Three different models of Foreign Policy:

Strategies adopted by different states to guide their actions in the international arena to pursue
their objectives are called foreign policy.
Three decision-making models in foreign policy.
How decisions are taken in foreign policy?
1. Rational Model:
A state would evaluate different goals on basis of costs and benefits. If the cost is more than the
benefit then it's useless. We use logic/reason/rationality to evaluate our goals based on costs and
benefits.
Limitations
If cost and benefits are subjective, there is always a kind of uncertainty of various costs and
benefits. Pakistan is not clear about the costs and benefits of using a nuclear weapon on the
Kashmir issue, so it would lead to a threat to Pakistan's survival. But it might not be a threat for
India.
Multiple goals are there of decision-makers. On one objective there are multiple perspectives
regarding one particular objective. If multiple individuals are involved in a rational decision
process then every individual's interest comes in it.
2. Organizational process model:
The state acts as an organization and has standard SoPs. We cannot all the time expect the higher
authorities to make decisions for us so we will collectively make SoPs that will be fulfilled by all
of them. According to SoPs which are already there, decisions are being taken to facilitate the
lower-level decisions.
3. Government Bargaining:
4. Conflict between India and Pakistan, not cooperating. Then we will go for certain kinds of
incentives, you will go for bargaining. You will give some incentives to them and in return, they
will give to you. Also called a bureaucratic model or government bargaining. Japan imports sushi
from the USA. But the Agricultural ministry within Japan thought that they do not need to
import sushi on the other hand foreign ministry thought we should import it, at the end, they go
for sushi to have good relations with the USA. It was the ultimate purpose.
Individual Decision Makers:
Individuals which take any kind of decision.
1.Harry Truman: President of the USA in the second world war. He was at the top of the
decision-making process he decided to go for nuclear weapons. Which they put on japan. They
Keep in mind the cost and benefit of everything(rationality). Three major concerns of USA:
Wants to show superiority to the rest of the world that we have the deadly capability and no one
can near to us. Dominance over the international system.
For the sake of prestige.
They wanted to end the war immediately. Gorilla fighters in Japan were giving tough time to
them.
2. They consider the objectives of the state rather than individuals. He preferred state interest
rather than his interest.
3. 'Values and beliefs count a lot in the decision-making process. We cannnot go for anything
which is against our religion.
4. 'Psychoanalytical approaches':(Childhood experiences)They also influence your decision-
making process. Eg Bill Clinton's father-in-law was an alcoholic person, he fought with him so
he experienced it all in childhood and he preferred to solve conflicts through negotiations when
he became the president.
Limitations on individual decision-making process:
Misperception and selective perception:
Misperception is Misunderstandings between things and can cause conflict. Selective perception
is You deliberately pick that thing which you think best. You selectively choose that.
Information and screens:
They are also very important. You cannot take any information for granted. You have to take all
the data to find something viable. CIA of America simply screened out the Arabic conversation
between 19 pilots and ut was the major cause of the 9/11 attack.
Effective bias:
Cognitive bias:
Justification
You will justify what you've done. You try to justify your stuff.
Effort
Mirror images
The way we perceive India as our enemy similarly they perceive us as their enemy. We cannot
go for rationality by having this notion. You tend to perceive your enemy and your enemy also
perceives you as your enemy. So no rational calculation.
Historical analysis
Wishful thinking
It has nothing to do with rational thinking. Eg if I failed in maths I will think I can give bribery to
the maam and she will pass me.
How to tackle:
Bounded rationality
You go for linking one rationality with multiple other nationalities and you will reach a point and
can conclude the result.
Prospect theory
You collect all the information and then start editing and then evaluating the process. You tend
to provide brighter prospects after editing.
An alternative approach to individual decision making Process:
Group psychology
Collective consciousness. Different minds will collectively contribute to a particular topic. It
reduces bias and individual idiosyncrasies or inputs/preferences. In group psychology, we can
promote rationality in the decision-making process.
Limitations in group psychology:
Group thinking
Individual thinking will come in it. Your preferences will come in it.
Diffuse responsibility
It will diffuse responsibility. Nobody will take responsibility in group psychology
Clash of civilizations
Cultural characteristics:
I can be transformed if I'm convinced. Political differences and economic conditions can be
overcome eg if I'm supporting PTI before but that can be changed, now I'm supporting noon
league or if I'm poor before I may become rich afterward. . But this is not the case with religion
and cultural characteristics. A person cannot say that I'm half Hindu and half Muslim. We have
to stand in one position. Or a person cannot say that I was Jewish 2 years back and two months
backward I was Hindu and now I'm Muslim.
Increased economic conditions are also creating problems for the rest of the world. A block
having the same civilization will make progress far more as compared to blocks having mixed
civilization. People are moving towards similar civilizations eg western civilization. Having
Multiple civilizations, progress is not possible, there will always be a tussle. SAARC will not
progress cz it involves India and Pakistan and they do have not the same civilization so they'll
not cooperate.
Cultural vs ideological and Political
Fault lines are more cultural rather than ideological. After 1991, eastern Europe(communist) and
western Europe(capitalist) were changed and they united as one, before that they were divided.
But Catholics and protestants remain the same. We can eliminate ideological and political
differences but religious and cultural differences stay.
Western vs Islamic civilization
There is always a tussle between western and Islamic civilizations. Ottoman empire was
disintegrated in 1924 and made turkey the nation-state. After 1924, western countries started
colonization. Western countries dominated over Muslim countries. But in the 1960s oil came out
of the Middle East so western countries become dependent on Muslim countries. In 2001, the US
with allied forces attacked Iraq and in 2003, the US with allied forces attacked Afghanistan. This
shows they were trying to become dominant over Islamic civilization.
Islamic vs Hindu civilization
In 1947, and before both were fighting against one another. In 1992, attack was on Babri Masjid.
Kashmir conflict also comes in it. They have different practices so they cant combine.
Kin country syndrome
If people of different civilizations (Kashmir) are subjugated by different civilizations (India) they
extend/rely on their support from the countries having the same civilization. Eg Pakistan, Turkey
support Palestine CZ they have the same civilization. On the other hand, the US supports Israel.
Bosnia was a Muslim territory and many Muslim countries supported them when Armenia was
against it.
West vs Rest
Security council:-
Not a single Muslim country is a member of the security council. No Muslim member country
though 57 Muslim countries exist in the world.
Economic and institutional power:-
They are holding economic and institutional power along with the security council. UN is an
Institutional power. All bigger organizations like IMF, UN, world bank belong to America. Thus
west hold economic and institutional power.
Cultural differences:-
West exports its cultural tendencies to another world. Trying to show/promote that our culture is
superior and if you want to make progress you have to adopt our culture.
Dominance in terms of western ideas:-
The ideas that we are trying to implement in our society are also westernized.
It would result in religious fundamentalism in youth and youth will be corrupted. Extremist
tendencies will be promoted in youth. West is of the view that religion has nothing to do with the
state.
Alternatives/How the world responded
Isolation with western culture
We will shut down our borders with western civilizations like north Korea, Burma(no western
civilization). They are isolated. They have their own indigenous identities.
Band wogoning
If one is adopting a culture the other is also doing because they have not faced any negative
consequences. Countries adopted/accepted western civilization and ultimately adopted them
resulted in an identity crisis.
Balance
Both countries adopted a balanced approach like South Korea and Japan. It will lead to an
identity crisis. They adopted western things but also came forward with their ideas and culture
and promoted that. So they adopted a balanced approach.
The Torn countries:
Turkey wanted to shift to European culture. They revived their society according to western
patterns. They want to switch from their own culture towards other civilizations is known as torn
countries.
Mexico is moving from Latin to North American civilization. Russians are trying to shift to
western civilization.
The Confucian Islamic connection:
Semiul predicted that Cooperation between china and Islamic civilization will start in the future.
Cooperation between nuclear weapons eg chashma 1,2. China provided missiles power to
Pakistan.
China assisting Pakistan in terms of economic power. Trying to boost the economic states of
Islamic countries. China also assisted Iraq and Iran in developing nuclear capabilities. West is
trying to propagate that no country will develop nuclear weapons and for this, they have installed
regimes like NPT, FMCT, CTBT(west nuclear non-proliferation). Trying to corrupt all other
states from denying these capabilities. No country will go for uranium enrichment. You cannot
test nuclear weapons in the air, underground.
Implications for the west:
West is trying its level best to provide cross-cultural relations with other states. We need to avoid
such kinds of conflicts cz it is a multicultural and multireligious society. They are of the view
that if any kind of action could trigger our youth and can corrupt their minds and can have
multiple clashes. They are trying to create cultural harmony between different states. Other
countries other than the west have Come to realize we have other multiple models and for
developing it's not necessary to follow westernization culture, we can also go for south Korean
and Japanese models for development. We can go for indigenous models well rather than relying
on other models for development