Introduction to Human Anatomy

For Health students

By Zerihun A. (BSc,MSc.)

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 Outline
Definition of anatomy
Subdivisions of anatomy
Approaches to studying Anatomy
Levels of Structural Complexity/organization of the body
The Language of Anatomy
Body Planes and Sections
Body Cavities
Regions of the body

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 Definition
• Anatomy: derived from Greek ‘anatome’: meaning to dissect or cutting up

• Anatomy is the study of structure of body parts and their relationships to

one another

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 Subdivisions of anatomy

• 4 major
– Gross Anatomy: study of body structures visible to naked eye
– Cellular Anatomy: study of structure of cells
• Histology: study of the microscopic structure of tissues
• Developmental Anatomy: study of changes in an individual from
conception to old age
• Embryology: study of the developmental changes that occur
before birth

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 Approaches to studying Anatomy
3 main

1. Regional Anatomy: study all structures located in a particular region

of the body

2. Systemic Anatomy: study body systems

3. Clinical (applied) Anatomy: emphasizes on features important in

practice of medicine

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Levels of Structural Complexity/Organization of the body

• Chemical (Atom)
• Cellular(Cell)
• Tissue
• Organ
• System
• Organism

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 Chemical Level
• Atoms and molecules essential for life
– Atoms: C, H, O, N, Ca, K, Na
– Molecules: proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins,
water,DNA

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 Cellular Level
• Cells are the basic structural and functional units of
living organism
E.g : Hepatocytes
• muscle cells
• RBC
• nerve cell

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 Tissue Level
• Consists of groups of similar cells that have a common function
• The human body contains about 100 trillion cells.
•However, no one cell can carry out all the necessary bodily functions by
itself. So, cells aggregate and form TISSUES
Collection of cells with a similar structure and function.
•The study of tissues is known as histology

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There are 4 primary tissue types in the human body:

1. Epithelial (covering/lining)
2. Connective (support)
3. Muscle (movement)
4. Nervous (control)

• These tissues differ in the types and functions of their cells,

and the products of those cells

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 Epithelial Tissue
•Covers the surface of the body, lines the body cavities, forms the external
and internal linings of most organs, and constitutes the bulk of most glands.

•Functions include:
1.Protection 4. Absorption
2.Secretion 5. Filtration
3.Sensory reception

•It’s found all over the place!

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We classify epithelia based on the number of cell layers present and
the shape of the cells in the apical layer.

• If there is only one layer of cells, the epithelium is simple.

• If there is more than one layer, the epithelium is stratified.

•There are 3 cell shapes:

1.Squamous = flat, scale-like
2.Cuboidal = cube-shaped
3.Columnar = column-shaped

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Types of Epithelia

•You can see that we’ve got at least 6:

1.Simple squamous
2.Simple cuboidal
3.Simple columnar
4.Stratified squamous
5.Stratified cuboidal
6.Stratified columnar

•There are actually 2 other ones that are special –transitional epithelium
and pseudo stratified columnar epithelium.

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 Simple Squamous Epithelium

•Locations:
–Air sacs (alveoli) of lungs
–Glomerular capsules of kidneys
–Some kidney tubules
–Lining of heart and all blood vessels
•Here it’s called the endothelium
–Serous membranes
–External lining of visceral organs
. Here it’s called the mesothelium
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 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

•Microscopic Appearance:
–Single layer of square or round cells.
–Centrally-placed spherical nuclei.
–Apical layer often has microvilli.
•Microvilli are small extensions of the cell membrane that increase the
surface area of the cell.
•You usually want a cell to have more surface area when it is involved with
secretion or absorption

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 Locations:
–Liver
–Pancreas
–Thyroid, salivary, and most other
glands
–Most kidney tubules
–Bronchioles (small tubes within the lungs)

Functions:
–Absorption
–Secretion

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 Simple Columnar Epithelium
Microscopic Appearance:
–Single layer of tall, narrow cells.
–Oval shaped nuclei, vertically-oriented, usually located in the basal half of the
cell.
–Secretory vesicles sometimes visible in apical portion of the cell.
–Microvilli occasionally present.
–Cilia occasionally present.
•Cilia are hair-like extensions of the cell membrane that can move and sweep
material across the cell surface
–Goblet cells often interspersed.
•Secrete a lubricating mucus
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Locations:
–Inner lining of stomach, intestines, and rectum.
–Inner lining of gallbladder
–Inner lining of uterus and uterine tubes
Functions:
–Absorption and secretion
•Columnar cells in small intestine have microvilli to increase the available
surface area for the absorption of nutrients.
–Movement of egg and embryo in uterine tube.
•Hence the presence of cilia.
–Secretion of mucus.
•Lots of goblet cells in the large intestine so as to lubricate it and ease the
passage of feces.

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 Stratified Squamous Epithelium

•Microscopic Appearance:
–Multiple cell layers with cells becoming flatter and flatter toward surface.

–In keratinizedstratified squamous epithelium, the apical layers are layers of dead
cells lacking nuclei and packed with the tough protein keratin.

–Nonkeratinizedstratified squamous epithelium lacks the layers of dead cells at the

surface.

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•Location of keratinized version:
–Epidermis. Palms and soles of feet are typically heavily keratinized.

•Locations of non-keratinized version:

–Lining of oral cavity and surface of tongue
–Lining of esophagus
–Lining of vagina and anal canal
Functions:
–Protection!
–Keratinized version ( dry epithelium) protects against mechanical abrasion, water
loss, and pathogen entry.
•Keratin is very strong, waterproof, and is bacteriostatic (prevents bacteria
from reproducing).
–Non-keratinized version (wet epithelium) also protects from mechanical
abrasion.
•Eating food, swallowing, sexual intercourse, birth, defecation.

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 Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

•Microscopic Appearance:
–2 or more layers of cells.
–Surface layers are square or round (cuboidal).
•Locations:
–Some sweat gland ducts.
–Ovarian follicle
•Cells that surround the developing egg Functions:
–Contributes to sweat secretion.
–Secretion of ovarian hormones (e.g., estrogens)
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 Stratified Columnar Epithelium
•Microscopic Appearance:
–2 or more layers of cells.
–Surface cells tall and narrow with basally located nuclei.
•Locations:
–Rare.
–Small portions of anal canal, pharynx, epiglottis, and male urethra.
–Sometimes seen in large ducts of sweat and salivary glands.
•Functions:
–Often seen where 2 other tissue types meet
–Structural integrity of gland ducts
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 Pseudo stratified Columnar Epithelium
Microscopic Appearance:
–Looks multi-layered, but it’s NOT!
•All cells touch the basement membrane.
•In stratified epithelia, only the bottom cell layer touches the basement
membrane.
–Cells are of varying heights which gives the appearance of stratification.
Nuclei are at several levels.
–Often has goblet cells interspersed.
–Cells often have cilia.
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Locations:
–Respiratory tract from nasal cavity to bronchi.
•Ciliated
•Goblet cells
–Portions of male reproductive tract
•Non-ciliated

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Functions:
–In the respiratory tract there are lots of mucus-secreting goblet cells.
–The mucus traps dust and bacteria
–Cilia ―sweep the bacteria-laden mucus up the respiratory tract towards
the pharynx where it can be swallowed.
–Smoking paralyzes cilia –smokers have to cough violently to expel their
mucus. Then they die!

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 Transitional Epithelium

•Microscopic Appearance:
–Somewhat resembles stratified squamous epithelium, but the surface cells
are rounded and often bulge above surface (dome-shaped).
–Typically 5-6 cell layers thick when relaxed and 2-3 cell layers thick when
stretched.
–Cells may be flatter and thinner when epithelium is stretched.
–Some cells are binucleate, i.e., they have 2 nuclei.

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Locations:
–Predominant epithelium lining the urinary tract
–Found in part of the kidney, the ureters (tubes that connect the kidney to
the urinary bladder), the urinary bladder, and part of the urethra.
•Functions:
–Stretches to allow filling of the urinary tract.
–Originally called ―transitional because it was thought to be an
intermediate between stratified squamous and stratified columnar
epithelium.
• This isn’t true but the name has persisted.
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 Connective Tissue
Most abundant, widely distributed, and histologically variable of the 4
primary tissue types.
•Consists of cells that are typically widely separated by lots of extracellular
material –referred to as the extracellular matrix.

•Most cells are not in contact with each other but are distributed throughout
the extracellular matrix.

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 Functions of Connective Tissue

1.Binding of organs
2.Support
3.Physical protection
4.Immune protection
5.Movement
6.Storage
7.Heat production
8.Transport

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 Categories of CT

1.Fibrous connective tissue (connective tissue proper)

.dense ct
.Loose ct
.Fibrous ct
2.Supporting connective tissue
.Bone
.Cartilage
3.Fluid connective tissue
.Blood

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 Muscle tissue
The muscle tissue can be classified into three
categories:
1. Skeletal muscle :Striated &voluntary
2. Cardiac muscle : striated & involuntary
3. Smooth muscle: non striated & involuntary

Specialized to contract and exert forces on other tissues.

 Major function is the creation of movement.
Nervous Tissue
 Nervous tissue contains two types of cells
I. Nerve cells or neurons
II. Supporting cells or neuroglia
I. Neuron is the basic structural and functional unit of the
nervous system.
• All neurons have a cell body (soma).
– The body contains, nucleus, nucleolus, cytoplasmic membrane,
cytoplasm contains organelles .
• The nerve cells have processes called dendrites, which act like
antennae for the cell that they receive impute to the cell.
• There is only one axon in each neuron.
 Axons are able to transmit nerve impulse from the cell body to
some distant target in the brain or the periphery.
 It is like a nerve cell sits in the spinal cord possesses an axon
which contacts a muscle in the foot.
Function:
Detects stimuli, integrates information, and transmits signals.
 Organ Level

● A structure that is composed of at least two tissue types

which performs a specific function for the body
E.g.: Brain, Heart, Kidneys,Lungs,stomach, bladder, etc

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 System Level

• Organs that cooperate with one another to perform a

common function
• E.g. Nervous System, Respiratory System, Cardiovascular
System

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 Organism Level

• The highest level of organization, the living organism

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 Systems of the body
 The 11 human systems
 Integumentary
 Skeletal
 Muscular
 Nervous
 Endocrine
 Circulatory
 Cardiovascular
 Lymphatic
 Respiratory
 Digestive
 Urinary
 Reproductive
 Immune system
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 The Language of Anatomy

• Anatomical position
• Directional terms
• Regional terms
• Body planes and sections
• Body cavities and membranes

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 Anatomical Position
 Anatomical position
 Body erect
 Head, eyes and toes directed
forward
 feet together
 Arms at side with palms facing
forward
 All anatomical descriptions are
expressed in relation to the anatomical
position

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 Directional Terms

• Superior: Toward the head or upper part of a structure or

the body (Cranial)
• Inferior: Away from the head or toward the lower part of a
structure or the body (Caudal)
• Anterior (ventral) : Toward or at the front of the body

• Posterior (dorsal): Toward the back of the body; behind

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 Directional Terms
• Proximal: closer to the origin of the body part, or the point
of attachment of a limb to the body trunk (point of
reference)
• Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the point of
attachment of a limb to the body trunk
• Medial: Toward or at the midline of the body
• Lateral: Away from the midline of the body
• Superficial: toward or at the body surface
• Deep: away from the body surface; more internal

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 Shoulder – point of reference

Elbow – proximal (nearer, closer)

Wrist – distal (further)

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 Body Planes and Sections
• The body is sectioned along an
imaginary flat surface called a
plane
• The most frequently used
body planes are
– Sagittal
– Frontal (Coronal)
– Transverse
– Median(Mid sagitttal)
• The 3 are at right angles to
each other

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 Body Planes
• Sagittal plane lies vertically
and divides the body into
right and left parts

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 Body Planes

• Frontal (coronal) plane

divides the body into
anterior(ventral) and
posterior(dorsal) sections

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 Body Planes

• Transverse plane (Horizontal/Cross

sectional plane)runs horizontally
and divides the body into superior
and inferior sections

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 Terms of movement
• Flexion: decreasing angle
• Extension: increasing angle
• Abduction: moving away from plane
• Adduction : toward the sagittal
• Protraction: moving forward
• Retraction : backward along a surface
• Elevation: raising
• Depression: lowering a structure
• Medial rotation :movement around an axis of a bone
• Lateral rotation
• Pronation: placing palm backward
• Supination : forward (in anatomical position)
• Circumduction: combined movements of flexion,
extension, abduction, adduction
medial and lateral rotation
circumscribe a cone
• Eversion
• Inversion
• Opposition: bringing tips of fingers and thumb together as in picking something up
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 Regional terms
 There are two fundamental divisions of our body
 Axial
 Head
 Neck
 Trunk
 Thorax
 Abdomen
 Back
 Pelvis and perineum
 Appendicular
 Upper limb
 Lower limb
 Pelvic gridle
 Shoulder gridle
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 Body cavities
• Are potential spaces that serve to confine organs and systems that have related
functions.
• The major portion of the nervous system occupies the posterior cavity;
• the principal organs of the respiratory and circulatory systems are in the
thoracic cavity;
• the primary organs of digestion are in the abdominal cavity; and the
reproductive organs are in the pelvic cavity.
• Not only do these cavities house and support various body organs, they also
effectively compartmentalize them so that infections and diseases cannot spread
from one compartment to another.
 For example, pleurisy of one lung membrane does not usually spread to the other, and an
injury to the thoracic cavity will usually result in the collapse of only one lung rather
than both.

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 Body Cavities
2 main: dorsal(posterior) and ventral(anterior)

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 Dorsal Body cavity

• Divided into 2
– cranial cavity which encases the brain
– vertebral cavity (canal) which houses the
spinal cord

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 Ventral Body cavity

• Divided into 2 parts

– Thoracic cavity
– Abdominopelvic cavity

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 Thoracic Cavity

• Surrounded by the ribs and

muscles of the chest
• It is further divided into
– pleural cavities
– mediastinum
– Pericardial cavity

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 Abdominopelvic Cavity

• lies below the

diaphragm
• It is further divided
into
– Abdominal cavity
– Pelvic cavity

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 Regions of abdomen
• Clinicians subdivide abdomen into 9 regions to locate abdominal organs,
pain sites, swelling or incision

• Delineated by 4 planes

• Two horizontal

– Subcostal plane: passing through inferior border of 10th costal cartilage

– Transtubercular plane: passing through iliac tubercles and body of L5

vertebra

• Two vertical

– Midclavicular planes: passing from midpoints of clavicles to midinguinal

points Zerihun A. 70
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Quadrants of abdomen

• For general clinical descriptions, clinicians divide abdomen into 4

quadrants defined by 2 planes

• Transumbilical plane: passing through umbilicus and disc between L3

and L4 vertebrae

• Median plane: longitudinal plane dividing the body into right and left
halves

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 Body Membranes

 MEMBRANES- flat sheets of pliable(flexabil) tissue that cover or

line a part of the body.

1.Epithelial Membranes-
 layer of Epithelial Tissue and underlying Connective Tissue
A. Mucous membrane(Mucosa)- lines a body cavity that opens directly
to the outside (digestive, respiratory etc.)

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B. Serous Membrane (Serosa)-lines a body cavity that does not open
directly to the outside and covers organs in the cavity
-consist thin layers of areolar CT covered by mesothelium
1. Pleura is serous membrane of the thoracic cavity
a. Parietal pleura lines the cavity
b. Visceral pleura covers organs
c. Pericardium is special visceral serous membrane that covers
the heart
2. Peritoneum is the serous membrane of the abdominopelvic cavity
a. Parietal peritoneum lines the cavity
b. Visceral peritoneum covers organs
C. Cutaneous membrane- the skin

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2.Connective tissue membranes
A, Synovial Membranes -line the cavities of freely movable joints.
 These contain no epithelium, composed of areolar CT with elastic fibers
and fat.
 They secrete synovial fluid which lubricates the joint and nourished the
cartilage.
Synovial membranes also form:
 Bursae -cushioning sacs
 Tendon sheaths-ease movement

B. The meninges
 are three connective tissue membranes that lie just external to CNS
organs : Dura matter, arachnoid and pia matter

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 Membranes in Ventral body Cavity
• Serous membrane (serosa)
– a thin double layered membrane that lines the walls of
ventral body cavity and covers outer surface of the organs in
them
– 2 layers
• Parietal serosa is the layer of the membrane that lines the walls of
the cavity
• Visceral serosa is the layer that covers the organs in the cavity
– a lubrication fluid (serous fluid) is found between the two
layers

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 Serous Membranes

• Specific serous membranes are named for the cavity in

which they are found
– Parietal and visceral pericardium surrounds the heart
– Parietal and visceral pleura surrounds the lungs
– Parietal and visceral peritoneum covers the abdominal
cavity

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 Serous Membrane Relationship

• A serous membrane is double

layered membrane separated by
fluid
• Although there is a potential
space in actuality the
membranes lie close to one
another

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 Other Body Cavities

• In addition to the large closed body cavities, there are also

many smaller body cavities
– Oral and digestive cavities
– Nasal cavities
– Orbital cavities
– Middle ear cavities
– Synovial cavities

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 Thank You!!

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