EEE 2297 (Signals and Linear Systems)

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

Lecture: 3 hrs. /week No. of credit: 3.00

Department of Mechatronics Engineering

Introduction to Signals and Systems: Signals- classification, basic operation on signals, elementary signals,
representation of signal using impulse function; systems- classification.
Properties of Linear Time Invariant (LTI) Systems: Linearity, causality, time invariance, memory, stability,
invertibility.
Time Domain Analysis of LTI Systems: Differential equations- system representation, order of the system, solution
techniques, zero state and zero input response, System properties: impulse response – convolution integral,
determination of system properties; state variable- basic concept, static equation and time domain solution.
Frequency Domain Analysis of LTI Systems: Fourier series- properties, harmonic representation, system response,
frequency response of LTI systems; Fourier transformation- properties, inverse transform, system transfer function,
system response and distortion less systems. Laplace Transformation: Properties, inverse transform, solution of
system equations, system transfer function, system stability and frequency response and application.
Applications of Time and Frequency Domain Analysis: Solution of analog electrical and mechanical systems,
amplitude modulation and demodulation, time-division and frequency-division multiplexing.
Analogous Systems: Electrical, Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical systems.

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 1

 Lecture Outcome
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▪ At the end of this lecture, students will be able to

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1. Know about state space analysis

2. Write state equations for any given systems
3. Reduce the state equation to single second order DE
4. Have an idea about static and dynamic system

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 2

 Outline
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1. Basics of State Space Analysis

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2. Why State Space Analysis?

3. State Equation

4. Steps for Writing State Equations

5. Practicing an Example

6. Reducing State Equations to a Single Second Order DE

7. Practicing an example

8. Static and Dynamic Systems and Examples

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 3

 Basics of State Space Analysis
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• The classical control theory and methods are based on a simple input-output description of
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the plant, usually expressed as a transfer function.

• These methods do not use any knowledge of the interior structure of the plant, and limit us to
single-input single-output (SISO) systems.

• Modern control theory solves many of the limitations by using a much “richer” description of
the plant dynamics.

• The state-space description provide the dynamics as a set of coupled first-order differential
equations in a set of internal variables known as state variables, together with a set of
algebraic equations that combine the state variables into physical output variables.

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 4

 Basics of State Space Analysis..
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• State: State is a group of variables which summarizes the history of a system so that the future
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response of the system can be predicted.

In other words,

A mathematical description of the system in terms of a minimum set of variables 𝑥𝑖 𝑡 , 𝑖 =

1,2, … … … 𝑛, together with knowledge of those variables at an initial time 𝑡0 and the system inputs for
time 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0 , are sufficient to predict the future system state and outputs for all time 𝑡 > 𝑡0 .

• State Variable: It is the smallest set of variables that determines the state of the system.

• State Vector: It is the vector which contains the state variables as elements.

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 5

 Why State Space Analysis?
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• Initial condition is considered

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• More accuracy than transfer function

• Analysis of multi-input and multi-output system

• Information about controllability

• Applicable to all dynamic (linear, non-linear, time variant, time invariant) system

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 6

 State Equation
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• A standard form for the state equations is used for system dynamics.
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• In the standard form the mathematical description of the system is expressed as a set of n coupled first-
order ordinary differential equations, known as the state equations, in which the time derivative of each
state variable is expressed in terms of the state variables 𝑥1 (𝑡), . . . , 𝑥𝑛 (𝑡) and the system inputs
𝑢1 (𝑡), . . . , 𝑢𝑘 (𝑡) .

𝑑𝑥1
= 𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + … … + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑢1 𝑡 . . . (1)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥2
= 𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + … … + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑢2 (𝑡) . . . (2)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥𝑛
= 𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + … … + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑢𝑘 (𝑡). . . (3)
𝑑𝑡

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 7

 Steps for Writing State Equations
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• The first step is to define the differential equation

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-like, for LC circuit, defining i-v relationship for C and L

• The second step is to eliminate the unwanted variables

-vC and iL are desired state variables and iC and vL are unwanted variables. This step requires
finding expression for iC and vL in terms of vC and iL and the inputs.

• The third step is to substitute the results of step 2 in step 1

-replacing the values of iC and vL to re-define the equation written in step 1

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 8

 Example
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• Find the state equation for the following circuit.

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iL Step-1
Formation of differential equations

𝑑𝑣𝐶 1
= 𝑖𝐶 = 10𝑖𝐶 … … … … . (4)
+ 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
vin vC
𝑑𝑖𝐿 1
- = 𝑣𝐿 = 5𝑣𝐿 … … … … . (5)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 9

 Example..
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• Find the state equation for the following circuit. Step-2

Express iC and vL in terms of vC and iL and vin.
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iL
Replace C by a voltage source and L by a current source

+ vL -
+
vC iL
vin iL
- iC

vin i1 iC vC

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 10

 Example..

Step-2
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8 𝑖1 − 𝑖𝐿 + 4 𝑖1 − 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛 …. (6)
Express iC and vL in terms of vC and iL and vin. 12𝑖1 − 4𝑖𝐶 = 8𝑖𝐿 + 𝑣𝑖𝑛 …. (7)
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Replace C by a voltage source and L by a current source 4 𝑖𝐶 − 𝑖1 + 4𝑖𝐶 + 𝑣𝐶 = 0 … … 9

−4𝑖1 + 8𝑖𝐶 = −𝑣𝐶 … … … (10)
+ vL -
8 𝑖𝐿 − 𝑖1 + 2𝑖𝐿 + 𝑣𝐿 = 0 … … … 11
iL
iL 𝑣𝐿 = −10𝑖𝐿 + 8𝑖1 ……… . (12)
iC

vin i1 iC vC

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 11

 Example..

Step-2
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12𝑖1 − 4𝑖𝐶 = 8𝑖𝐿 + 𝑣𝑖𝑛 …. (7)

Express iC and vL in terms of vC and iL and vin.
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−4𝑖1 + 8𝑖𝐶 = −𝑣𝐶 … … … (10)

Replace C by a voltage source and L by a current source
𝑣𝐿 = −10𝑖𝐿 + 8𝑖1 ……… . (12)
+ vL -
12 −4 𝑖1 8𝑖𝐿 + 𝑣𝑖𝑛
=
−4 8 𝑖𝐶 −𝑣𝐶
iL
iL
𝑖1 1 8 4 8𝑖𝐿 + 𝑣𝑖𝑛
iC =
𝑖𝐶 80 4 12 −𝑣𝐶

vin i1 iC vC 𝑖1 = −0.05𝑣𝐶 + 0.8𝑖𝐿 + 0.1𝑣𝑖𝑛 ……(13)

𝑖𝐶 = −0.15𝑣𝐶 + 0.4𝑖𝐿 + 0.05𝑣𝑖𝑛 ……(14)

𝑣𝐿 = −0.4𝑣𝐶 − 3.6𝑖𝐿 + 0.8𝑣𝑖𝑛 … … . . (15)

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 12

 Example..
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Step-3
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Substitute the results of step 2 in step 1

𝑑𝑣𝐶 1
= 𝑖𝐶 = 10𝑖𝐶 … … … … . (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑖𝐶 = −0.15𝑣𝐶 + 0.4𝑖𝐿 + 0.05𝑣𝑖𝑛 ……(14)

𝑑𝑖𝐿 1 𝑣𝐿 = −0.4𝑣𝐶 − 3.6𝑖𝐿 + 0.8𝑣𝑖𝑛 … … . . (15)

= 𝑣𝐿 = 5𝑣𝐿 … … … … . (5)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

𝑑𝑣𝐶
= 10𝑖𝐶 = −1.5𝑣𝐶 + 4𝑖𝐿 + 0.5𝑣𝑖𝑛 … … … … . (16)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝐿
= 5𝑣𝐿 = −2𝑣𝐶 − 18𝑖𝐿 + 4𝑣𝑖𝑛 … … … … . (17)
𝑑𝑡

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 13

 Reducing State Equations to a Single Second
Order DE
𝑑𝑥1
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= 𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + … … + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑢1 𝑡 . . . (1)

𝑑𝑡
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𝑑 𝑑
− 𝑎11 𝑥1 𝑡 − 𝑎12 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑢1 (𝑡) ( − 𝑎22 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥2
= 𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + … … + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑢2 (𝑡) . . . (2)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑
−𝑎21 𝑥1 𝑡 + − 𝑎22 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑢2 (𝑡) 𝑎12
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2 𝑥1 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑 𝑑𝑢1
− 𝑎11 + 𝑎 22 + 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥
11 22 1 − 𝑎12 − 𝑎 22 𝑥2 = − 𝑎22 𝑢1 … … . (18)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥2
−𝑎12 𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 − 𝑎22 𝑥2 = 𝑎12 𝑢2 … … (19)
𝑑𝑡

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 14

 Reducing State Equations to a Single Second
Order DE..
Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

𝑑 2 𝑥1 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑 𝑑𝑢1
− 𝑎11 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑥1 − 𝑎12 − 𝑎22 𝑥2 = − 𝑎22 𝑢1 … … . (18)
𝑑𝑡 2
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𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥2
−𝑎12 𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 − 𝑎22 𝑥2 = 𝑎12 𝑢2 … … (19)
𝑑𝑡
Adding Eq.19 to Eq.18

𝑑 2 𝑥1 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑢1
− 𝑎11 + 𝑎 22 + 𝑎 𝑎
11 22 − 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥
12 21 1 = − 𝑎22 𝑢1 + 𝑎12 𝑢2 … … . (20)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Similarly

𝑑 2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑢2
− 𝑎11 + 𝑎 22 + 𝑎 𝑎
11 22 − 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥
12 21 2 = − 𝑎11 𝑢2 + 𝑎21 𝑢1 … … . (21)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET

15
 Previous Example
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𝑑𝑣𝐶
= 10𝑖𝐶 = −1.5𝑣𝐶 + 4𝑖𝐿 + 0.5𝑣𝑖𝑛 … … … … . (16)
𝑑𝑡
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𝑑𝑖𝐿
= 5𝑣𝐿 = −2𝑣𝐶 − 18𝑖𝐿 + 4𝑣𝑖𝑛 … … … … . (17)
𝑑𝑡

𝑎11 = −1.5, 𝑎12 = 4,

𝑎21 = −2, 𝑎22 = −18
𝑢1 𝑡 = 0.5𝑣𝑖𝑛 , 𝑢2 𝑡 = 4𝑣𝑖𝑛

Second-order DE Practice similar problems

𝑑 2 𝑣𝐶 𝑑𝑣𝐶 𝑑𝑣𝑖𝑛
+ 19.5 + 35𝑣𝐶 = 0.5 + 25𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 16

 Static and Dynamic System
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• In Static system, the output of the system depend only on the present value of the input, i.e.,
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it has no memory.

• In Dynamic system, at any instant of time, the output depends on the past or future values of
the input, i.e., system with memory.

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡) Present Static

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑛) Past Dynamic

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑛) Future Dynamic

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥(𝑡 + 3) Present+Future ?

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 17

 Examples of Static and Dynamic System
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• Let us consider some examples.

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𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(−𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 5𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡

Dynamic 𝑡 = 0, 𝑦 0 = 𝑥(0) Present 𝑡 = 0, 𝑦 0 = 𝑥 0

𝑡 = 2, 𝑦 2 = 𝑥(10) Future 𝑡 = 𝜋, 𝑦 𝜋 = 𝑥(0)

𝑡 = −2, 𝑦 −2 = 𝑥(−10) Past

Dynamic
Dynamic

Zinat Tasneem, Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 18

 Examples of Static and Dynamic System..
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• Let us consider some examples.

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𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒[𝑥 𝑡 ] 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 3 ) 𝑦 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏
Dynamic
𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 ∗ (𝑡)
𝑎= = 𝑅𝑒 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑦(𝑡) Dynamic
2

Static

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 19

 Examples of Static and Dynamic System..
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• Let us consider some examples.

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For Resistive circuit For RL circuit

𝑣(𝑡) 1 𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 = න 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑅 𝐿 −∞

Static system Dynamic system

Has no Memory Has Memory

Or Or
Not a storage device Is a storage device ?

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 20

 Reference Book
Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology
Department of Mechatronics Engineering

• De Carlo, Lin, Linear Circuit Analysis, Second Edition. (Chapter-09)

Please check the relative examples and exercises.

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET 21

 Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology
Department of Mechatronics Engineering

Md. Mehedi Hasan , Lecturer, Dept. of MTE, RUET

Thank You!

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