Computer Networks

GATE SYLLABUS
•Concept of layering
• LAN technologies (Ethernet).
• Flow and error control techniques
• switching
• IPv4/IPv6
• routers and routing algorithms (distance vector, link state).
•TCP/UDP and sockets
• congestion control.
•Application layer protocols (DNS, SMTP, POP, FTP, HTTP)
•Basics of Wi-Fi.
•Network security: authentication, basics of public key and
private key cryptography, digital signatures and certificates,
firewalls.
Concept of Layering
 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Telecommunication : communication at a distance
distance..
Data:: information presented in whatever form is agreed
Data
upon by the parties creating and using the data
data..
Data communications
communications:: the exchange of data between two
devices via some form of transmission medium such
as a wire cable
cable..

Components of a data communication system

Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
NETWORKS

• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes

nodes))
connected by communication links
links..
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network
network..
• A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium
which can transport a signal carrying information
information..
• Network Criteria
•Performance
•Depends on Network Elements
•Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
•Reliability
•Failure rate of network components
•Measured in terms of availability/robustness
•Security
•Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
•Errors or due to Malicious users
Goals & Applications
• Resource and load sharing
• Reduced cost by hardware sharing
• High reliability
• Communication Medium
Applications
•Home Applications
• Access to remote information.
•Person-to-person communication.
•Interactive entertainment.
• Electronic commerce.
•Business Applications
Physical Structures
• Type of Connection
– Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
– Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission
Physical Structures
• Physical Topology
– Connection of devices
– Type of transmission - unicast, multicast, broadcast
A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
Categories of Networks

• Local Area Networks (LANs)

– Short distances
– Designed to provide local interconnectivity
• Wide Area Networks (WANs)
– Long distances
– Provide connectivity over large areas
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
– Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet
WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
Hierarchical organization of the Internet
PROTOCOLS
•A protocol is synonymous with rule
rule..
•It consists of a set of rules that govern data
communications..
communications
•It determines what is communicated, how it is
communicated and when it is communicated
communicated..
• The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and
timing
•Syntax
•Structure or format of the data
•Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
•Semantics
•Interprets the meaning of the bits
•Knows which fields define what action
•Timing
•When data should be sent and how fast
Protocol Hierarchies or Layering

•Peers
• services
• interface
•Protocol
•Protocol stack
Network Models
•OSI Model

An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network

communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI
OSI))
model.. It was first introduced in the late 1970
model 1970ss.

•TCP/IP Model
Widely used in internet
THE OSI MODEL
The principles that were applied to
arrive at the seven layers are as
follows:
01. A layer should be created where a
different level of abstraction is needed.
02. Each layer should perform a well
defined function.
03. The function of each layer should be
chosen with an eye towards defining
internationally standardized protocols.
04. The layer boundaries should be
chosen to minimize the information
flow across the interfaces.
05. The number of layers should be
large enough that distinct functions
need not be thrown together in the
same layer out of necessity, and small
enough that the architecture does not
become unwieldy.
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
An exchange using the OSI model
Physical layer

• The main task of the physical layer is to transmit raw bits over a communication
channel.
• The design issues deal with mechanical, electrical, and procedural interfaces, and
the physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.
• The physical layer may be sure that the given stream of bits was encoded and
transmitted
Data link layer

•The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the
next.
•Framing: To create and to recognize frame boundaries – typically by attaching
special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame,
•Error Control: To solve the problems caused by damaged, lost or duplicate
frames
• Flow Control: To keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data.
Hop-to-hop delivery
Network layer

•The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.
•To implement the routing mechanism
• To control congestions
• To allow interconnection of heterogeneous networks
Source-to-destination delivery
Transport layer

• Thetransport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message

from one process to another
• Segmentation and Reassembler
•Multiplexing/Demultiplexing
•Flow control
•Error Control
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Session layer

The session layer is responsible for dialog control and

synchronization.
 Presentation layer

The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression

and encryption.
Application layer

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
Summary of layers
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model
model..
The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having
four layers
layers:: host
host--to
to--network
network,, internet
internet,, transport
transport,, and
application..
application
However,, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that
However
the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers
layers:: physical
physical,,
data link
link,, network
network,, transport
transport,, and application
application..
TCP/IP and OSI model
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
Physical addresses
Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical
address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

IP addresses
Port addresses
A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one
decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.
Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses and the port numbers
usually remain the same.
1. In the layer hierarchy as the data packet moves from the
upper to the lower layers, headers are ___________
a) Added
b) Removed
c) Rearranged
d) Modified
1. In the layer hierarchy as the data packet moves from the
upper to the lower layers, headers are ___________
a) Added
b) Removed
c) Rearranged
d) Modified
2. Communication between a computer and a keyboard
involves ______________ transmission.
a) Automatic
b) Half-duplex
c) Full-duplex
d) Simplex
2. Communication between a computer and a keyboard
involves ______________ transmission.
a) Automatic
b) Half-duplex
c) Full-duplex
d) Simplex
3. When collection of various computers seems a single coherent system
to its client, then it is called _________
a) computer network
b) distributed system
c) networking system
d) mail system
3. When collection of various computers seems a single coherent system
to its client, then it is called _________
a) computer network
b) distributed system
c) networking system
d) mail system
4. Bluetooth is an example of __________
a) personal area network
b) local area network
c) virtual private network
d) wide area network
4. Bluetooth is an example of __________
a) personal area network
b) local area network
c) virtual private network
d) wide area network
5. A list of protocols used by a system,
one protocol per layer, is called
________
a) protocol architecture
b) protocol stack
c) protocol suite
d) protocol system
5. A list of protocols used by a system,
one protocol per layer, is called
________
a) protocol architecture
b) protocol stack
c) protocol suite
d) protocol system
6. Which of the following networks extends a private network across
public networks?
a) local area network
b) virtual private network
c) enterprise private network
d) storage area network
6. Which of the following networks extends a private network across
public networks?
a) local area network
b) virtual private network
c) enterprise private network
d) storage area network
7. Which address is used to identify a
process on a host by the transport
layer?
a) physical address
b) logical address
c) port address
d) specific address
7. Which address is used to identify a
process on a host by the transport
layer?
a) physical address
b) logical address
c) port address
d) specific address
8. Delimiting and synchronization of data exchange is provided by
__________
a) Application layer
b) Session layer
c) Transport layer
d) Link layer
8. Delimiting and synchronization of data exchange is provided by
__________
a) Application layer
b) Session layer
c) Transport layer
d) Link layer
9. Which layer is responsible for the
Point-to-Point delivery of the entire
message (between two adjacent
points)?
(a) Application layer
(b) Data Link layer
(c) Transport layer
(d)Presentation layer
9. Which layer is responsible for the
Point-to-Point delivery of the entire
message (between two adjacent
points)?
(a) Application layer
(b) Data Link layer
(c) Transport layer
(d)Presentation layer
10. Match the following:
(P) SMTP (1) Application layer
(Q) BGP (2) Transport layer
(R) TCP (3) Data link layer
(S) PPP (4) Network layer
(5) Physical layer
(a) P – 2 Q – 1 R – 3 S – 5
(b) P – 1 Q – 4 R – 2 S – 3
(c) P – 1 Q – 4 R – 2 S – 5
(d) P – 2 Q – 4 R – 1 S – 3
10. Match the following:
(P) SMTP (1) Application layer
(Q) BGP (2) Transport layer
(R) TCP (3) Data link layer
(S) PPP (4) Network layer
(5) Physical layer
(a) P – 2 Q – 1 R – 3 S – 5
(b) P – 1 Q – 4 R – 2 S – 3
(c) P – 1 Q – 4 R – 2 S – 5
(d) P – 2 Q – 4 R – 1 S – 3
11. In the following pairs of OSI protocol layer/sub-layer and its
functionality, the INCORRECT pair is
(a) Network layer and Routing
(b) Data Link Layer and Bit synchronization
(c) Transport layer and End-to-end process communication
(d) Medium Access Control sub-layer and Channel sharing
11. In the following pairs of OSI protocol layer/sub-layer and its
functionality, the INCORRECT pair is
(a) Network layer and Routing
(b) Data Link Layer and Bit synchronization
(c) Transport layer and End-to-end process communication
(d) Medium Access Control sub-layer and Channel sharing
12. If there are n devices (nodes) in a network, what is
the number of cable links required for a fully connected
mesh and a star topology respectively
(a) n(n −1) / 2, n −1
(b) n, n −1
(c) n −1, n
(d) n −1, n(n −1) / 2
12. If there are n devices (nodes) in a network, what is
the number of cable links required for a fully connected
mesh and a star topology respectively
(a) n(n −1) / 2, n −1
(b) n, n −1
(c) n −1, n
(d) n −1, n(n −1) / 2
13. . Assume that source S and destination D are connected
through two intermediate routers labeled R. Determine how
many times each packet has to visit the network layer and the
data link layer during a transmission from S to D.

(a) Network layer - 4 times and Data link layer-4 times

(b) Network layer - 4 times and Data link layer -3 times
(c) Network layer - 4 times and Data link layer-6 times
(d) Network layer - 2 times and Data link layer-6 times
13. Assume that source S and destination D are connected
through two intermediate routers labeled R. Determine how
many times each packet has to visit the network layer and
the data link layer during a transmission from S to D.

(a) Network layer - 4 times and Data link layer-4 times

(b) Network layer - 4 times and Data link layer -3 times
(c) Network layer - 4 times and Data link layer-6 times
(d) Network layer - 2 times and Data link layer-6 times
14. Physical topology of Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is:
(a) Bus
(b) Ring
(c) Star
(d) None
14. Physical topology of Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is:
(a) Bus
(b) Ring
(c) Star
(d) None
15. A system has ‘n’ layers protocol hierarchy. Applications
generate messages of length ‘m’ bytes. At each of the layers,
an ‘h’ byte header is added. What is the fraction of the
network bandwidth wasted on headers?
(a) (nh)
(b) (m+nh)
(c) (nh)/(m+nh)
(d) (m+nh)/(nh)
15. A system has ‘n’ layers protocol hierarchy. Applications
generate messages of length ‘m’ bytes. At each of the layers,
an ‘h’ byte header is added. What is the fraction of the
network bandwidth wasted on headers?
(a) (nh)
(b) (m+nh)
(c) (nh)/(m+nh)
(d) (m+nh)/(nh)
16. Which one of the following is not a
class of LAN?
(a) Broad cast
(b) CSMA/CD
(c) Token Bus
(d) Token Ring
16. Which one of the following is not a
class of LAN?
(a) Broad cast
(b) CSMA/CD
(c) Token Bus
(d) Token Ring
17. The protocol data unit(PDU) for the application layer in the
Internet stack is
(A) Segment
(B) Datagram
(C) Message
(D) Frame
17. The protocol data unit(PDU) for the application layer in the
Internet stack is
(A) Segment
(B) Datagram
(C) Message
(D) Frame
18. Which one of the following is not a
client server application?
(a)Internet chat
(b)E-mail
(c)Web browsing
(d)Ping
18. Which one of the following is not a
client server application?
(a)Internet chat
(b)E-mail
(c)Web browsing
(d)Ping
19. Match the following:
(P) SMTP (1) Application layer
(Q) BGP (2) Transport layer
(R) TCP (3) Data link layer
(S) PPP (4) Network layer
(5) Physical layer

(a) P–2Q–1R–3S–5
(b) P–1Q–4R–2S–3
(c) P–1Q–4R–2S–5
(d) P–2Q–4R–1S–3
19. Match the following:
(P) SMTP (1) Application layer
(Q) BGP (2) Transport layer
(R) TCP (3) Data link layer
(S) PPP (4) Network layer
(5) Physical layer

(a) P–2Q–1R–3S–5
(b) P–1Q–4R–2S–3
(c) P–1Q–4R–2S–5
(d) P–2Q–4R–1S–3
20. Which of the following tasks is not done by data link layer?
a) Framing
b) Error control
c) Flow control
d) Channel coding
20. Which of the following tasks is not done by data link layer?
a) Framing
b) Error control
c) Flow control
d) Channel coding