 38,4 39,7
52,1 5,7 89,5 17,5 38,5 1.9 0.3
Galdiya well 12 507929 957419 1569 35 7,64 0,458 275 622 7,8 10,5
10,7 2,0 427,1 28,7 58,0 7.0 0.3
Goro Wagilo well 19 539209 940243 1525 48,4 7,43 1,717 1025 146 64,8 52,2
53,9 3,7 155,8 26,8 31,7 2.0 ND
Gurja Furda well 16 538755 950839 1484 32,8 7,16 0,628 373 1098 5,8 6,8
70,4 13,4 93,8 9,3 29,6 0.5 0.1
Halelu-gasela well 1 550684 915701 1803 26,7 7,41 0,547 328 824 12,6 12,5
83,0 15,8 83,1 12,1 37,7 0.7 ND
Ibseta Haxe well 2 551954 919261 1727 28,4 7,31 0,602 357 915 8,5 7,9
ND ND 436,8 37,4 28,9 4.8 0.3
Ilala well 30 592742 986659 981 37,1 8,65 1,964 1174 250 129,0 93,0
54,8 9,6 90,5 14,0 41,4 1.2 ND
Jogo gugedo well 15 523616 944501 1733 29,9 6,8 0,481 287 1171 5,9 4,3
3,1 1,0 456,7 35,8 51,5 32.1 0.4
Ethio cutting well 10 502362 929483 1598 27,8 8,23 2,06 1235 205 107,3 16,8
2,1 0,8 1403,4 77,4 42,5 27.6 2.5
L Beseca Lake L1 596113 984664 957 25,3 9,32 5,6 3370 NA 477,0 477,9
Mexaqoma well 4 542261 916155 1662 28,8 8,29 0,318 183,9 915 10,7 9,8 26,6 6,8 56,2 4,3 7,1 1.1 ND
Shanan Silase well 36 520546 919422 1692 30,4 7,18 2,02 1199 122 149,1 92,4 41,6 4,2 401,9 35,4 48,3 9.9 0.5
87,8 19,9 116,4 13,6 26,1 1.0 0.3
Sifa well 41 564317 944152 1232 32,6 8,31 0,724 428 415 24,7 27,0
Sire Golo Spring 5 555851 915058 2027 27,5 6,94 0,577 355 842 11,6 6,5 31,2 22,4 53,3 8,5 33,3 0.7 ND
13,6 8,4 532,9 49,5 60,4 9.1 0.9
Sodere spg Spring 6 542758 928967 1344 67,7 6,82 3,04 1814 378 173,7 139,0
8,7 1,8 238,5 22,5 50,7 3.2 0.1
Wachu laafa well 42 537676 948420 1491 44 7,51 0,806 484 303 23,6 23,7
37,5 17,0 54,0 9,0 36,0 0.7 0.1
Xabbo-Chacha well 3 552769 914086 1883 26,8 7,05 0,573 346 878 12,8 6,1
7,6 4,3 394,0 37,7 37,2 4.9 0.4
Xadacha Dhera well 26 589728 993150 992 39,4 8,19 1,922 1140 146 130,8 92,5
49,4 8,8 78,3 17,2 44,1 1.1 ND
Xadde well 13 518552 947121 1850 31,1 7,22 0,48 290 305 5,9 6,3
ND ND 451,9 34,9 42,1 6.8 0.4
Tutxutti well 27 591942 994317 985 44,3 8,26 2,34 1383 176 136,0 97,8
18.4 1.8 6.7 1.6 38.4 0.1 ND
Sendafa well 38 506902 1016138 2678 19 7.2 225 187.5 105 2.1 1.8
15 3.8 5.2 3.1 45.4 0.1 ND
Sheno spring 39 564889 1028218 2688 17 7.36 110 87 85.5 0.9 0.9
13.4 2.4 5.2 1 50.6 0.1 ND
Ankober spring 40 580996 1053990 3260 15 6.8 109 85 60 1.3 1.1
Table 2 Fluoride data obtained from Water Resources Bureau used as supplementary data in geospatial kriging
E : easting ; N : northing ; Alt : altitude (m asl)
F Data F Data
Source E N Alt (Mg/l) source Source E N Alt (mg/l) source
well 651005 997619 1056 0.96 1 well 607452 1008792 786 14.0 1
well 628772 1009130 836 1.68 1 well 608430 1009677 787 8.0 1
well 629018 1008155 799 1.10 1 well 611700 1011072 773 14.0 1
well 639589 1029161 805 4.8 1 well 615346 1012359 765 12.4 1
well 642583 1025817 834 3.0 1 well 619023 1013214 763 10.0 1
well 633220 1027479 793 8.4 1 well 632434 1031652 749 7.0 1
well 629583 1031834 750 5.5 1 well 633818 1034813 751 4.0 1
602849 985294 1.7
well 629138 1030680 748 3.0 1 well 957 2
597018 982055 1.8
well 624642 1018056 791 6.2 1 well 956 2
598962 985941 8.6
well 625926 1021380 755 7.0 1 well 955 2
600257 979463 4.0
well 625442 1021844 750 4.8 1 well 955 2
589245 978816 10.0
well 624389 1021567 761 5.5 1 well 955 2
596370 976872 8.5
well 623363 1023251 770 4.0 1 well 956 2
605440 987237 6.7
well 625498 1027360 752 9.5 1 well 955 2
589892 978816 8.9
well 629852 1027420 757 8.0 1 well 955 2
602849 985294 5.7
well 644336 1047036 741 2.0 1 well 954 2
606735 984646 4.4
well 645303 1048976 749 5.5 1 well 956 2
595836 986245 6.0
well 644823 1047546 746 7.0 1 well 955 2
598312 977104 18.5
well 628214 1008615 830 5.5 1 well 956 2
well 605024 1012199 821 <0.1 1
well 608884 1011449 786 7.0 1

1-Water Works Construction Enterprise, 2-Oromia Regional Water Bureau

Table 3 Correlation matrix of variables (Unit is the same as in Table 1)

Alt T pH EC Alk HCO3- Cl- SO42- Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ [K+] SiO2 F Br
Varia
Alt 1,00
T -0,27 1,00
pH -0,40 0,21 1,00
EC -0,37 0,43 0,47 1,00
Alk -0,42 0,45 0,32 0,84 1,00
HCO3- 0,48 -0,42 -0,22 -0,73 -0,69 1,00
Cl -0,46 0,25 0,41 0,94 0,76 -0,71 1,00
2-
SO4 -0,62 0,42 0,42 0,82 0,70 -0,67 0,89 1,00
Ca2+ 0,17 -0,28 -0,42 -0,52 -0,37 0,37 -0,42 -0,35 1,00
Mg2+ -0,02 -0,34 -0,42 -0,17 -0,17 0,06 -0,09 -0,18 -0,13 1,00
Na+ -0,28 0,58 0,59 0,91 0,77 -0,64 0,79 0,73 -0,55 -0,44 1,00
K+ -0,32 0,34 0,48 0,91 0,73 -0,70 0,89 0,74 -0,46 -0,22 0,81 1,00
SiO2 0,21 0,52 -0,22 0,33 0,49 -0,39 0,13 0,05 -0,29 -0,06 0,36 0,27 1,00
F 0,11 0,06 0,38 0,61 0,58 -0,39 0,48 0,14 -0,39 -0,22 0,61 0,55 0,41 1,00
Br -0,42 0,32 0,30 0,82 0,76 -0,67 0,82 0,70 -0,27 0,00 0,68 0,76 0,32 0,53 1,00
Table 4 R-mode Varimax PC loadings for hydrochemical data of 45 water samples

Variables PC 1 PC 2 PC 3 PC 4 Communality
T_0C 0,393744 0,650345 0,442350 -0,151243 0,779126
pH 0,500729 -0,403835 0,540947 0,282760 0,806020
EC-(µc/Cm) 0,924396 0,139039 0,107471 0,265016 0,981544
HCO3- (mg/l) -0,780925 -0,339436 0,019398 -0,056069 0,676394
Cl- (mg/L) 0,945452 -0,022665 0,016403 0,161883 0,985622
SO42- (mg/l) 0,893405 0,037812 0,186927 -0,102082 0,968803
Ca2+(mg/l) -0,385707 -0,139070 0,033660 -0,685151 0,799313
Mg2+ (mg/l) -0,037947 -0,058020 -0,927920 -0,028808 0,833258
Na+( mg/l) 0,784705 0,216513 0,419225 0,332075 0,961679
K+ (mg/l) 0,891707 0,059166 0,123950 0,223246 0,907312
SiO2 (mg/l) 0,164201 0,872882 -0,063884 0,262089 0,795224
F- (mg/l) 0,431355 0,069083 0,063433 0,697221 0,906603
Br-(mg/l) 0,874230 0,160817 -0,098589 0,089937 0,841962
% of variance Explained 46,4 20,6 11.6 9.4

% of Cummulative
variance 46,4 67.0 78.6 88.0
Figure

Figure 1 Location map of the study area and sample sites

Figure 2 Geological map of the study area
Figure 3 hierarchical trees of water samples

Figure 4 Burqa Hora spring water chemistry (mg/l) and reconstructed host rock in which the spring is
circulating. This reconstruction is based on the most possible reactive minerals from which the measured
variables can be obtained. Minerals and the corresponding rock type are based on Garrels classification
(Drever, 1982). Ab = albite, Cr = Cryolite, Hb = hornblende, Or = K-feldspar. The number on the top of
the bar corresponds to the measured chemical constituents under the bar (mg/l)
Figure 5 Diagrammatic representations of PCs from R-mode varimax
 (a) (b)

r2=0.12

r2=0.45

(d)

(c) r2=0.85
2
r =0.09

(f)

(e)

r2=0.28

Figure 6 Bivariate plots of water variables. The symbols are the same as shown on Figure 1
Figure 7 Fluoride data point distribution (Left) and Exponential variogram fitted to Fluoride data (Right)
Figure 8 Kriging map of Fluoride distribution in Middle Awash basin
Figure 9 Kriging standard error map of Fluoride