G e0G aPHY-

1. EARTH’S STRUCTURE

• The Earth is divided up into a series of layers - the crust, the mantle and the core. These layers
have different chemical compositions and mechanical properties (particularly in terms of
solidity).The thinnest layer is the crust - this is the outermost layer.

• There are two types of crust - continental and oceanic - which vary in thickness, density and
composition. Continental crust is between 20 and 200km thick and is less dense than oceanic crust.
It is mainly made up of granite and cannot be destroyed. It is much older than oceanic crust - up to
3.8 billion years old. Oceanic crust is between 5 and 10km thick. It is made up of basalt and is very
dense.

• Oceanic crust sinks when it meets continental crust at a destructive plate margin (subduction) and
will be melted to form magma. It is much younger than continental crust - less than 200 million years
old. The crust and upper (rigid) part of the mantle form the lithosphere.

• The lithosphere is broken into fragments, called tectonic plates, which move very slowly over
the upper mantle. It is around 100km on average and is solid and brittle - this means that it breaks
under pressure, so is where earthquakes occur.

• The mantle is made of solid rock, but the asthenosphere is subject to much higher temperatures
(around 1300°C) and pressure meaning that rocks soften, becoming semi-molten and ductile,
meaning it can flow. It will not melt entirely due to the high pressure.

• Below this is the lower mantle - which is hotter and denser, and much less ductile than the upper
mantle.

• The core is at the center - it is under a huge amount of pressure and is extremely hot - the inner
core is solid, whereas the outer core is liquid.

2. EVIDENCE SUPPORTING CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

• Alfred Wegner suggested in 1912 that “around 300 million years ago all continents were joined
together by a single supercontinent called Pangea, surrounded by an ocean called Panthallassa.
These continents have since drifted apart from one another.”

• Alfred Wegener provided some evidence to support his theory, which is mentioned below:

1. The Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit): When facing one another, the shorelines of South
America and Africa form a similarity. Similarly, when matched, Africa, Madagascar, and India's east
coast all fit together.

2. Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans: Radiometric dating techniques have been used to
correlate rock development across continents. It suggests that the 2,000 million-year-old strip of
ancient rocks off the coast of Brazil corresponds to the mountain ranges of Western Africa.

3. Tillite: Tillite is a type of sedimentary rock formed by glacier deposits.

4. Placer Deposits: Gold placer deposits can be discovered along the Ghana coast (West Africa).
However, there is no source rock in the immediate vicinity. The fact that gold-bearing veins may be
found in Brazil is incredible.
 5. Distribution of Fossils: Identical species and animals were found on both sides of the marine
barrier. For example, Mesosaurus, a freshwater crocodile-like reptile that lived between 286 and
258 million years ago, is only found in Southern Africa and Eastern South America.

3. PLATE TECTONICS & TECTONIC PLATES

• The movement of plates and the activity inside the earth is called plate tectonics.

• The place/area where plates move is called plate margins.

• Remember that’s plates carry continents and oceans, by a few centimeters every year.

• Tectonic plates are sections of the Earth's solid crust that “float” on top of the mantle.
The mantle contains hot molten rock (magma) heated by energy from the earth's core
• The earth’s crust is made up of seven main tectonic plates and numerous smaller plates.

• Where plates meet, huge forces build up causing earthquakes and volcanoes and the formation
of fold mountains and deep-sea trenches.
PLATE BOUNDARY VOLCANOES? EARTHQUAKES? FOLD MOUNTAINS?
1. Constructive Gentle Gentle No
2. Destructive Violent Violent Yes
3. Collision None Violent Yes
4. Conservative None Violent No

1. Destructive margin

• A destructive plate boundary is formed when an oceanic plate and a continental plate (or
occasionally: oceanic and oceanic plates) collide. The oceanic plate is subducted under the
continental plate (or oceanic plate), as it is more dense.

• This often leads to the formation of volcanoes at destructive plate boundaries, as friction and
heating cause the oceanic plate to melt and pressure builds up beneath the crust. This pressure is
eventually released when magma rises through lines of weakness in the crust. Lava then solidifies
to create a volcano.

2. Collision margin
 • A collisional plate boundary is formed when two continental plates collide (eg. Eurasian and Indian
plate).

• Fold mountains form along collisional boundaries as continental plates move towards each other
and exert pressure on each other. No subduction occurs as rocks are of the same density. Instead,
the crust becomes crumpled into a series of folds and the layers of crust are uplifted.

• For example the Himalaya’s mountains.

3. Constructive margin

• A constructive boundary is formed when two plates are moving apart, creating gaps in the Earth’s
crust and thereby allowing magma to surface and form new crust. More than often, magma bursts
through the crust, giving rise to volcanoes as the lava cools.

• Many constructive plate boundaries are mid-oceanic ridges, e.g. the fault line between the Eurasian
and North American plates.

4. Conservative margin

• Conservative margins are formed by plates gliding past each other in opposite directions or at
opposite speeds. Transform faults are very prone to earthquakes.

• Example: San Andreas fault (Pacific plate and North American plate)

4. EARTHQUAKES
• Earthquakes are sudden, violent vibrations of the Earth’s crust produced by the shock waves (from
displacement along a fault).

• The point in the Earth where an earthquake originates is called the focus. The epicentre is the point
on the Earth’s surface vertically above an earthquake. The epicentre is usually the location where
the greatest damage associated with an earthquake occurs.

Why people choose to live in earthquake-prone areas ?

People may live near fault lines where earthquakes occur, as severe earthquakes are very infrequent.
Earthquake monitoring systems and earthquake resistant infrastructure may convey a false sense of
security. Also, earthquake-prone areas may have good economic opportunities, eg. California. Additionally,
local communities may have bonded to the soil due to family tradition, culture or religion. Furthermore,
people may be forced to live near earthquakes, due to population pressure and poverty (they can not afford
to live elsewhere).

Impacts of earthquakes

• Deaths/injuries

• Collapse of buildings and homelessness

• Flash flooding
• Electricity supply disrupted

• Gas pipeline fractured/fires break out;

• Roads blocked/destroyed

Factors affecting the intensity of earthquakes

• The depth and magnitude (energy released)

• The duration and time of the earthquake

• The local geology (rock structure)

• The location of the epicentre (in a rural or urban area)

• The building standards (e.g. earthquake prone housing or low quality materials)

• The awareness and education of residents regarding evacuation and emergency services

• A seismograph and seismometer are used to measure the magnitude of an earthquake. This is
displayed in the form of the Richer Scale, a logarithmic scale that records the energy released by
movement in the ground. The Richter Scale goes from 0 to infinity, however, most earthquakes are
between 0 and 9.

• Another important scale is the Mercalli scale, which is used to depict the impacts of an earthquake.
The Mercalli scale classifies earthquakes from 1 to 12, depending on the damage caused. An
earthquake intensity of 1 would be measurable only using instruments, an intensity of 6 would
cause trees to sway and create slight damage. An intensity of 12 would result in total destruction.