Blowpipes versus Bellows in Ancient Metallurgy

Author(s): J. E. Rehder
Source: Journal of Field Archaeology , Autumn, 1994, Vol. 21, No. 3 (Autumn, 1994), pp.
345-350
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/530335

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 345

Blowpipes versus Bellows in

Ancient Metallurgy

J. E. Rehder
University of Toronto
Toronto, Canada

In the smelting of ores and the melting of metals during antiquity, the oxygen necessary for
the combustion of the charcoal fuel was supplied by human breath through blowpipes; by
ambient air via bellows; or, less frequently, by ambient air by natural draft. Because of its
chemical composition, however, human breath is limited in both the maximum temperature
attainable and in the amount of heat that it can generate in combustion; furthermore its
rate of supply is constrained by the physiology of the human body. The result is that the met-
allurgical capabilities of blowpipe furnaces are limited to the smelting of ores of copper in
quite small furnaces. An analysis is given of the operation of a copper smelting furnace exca-
vated in Peru.

Ambient air supplied by bellows to a charcoal fuieled furnace can develop the higher tem-
peratures necessary to smelt iron ores, and one person can then generate heat at about 70
times the rate that he can develop if using a blowpipe. Implications of the much greater met-
allurgical utility of bellows-driven air are that bellows would be used in preference to blow-
pipes for all metallurgical purposes as soon as they were available; that ambient air is neces-
sary for the smelting of iron ores; and that patterns of bellows use in antiquity and of iron
smelting may be similar.

Introduction

Everyone is aware of the brightening of a fire when it ores and the melting of copper and its alloys.
copper
is blown upon with exhaled breath; the brightening is
Bellows were apparently unknown (Shimada, Epstein, and
caused by an increase in temperature and can be localized
Craig 1983), and although natural draft furnaces were
and further increased by using a blowpipe. It wouldnoted seem by Spanish conquerors (Donnan 1973: 1), the de-
scriptions are unclear and there appears to be little un-
likely, therefore, that the earliest method used in antiquity
to increase the intensity and effectiveness of fire in aambiguous
con- archaeological evidence. Ores were apparently
trolled way was by the use of a blowpipe. A hollownever reed smelted to produce iron, and the copper smelted
appears to have tended, on average, to be lower in iron
will do, but its distal end or nose quickly becomes charred
by heat radiated from the fire, so in practice a short, content than copper smelted in the Old World when bel-
hollow clay tip is added, which becomes baked by lows the were used. These circumstances suggest that while
heat and provides a much longer use-life. In the absencethe maximum attainable furnace temperature with blow-
of tuyeres or bellows, such tips would be the earliest pipes was sufficient to smelt copper, it was limited to a
archaeological evidence of blowpipe use. They wouldlevel tendwell below that possible with ambient air via bellows.
to be short, characteristically of smaller interior diameter
It is a primary objective of this paper to explore the
than tuyeres for bellows, and possibly fragile because of
combustion of charcoal by exhaled human breath, and to
only a moderate firing temperature. The "tuyeres" of quantitatively the maximum temperatures attain-
discuss
2000-1800 B.c. found at Kalinovka in Russia with inter- able, the rate of heat generation possible, and the conse-
nal diameters of 6 mm (Gimbutas 1965: 548) would seem quences for the metallurgical capabilities of furnaces using
almost certainly, for reasons given below, to have been this method. As a basis for such exploration, the operation
blowpipe nozzles. of charcoal furnaces supplied with ambient air from bel-
The clearest and largest quantity of evidence for the use lows is first reviewed, to supply a reference against which
of blowpipes for metallurgy comes from the precolumbian the performance with human breath can be measured. The
New World, where they were used for the smelting ofresults of such study should be useful in understanding

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346 Blowpipes versus BellowslRehder

archaeological evidence of pyrometallurgy both in the crease unwanted reduction of iron into the copper
New World and in the early Old World; and they also iron oxide in flux and slag. Furnace temperature m
provide evidence that the use of bellows was a necessary therefore be controlled to a lower level by decreasing
condition for the smelting of iron. rate of combustion air supply.

Metallurgical Furnaces and the Smelting Combustion of Charcoal by Human Breath

of Copper The rate of exhalation and the composition of hu
The smelting of a metal ore requires a furnace that can breath under various conditions have been extensi
reach the high temperature necessary for the particular studied for medical reasons, and as with most ma
metal, supply heat at a sufficient rate to maintain temper- involving life processes it is quite variable; depending
ature and conduct the smelting and slag-making reactions, example on the age and metabolism of the individua
and generate a reducing gas that can decompose the metal level of physical effort being expended, and the sta
oxides disseminated in the ore. If the metal in the ore is each exhalation. For this reason the considerable amount
not its oxide, but rather a carbonate or a sulfide, it mustof data in the literature does not agree closely, and for the
be first converted to an oxide by roasting in air, usuallypurposes here the most self-consistent data have been
on a wood fire. Since the supply of heat and the maximum chosen. In general the oxygen content of human breath
temperature reached in fuel fired furnaces depend directly decreases and its carbon dioxide content increases as effort
on the composition of the "air" that is used for combus-increases, as can be seen in Table 1. Lower oxygen content
tion, the exploration of the effects of the use of humanand the presence of carbon dioxide and water vapor
breath requires some knowledge of elementary furnace change the chemistry of the combustion reaction, decreas-
technology and terminology. Quantities of heat are mea-ing the heat generated per cu m and also decreasing the
sured in joules, which are very small units so that, in AFT of combustion. The heat that can be developed by
practical operations, heat is measured in thousands of one cu m of breath, and the AFT with charcoal fuel, have
joules (KJ) or in millions of joules (MJ). In the combus- been calculated by the author for the two breath compo-
tion of charcoal in furnaces, because of the high reactivity sitions in Table 1 and are shown in Table 2. For compar-
of the fuel, the rate of combustion and therefore of heat ison, the values for air are also given.
generation, are determined quantitatively by the rate of In Table 2 it is seen that the rate of heat generation and
combustion air supply; thus, for example, 1 cu m of am-the AFT are both also dependent on the physical effort
bient air generates 2.0 MJ of heat energy. necessary to expel breath. The rate at which breath is
The maximum temperature theoretically attainable inexpelled by a 70 kg man varies from about 6 liters per
the combustion of a fuel is the adiabatic flame tempera-minute when resting, to about 150 liters per minute when
ture, or AFT, of the combustion reaction at zero heat loss. exercising heavily (Altman 1958: 148). The resistance to
Since loss of heat is in practice inevitable, the maximumflow of a gas through a blowpipe nozzle increases rapidly
temperature in an actual furnace is less than the AFT of with the rate of flow, and it is estimated by the author
the fuel by a fraction that depends on the ratio of the ratethat a median flow rate of about 75 liters (0.075 cu m)
of heat supply to the rate of heat loss (Hiles and Mott per minute would be, on the average, sustainable. This
1944). Furthermore, since in a given furnace smelting aindicates that the maximum temperature that would be
particular ore the rate of heat loss is approximately con-reached in a useful volume of a well-insulated and pre-
stant, and since the rate of heat supply is, as noted above, heated furnace would be, on the basis of about 85% of
the rate of combustion air supply, control of the latter is the AFT, about 1200-12500C. It must be kept in mind
the principal control of the fraction of the AFT at which that, as is the case with bellows, there is a brief interval
the furnace operates, and therefore its maximum temper- between each expulsion of air as fresh air is drawn in, so
ature. that there is some irregularity of air supply. This will result
inasome
As an example, it has been demonstrated that furnace temperature variation and it would not
small
be difficult,
(300 mm internal diameter), well-insulated furnace, fueled therefore, to find a spot in the fuel bed not
with charcoal and smelting iron ore, ambient air farsupplied
from a blowpipe tip, where a thermocouple would
at the rate of 0.3 cu m per minute will produce show 13000C,
and as reported by Donnan (1973: 292).
maintain furnace temperatures over 16000C (Tylecote,
These furnace temperatures are demonstrably sufficient,
Austin, and Wraith 1971). Such temperatures though
are, how-
marginally, for the smelting of copper to a molten
pool in
ever, much higher than those necessary for smelting a furnace hearth; and with suitable fluxing, to
ores
of copper, and indeed are undesirable because convert
they in- the gangue in an ore to a molten slag. If furnace

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 Journal ofFieldArchaeology/Vol. 21, 1994 347

Table 1. Typical effects of effort on breath consumption (after Table 2. Heat developed and AFT in
McNaught and Callender 1973: 124). combustion of charcoal by breath.
Carbon Water MJ per AFT
Breathing Oxygen dioxide vapor Nitrogen cu m CC)
efort % % 6 %
Quiet breathing 1.5 1520
Quiet 15.4 3.8 6.0 74.8 Deep breathing 1.1 1230
Deep 13.0 5.2 6.0 75.8 Median 1.3 1395
Ambient air 2.0 1900

temperature is decreasedviscous slag that contained

appreciably by a low
effort (generating heat theat a lower
ore, rate,
which was howev
then pull
can become viscous and through
retaina smelted
temporary open
copper
troughThis
inated small prills or pellets. in front of the
evidently fur
was
splashing
occurrence in early copper a bucket
smelting inof water
the Ne
in South America. The arrest its burning
slag then must and save
be coole
to a powder, the bits ofof slag.
copper The slag was possib
separated by t
density, and then remelted. It may
finish cooling, so be
thatnoted,
the fu
burden immediately,
that these furnace temperature limitations,whiled
human breath heat.
through blowpipes, could hav
origin of the opinion Further observations
often expressedabout the construction
in of the
thefur- old
nacesit
ological literature that illustrate
was that their
not wallspossible
were very thick andin so a
generate temperatures possessed
highera very low rate of heat loss;
than the pinched-in1200
about top
coal fueled furnaces. acted as a partial closure that decreased heat loss from the
top of the fuel bed without giving too much resistance to
gas flow; and the furnaces can be considered to be, effec-
An Analysis of a Mouth-blown Furnace tively, bowl types with an internal diameter of about 250
It is instructive to examine the operation of the precol- mm.

umbian furnaces at Batane Grande in Peru, reported by In the furnace mentioned above that could maintain a
Shimada, Epstein, and Craig (1982). These furnaces were temperature of 1600'C with ambient air for combustion,
excavated, measured, and reported in unusually good de- the rate of air supply per sq m of cross-section of empty
tail, which makes possible some quantitative analysis on furnace, which is a measure of intensity of heat generation
the basis of the furnace operating parameters discussed and thus of possible temperature (Rehder 1986), was a
above. little over 4 cu m per sq m per minute. To decrease furnace
The discovered furnaces were apparently similar in temperature to the 12000C more suitable for the smelting
of copper, the heat generation rate must be decreased by
shape and size, and many were cut out of a bench of earth
to form an approximately spherical hollow in its face, decreasing the air supply rate to an estimated 3 cu m per
roughly 250 mm in diameter, and with the cavity pinched sq m per minute. If the furnace were then to be decreased
in size to 250 mm inside diameter (0.049 sq m area) to
narrower at the back and top. In operation, the cavity was
filled with the burden of charcoal and ore, with the char-
equal that of the excavated furnaces, an air flow rate of
coal lying at its angle of repose at the open front. The 0.147 cu m per minute (0.049 x 3) would be necessary,
base or hearth of the cavity was near the level of a trough giving a heat generation rate of 0.29 MJ per minute
in front of the furnace and separated by a low ridge or (0.147 x 2, from TABLE 2).
apron (see the detailed drawing in Shimada, Epstein, and Since both the hypothetical and the excavated furnaces
Craig 1982: fig. 4). were well insulated, their heat loss rates would be similar
Human breath was introduced into the fuel bed and a direct comparison can be made between using hu-
through ceramic-tipped blowpipes. The operators manproba-
breath and air from bellows for combustion. A heat

bly sat on a terrace facing the furnace with the tips generation
of the rate of 0.29 MJ per minute is necessary, and
nozzles at or projecting slightly into the face of the with use of human breath which generates an average of
char-
coal near its base. The reported internal diameters 1.3 of
MJthe
per cu m (TABLE 2), a flow rate of 0.22 cu m
ceramic tips found were quite uniform at 8 ?+ 1 mm. The will be necessary. As noted above, the rate at
(0.29/1.3)
mode of operation was apparently to produce which a massbreath
of could be supplied by a 70 kg man through

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348 Blowpipes versus BellowslRehder

a blowpipe would be about 0.075 cu m per minute; thus
0.22/0.075 = 2.9, or three men, on blowpipes would be
the minimum necessary to operate the furnace. This agrees
with the archaeological evidence of the number of blow-
pipes apparently used.
There is an interesting corroborating detail of the fur-
nace operation as analyzed. In bellows-blown furnaces the
described by Donnan (1973: 290) showed several blow-
pipes being used around an apparently covered furnace,
holes in the cover being used partly for insertion of blow-
pipes and partly for escape of combustion products. Such
a cover would markedly decrease the rate of heat loss, and
proportionately increase the approach to the AFT of the
charcoal-breath combination.

tuyere is always restricted in the internal diameter of its It should not be overlooked that metallic copper is easily
exit end or nose, in order to increase the exit velocity of melted in the same furnace used for smelting, simply by
the air and so increase its penetration into the fuel bed. adding it with charcoal in small- to medium-sized pieces.
Review by the author of many such practices with bellows Much less fuel is then necessary for smelting because there
in antiquity shows that tuyere internal diameters tended is minimal slag production, and the process is necessarily
to fall in the fairly narrow range of about 20 to 30 mm, continuous as long as furnace temperature is above the
which resulted in tuyere exit velocities of about 25 m per melting point of copper and if molten copper in the fur-
second. In the present case 0.075 cu m of breath through nace hearth is periodically tapped out. There would be
an 8 mm blowpipe nozzle also gives an exit velocity of 25 little archaeological evidence of such a practice except the
m per second. This should not be surprising since there negative one of little slag production.
can be only minor variability in the permeability to gases
of charcoal fuel beds with a particle size suitable for smelt- Blowpipes versus Bellows as Combustion
ing, and therefore of the air velocity necessary to penetrate "Air" Supply
them. The internal diameters of blowpipe tips would seem As noted above, the use of human breath through blow-
to be in the range of about 5-10 mm, of tuyeres suppliedpipes can evidently produce temperatures in fuel beds of
by bellows about 15-35 mm, and of tuyeres or openings charcoal sufficient to smelt copper ores and melt copper
for natural draft furnaces from 50 to well over 100 mm. and bronze; but the maximum temperature attained is
The prills and blobs of copper metal separated from aapparently not sufficient to smelt iron ores. The author is
viscous slag could have been melted in a crucible embed-aware of no archaeological or experimental evidence that
ded in charcoal, the maximum temperature attainable with shows blowpipe furnaces to be capable of so doing, and
blowpipes being sufficient to melt copper if the methodthis has interesting implications for the development in
was correctly applied. A shallow crucible or saucer of clay antiquity of iron production.
can also be used as a direct container of both metal and The origin of the incentive or impulse to make and use
charcoal. The highest temperature created by a blowpipe a bellows for combustion air supply cannot be known,
will be about 30-40 mm from its nose depending on but the once the marked increase in resulting fuel bed bright-
ness (i.e., temperature) had been noticed, its application
charcoal lump size; so if a saucer is filled with charcoal of
about 10 mm average lump size to a depth of aboutto 40-
replace blowpipes would seem to have been immediate;
50 mm, and ignited and then blown from the top with and, as will be shown, much less human effort was then
the blowpipe tip(s) close to the surface of the charcoal
necessary.
bed, any copper lying in the saucer will be melted andA blowpipe is, mechanically, a very inefficient way of
given enough superheat to be easily poured off; obviously
converting human physical effort into a flow of gas against
a resistance. As noted above, one man can produce as
the number of blowpipes necessary depends on the size
exhaled breath on a continuous basis about 0.075 cu m
of the saucer. Since the high temperature atmosphere will
be quite oxidizing in chemistry, there would be some per minute, which will generate heat at the rate of 0.098
MJ per minute (0.075 x 1.3). With the use of bellows
refining of the copper during its melting and superheating.
If the metal is then simply left to solidify, a bun-shaped
which are driven by leg, arm, and torso muscles, a much
ingot will be formed. If the temperature created is on the
greater flow rate can be produced by the same man, how-
low side because of insufficient blowing rate or poorever.
ar- It has been shown (Reay 1977: 48) that an average
man weighing 75 kg can develop muscular mechanical
rangement of blowpipes, the prills may be barely re-melted
power at a continuous rate of about 120 watts. If this is
and a resulting ingot or artifact made from it could show
an odd microstructure, and not be well refined. applied to a bellows that has a mechanical efficiency of
only 15% due to friction and leaks-which is a conser-
The disadvantage of melting in a saucer is the relatively
high consumption of charcoal per kg of copper melted, vative figure--this means that 120 x 0.15 = 18 watts is
because of the high rate of heat loss. The Moche bowl available to generate gas flow rate against a resistance. If

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 Journal of FieldArchaeology/Vol. 21, 1994 349

the total resistance of the tuyere and of the fuel bed is a
typical 300 Pascals, it can be shown from the equation
for the power necessary for a given air flow rate (N.A.C.H.
1952: 142), that 18 watts will produce an air flow rate of
3.6 cu m per minute. This will generate heat at the rate
of 7.2 MJ per minute (3.6 x 2.0). Thus the rate at which
one man can generate heat in a charcoal fuel bed by using
bellows is 73 times (7.2/0.098) as great as if he were using
a blowpipe. The increase in air flow and in heat generation
rates with the use of bellows is surprisingly large, but the
reason seems to be that human breath is a waste product
of human metabolism, expelled from lungs that have lim-
ited volume and musculature; while ambient air is pro-
duced by bellows that use a large suite of muscles designed
for producing mechanical energy.
It seems clear that quite independently of the increased
maximum temperature attainable, bellows would be used
preferably to blowpipes as soon as their utility had been
demonstrated, if only because of the decreased physical
effort necessary to drive a furnace to a desired temperature.
(1969) concluded on this and other grounds that they
introduced the bellows to Egypt.
Final note must be made of the use of natural draft to
supply ambient air for operating charcoal shaft furnaces.
There is no question, from African experience alone, that
iron can thus be smelted, and so therefore can copper;
but the archaeological evidence of its use in antiquity or
in precolumbian America is thin. The operation of such
furnaces has been discussed elsewhere by the author (Reh-
der 1987).
Summary
The chemical composition of human breath is such that
when it is used to burn charcoal in a well-insulated and
preheated furnace, it reaches a maximum temperature, in
a useful volume of fuel bed, considerably lower than if
ambient air were used in the same furnace. The former is
somewhat variable since the composition of breath varies
for physiological reasons, but would be on the order of
12000C. With ambient air for combustion of charcoal in

Since the productivity of a smelting furnace increases di- the same furnace, temperatures over 16000C can be
rectly with its cross-sectional area and so with air flow reached.

rate, bellows would also be essential for larger and more The temperatures attainable with human breath are suf-
productive furnaces. For example, a furnace of 700 mm ficient for the smelting of copper ores to molten metal,
inside diameter smelting copper ores might be blown with and for the melting of copper, bronze, gold, silver, and
a single bellows arranged to feed two opposing tuyeres, their alloys. They evidently are not, however, sufficient for
which would use only one-third of one man's power; but the smelting of iron ores to a bloom or to molten cast
the number of blowpipes and men necessary would be 24. iron, and this could be a primary reason why iron was
This would not only occupy 24 men, but would allow evidently not made in the precolumbian New World.
only about 0.12 m distance between each of them around Since a cubic meter of human breath generates less heat
the outer wall of the furnace. With a furnace of 1000 mm
by combustion than does a cu m of ambient air, and a
inside diameter 48 blowpipes would be required, with human being can maintain blowing at only a certain rate,
only 0.08 m space for each of them. even small furnaces require several blowpipes operating
simultaneously
Since the temperatures developed with the use of bel- to reach and maintain maximum furnace
lows can demonstrably smelt iron ores, it would seem that temperature.
the development and use of bellows was a necessary con- Blowpipes for supplying breath to a fuel bed usually
dition for ironmaking, and that the spread of the use of must have ceramic tips or nozzles and, in order to obtain
bellows in space and time could be a marker for the spread adequate penetration of breath into the fuel bed, the in-
of iron smelting. ternal diameter of the nozzle must be kept small. Because
The origin of bellows is obscure. Wainwright (1944) of limitations on human blowing rates this is limited to a
considered that the earliest direct evidence is from early diameter of about 5-10 mm, which is less than half that
3rd-millennium Mesopotamia, and he mentioned that iron typically used for tuyeres fed by bellows. Such small nozzle
was being smelted there before 2700 B.c. but without diameters may be considered as diagnostic for the use of
making a direct connection between the bellows evidenceblowpipes, particularly where there is no evidence of bel-
and the iron. He also pointed out that on the basis of bas- lows or of natural draft.
reliefs, only blowpipes were used in Egypt until after the The use of bellows to supply combustion air for char-
beginning of the 12th Dynasty, about 1975 B.c.; and thatcoal fuel beds not only can create higher maximum tem-
bellows are not shown until the middle of the 18th Dy-peratures than can human breath, but one man exerting
nasty, about 1460 B.c. It is interesting to notice that thenormal, sustainable physical effort can generate heat at a
Hyksos invaders of about 1700 B.c. came from the northrate of about 70 times that possible if he were using a
where iron was already being smelted, and Zwickerblowpipe. The increase in rate is so marked that bellows

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350 Blowpipes versus BellowslRehder

would seem to have been used in antiquity as soon as Rehder, J. E.

originated and demonstrated, and would become essential
for the larger furnaces eventually used.
The use of bellows seems to be necessary for the smelt-
ing of iron ores, and their history in time and space could
be a delineator of the spread of the ability to smelt iron
in antiquity. Conversely, the existence of bellows is nec-
essary but not sufficient evidence that iron was being
smelted.
Acknowledgments
Gray Graffam (personal communication, 1992) pointed
out the paper by Shimada, Epstein, and Craig (1983) that
the author had overlooked, and which served as the im-
pulse for looking into the thermochemical aspects of hu-
man breath for combustion of charcoal and comparing
them to those of ambient air. He also read a draft manu-
script, as did U. M. Franklin, whose comments have been
most useful.
1986 "Primitive Furnaces and the Development of Metal-
lurgy," Journal of Historical Metallurgy 20 (2): 87-92.
1987 "Natural Draft Furnaces," Archeomaterials 2 (1): 47-58.
Shimada, Izumi, Stephen Epstein, and Alan K. Craig
1982 "Batane Grande: A Prehistoric Metallurgical Center in
Peru," Science 216: 952-959.
1983 "The Metallurgical Process in Northern Peru," Archae-
ology 36 (5): 38-45.
Tylecote, R. F., J. N. Austin, and A. E. Wraith
1971 "Mechanism of the Bloomery Process in Shaft Furnaces,"
Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 209: 342-363.
Wainwright, G. A.
1944 "Rekhmire's Metal-Workers," Man 75: 96.
Zwicker, U.
1969 "Development of Melting and Casting Techniques for
Sculptural Figures in Egypt between 2500 and 1500
B.C.," Zeitschrift Metall 23: 1-4.

J. E. Rehder received a B. Eng. (Met.) degree from McGill

University in Montreal in 1940, and is at present a Senior
Research Associate in the Department ofMetallurgy and Ma-
terials Science at the University of Toronto. His principal re-
search interests are in the metallurgy and pyrotechnology of
antiquity. Mailing address: 36 Castle Frank Road, Suite
309, Toronto, Canada, M4W2Z7.

Altman, Philip L.
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Co.

Donnan, Christopher B.
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Hiles, J., and R. A. Mott

1944 'The Mode of Combustion of Coke," Fuel 23 (6): 154-
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McNaught, A. B., and R. Callander

1973 Illustrated Physiology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
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1952 North American Combustion Handbook, 1st edn. Cleve-
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