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DE Unit 3 Notes
DE Unit 3 Notes
DE Unit 3 Notes
SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS
LATCHES
A latch is a digital circuit element that can store and remember a binary state (0 or 1). It is a basic
building block in digital electronics used for temporary data storage. Latches have two stable
states and can be set, reset, or hold their current state based on control inputs. They play a crucial
role in the design of sequential logic circuits and memory elements within electronic systems.
SR Latch
It is the most common type of latch. An SR latch, or Set-Reset latch, is a fundamental digital
circuit element used for storing binary information. It has two inputs, Set (S) and Reset ®, and
two outputs, Q and Q’ (complement of Q). The SR latch can be in one of two stable states: Set
(Q=1, Q’=0), Reset (Q=0, Q’=1), or it can hold its current state. It is often implemented using
NOR gates, and proper control is required to avoid simultaneous assertion of Set and Reset,
which could lead to undefined states. The SR latch is a building block for more complex digital
circuits and memory units.
Implementation of SR latch
They are two way of implementing SR latch are as follows:-
• SR Latch Using NOR gate
An SR latch, or Set-Reset latch, can be implemented using NOR gates. The SR latch has two
inputs, S (Set) and R (Reset), and two outputs, Q and Q’ (complement of Q). Here’s a detailed
explanation of how an SR latch is constructed using NOR gates:
• Initial State: Assume the initial state of the latch is Q=0 and Q’=1.
• Set Operation (S=1): When the Set input (S) is asserted (S=1), it forces Q to be 1. In
the NOR gate implementation, this is achieved by connecting the S input to one of the
NOR gates In the circuit.
• Reset Operation (R=1): When the Reset input R is asserted (R=1), it forces Q’ to be
0. Similarly, in the NOR gate implementation, this is achieved by connecting the R
input to one of the NOR gates.
• Hold State (S=R=0): If both Set (S) and Reset R inputs are 0, the latch remains in its
current state. This is the hold state, where Q and Q’ retain their previous values.
Circuit diagram:-
The NOR gate implementation of an SR latch typically consists of two cross-coupled NOR
gates. The output of one NOR gate is connected to the input of the other and vice versa. The S
input is connected to one NOR gate, and the R input is connected to the other NOR gate.
Truth Table:-
Here’s a basic truth table for the SR latch using NOR gates:
S R Q(t) Q’(t)
0 0 Q Q’
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 1 X X
Note: X denotes an undefined or indeterminate state that should be avoided to prevent race
conditions. Proper synchronization is necessary to prevent both S and R being active
simultaneously.
Circuit Diagram:-
The NAND gate implementation of an SR latch typically consists of two cross-coupled NAND
gates. The output of one NAND gate is connected to the input of the other and vice versa. The S
input is connected to one NAND gate, and the R input is connected to the other NAND gate.
Truth Table:-
Here’s a basic truth table for the SR latch using NAND gates:
S R Q(t) Q’(t)
0 0 Q Q’
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 X X
Note: X denotes an undefined or indeterminate state that should be avoided to prevent race
conditions. Proper synchronization is necessary to prevent both S and R being active
simultaneously.
FLIP FLOP
A flip-flop is a fundamental digital circuit element used for storing binary information. It is a
bistable multivibrator, meaning it has two stable states. Flip-flops are widely used in sequential
logic circuits, memory units, and digital systems to store and transfer data.
Here are key characteristics and details about flip-flops:
• Bistable Operation: A flip-flop can be in one of two stable states, typically labeled as “0” or
“1,” representing binary values. It can hold its state until a specific triggering event occurs.
• Clock Input: Most flip-flops have a clock input (denoted as CLK or CP) that controls when
the flip-flop changes its state. The state transition often occurs on the rising or falling edge of
the clock signal, depending on whether it’s a rising-edge-triggered or falling-edge-triggered
flip-flop.
1. SR Flip Flop
An SR flip-flop, or Set-Reset flip-flop, is a digital circuit made using NAND gates. It has two
inputs, S (Set) and R (Reset), and two outputs, Q and Q’ (complement of Q). The flip-flop stores
a binary state (0 or 1) and changes its state based on the inputs. When S is set to 1 and R is set to
0, the flip-flop is set (Q=1, Q’=0); conversely, when R is set to 1 and S is set to 0, the flip-flop is
reset (Q=0, Q’=1). When both S and R are 0, the flip-flop maintains its current state, and when
both are 1, it enters an undefined state.
Circuit Diagram:-
Truth Table:-
Clk S R Q(n+1)
1 0 0 Q(n)
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 X
Characteristics Table:-
Q(n) S R Q(n+1)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 X
Excitation Table:-
Q(n) Q(n+1) S R
0 0 0 X
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 X 0
2. T Flip Flop
A T flip-flop, or Toggle flip-flop, is a digital circuit that can change its state (toggle) based on a
clock signal. When the T input is 1, the flip-flop toggles its state; if T is 0, the state remains
unchanged. The T flip-flop can be constructed using NAND gates. The basic idea is to feed the
output Q and its complement Q’ back into the NAND gates along with the T input. The NAND
gate configuration ensures that the flip-flop toggles its state when T is 1.
Circuit Diagram:-
Truth Table:-
Clk T Q(n+1)
1 0 Q(n)
1 1 Q’(n)
Characteristics Table:-
Q(n) T Q(n+1)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Excitation Table:-
Q(n) Q(n+1) T
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
3. D Flip Flop
A D flip-flop, or Data flip-flop, is a digital circuit that stores a single-bit of data. It has a data
input (D), a clock input (C or CLK), and outputs for the stored data (Q) and its complement (Q’).
The D flip-flop is often constructed using NAND gates. The basic idea is to use two NAND
gates to create a latch, where the output of one gate is fed back to the input of the other. The
clock signal is used to control when the input data is latched into the flip-flop.
Circuit Diagram:-
Truth Table:-
Clk D Q(n+1)
1 0 0
1 1 1
Characteristics Table:-
Q(n) D Q(n+1)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
Excitation Table:-
Q(n) Q(n+1) D
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
4. JK Flip Flop
A JK flip-flop is a type of digital circuit that can store one bit of binary information. It has two
inputs, J (set) and K (reset), a clock input (CLK), and outputs for the stored data (Q) and its
complement (Q’). A JK flip-flop can be constructed using NAND gates. The JK flip-flop has the
ability to function as a T (toggle) flip-flop when both J and K inputs are set to 1.
Circuit Diagram:-
Truth Table:-
Clk J K Q(n+1)
1 0 0 Q(n)
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 Q’(n)
Characteristics Table:-
Q(n) J K Q(n+1)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
Excitation Table:-
Q(n) Q(n+1) J K
0 0 0 X
0 1 1 X
1 0 X 1
1 1 X 0
Circuit Diagram:-
The construction of a Master-Slave JK flip-flop using NAND gates involves two JK flip-flops,
often referred to as the master and slave. The output of the master flip-flop becomes the input for
the slave flip-flop. The clock signal is usually divided into two complementary phases, with one
phase triggering the master flip-flop and the other triggering the slave flip-flop.
Truth Table:-
The truth table for a Master-Slave JK flip-flop would follow the same logic as a standard JK flip-
flop, but it would be divided into two halves, corresponding to the master and slave operations.
EDGE TRIGGERING
Edge triggering in flip-flops refers to the mechanism by which these digital circuits respond to
input signal changes. Edge triggering is crucial in digital systems for synchronization and to
avoid timing issues. It ensures that changes in input are only considered at specific points in the
clock cycle, preventing erratic behavior and providing a stable and predictable operation of the
flip-flop. This mechanism is widely used in sequential digital circuits like registers and memory
elements to control the timing of data storage and retrieval.
LEVEL TRIGGERING
Term-level triggering in flip-flops refers to the conditions under which the flip-flop responds to
input changes.
Circuit Diagram:-
Circuit Diagram:-
Circuit Diagram:-
• JK Flip Flop to T Flip Flop
In short, a JK flip-flop can be converted to a T flip-flop by connecting the J and K inputs
together. When both J and K are tied to the same input, the flip-flop behaves as a T flip-flop. The
T input serves as a toggle control: when T is 0, the flip-flop holds its state; when T is 1, the flip-
flop toggles, changing its state. This conversion simplifies the JK flip-flop functionality to that of
a T flip-flop.
Circuit Diagram:-
Circuit Diagram:-
• D Flip Flop to JK Flip Flop
In digital electronics, converting a D flip-flop to a JK flip-flop involves adding additional logic
to the D flip-flop to allow for toggling functionality. A JK flip-flop has two inputs (J and K) that
control its behavior. To achieve this conversion, you connect the D input to both J and K inputs,
and introduce an AND gate to combine the Q output with the clock signal. This allows the JK
flip-flop to toggle its state when both inputs (J and K) are high during a clock edge. The
conversion essentially enhances the functionality of a D flip-flop to include toggling capability
found in a JK flip-flop.
Circuit Diagram:-
Circuit Diagram:-
REGISTER
A register is a small, fast storage location within a computer’s central processing unit (CPU). It
holds data temporarily during the execution of instructions. Registers are crucial for the efficient
operation of a CPU, providing quick access to data needed for processing.
In detail, registers in a CPU are typically used to store operands, intermediate results, and
memory addresses. They facilitate faster access to data compared to accessing data directly from
memory. Modern CPUs have various types of registers, including general-purpose registers,
floating-point registers, and special-purpose registers for specific tasks.
SHIFT REGISTER
A shift register is a type of digital circuit that can be used for sequential data storage and transfer.
It consists of a chain of flip-flops where data can be shifted from one flip-flop to the next. Shift
registers are employed in various applications, such as serial-to-parallel conversion, parallel-to-
serial conversion, and data storage.
In detail a shift register, is a cascade of flip-flops, where each flip-flop stores one bit of data. The
bits can be shifted left or right, allowing for serial data input or output. Shift registers find
applications in serial data communication, where data is transmitted or received bit by bit. They
are also used in parallel-to-serial and serial-to-parallel conversion, as well as in applications like
data storage and signal processing. The shift operation in a shift register is fundamental for
processes like data manipulation, signal processing, and control operations.
COUNTER
A counter is a device or mechanism used to count or keep track of something, typically
numerical values or occurrences. It’s commonly found in various electronic circuits, digital
devices, or software programs to tally, record, or monitor quantities or events.
Classification of Counter
Counters can be classified based on their design and functionality. Here are three primary
classifications:
1. Asynchronous (Ripple) Counters:
- In this type of counter, each flip-flop triggers the next one, causing a ripple effect.
- Simple and easy to design but may have propagation delays.
2. Synchronous Counters:
- All flip-flops change state simultaneously, controlled by a common clock signal.
- Reduces the issues of propagation delay present in asynchronous counters.
3. Up/Down Counters:
- Up counters increment the count, while down counters decrement.
- Bi-directional counters can count both up and down based on the control input.
Asynchronous Counter
An asynchronous counter, also known as a ripple counter, is a type of digital counter circuit
where the triggering of each flip-flop is dependent on the output of the previous one. Each flip-
flop in the sequence triggers the next one, creating a ripple effect. As the name suggests, the flip-
flops operate independently, without a common clock signal synchronizing their transitions.
While asynchronous counters are relatively simple to design, they can suffer from propagation
delays. The time it takes for a flip-flop to change state can lead to variations in the overall
counting speed. This delay can become more significant as the number of flip-flops in the
counter increases, potentially affecting the accuracy of the count. Despite this limitation,
asynchronous counters find use in various applications where simplicity and ease of
implementation are prioritized over precise timing.
Circuit Diagram:-
Synchronous Counter
A synchronous counter is a type of digital counter circuit where all the flip-flops change state
simultaneously, driven by a common clock signal. Unlike asynchronous counters, which rely on
the output of the previous flip-flop to trigger the next one, synchronous counters use a
synchronized clock pulse to coordinate the state changes of all the flip-flops.
This simultaneous updating of flip-flops in a synchronous counter helps to eliminate propagation
delays, providing more precise timing control and ensuring a consistent counting speed.
Synchronous counters are often favored in applications where accurate and synchronized timing
is critical, although they may be more complex to design compared to asynchronous
counterparts.
Circuit Diagram:-
Modulo – N Counter
A modulo N counter is a digital counter that counts in a cyclic manner through N states before
resetting to zero. The term “modulo” refers to the remainder after division. For a modulo N
counter, it will count from 0 to (N-1) and then roll over to 0, repeating the cycle. This type of
counter is particularly useful in applications where a specific count sequence or repetition is
desired, such as in clock dividers, frequency synthesizers, or systems requiring periodic actions.
Circuit Diagram:-
Application of Counter
There are two applications of Counter are as follows:-
1. Ring Counter
A ring counter is a type of digital counter circuit where a sequence of flip-flops are connected in
a ring or loop configuration. Unlike traditional counters that progress through a binary sequence,
a ring counter circulates a single “1” bit among the flip-flops, creating a rotating pattern. The
active bit moves to the next flip-flop with each clock cycle, and the counter returns to its initial
state once all flip-flops have been activated. Ring counters are commonly used in applications
such as shift registers, frequency dividers, or tasks requiring a cyclic pattern.
Circuit Diagram:-
2. Johnson Counter
A Johnson counter, also known as a twisted-ring counter, is a type of digital counter circuit that
combines shift registers and flip-flops to create a counter with a unique counting sequence. In a
Johnson counter, the bits circulate in a “twisted ring” fashion, moving both left and right in a
cyclic pattern. The count sequence includes 2N states for an N-bit Johnson counter, with each
state representing a unique combination of 1s and 0s. Johnson counters find application in
frequency synthesis, LED display drivers, and other situations where a particular cyclic sequence
is beneficial.
Circuit Diagram:-
STATE TABLE
A state table is a representation of the behavior of a sequential circuit, often used in digital circuit
design. It shows the relationship between the current state, inputs, next state, and outputs. State
tables are essential for describing the sequential logic of systems, such as finite state machines.
The state table typically includes the following columns:
1. Present State (PS): The current state of the system.
2. Input (I): The input conditions or signals affecting the system.
3. Next State (NS): The state that the system transitions to based on the current state and inputs.
4. Output (O): The output produced by the system in the current state.
EXCITATION TABLE:
The excitation table is a related concept used in the design of sequential circuits, particularly flip-
flops. It shows the necessary inputs (excitations) to cause a transition from the current state to the
next state. Excitation tables are commonly used in the context of state machines with flip-flops.
For example, consider a D flip-flop:
Present State Next State D (Data Input) Excitation (D)
0 0 0 X
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 X