Biology

Characteristics ya)
of Living organisms
-
All living organisms are made of single
units called cells
-
some are composed of one cell and others
are multi cellular -

-
Multi cellular organisms have billions
-

of cells and hundreds of types .

Each type specialised to do certain

function .

-
there are also common basic features
•
characteristics : -

MRSGREN_
-
Movement -

Animals walk , plants grow

-

Respiration -

Releasing energy from food

sensitivity Sense changes in stimuli

-
-

Growth -
More dry mass + More complexity
of
Reproduction Producing same
offspring
-
-
more

-
Excretion -

Getting rid of wastes

-

Nutrition Plants make food Animals get it

-
.

from other organisms

-
Control internal -

Keep internal conditions constant

conditions -
Not in all living
 ② Nutrition : -

Obtaining organic materials and minerals

in food
for energy used in growth and
all activities

~
✓

Autotrophic Heterotrophic

Autotrophic : -

•
Creatures that make their own food
v
u

Photosynthesis Chemosynthesis

Using energy from Using simple chemical

sunlight reactions
Plants
Eg some
.
& c- g. Some bacteria
bacteria

\
 -
Heterotrophic
-

Creatures that depend on other creatures

to get their nutrients from

p.me# a.e *.e w|. aen.

v v v v

Holozoic Saprophytic Parasitic Symbiotic

" "" " " "" " "" " "" " " """
"
& egest matter
digest , decomposing organisms organisms
it causing harm that exchange
or disease benefits
> Carnivores
Digest food
Eat meat
eg lion externally eg .

eg .

&
.

> Herbivores Typhoid causing

-

Nitrogen-fixing
a. •i. on

eg rabbit
.

enzymes to Legumes
somnivores digest dead Fungi →ringworm
↳
G- at both
matter Athletes They bring
G. humans foot plant nitrogen
They recalled
- /
for growth
Decomposes and get
sucrose
eg .

for
bacteria energy
?⃝
 Breaking down of food from insoluble
Digestion
•

:
,

big complex particles to small soluble simple ones

, ,

by the help of enzymes internally or externally

•
Internal digestion obtaining
: food through ingestion
digesting it inside the body , then egest the
undigested waste

•
External digestion ; Don't ingest ,
secrete extracellular
outside their body the complex
enzymes on

matter ,
breaking it down to simple , soluble
inorganic matter and absorb them
 29 Respiration : -

•
Breaking down or
burning food to release
energy
u
to

Aerobic Anaerobic
-

Needs oxygen •
Doesn't need oxygen
-

Complete breakdown -

Incomplete breakdown
-

Large amounts
Releases Small amounts of
energy
•

of energy
In cytoplasm
-

In
-

mitochondria
-

Only in muscles during

-
In most living organisms : intense -

exercise
animals , plants some bacteria
and fungi -
In somebacteria and
fungi like yeast
•

Occurring in all living

cells all the time

Aerobic Glucose +
oxygen + water
; -

dioxide
Respiration

↳Haig + 602 →
6oz -16-1120
Anaerobic Glucose →

(humans)
-

Respiration
1-
acid
or

Glucose _A +
dioxide
carbon

( Yeast)

Wasteproducts€
•

Energy isn't a waste product lneeded for metaboli

reactions inside living cells.)

•
.

•
Lactic acid ( removed by oxidation) ; poisonous
-

Alcohol and CO2 ; used in

making bread and beer
③ Excretion : -

Process of getting rid

of Waste products,
Excess substances and Toxic materials out
of the body (WET)

Wastes coz and water which are

-

are
excreted as gases through lungs
-

Excess substances are water and salts

which are excreted through kidneys

Toxic materials are

-

drugs and alcohol

which are excreted by liver .

Lungs Kidneys and Liver are

excretory
-

organs .

-
Waste photosynthesis
in is oxygen which
is excreted by excretory organ leaf .

Egestion is not excretion (not waste

or excess or toxic) .
☒ Growth : -

Increase
-
in dry mass ,
number
of cells or both

Measured by height weight and dry,

mas

Developments .
.

increase in
complexity of
an
organism the change ,
from one
state to another .

Development =
Maturity
Dry mass →
Weight of an organism
without water content .

Done by putting organism in an oven

of 60 -65°C temp ,
and reweighing until 2
constant mass readings are shown
⑤ Sensitivity 1 Irritability : -

Ability of an organism to detect and

respond to different stimuli

body temp blood pressur

Blood glucose level, ,

Stimuli i.

internal
- -

change
of ans
in

animal
or
.ge#nal
height temp
, .
condition
pain
/
 ⑥ Reproduction : -

Ability of anorganism to produce more of the same

offspring with the same basic characteristics

v v

Asexual sexual
-
Simple rapid process
,
-

Complex ,
takes longer time

Requires one parent -

Two parents required
-
No gametes Gex cells] -
Involves gametes
-

Produces large number sperm Lourdes & pollen

of organisms
-

Fewer number of offspring

-

Offspring identical to
parent .
-
In complex organisms
-

Unicellular and some

multi cellular
-
 ⑦ Movement : -

change in position direction

, or both of
an organism , involving whole organism or

part of it .

Raza
Animals
✓
,

>

well-developed Move very slowly

skeletal and muscular and without obvious

systems so well-defined
, change
movements when leaves move
towards light .

Roots go deeper in soil .

⑤ Control of internal conditions : -

of organism
Ability keep internal
to
-

environment constant Glucose level water pH , , ,

temp ) .

Not all organisms are able to do this

 Variety of "b)
Living organisms

Plants
Eukaryotic

Animals
-

5
Major
kingdoms
fungi
of otoctists
Organisms
Prokaryotic -

Bacteria
Eukaviotic and pro kariotic organisms: -

Eukariotic →
Organisms that have
nucleus in their cells

Prokanotic-3 Organisms that have

a single simple strand of
geneticmaterial with no
nucleus
 Plants :
-
Multi cellular
-

-
Have chloroplasts
-
Feed by photosynthesis (autotrophic)
-
cell walls from cellulose
-
stores nutrients as starch
grains lamyloplasts)
in starch or sucrose in vacuole

Nucleus Cell wall

÷:÷÷
-

②
@oB- chloroplasts
Bom
Boo
ooo ooo
cytoplasm
-

Examples Flowering plants

: i cereal : maize

Herbaceous Legume i Pea or Beans

?⃝
 ② Animals :

-
Multi cellular
-

No chloroplasts
(Heterotrophic)
-

Feed on other organisms (Holozoic)

store nutrients as glycogen

-

No cell walls easier movement

,

Coordinated by nervous system

-
Done by muscular system
-

supported by skeletal system

-
Classified to vertebrates and invertebrates

Examples : mammals : humans

Insects : House fly , mosquito

Cytoplasm
-
Cell membrane
- Nucleus
:\ Mitochondria
?⃝
•
Pathogens : -

organisms that cause disease

They include Bacteria , fungi , protoctists ,

viruses

Bacteria ; Pneumococcus cause pneumonia

Fungi : Disease called athlete's foot caused by a

mould

Protoctists : Plasmodium causes malaria

Viruses : Coronavirus / Influenza / HIV
 ③ Fungus :

multicellular mushrooms toadstools ,

Mucor
-

( Uni - cellular Yeast

-
No chloroplasts saprotrophic

wingnut
"""

-
Feed on dead matter lsometimes
explained

-
store food as glycogen
in
lipidbodies
Granules)
-
cell walls present from chitin

::÷
§
cell membrane
- Nucleus

-Vacuole

Src .
: Book

Yeast cell structure

?⃝
 strud-ureofamould-ucorl.me

_÷f÷j§
case

[i
Mycelium Feeding /anchor
- hyphae

Sre Book
. cell wall
cell membrane
• • ooo
.
ooo ooo • • • oooo • •

/
•
i
••••_ Nucleus
lipid body /lipid
Uacuo
granule)
[ Hyphae
separated Mould does
contain lots of nuclei not
.
not have
Made of
glycogen
separate cells .

-
A mould is a mushroom without fruiting
a

body ^
It just consists of a mycelium & spore
case

Hyphae fine thread like filaments

-

are -

that form a network called mycelium

-

Spore case
produces spores , which . .
 spore lands on
when a the food it
grows
-
,

hypae , which grow more & more branches until

they make a network called mycelium which
covers the whole surface .

-
It secretes extracellular enzymes which
digest food externally and then they absorb
the organic materials of digestion .

Eventually ,
food will finish and the mould will
infect another source .
 ⑨ Protoctists : -

-
A group of microscopic single-celled
organisms that don't fit to animals , plants
or
fungi

A÷¥ozoa Chlorella Amoeba Live in pond water

unicellular um" ""

→
" "" """
can grow

""
"
"

Have chloroplasts No chloroplasts

Dead matter holozoic

Photosynthesis Cautotroph:c) or

starch No cell walls

cell
- membrane
cell walls present

Off
from cellulose
jellulose
ceeewaee
Cell membrane
Vacuole

⑧
cytoplasm
-
-

Nucleus

%•-÷÷÷
vacuole Sr .

• g- *
•
•/
• •

Srcllotes
other example :

Pathogenic
Plasmodium
-
Causes malaria
8D Bacteria
-
Unicellular , much smaller than eukariotic

Some have chloroplasts

-

-
Some photosynthesize
-

Most feed on living or dead organisms

stones food as glycogen

-
Has murein cell wall

cell
cell wall eaii.is

÷¥* ÷÷-_.
chromosome

cytoplasm -

¥É

-
Much smaller and simpler than eukariotic
organisms
-
Have three shapes : 1- Spheres 2- rods 3- spirals
-
No nucleus only ,
a circular loop of genetic material
-
Provides extra protection
-
Contain some genetic material ; important in

genetic engineering
-
Used for swimming
?⃝
 Lactobacillus bulgarians rod-shaped

Used to make yogurt from milk Rod-shaped)

Pneumococcus sphere -

shaped
A pathogen causes pneumonia
Viruses : -

All of them pathogens → infect

are can
any organism
-

-
They 're smaller than bacteria .

They're not considered living → can

only reproduce
Need a host cell
-
Doesn't have
any
cell structures
-

Only a circular loop of genetic material DNA or RNA

surrounded by a protein coat

DNA or RNA

É
- Protein coat

E : -

f-obacco mosaic discolouring of tobacco leaves by preventing

formation of chloroplasts

HIV causes AIDS

Influenza causes flu

 Organization 2(a)

Organelles mitochondria , membrane, cell wall

t
cells Muscle ,
skin , liver

1
Tissues Bone , muscle

1
Organs hiver , kidney
d
organ
systems Digestive, excretory
d
Organism Plant ,
animal
 ① Organelles :

g§É (
mall compartments within the cell

surrounded by membrane
Function [Have a special function
cell wall , cell membrane, mitochondria ,
Nucleus , vacuole

29 Cells :

Structure : Consists of a
group of organelles

Function : structural and functional unit of all

organisms
Basic unit of life

Liver cell Red Blood Cell Palisade cell

, ,

③ Tissue:
structure : A
group of cells with same structure

Function : Each cell performs same function

tissue
Muscle tissue, xylem Palisade
,
④ Organ :

structure : A group of tissues with different

structure

Function Each tissue has

: adifferent function ,
but
they perform one uniform function

Liver, Kidney Heart leaf, ,

⑨ Organ system :

structure : A group of organs with different structure

Function :
Organs perform combined & related functions

Digestive Gas exchange Nervous , excretory

, , ,

endocrine , reproductive , circulatory

Root system shoot system ,

⑥ Organism
structure : can be unicellular with only one cell carries
out all activities
or multi cellular with systems
-

Human ,
oak tree
 Cell structure 2lb)

-
cell wall

:÷n÷
moms.
Vacuole

:c:*:
-
I
:c .

ni
vii. ocnondrion

chromosome

\
Gene
Nuclear
membrane

① Cytoplasm :
-
Living material
-

Jellylike material (Between solid & liquid

-
80't water
20% other substances

Function : -

Holds organelles place in

-
site of all metabolic reactions
② Nucleus :

-
Made up of chromosomes enclosed by
membrane
-

Chromosomes carry genes

-

Genescontrol reactions in the cell

by determining which proteins the cell
can make (proteinsynthesis)
-

DNA remains inbut the nucleus ,

instructions for making proteins are

carried to the cytoplasm where proteins
are assembled on ribosomes

Function: Controls cell division

-

Contains instructions for proteinsynthesis

-

-
Carries information from parent to
offspring
③ cell membrane :

-
Made of fats and proteins
-
Living membrane
-

Has very small pores that allow

only certain molecules to pass through

Function :
-

Allow substances in and some

some
substances out of the cell according
to their size and the need of
the cell
- Selectively permeable membrane
④ Mitochondria :

Very small rod like structures

-

that can't be seen using light

microscope
⑨
-
Site of some of reactions in

aerobic respiration
- most of energy
released in
respiration" is released in mitochondria
ATP
"
as

Dantcell

⑨ cell wall :
Tough
-
non
-

living structure
-
Made cellulose
of
-
Outermost part of the cell
-

Large pores that allow any molecules

( fully permeable)
-
Plant cells support the plant by absorbing
water , pushing against celwall and pushing
against other cells
Function -

Keeps the turgidity of the cell by

containing pressure of sap vacuole
-

Keeps the shape of the cell

-

supports the plant

-

Protects from bursting .

⑥chloroplasts :

Large bodies that contain

-

green pigment called chlorophyll

Function They
absorb sunlight to make
-

food using photosynthesis process

-
Parts that are not green don't
have chloroplasts and roots

⑦ Vacuole :
-

Large central see

-
Permanent , contains sap
-

sap is a store of water & dissolved

minerals and ions
Animal cell vacuoles are small and
-

temporary
-
Surrounded by membrane

Function :
-
stores sucrose, water & wastes

-
When full
pushes against cell wall to
,

keep turgidity of the cell

 Plant cell Animal cell

-
Both have nucleus
similarities -
Both have cytoplasm
-
Both have cell membrane
-
Both have mitochondria
-
Both have ribosomes
- similar reproduction processes
-
Both eukariotic cells

-
Has cell wall -

Has temporary vacuoles

"" -
smaller
-
Has permanent vacuole
Differences -
Nucleus at side of -
Nucleus in center
me .
?⃝
 cell
Differentiation 2.5 B. 2. GB

Plants and animals begin

-
their life as

a zygote (fertilised egg cell)

-

zygote divides to 2,4 , 8,16 cells and so on .

This is called mitosis

-

Chromosomes are copied ,

Nucleus split into two

-

cytoplasm split into two

-

smaller daughter cells

Producing
-

They take food and produce energy

They mature and the process is repeated
-

-
As the embryo grows cells specialize
to different rules
-
This is called differentiation .

It's controlled by genes

• Each cell differentiate according to its position
in the embryo (Nerve in
spinal ; muscle in heart

For cells to differentiate , they must produce

different proteins
-
Different genes code for different proteins
- But with mitosis all cells have same genes
,
•
Some genes are turned on and some are
turned off .
 stem cells 2GB

-
A stem cell is a cell that has the ability
to divide
many times without differentiating
-
It can later differentiate to other types
of cells

> Embryonic cells obtained from embryos

stem -

Én
at early stages of development Can be obtained
-

parents willing to donate unused embryos .

differentiate to any type of cells

gainAdult > stem cells found in certain
-

adult tissues , such as bone marrow, skin

or lining of intestine They can't differentiate
.
-

to any type of cells , but can still produce

certain tissues for example , bone marrow
-

stem cells can produce RBCs and WBCS .

stem cell therapy :

-
It's the use of stem cells to treat for prevent
a disease or to repair damaged tissues
Bone marrow transplants (Adult stem cells)
-

Chemotherapy of leukaemia can kill harmful

as well as healthy cells of blood -

-
Bone marrow transplants supply stem cells
that can divide and differentiate to
replace lost cells
-

Adult stem cells are but

readily found all ,

have lost ability to differentiate to cells .

 Embryonic stem cells
-
scientists able to isolate and culture
are

embryonic stem cells , but their use didn't

pass the experimental stage
.

-
we hope that in the future we can use

them to treat diseases like diabetes

or brain disorders

Disadvantages → Many people object morally to the use

of embryonic stem cells , although it may be
used to save lives .
 Biological
Molecules 26)

Why do we need food :

-

Energy for various activities

•
Growth and of tissues
repair
•
Protection against diseases & keeping our bodies
healthy .

Types
• of food : .

•
Carbohydrates •
Lipids
•
Proteins •
Minerals
•
Vitamins •

Dietary fibre
• water

•
Balanced diet : -

-
All types of nutrients (carbohydrates, lipids ,
proteins, minerals, vitamins , water and dietary
fibre)
-

In correct proportions suitable for a person .

•
Carbohydrates : -

Chemical
: -
Carbon -

Hydrogen -

Oxygen
composition 2 ? 1

Building ; -
Reducing sugars Glucose , Galactose , fructose
Blocks AKA monosaccharides

Larger : - ① Monosaccharides : -

Molecules Building blocks

One carbon ring
small
soluble
simple
sweet
Reducing (reacting)
② Disaccharides
Maltose , Sucrose , Lactose
Two Carbon rings
sweeter than monosaccharides
small
soluble
simple
Reacting (reducing) Except sucrose

③ Polysaccharides fibre(prevents
starch , glycogen , celkelose-fconspitati.nl
Can't be
digested
Many carbon rings
Not sweet
 Large
complex
insoluble
Non -

reacting
Best for storage : -

1 •
Large : Give more energy (more bonds)
2- Insoluble Have no osmotic effect
:

3- Non reducing Donk affect chemical reaction:

-

4-
Compact : stored in less space
more can be
5. Broken down quickly when needed
" "

sources : -

Fruits sweets jam , honey juice

, , ,

starch =D Rice, pasta , bread ,cereals

Glycogen=D Liver and meat
cellulose =D Vegetables and fibres

function : -

Fastest source
energy of
stored in cells as source of energy

starch in plants ; Glycogen in animals

⑥
cellulose used to make cell walls
Implants ed to create proteins & fats
only

Excess : -

stored as glycogen in liver and muscle cells

hiver stores up to too g and rest convert
to fats

Health .
- Obesity
'

Problems Increase risk of diabetes

Tooth decay
 -

•
Lipids : -

Chemical i. Carbon -

Hydrogen -

oxygen
Composition (But less oxygen percentage than carbs)

Building i. Glycerol -

fatty acids
units soluble in water, simple & small molecules

Larger i. .

① Animal fats : -

Molecules Saturated fats (saturated

-

fatty acids)
-
Solid
-
Contain chokstrol

② Plant oils : .

-
Unsaturated
-
Liquid
-
No chdestrol
-
Healthier
- Both are healthy and good for storage
• Both are insoluble

sources : -

Animal fats =D Egg , meat , butter, milk

Plant oils =D Nuts, olive , corn , sunflower

Function :
-

②Highest source of energy ( more than double carbs)

②Protects delicate
organs as kidneys and heart
③ Reduces heat loss Layer under skin)
④ Forms cell membranes
⑤ Form backup source of energy for body cells
⑥ storage for vitamin D
 -

Excess : .

stored under skin and around delicate organs .

Unlimited storage

Health : Obesity
Problems Heart diseases
Blockage of arteries

• Proteins ? -

chemical : -
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen C-Sulfur)
-
- -

composition

Building : .
Amino acids (20 of them exist )
Units

sources : -

Meat, egg , milk , chicken fish , ,

wheat , maize peas , beans , all legumes

,

↳ Animal
important essential acids
proteins are more as
they contain amino

Larger i. ②Di peptides : -

Two amino acids
molecules
② Polypeptides Many : -

amino acids
Functions : -

②Growth & repair of tissues

② Formation of enzymes
hormones
Anti bodies
-

haemoglobin
③ Cell membrane, chromosomes organelles ,

④ source of energy in starvation & carnivores

Excess : .
They're not stored
sent to liver deaminated(nitrogen removed ) ,
,

turned to urea and excreted in urine

the remaining CHO is used as carbohydrates
Health " exhausts liver and kidneys on excess
problems Animal proteins usually contain cholesterol (not
eaten in large amounts)
• Minerals : -

1- Calcium : -

sources Milk bread Green vegetables

function Formation of bones and teeth

Blood clotting
Muscle contraction

Deficiency Rickets in children

Osteomalacia in adults
cramps and convulsions
Increased bleeding time

2- Iron : -

sources Liver Eggs Spinach

Function Formation of haemoglobin → oxygen carrier

Deficiency Anaemia Person looks pale , gets tired

easily with shortness of breath
•
Vitamins : -

1- Vitamin A : -

sources carrots liver eggs

function Formation of pigment in retina

Healthy epithelial tissues

Deficiency Night blindness poor night vision

:

Angular stomatis.is : Inflammation in mouth angles

Keratomalacia Thin corned :

2- Vitamin C : -

Lemon , orange Lettuce

sources citrus fruits Green vegetables

function Wound healing ( collagen formation)

Improves immunity
Healthy gums

Deficiency Scurvy :
Bleeding gums , poor wound healing
Poor immunity
 3- Vitamin D :
-

Sources Fish Milk Liver Oil

Function Helps in
absorption of calcium and phosphorus
in bones and teeth

Deficiency Rickets
ingrowing children
Osteomalicia in adults

Dietary fibres -

sources Fruits vegetables grains

function Regulates intestinal movement

Reduces risk of colon cancer

Deficiency Constitution
 • Functions of Waters .

-
Solvent in metabolic reactions
-

Digestion
Making blood plasma
-

Making cytoplasm
-

Making saliva
-

Temperature regulation
-

pH regulation
-

Lubricating joints

Energy requirements : -

Energy requirements vary with age activity

-

>

levels and pregnancy

•
Age : -

Children need more proteins , fats and carbohydrates ,

calcium and vitamin D ,

because their muscles and
bones are
growing
people need
Old less carbohydrates fats and proteins
•
.
,

They need more vitamin and roughage They're

.
less active

Activity levels :
•
-

Heavy workers and athletes need more

-

carbohydrates and for increased activity

-

Heavy workers and athletes need more protein

for muscle growth and repair
•
Pregnancy : -

Pregnant women need more

energy to carry
heavier weight .

They need more iron to be stored in

baby 's liver .

They need more Everything ] for them and

the fetus
• Sexo .
-

-
Men need more proteins because
testosterone increases muscle building .

Women need more iron because they

menstruate and lose lots of blood .
Practical
• =D Food tests : -

Carbohydrates : .

starch i. .

-
A piece of starch is placed on a spotting tile
-
Yellow brown iodine solution
-

added
is
-
Iodine reacts with starch forming dark
blue Substance ( yellow-Brown →
Blue black )
•

Glucose: -

(for all monosaccharides & disaccharides except

)
sucrose

-
A sample of glucose is added to a test
tube .

-
2am depth of water is added
-
Test tube is shaken to dissolve the sugar
-
Several drops of benedict 's solution
( copperGD sulfate) is added to the mixture
until it turns blue
-
A water bath is prepared by half filling -

a beaker and heating by a tri pod -

and a
gauze
-

The test tube is put in the beaker

and water is allowed to boil
-
The clear blue solution gradually
changes color from blue forming a
cloudy brick red
-

precipitate of copperas
oxide
(Blue → Brick red)
proteins : -

-
A sample of protein is added to a test tube
-
2cm depth of water is added
-

Tube shaken to mix water with sample

-
A sample of dilute potassium hydroxide solution
is added and tube shaken again
-

A sample of dilute copperAD sulfate solution

is added and tube is shaken again
-
A purple color is produced pale blue Purple) →

Lipids : -

-
A pipette is used to add plant oil in

the
bottom of best tube
a

2am depth of ethanol is added

-
Tube is shaken to dissolve oil
-
Solution is added cold water
to
-
A cloudy suspension of tiny droplets is
formed -

clear cloudy)
→
 Enzymes 2. to → 2.14 B

Properties of enzymes : .

Biological catalysts
-
Made of proteins

They have specific active site for one substrate only

-

Specific It can catalyse only one reaction

Made in cells

some
- work in cells intracellular and some
work outside cells extracellular

-
some break down molecules catabolic and
some build up molecules anabolic

NB .
Catalysts : .

Chemicals that chemical

speed up
reactions without being affected
or used
up and are ready to
speed up other reactions .
 Enzyme - substrate complex

structure of enzymes:

⑥£
Substrate
• -

"
""

°" "" " ""site

"

-
\

G)
@É
Active

-
site

Enzyme

-
Each enzyme has its ownshape which is

complementary to its substrate

-

They are specific

-
Each substrate fits into its enzyme like a
key and a lock ,
so it's called lock and key model

•
Function of enzymes : -

③ They control chemical reactions

-
inside the cell
-
so they determine the functions of the cell
-
So each type of cell is differentiated by types
of enzymes produced .

Gene → Protein → Control

-

reactions
(enzyme )

That's how cells are differentiated

⑦ -

Temperatures in organisms are low , so reactions

are too slow

enzymes , reactions would be too slow

-
Without
for life to continue
 •
Process of breaking down / building up a molecule
with an enzyme : -

-
substrateattaches to the active site of an enzyme
-
This lowers the energy needed to start the reaction
formed
allowing products to be more
easily
-

Product is formed and released from active site

allowing enzyme to act on more substrates

is attached to the enzyme and

it's

%¥ge .my?eecule
broken down forming more molecules released from

form
¥5 bigger attached active
to site They
molecules
.

Two are

product which is released from active site

Examples of enzymes
starch -
Amylase → Maltose
Protein -
Protease → Amino acids
Hydrogen peroxide → Catalase -
Hydrogen -1 Water
Fats -
Lipase -
Fatty acids + Glycerol
 •
Factors affecting enzyme activity : -

③ Temperature : -

•É
:
:

%
!
sit
temp
! >

Describe : -

At low temperature,
•
rate of reaction is very low .

Enzyme is inactive
•
As the temperature increases , rate of reaction
increases up to a certain point ( optimum temperature]
Each enzyme has its optimum temp .

After that temperature

, increase will cause a decrease
in rate of reaction

Explain : -

Enzyme is inactive Because there

•
. is low kinetic
energy and infrequent collisions .

As kinetic energy increases collisions between enzyme

,

molecules and substrate molecules are more frequent

and enzyme substrate
-

complex number is more

 •

Further increase the enzyme

denatures
(irreversible) because enzymes are made from proteins
,

which are broken down by heat , so number of

enzyme substrate complexes decreases
-
.

NB Denatured
.
:
Means that enzyme's shape is changed
and its active site no longer fits the
substrate , so it can't catalyse any
reactions and this process is
irreversible

Aem¥;?p n!→
?⃝
② pH : -

Annas .

•ÉEÉÉ ;? A
i
"

! >
t 's ± is to I % B % He 12

pH

Denatures
Enzyme

-
Each enzyme has its own optimum pH where it
works best

A slight change (up or down] decreases the rate

-

further change (up or down denatures the enzyme

-

Changes in
pH destroy the bonds of enzyme
molecule
 ③ Raising concentration of enzyme or substrate
I
Increase rate of reaction

④ Increasing surface area of substrate (powder)

Increase rate of reaction

•
General rules for measuring activity of enzymes : -

Amylase =D Measure time iodine solution takes

to turn from blue to brown

Lipase =D Measure time pH indicator take to

turn to acidic color

Protease =D Measure time

egg white takes to clear

catalase =D Count number of bubbles per minute

•
Practical i.
Investigate how enzyme activity can

be changed by temperature i
-

(amylase)

① Spots of iodine solution are placed in the dips of a

spotting tile

②Ethnarch suspension is added in atest tube using

a
syringe
5cm'
③ Amylase solution is added in another test tube using
other syringe

④ Both test tubes are put in a water bath of 20°C

for 5 minutes

⑤ Amylase solution is poured to starch suspension

leaving the tube in water bath

⑥ Samples the starch and amylase mixtures

of are

taken every 30 seconds for lo minutes and are

added to the iodine solution spots

④ Color of solution is recorded each time until

it turns yellow indicating that all starch is used up

⑧ Expiremeat is repeated for temperatures between

20°C and 60°C

③ calculate reaction by dividing volume of

rate of
solution took to turn yellow
by the time iodine
starch (Sari)

⑧ Plot results on a table

Practical Investigate
•
: how enzyme activity can be
affected by changes in pH : -

① Large potato is
chopped small pieces, placed in a
in
blender with equal volume of distilled water .

② Blender is turned on to rinse potato with water

and extract enzyme catalase in it

③ Potato debris is allowed to sit at the

bottom and liquid above it is removed

④ 5cm of >
the extract is added to a
boiling tube with
5am
'
of pH 7 buffer solution

⑤Tube is shaken gently to mix extract with solution

⑥ 5cm
' of 51 .
hydrogen peroxide is added to the
tube

② Im medially add delivery

,
a bung and tube
where the other end is in a beaker of water .

⑧ Count bubbles of oxygen produced per minute

⑨ Repeat with buffer solutions of different

It
.

⑥ Number of bubbles per minute is a measure

of the initial reaction rate .
 2 (d) Movement of
materials into and
outside of cells

⑦ Diffusion :

-
The net movement of particles from
area high of concentration to area of low
concentration down concentration gradient .

-
Passive process ( No ATP)

Happens because of random motion

of particles (kinetic energy) .

• Factors : -

Concentration gradient : -

-
As difference in concentration between
two areas increases
,
diffusion happens
quickly
surface to volume ratio :
area -

-
As surface area in proportion to
volume increase , diffusion happens quickly .

as there's more space for particles to

move .
 Distance / Thickness of membrane : -

As distance over which diffusion

-

occurs increase , rate of diffusion

decrease as molecules have to move
distance
greater .

Temperature : -

As temperature
-
increases, rate of
diffusion increases as there's more

kinetic energy in particles .

② Osmosis : -

Movement of water particles from area of

their high concentration to area of their low

concentration through a semi -

permeable
membrane

-
Diffusion of water

No ATP
-

Happens because of kinetic energy

in water molecules .

Factors : -

Same as diffusion .
 Effect on Animal & plant cells

ns.won.waterm.ues.at/.water ntersau.wa|+er,eanesau
Animal cell Plant cell

" """ " " """ " " " " " "" " " "" """
water solution water solution

•
Lower cone .
-

Lower conc .
in cell .
Lower conc . in solution .

Lower conc . in cell

•
Water enters of cell to solution • cell becomes turgid -
Cell is
plasmolysed
cell •

Cell shrinks feel wall prevents

•
cell bursts bursting)
(No cell wall) cells push against
neighbours
to support the plant
their

cell membrane
Plasmolysis : torn is

off cell wall leaving gaps between cell

membrane and cell wall . Plant wilts .

Irreversible process .
?⃝
③ Active transport : -

- Movement of particles from area

of low concentration to area of high
concentration against concentration gradient
by using energy from respiration CATP)

-
Active process that requires living
cells and carriers .

Factors: -

① 5. A . . . . .
1-

② oxygen concentration
oxygen is needed for respiration ,
so the
more concentration of oxygen , rate of respiration
and active transport increase .

③ Number of mitochondria : -

mitochondria increase rate of

More
respiration and increase rate of active
transport .

④ pH Affects respiratory enzymes

⑤ Temp .
Affects respiratory enzymes

=D Practical =D Diffusion & osmosis

 Practical :
investigating diffusion : -

l
agar jelly is prepared in a
petri dish
2 Different sized cubes are cut and dyed

with potassium permanganate

3 All of them are placed in a beaker of
hydrochloric acid the same at time

4 Time for each cube to turn colorless is recorded

5 Smallest Cube (largest surface area to volume ratio)
will turn colorless first -

Practical :
investigating osmosis in onion epidermal cells
1
Drop of concentrated sucrose solution is placed on
one slide and drop of distilled water placed is on
other slide .

2 two small squares of inner epidermis are cut

from outer fleshy layers of onion

3 Each square is transferred slide and

on a
covered with a
drop of correct solution followed
by cover slip .

4 Each
specimen is examined under microscope for
several minutes .

- cells in distilled water are turgid

-
cells in concentrated solution gradually
plasmolyse .

Onion is used because its color

is clear
 •
Practical :
investigating osmosis on potato tuber
1-
Three potato chips of the same size are cut

and their masses are measured using balance .

2- 1 test tube is filled withtap water 1 with ,

sucrose solution and 1 left empty

3- Each chip is placed in a tube
% After 30 minutes, they 're removed , blotted to
remove excess liquid and reweighed
5.
PÉÉ in mass is calculated
↳ Different initial masses
observe the change more dearly
26) Nutrition 219) Gas exchange
1-
in flowering plants in flowering plants

Photosynthesis : -

It's a process that uses inorganic molecules

-

( carbon dioxide and water) to produce glucose and

oxygen energy from light absorbed by
using
chlorophyll
•
Requirements : -

-
carbon dioxide from the air To make glucose

Water from the soil To

get hydrogen
-

light energy from sun To split water

chlorophyll in the leaf To absorb light

• Word equation : -

Carbon Water
+ =D Glucose 1- oxygen
dioxide

Balanced equation : -

Cocoa +61+20 =D
Colton 06 + 6 02
 •
Stages of photosynthesis :
-

:(
⑦ light is used to separate water to ☒
xygen
→ and hydrogen

② Oxygen is given
off as
gas

÷
a .

B) Light energy also converts ADP to ATP

⑦ Hydrogen atoms and

gzqq.jo [
energy from ATP reduce
carbon dioxide to glucose (in the chloroplast)

* Photosynthesis converts light energy to chemical energy

*
Energy released by respiration in animals came

from
energy in sunlight (trapped in glucose )

•
Photosynthesis and respiration :
-

-
Plants respire all the time
-

They photosynthesis e during day only

They produce oxygen and take

up carbon dioxide
during day only .

They produce carbon dioxide and take up oxygen

all the time

Day > Photosynthesis -1 respiration

Higher photosynthesis rate
More oxygen produced than oxygen
used
carbon dioxide used
More than carbon dioxide produced
Net movement of gases
Oxygen produced - carbon dioxide used up
 sunset
sunrise
>
Photosynthesis 1- respiration
Photosynthesis and respiration have some rate
oxygen used up equal to oxygen produced
coz used up equal to coz produced
Net movement of gases
Nothing produced -

Nothing used up
Nights
Respiration only
All oxygen used up
Only CO2 produced
Net movement of gases
oxygen used up COs -

produced
•
Limiting factors :-

A component of a reaction that is in

shortest supply so it prevents rate of the reaction

from increasing

*
Limiting factors for photosynthesis : -

•
Carbon dioxide concentration
con is needed for reducing to glucose
Direct collerafion
•

Light intensity
Light energy is needed for photosynthesis
Direct colleration

Temperature
•

Affects enzymes involved in photosynthesis

Direct colleration till a certain limit
 -

Usually , CO2 concentration is the

limiting factor If plant has more than normal
. a

supply of COs temp or light intensity may

,
.

limit the reaction .

As

30°C o.IS coz

,

Rate
of
photosynthesis
②
¥-2040.15T Coz

20°C ,
0,03% Coz

Light intensity
1) 2,3 =D
Limiting factor is light intensity
4 =D
Limiting factor is temperature / coz concentration

5 =D
Limiting factor is temperature

6 =D No limiting factors (Maximum everything)

• Structure and adaptation of the leaf : -

-
Thin allows easier penetration of light and
easier diffusion of gases

Broad More surface area of maximum amount

of light and gases

-
 ÷

EE
t
÷÷÷:÷¥¥÷
I
•¥•÷
•

§
.

É
7¥
① Waxy cuticle

Waxy layer
-

-
Prevents water loss → barrier to pathogens
-

Transparent to allow light

② Upper epidermis

-
Thin cells end to end arrangement with no

chloroplasts
-
produces waxy layer and protects rest of the cells
Transparent to allow light
-

③ Mesophyll
Middle layer

④ Palisade mesophyll cells : -

Well-known structure
-

Arranged side to side and closely packed =D

increase their number and get more surface

area for maximum light absorption .

large number of chloroplasts =D More

photosynthesis
-
Near upper surface =D Maximum light
absorption

⑤ Spongy mesophyll cells ? -

Responsible
-

for (
gas exchange surface )
Gas exchange

Loosely packed =D Air spaces

 -
wet =D Easier diffusion
-

Thin walled =D Easier diffusion

-

Rounded =D Large surface area (gas exchange

surface)

* Gases move in and out by diffusion

through air spaces between spongy mesophyll
⑥ Vascular bundle : -

-
Network of veins : xylem + phloem
-

Transport system of the plant

⑦ Xylem g-

Transports water and minerals from roots

to leaves + supports the plant
-
Unidirectional flow

-
consists of dead cells arranged end-to-end
-

No cytoplasm
organelles or

-
No end walls between cells =D Allows
passage of water easily
-
Hollow central space

-
Walls of xylem contain lignin =-D supports
the plant
-

lignin is water proof to prevent leakage

of water
-

water moves by conduction

 one-way only

water and
minerals

no end walls
between cells

thick walls
stiffened
with lignin
 ⑧ Phloem : -

-
Transports sucrose and amino acids to young
parts of the plant and roots for storage ,
energy and proteins
-
Bidirectional flow
-

Living cells
-
All organelles except nucleus
-
controlled by companion cells
-
Have cell walls made of cellulose
-
cell walls with holes called sieve plate
,

Cytoplasm extends through these plates

forming continuous sieve tube and linked
cells .

Vascular bundle
bundle in leaf vascular bundle
in root
vascular
in stem
 ⑨ Lower epidermis : .

-
Thin ,
flat cells
-

Protect the leaf

-
Covered in
waxy layer
-

Transparent

⑥ stomata : -

-
surrounded by specialised cells Guardcells)
Pores
-

Allows diffusion of gases in and out of

leaf
-

Opens in bright light and closes in the dark

Mostly in lower part of the leaf to prevent
-

water loss

④ Guard cells :
-

-
Control opening & closure of stomata
-

Sausage cells-

shaped
-
cell wall thicker inside .

Open during day and close during night .

Their mechanism :
-

① Guard cells contain chloroplasts They photosynthesis

.

during day
② Glucose produced decreases water potential
③ Water enters the cell by osmosis
④ cell becomes turgid and bends stoma .

opens

closing stomata during night prevents

-

water loss
- when they become flaccid in very hot environments they
,

close decreasing water loss

,
.
 •
Minerals: -

① Nitrates ✓ : -

Making amino acids proteins

, ,
chlorophyll and many other
compounds .

-
Limited growth ; older leaves turn yellow

② Phosphate: -

Making DNA and many other compounds ; part of cell

membrane .

-
Poor root growth ; younger leaves are purple

③ Magnesium ✓ : -

Making chlorophyll
-

Leaves turn yellow

④ Potassium : -

-
Needed for enzymes of respiration & photosynthesis
-

Leaves turn yellow with dead spots

 •
Practical : Testing leaves for starch : -

1- Place a beaker on a tripod and gauze

with bunsen burner

2- Heat water until it boils

3- Place leaf in boiling water for 30 seconds

4- Turn off bunsen burner

5- place leaf in test tube containing ethanol and place the

tube inside the beaker of hot water .

G- Remove the leaf when it turns colourless or pale yellow .

7- wash it in cold water to soften it .

8- Spread it out on a
and
pile ethanol cover it with iodine
heated
solution ( is
indirectly as it's
flammable]
•
Practical Measuring rate of photosynthesis using pondweed
{ : -

1- cut a
piece of pondweed and place it upside down in a

test tube .

2- Place test tube in a beaker of water to keep temp constant.

3- Place a lamp in front of the beaker .

4- Count bubbles produced per minute using stopwatch

5- Repeat expiremeat 5 times after moving the lamp
each time to cm from the beaker .

G- Use the same pondweed , same water temperature ,& same

lamp ,

7- Repeat 5 times for each expiremerit and get

average
.

Hypothesis : The expiremerit where the lamp closestis to the

beaker will record largest number of bubbles
 •
Practical :
Investigating the effect of light on gas exchange
by a leaf

1- A volume of loans of hydrogen carbonate indicator

is placed in the bottoms of four test tubes sealed with
rubb¥ny} -

2- Three large leaves are detached from the same plant

and placed in the tops of the four tubes

3- one tube covered

with silver foil , one covered
is
with translucent material , and one left uncovered -

The fourth tube is with no leaf Ccontrol)

4- Four tubes are left in bright light for a few

hours .

Color of indicator is recorded .

•
Practical : Water cultures
-

Plants are grown in soil -

free environment by placing
roots in complete culture solution and providing
aeration

complete culture solution contains all ions

essential for plant to grow
-

t to
Nitrates Magnesium
Amino
Acids &
Chlorophyll
proteins

-
Aluminium foil to prevent algae from growing
-

Aeration for roots to respire

-

sometimes ,
solution is steriled to kill bacteria
 2. 27 → 233ps Digestive
system
② Digestion : -

-
chemical and mechanical breakdown of food
from large , complex , insoluble materials to
small ,simple , soluble materials to be absorbed
to the blood -

speeded up by enzymes
Mechanical digestion physical breakdown of : -

food
without changing chemical composition
Happens in → stomach : churning
↳ Mouth :
chewing
Aim → Increase surface area for enzymes

chemical digestion : .
Chemical breakdown with the
help of enzymes to make food soluble to be
absorbed easily .

② Peristalsis : -

-
Method by which food moves in the alimentary
canal
-

Longitudinal and circular muscles move antagonistic

movement .

Longitudinal relaxes i Circular contracts

ya
Gut gets narrower
as
Longitudinal contracts ; circular relaxes
Gut gets wider
-
Waves of these contractions move food along
the gut
-
Peristalsis does not depend on
gravity
B) Gut ;
-

• Mouth , oesophagus , stomach , duodenum ,

ileum , colon, rectum
,

go.in
organs anus

Associate
Hans * Salivary glands , liver , pancreas , gallbladder
1- Mouth : .

-
where food is ingested
-
Teeth chew food (mechanical digestion]
-

Tongue moves the food

-
Saliva * Moistens the food
• salivary amylase digests some starch
to maltose .

→• secreted by salivary glands

2- Oesophagus : -

-
Movement of food by peristaltic movement
(Described above)

3- stomachs -

secretes gastric juice

Hydrochloric acid to kill bacteria to protect

from food poisoning
-

Pepsin (protease) digests proteins to peptides

It works in acidic conditions ( optimum pH : 2)

Chyme held in the stomach

is by 2 rings
of muscles called sphincters .

-
Food stays for several hours
-
stomach is protected by mucus from hydrochloric
acid .

4- Duodenum : -

several enzymes are added to juice

-
Made by pancreas
-
Contains -

Pancreatic lipase Fats→ Fatty acids +Glycerol

Pancreatic amylase starch → Maltose
Trypsin Proteins→ peptides (x2)

Bile added
-
Made by liver
-
No enzymes
-
stored in gall bladder
Passes down bile duct
- Emulsifies fats → Turns any large lipid globules
/ Helps lipase by increasing 5A
to tiny droplets
of
.

substrate
+ sodium bicarbonate to raise pH
- Bile and pancreatic juice are alkaline .

They neutralise acidic lump of food

5- Upper Ileum : -

It completes digestion of food

-
Contains intestinal disaecharidasess -

Maltase Maltose to glucose

sucrase sucrose to glucose
Lactase latose to glucose
-
Contains intestinal peptidase peptides to amino acids

fatty acids
-
Contains intestinal lipase lipids to
glycerol

6- Lower Ileum :
-

-
Absorption of digested food to the blood
Adapted for absorption of food
-

Long and coiled to increase surface area for

absorption
-
Narrow lumen for more contact between food
and walls
-
Contains villi in its walls that increase surface area :
 7- Villi :
-

structures -

l 1 -2mm long ; millions of them .

-
Increase surface area of ileum
-

They contain microvilli

-
Network of blood capillaries for food to move

-
Contains lacteal that leads to lymphatic system .

-
Surface made of epithelium cells (one -
cell thick

Adaptation : -

Microvilli to increase surface area for more

absorption
.

-
Network of blood vessels for digested food
to move to blood -

-
surface is only one cell thick for easier diffusion
-

Epithelium cells have lots of mitochondria to

provide more energy for active transport
 I

- Muscle fibres to move them and maintain steep conc -

gradient .

-
There 're millions of them

Lacteals for products offat digestion connected to

lymphatic
After this , food
.

system .

egested
• as
is absorbed is

to blood through large

cdigested) intestine
(undigested )
8- Blood : -

up to form
-
Blood vessels ra villi join
large blood vessel called hepatic portal
vein .

-
This leads to the liver .

-
Liver • deaminate excess amino acids
• stores excess glucose as glycogen
distributed

§÷gÉ{
Then
digested
,
food molecules are
around the body by circulatory system
-

They 're absorbed into body cells to build

new parts

d- Colon E-

Undigested food that passes through

cellulose water dead and
large intestine is mainly , ,
living bacteria ,
and cells lost from lining of the gut .

-
Colon absorbs most of the remaining water
from the contents →
producing faeces
to -

Rectum , -

stores faeces till convenience

11 -
Anas : -

Opening through which food is egested 4%5 -41) .

Summarising journey of foods -

Amylase

{{ Peristalsis

1
Pepsin
Acid

-
d- water

#-)
s Biletwpase
É amylase
+
d
trippin +

É
•
peptidase
disaccharideses
stored

d
Egested
Mouth Amylase starch→ Maltose

Stomach Pepsin Protein → peptides

Duodenum Pancreatic amylase starch → Maltose
pancreatic lipase Fats → FA + Glycerol
pancreatic tryspin protein -
peptides
Upper ileum peptidases peptides → At
Maltase Maltose
lactase
sucrase
lactosef-Gluc.se
suvcrose
 * Practical :
Investigate energy content in food sample : -

1- Mass of food sample is found by placing

it on a balance

2- A known volume of water is placed in a test

tube -
Tube is supported in a clamp on a stand .

5- Temperature of water is measured (Tn )

4- Food sample is speared on a mounted needle

and burnt using bunsen burner till sample
catches fire .

5- Burning sample is placed under tube and used

to heat the water Relight .
it when fire stops until
it won't burn any more -

6- Measure temperature of water Liz ) .

7- calculate rise in temperature (Tz Ta) -

8- Mass of watertvolume) ✗ 4.2 ✗ rise in

temperature
Mass of food sample
=
Jlg

How to increase accuracy of results : -

1-
larger volume of water
less surface area to volume ratio
less heat loss
avoids boiling
lid

]
2 -
for insulation

3- Burning close to tube TO reduce

food heat loss
4
-
Quick transfer of

5 -
Cover with insulation

6 -
stir to distribute heat evenly
7- Burn in
oxygen All food is burnt
 Energy content calculated in j perg :

to allow valid comparison .

Any amount of
samples may be used

NB Waste
gas
pipe
in calorie meter is coiled
to increase surface area
to heat water better
 X-D Respiration

Energy is needed by the cell to carry out life processes

Respiration
This energy obtained by ↳breaking down food
-

is
molecules to release chemical energy stored in them

Respiration happens in all cells

Respiration releases heat energy which is used to

keep body temperature constant -

Respiration releases energy (ATP) ,

which is used in : -

Muscle contraction
protein synthesis
cell division
Active transport
ATP

energy currency of the cell

Adenosine triphosphate
⑨ ⑨
-

Adenosine - - -
⑨
Consists of adenosine molecule attached to three phosphate
-

groups
used
-

During respiration energy from glucose oxidation is

,
to add one phosphate to ADD to form ATP .

-
When energy is needed ,
ATP is broken down to ADP
and energy is released .

ATP the energy currency of the cell It transports

is .

energy from respiration to the metabolic reaction

where it's needed .
 Aerobic respiration :
(Aerobic oxygen)
'

Oxidation reaction

Oxygen is used to oxidise glucose (break down ) to

release chemical energy stored in it .

-
Reaction of respiration : -

Glucose →
oxygen → Carbon + water
dioxide

CGH ,z②G +
002 →
6602 →
611-20

-
Aerobic respiration happens in the mitochondria

-
It takes
place gradually (reaction rs a
summary)

Anaerobic respiration : -

-
No Oxygen
Glucose down
-
is
partially broken
- Less
energy is released

It occurs in situations where oxygen is in short

supply .

Occurs
yeast and muscle cells (during vigorous exercise)
-

in

Yeast
when yeast is prevented from getting oxygen , it
starts to respire anaerobically
Glucose → Ethanol +
carbon dioxide
Muscle
During vigorous
-
exercise , blood can't deliver enough
oxygen to muscle cells .

-
Oxygen is in short
supply and muscles need to respire

Glucose → Lactic acid

 -
After exercise, lactic acid is oxidised with oxygen
in the liver .

-
Oxygen needed to oxidase lactic acid is called
oxygen debt

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

-
Needs oxygen -
No oxygen
-
Glucose completely broken - Glucose partially broken down
down
-
Releases large amount -
Releases small amount of
of energy energy
- Waste products are -
Waste product is lactic acid
carbon dioxide and water
-
Happens in all body -
Happens in muscle cells
cells only
-

Happens all the time -

Happens when oxygen is in
short supply
 Practical :
investigate evolution of carbon dioxide from
respiring seeds .

-
Get specimens of germinating seeds , woodlice and
maggots .

-
Get three test tubes containing hydrogen carbonate
indicator

-
Place each specimen of organisms in a test tube
on a metal gauze above the indicator to prevent
them getting in contact with the chemical
close the with rubber
test tubes a
bung
-
.

Hydrogen carbonate indicator turns yellow -

→ You can add fourth tube with only hydrogen

carbonate indicator as a control
 Practical investigate
: evolution of heat from respiration : -

-
Get two groups of peas
-
soak 1
group in water for 24 hours to start
germination
Place the other kill them
boiling water
-

in to

Each group is washed in a disinfectant to kill any bacteria

present on the surface that may respire and produce more
heat
-

Each
group is placed in an inverted vacuum flask with
at the
thermometer as shown leaving some air
top

Vacuum flask is to prevent heat loss to observe small

changes in
temperature
-

Apparatus is left for two days

-

Temperature is measured at start and at end of

the expiremerit .
 Gas
humans

21g)
exchange
Respiration vs .

breathing
Respiration is the oxidation reaction that releases chemical
energy in food

Breathing is ithe mechanism that moves air in and

out of the
lungs

structure of gas exchange system

Nose -

start of
the oesophagus
Trachea
larynx
Bronchus
Ring of
cartilage Bronchioles
Alveoli
Inner intercostal
muscles
Heart
pleural
membrane External intercostal
Pleural muscles
fluid
rislvibcage)
Muscular fibrous roof
edge of of the diaphragm
the diaphragm
Passage of air
Air enters nose or mouth ,

passes through larynx and trachea,

Trachea splits into two tubes lbronchi) , Air passes through them,

air
passes through branches of bronchi (bronchioles) ,

it stops at alveoli for gas exchange

 ① Nose : -

- contains hairs to trap dust and bacteria

-
contains blood capillaries to warm air entering the
body
② Larynx : -

Voice box

③ Trachea & Bronchi : -

Cartilage C-
rings in walls of trachea and bronchi

keep the tubes open

support them
for food in gullet
can be bent (not bone) to give space
Ifor trachea)

④ Intercostal muscles
-
They consist of internal and external
Internal contracts Ribcage down
-

→
External contracts →
Ribcage up
-
Have a role in ventilation

⑤ Ribcage

Lung enclosed by the ribcage and diaphragm

-

is

-
It protects the lungs
-

It has a role in ventilation

② Diaphragm :-

separates thorax from abdomen .

-
Consists of a fibrous middle roof of the dome
and muscular edges forming the walls
-
Muscles can contract →
diaphragm flattens
relax dome shape
diaphragm returns to
→
or

-
Has a role in ventilation

⑦ Pleural membrane , fluid and cavity : -

Inside walls of the thorax are separated from lungs

by pleural membranes
- These form a continuous envelope around the lungs
making an airtight seal .

Between the two membranes is a

cavity (pleural cavity)
-

This cavity is filled with pleural fluid

-

Helps in lubrication to prevent lungs from

sticking with the walls

keeping airways clean

-
Trachea and other airways are lined with

cells that produce mucus

to trap bacteria and dust

→ other cells are covered with tiny hairs called cilia

They beat backwards and forwards sweeping mucus dirt ,

and bacteria out towards the mouth

 Ventilation
-

Ventilation is
moving air in and out of the
lungs
-

This
requires difference in air
pressure
-

Air moves from area where pressure is high

to area where pressure is low
-
We change volume of thorax during breathing
which changes air pressure
and causes motion of air

During inhalation
outer intercostal musclescontract & Muscles of the diaphragm contract .

Inner intercostal muscles relax 1 1

I
1 *
¥0B & Diaphragm flattens
Ribcage moves out and
upwards
1 I
d
Increases volume of the thorax
d

Decreases pressure fue pressure) less than outside pressure

to

Air moves from outside 70 inside

During exhalation Clangs are elastic They -

can collapse like a balloon)

Inner intercostal muscles contract Muscles of diaphragm relax

router intercostal muscles relax ,
i
*
1

Ribcage moves in and down Diaphragm returns to dome shape

A ,
team
Volume of thorax decreases
too
pressure in thorax increases more than outside
to
Air moves from inside to outside
 Comparing contents in inhaled air and exhaled air :
-

Gas Inhaled air Exhaled air

Oxygen 21 % 16^1 .

Carbon dioxide 0.04T .

4 f-

Nitrogen 78% 79 %

other gases/ IFFY) 1^1 .

1.1 .

-
Exhaled is more saturated with water vapour because
moisture in alveoli evaporates .

Alveoli take oxygen / lower % in exhaled air)

and give coz ( higher % in exhaled air )

Gas exchange in alveoli :

-

Oxygen is more concentrated in air than in blood

,
so it diffuses into blood
-
Carbon dioxide is more concentrated in blood than in air

yso it diffuses into air

gas exchange
Adaptations of alveoli for
-
Millions of them → More surface area
-
Folded →
More surface area

Large network of capillaries to increase diffusion rate and

keep a
steep concentration gradient
-
Thin walls to increase diffusion rate by decreasing
diffusion distance
-

Moist inner walls for faster diffusion

 Effects of smoking
1- Cilia are destroyed
Mucus not swept away and blocks airways

smoke irritates lungs ,

so it produces more mucus to block
airways

Mucus is the source of smoker's cough

Irritation 1- infections from bacteria in mucus cause
bronchitis
↳ smoker has difficulty breathing properly

2- Emphysema
smoking damages walls of alveoli .

They break down and fuse again but without folds -

surface area is extremely reduced .

Gas exchange becomes

very ineffeuent .

Blood carries less oxygen .

Patient sometimes can't do mild exercises .

Emphysema has no cure .

3- Lung cancer : -

affect of tar

Tar from smoking contains 60 chemicals that are

carcinogenic .

Smokers are not bound to get lung cancer but the

risk increases .
4- Carbon monoxide : .

It's a poisonous gas

It enters blood stream and attaches itself to
haemoglobin instead of oxygen forming carboxyhaemoglobin

Haemoglobin will combine with CO preference to

in
oxygen
.

This reaction is irreversible

Blood carries less oxygen

carbon monoxide is a
major cause for heart disease

Pregnant women who smoke deprive their fetus

from oxygen which is required for growth .

Born baby has lower dry mass than normal babies

5- Nicotine : -

addictive

]
Highly drug
Makes it very difficult to
stop smoking
smoking It
on brain

increases heart rate and blood pressure as it stimulates

production of adrenaline

increases deposition of fats in blood vessels , so causes blood clot

 Practical :
investigate the release of CO2 in exhaled air

Exhaled

tnhaµ
g.n.mg,
stays
clear
1. { way, ,
mug

when you breathe in : -

"
-
You suck air in " inhaled air tube
-
Create ve pressure
-

Air from outside (inhaled ) enters

air limewater
-
It stays clear

in the other tube , you just suck lime water /

no
effect
when you breathe out i -

You bubble exhaled air lime water on the

right
-

in
-
It turns cloudy
in the other tube , you just blow air in the tube (no effect)
 Practical : investigation into effect of exercise on

breathing rate
1- sit quietly for 5 minutes (make sure you're relaxed)
2- count number of breaths you take per minute
3- couple of minutes until
Repeat for a you have
a constant rate

9-
Carry out some
vigorous exercise for 5 minutes

5-
Immediately after finishing exercise , record
breathing rate again every minute until you
reach normal breathing rate .

large number of students

same
intensity duration & type of exercise
,

same
age ,
all healthy & gender
 21h) Transport in flowering
plants
b-B. structure of phloem on page (7-5)
⑦ Translocation ; .
see
sucrose (sugar -

energy)
y
food →
Transportation of manufactured Amino acods (proteins)
-

from regions of
production leaves to
Shoots
regions of their use → tubers
→ fruits
↳
↳ Flowers
growing leaves

-
Sucrose
,
rather than glucose , is transported because

it's non -

reducing
-

sucrose may be converted to starch for storage leg potatoes) .

or used for energy (growth respiration , ,

- -
- .

v.B. see structure

② Transport of water : -
i. of xylem on page
7-33
*
Root hair cells : '

It 's absorbed by root hairs , which greatly increase 5A .

-
Root hair cells are highly adapted for absorption

Nucleus

⑧f•*•
\%

toe
-
cell wall

-
Vacuole
cell membrane
-
 Adaptations :

hair like
-

5A
-

Long -

projections to increase
-
Thin cell wall osmosis for shorter distance
-
Concentrated cell sap to increase concentration gradient
Large member of mitochondria for more energy for
-

active transport

wafer potential is higher in the soil because of

concentrated cell sap , so water enters root hair cells by
of
-

osmosis

§%
water entered the RHC increases water potential ,
so

cortex cells
water
-
moves by osmosis to the .

Water moves from cortex cell to the next by osmosis

Jo
-

until they reach the xylem .

É -
Water moves up the xylem to the leaf
3 Transpiration is
constantly hapenning through stomata
.

water is lost from the leaves pulling more

8£ water
(explained
through
in
the
detail below
)
xylem creating transpiration stream .

3
It reaches the leaf cells
moves to
spongy mesophyll
-

* , .

Some water moves to palisade cells osmosis

by
z§
.

e-some water leaves mesophyll and evaporates

spongy
to air
§ spaces .

concentration gradient drawing

These molecules setup
§
a ,

more water from spongy cells , which pull more water

through xylem creating transpiration stream

Loss of water as
vapour from stomata of the
leaves is transpiration .

Movement of water through xylem is transpiration

stream .

* Function of transpiration stream , -

Supplies water for leaf cells to

carry out photosynthesis
carries mineral ions dissolved in the water
provides water to keep the plants turgid
cooling the plant evaporation of water by
 * Factors affecting rate of transpiration : -

⑦ Light intensity : -

-
As light intensity increases , rate of transpiration
increases

→ Because stomatal pores open in light ,

so more
water loss

② Temperature : -

As temperature increases
,
rate of transpiration increases

→ Because rate of evaporation increases (KEA) .

→ Because rate of diffusion increases CK-69) .

→
Because warm air carries more water vapour than cold air .

③ Humidity : -

-
As humidity increases ,
rate of transpiration decreases .

→
Because concentration gradient decreases between air and
leaves ,
so rate of diffusion decreases
⑦ Wind speed : -

•
As wind speed increases ,
rate of transpiration increases .

→
Because the moving air removes water vapour near
the stomata and maintains concentration gradient .

39 Movement of minerals : -

They're absorbed by root hair cells by active transport

-
Dissolve in water and move with transpiration stream
 4g Practical investigate the role of environmental factors
: in
determining the rate of transpiration from a leafy shoot: -

Weight photometer : -

-
measures rate of water loss
by calculating decrease in mass

Precaution
polythene bag around the pot prevents loss of water from
-

the soil .

inaccuracy
-

Some mass will be lost due to

gas exchange of
photosynthesis and respiration
-
Volume pedometer : -

measures rate of water uptake by measuring distance

moved by air bubble

1) Capillary and attached rubber tubing are placed

in a sink of water .

2)
squeezing rubber
tubing to remove
any air

3) shoot is taken from a plant and out Engle

under water to prevent air entering the
shoot

4) push the stem into the rubber tubing (under

water)

5) and sealed
Apparatus is left to
dry any joints are

with petroleum jelly .

G) Using a
syringe ]
insert an air bubble to the
capillary tube

7) A scale is placed horizontally beside the tube

and distance moved by the bubble over 30 minutes -

8) change environmental factors and investigate their effect

wind speed Fan at different speeds
:

Light intensity : Lamp at different distances

Temperature
"
Air conditioner
Humidity
? humidifier

• Difficulties : .

- You have to set the apparatus under water to prevent

from
air
entering
* Precautions
-
Connections must be air -
water tight
-

Dry the leaves

* Inaccuracies
-
Absence of roots may
affect rate of water uptake
* safety :

-
Do not handle fan or
lamp with wet hands
-
Wash hands after setting up the apparatus
 Hi ) Excretion

② Excretion : -

Getting rid of waste substances , excess

substances and toxic materials

② Excretory organs and their products : -

Lungs carbon dioxide

kidneys Urea, excess water , excess salts

skin Excess water , excess salts

8) Urinary system : -

vena cava

Aojrta
Right
"
ones § Left
"d
"

RFID
-
Ureters

*\ "
=
bladder
- Urinary
Urethra

kidneys are supplied by blood through renal arteries

-

Blood reaches the at high pressure (Renal

-

kidneys
artery is connected to aorta)
-
Blood is filtered in the kidneys and gets out through
renal vein

The urine formed kidneys through ureters, stored

leaves
in the bladder , and leaves body through urethra -

•
Urethra has two muscles called sphincter muscles
that contract to close the opening
-
One is
voluntary and one relaxes when bladder is full .
④ Kidneys : -

* Their function i -

① Excretion → Gets rid of urine

② Homeostasis

Osornoregulation
↳ controls water levels in theblood
- controls ions levels in the blood

③ Rule of kidneys in excretion : -

*
Longitudinal section

-¥÷÷
Medulla
- -

* is

-
Cortex is the outer part of the kidney that contains capillaries &
nephrons
-

Nephrons run down the medulla (middle part)

They end up joining with the tips of the pyramids

where
they empty urine in the pelvis which connects with
the ureter

* structure of nephron
Bowman 's capsule

Glomeruµ
*¥mV:¥¥V÷÷Yj*
-

↳ Other nephron

Proximal
convoluted
hjfopitene
 - Blood enters through renal artery .

Renal artery divides to arterioles

-
Arterioles supply the glomerulus with blood
-
Another blood vessel carries blood away from the glomerulus
to form a network of capillary surrounding rest of nephron -

Ultrafiltration
of blood → -
Blood reaches the glomerulus at very high pressure
-
This
squeezes the blood
It forces
-
fluid from the blood through the walls
of capillaries and Bowman's capsule
-
The fluid is called glomerular filtrate
-
Blood in the glomerulus and space
in the
capsule are separated by :

one -
cell thick capillary wall
Basement membrane
one cell thick capsule wall
-

-
The basement membrane is partially permeable
It allows only small molecules in -

So glomerular filtrate contains small molecules

-

only .

-
This contains water summary :
salts
-

urea All the small molecules in

the blood are absorbed in
glucose
glomerulus filtrate
Bloodce¥
plasma proteins Blood is ultrafiltered
leaving only proteins and
cells
Selective After the filtrate passes to Bowman 's capsule
-
,
reabsorb #on
it
passes through proximal convoluted tubule and distal
convoluted tubule
-
Essential substances are reabsorbed to the blood through
the surrounding the nephron
capillaries .

* All glucose is reabsorbed

-
It 's reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule
-

It 's reabsorbed by active transport

-
It can't be reabsorbed through other part of the
any
nephronBecause facilitate reabsorption of glucose
→ gates that
are only found in proximal convoluted tubule .

Nephron cells have many mitochondria to get ATP

for active transport
* some water is reabsorbed
-
It 's reabsorbed through the whole nephron
-
It 's reabsorbed by osmosis through proximal convoluted
tubule distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
,

Inks
-
In collecting duct , water is reabsorbed by osmosis
according body needs
to the . When
duct
the water
concentration is low collecting ,
becomes more

permeable to water .

* some salts are reabsorbed

-

they're reabsorbed by active transport through

loop of Henle
* what's not reabsorbed makes urine .

v v
U

Excess Excess Urea

water salts cmainly)
⑥ Rule of kidneys in Osmo regulation : -

Negative feedback by the aid of ADH hormone

(
antidiuretic hormone) secreted by pituitary gland
-
When water levels drop in the blood , blood becomes
more concentrated .

This is detected by hypothalamus region in the brain .

-
This causes pituitary glands to producem%AD.lt .

-
ADH travels in the bloodstream to the kidney and
causes the collecting duct to become more permeable to
water .

-
More water is reabsorbed into the blood Blood .

becomes more diluted Secretion -

of ADA stops and
collecting ducts reabsorb less water .

-
when water levels rise in the blood blood
, becomes less
concentrated .
This is detected by hypothalamus , which lowers
levels of ADH secretion Kidney • tubule becomes less permeable ,

reabsorbs less water, more water is lost levels return to normal

,
.
 21h) Transport 1in humans)

⑦ Need for circulatory system : -

single-celled organisms don't need a

circulatory system .

They rely on diffusion -

Large organisms need a circulatory digestive and gas ,

exchange systems to meet the demands of the body

Supply of an organism is represented by surface area

-
The demand is represented by the volume

Ratio of supply to demand is

Tf÷IÉ-
-

-
Small organisms get their supply through diffusion through
their surface area .

They have large SA Viso the nutrients diffusing through

:

their SA is enough for the demand of their volume .

Large organisms have small surface area to volume

ratio .

-
they can't get nutrients through their surface area
Lieven it it was permeable) . It won't be enough for
the demands of their volume .

They need exchange system , digestive system

-

a gas a
-

and a
circulatory system to obtain and transport
nutrients

② single and double circulatory systems : .

-
In a single ,
blood is pumped from the heart to the
gas exchange organ then to the rest of the
, body directly
-
In a double , blood is pumped from the heart to
the gas exchange organ back to the heart then to the
body
, ,

rest of the
②

§ 8¥70;D §¥°¥e -58,1°

Single circulation Double circulation
of a fish of a human
 * Parts of double circulatory system
1. Pulmonary circulation

between heart and lungs Blood .

leaves heart loads
,

oxygen and returns to heart

2. Systemic circulation

between heart and body cells Blood . leaves heart ,

goes to body cells , unloads oxygen and returns to the
heart

* Advantages of double circulatory system

1. Higher pressure is maintained
Heart pumps blood twice
2. Blood travels quickly to body cells
High pressure
3. Blood flows to the lungs under lower pressure
to
protect tissues of the hangs

B) Structure of circulatory system : -

1. Heart The pump

2. Vessels Tubes that carry blood pumped by heart

3. Blood Transport medium

Daulmonary
→ "
WH
pulmonary /
artery vein
I /

riqhetntn.de utricle

-É"É•naeµ
✓ µA ypver Ñ%¥a vein

Digestive system
Aorta
""

/ kidney

Body cells
 ⑨ Heart : -

It's a muscular hollow organ that pumps blood

around the at different speeds and
different
body
pressure

-
Heart rate : Number of beats per minute
✗
-
stroke volume : Volume of blood pumped by the heart
= prer beat
-
Cardiac output : Volume of blood pumped by the
heart per minute

* structure

Aorta
"
1
/ pulmonary
vein

Superior
venacava
-
semiifauwnasr y
a
renown

- Bicuspid value

÷:
atrium ventricle
Left
-
Inferior

-
Septum
Right
ventricle

Tricuspid
valve
 Adaptations for its function
-
It's divided to a left side and right side by a
muscular wall called septum

to
prevent oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from
mixing
-
wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the wall
of right ventricle
because right ventricle pumps the blood to the
lungs only Gow pressure)
while left ventricle pumps blood to all body cells
Cwigh pressure) so it needs thick wall to withstand the
,

pressure
.

-
contains values to prevent backflow of blood
-
Walls of atria are thin
can stretch to receive blood
and contract to pump it through cuspid valves
-
Walls are made from cardiac muscle that never
gets fatigued
-
Cardiac muscle has its own blood supply coronary circulation
Blood reaches it via coronary arteries
 * function
Blood is moved through series of contractions and relaxations
cardiac cycle
1. Blood enters atria .

but can not enter the ventricles because of cuspid valves

2 . Atria contract (at the same time) .

pushing blood raising its pressure

,
and opening the values .

Blood passes through ventricles .

3- Ventricles contract when they're full lot the same time]

pushing blood increasing its pressure and closing the valves

G-hat prevent backflow)
a. Ventricles continue to contract
until pressure increases to open the semi lunar
-
values
at bases of the arteries .

Blood is ejected through arteries

so when ventricles are

empty , higher pressure in arteries
close the valves and backflow is prevented .

* changes of heart rate .

91 . When we exercise
,
muscles contract more, release more energy , respire more
i
need more oxygen ,
so the heart rate and stroke volume increase
to match body demands .

92 . When we are angry or afraid ,

adrenaline is released increasing our heart rate to give muscles
enough oxygen to fight or run away (fight or flight response)
to 3 . When we sleep ,

it decreases as all organs are working more

slowly

* The changes are controlled by cardiac centre in the brain

Muscles produce more coz when we exercise

this is detected by receptors in aorta and carotid artery Heading to the head]
They send nerve impulses along sensory neurone to the cardiac centre
cardio centre responds by sending impulses along accelerator nerve to
pacemaker increasing heart rate
when it returns to normal , impulses decrease .
 * Coronary heart disease

-
Coronary arteries extremely
are narrow
-
They we easily blocked by fatty substances leg . cholesterol)
-
This can cutoff the supply to a certain muscle .

-
The affected muscle can't get oxygen glucose
or ,
so it can't respire
and release energy ,
so it can't contract causing heart attack .

This is called coronary heart disease (often fatal)

factors? -

1
heredity some people inherit the tendency to develop CHD

2 High blood pressure more strain on the heart

3
Smoking Riaises blood pressure + makes blood clots more likely to form

4 Diet Eating large amounts of saturated fats increase ehokstrol level

5 stress Raises blood pressure

6 Lack of exercise Regular exercise lowers heart rate and strengthens

cardiac muscle
8) Blood vessels : .

* Arteries : -

carry blood from heart to the organs

-
This blood is pumped by the ventricles at very high
pressure

1- .

> so arteries have very thick wall to withstand the pressure

2- Their thick wall contains : -

elastic fibre to stretch and recoil >

maintaining high pressure
blood
muscle fibres to control flow of
by dilating or

constricting

3- They have narrow lumen maintaining high pressure

Hd veins : -

Carries blood from organs to heart

-
Blood is at very low pressure
1- so they have thin walls

2- They have valves to

prevent backflow of blood
3-
They have very wide lumen

Blood goes up the body

Muscle contraction Intra thoracic
squeezes pressure
veins
 *
capillaries : -

Carry blood through organs

-
Join arteries with veins
-
substances are exchanged between them and the cells

* 1- Walls are one-

cell thick to provide short diffusion distance
2-
Very narrow lumen forces blood to flow slowly providing more
time for diffusion
3- Branched to reach all body cells
Porous to form heard and exchange cells
*
4- tissue with
body
⑥ Blood : .

Consists of
l t I 1
Plasma Red White Platelets
Blood Blood
cells cells

* Plasma : -

Liquid part of the blood

Mainly water
-

-
carries Blood cells
Dissolved nutrients
carbon dioxide
Urea
Hormones
Antibodies
Heat energy
plasma proteins
* Red blood cells : -

specialised cells made in the bone marrow

limited life
Have of about 100
days latter they're
-

span ,

destroyed in the spleen)

*
Transports oxygen
-

1- contains haemoglobin Goods Oz in lungs and unloads it in body cells]

Haemoglobin Oz oxy haemoglobin
-
+
,

D- No nucleus for more space for haemoglobin (& oxygen )

3- Biconcave larger SA for efficient exchange of oxygen
 * White blood cells: .

-
Main role of is to defend body against pathogens
phagocytosis Production of antibodies

?
I
"¥¥Éq•
Granular cytoplasm
* Phagocytes : .

ii. I
-
g-
-

cell membrane
-
This engulfs microorganisms

§ •
Phagocytosis
1- It changes its shape to produce extensions of its
cytoplasm called pseudopodia thatsurround the pathogen

EEE
2-
Pathogen is enclosed in a vacuole

i
3- The cell produces digestive enzymes to break the
pathogen down

÷É÷
*
Lymphocytes : . BOB
-
These are produced by lymphatic system
-

They make antibodies (soluble proteins carried in the plasma)

-

Each pathogen has its own antigen that marks it on its cell membrane
.

-
Antibodies recognize these antigens and are specific
to them
 -
Antibodies stick to the antigen and destroy the pathogen by : -

•
Causing bacteria to stick together ,
so that phagocytes
can digest them more easily
•
Acting as a label on the pathogen ,so it can be easily
recognized by phagocytes
•

Causing bacterial cells to burst open

•

Neutralising toxins
produced by pathogens
-
Production of antibodies during first exposure to
a
pathogen is called primary immune
response

b- Vaccination ; -

-
some lymphocytes remain in the blood and develop to

memory cells . They can live for many years

-

If the same pathogen re -

body , the memory

infects the
lymphocytes start to reproduce antibodies specific to the
antigen .
This is known as
immunity .

Reproduction of antigens is
secondary immune response .

-
This response is much faster and more effective
than the primary .

Level of r
antibodies

n
""
¥h%ed- ion
infection

←
Time
Antibodies in secondary response are more in number
are more
quickly produced
stay for longer
are produced at a faster rate
-
A human can be given artificial immunity by vaccination

•
They be injected by an agent
•
This agent carries the antigen of a certain pathogen
•

Lymphocytes recognize the antigen and multiply as if there's

a real pathogen in the body
•
When the human comes in contact with a real pathogen ,

the pathogen will experience secondary immune response and will

will be prevented from reproducing to the limit that they cause a disease

-
Agents used may be

weakened pathogen
Dead pathogen
modified toxin of a bacteria
the
antigens themselves
Harmless bacteria genetically engineered to
carry antigen of a harmful
one .
* Platelets: -

Fragments of large cells made in bone tomorrow

-

When the skin is cut ,

n

1) Platelets produce a chemical

2) The chemical causes the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen
to turn to fibres of fibrin

3) Fibrin forms network around the wound trapping RBCs

4) RBCs form blood clots preventing more loss of blood

5) clot develops to a scab that protects the damaged
tissue until skin
grows and heals .
 2.81 , 2.93 b-Uomeostasis

Homeostasis ; -

keeping internal conditions constant

-

Internal environment includes blood &Éd

→ 1. Levels of water and salts Cosmoregulation
*

2- Level of carbon dioxide -

watery solution of
salts glucose and
pH
,

3 . Blood other solutes .

-
surrounds all
→ 4 .
Blood glucose level (insulin & glucagon) the cells in the
body forming
→

→ 5.

Body temperature (Thermoregulation) pathway for

nutrients transfer
-
similar composition
in
Cells will only function properly in to blood plasma
-

optimum conditions without plasma

proteins .

eg . water 9 inblood water enters cells→ cells burst

→ -
Formed by leakage
water & in blood→ water exits cells →cells shrink from blood capillaries
pH Mord Enzymes denatured
→

9 ]
Temp .

① Osmoregulation; -

(role of kidney and ADH on page 113)

② controlling blood glucose level1-

"" tin
-
Two hormones work together → Glucagon
• insulin : -

-
When blood glucose level increases more than normal , insulin
is released
-
It lowers Blood glucose level
-
It 's secreted from pancreas to the blood Endocrine)
-
Insulin
1
① increases uptake ②Increases rate of ③ Helps liver
of oxygen by respiration changes glucose
cells to glycogen
/
so it lowers blood glucose level
( secreted after a meal )

Glucagon
increasesblood glucose level
Helps liver convent glycogen to glucose
secreted when level is low and energy is needed)
Diabetes
•

-
some people have a disease where their pancreas can't
produce enough insulin to keep their blood glucose level
constant
- Can be detected by urine test (glucose level higher than normal)
-
It causes thirst because of high blood glucose level Water
.

helps dilute blood , so

thirst centres are stimulated
-
can be controlled by limiting intake of carbs

Must injected
be with insulin
daily
-

-
Can check glucose level using special sensor -
 Hair
blood vessels
③ Thermoregulation : -

sweat

-
Mammals and birds need to keep their body temperature
C-constant cat about to c) mainly for enzymes
◦

They're homeotherms →
physiological changes to generate heat
-

]
(+behavioural
Adifantdge :
keep constantrate
metabolic

They chemiqalreadion-s.in their body to generate heat

-

use

(respiration) especially in
liver

they then control their heatloss by sweating and controlling blood

flow to the skin -

monitoring body temperature

•

→ monitored by thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus

when person enters hot or cold environment , receptors
-
a skin
send impulses to the brain that stimulates us to change our

behaviour (wear more clothes have a cold drink) ,

-
If these changes are not enough thermoregulatory centre ,

detects change in blood temperature .

It sends signals via nerves to organs to regulate temp by

-
,

physiological means

_air follicles
•

controlling body temperature ,

dead cells
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-
receptor Dermis

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/
⑨Fat layer
 •
Functions of skin i -

forming tough outer layer to resist mechanical damage

Barrier to
pathogens
preventing waterless
sense organ for touch and temperature stimuli
controlling heatloss

2 Epidermis consists of dead cells that prevent waterloss and

protect against invasion of pathogens
9
Ofoypodermis contains fatty tissue that acts as heat insulator
and store of energy

1 Hair follicles trap layers of air

of
• 5 Erector muscles cause hair follicles to erect and lie flat
→
§
get 3 Sweat glands produce sweat that cools down the skin

0 4 Blood vessels dilate and constrict to control heat loss

6 78 Receptors detect change in external stimuli & send impulses

to the brain
•
Controlling body temperature
① Role of sweat glands : .

when temperature is high ,

they produce sweat . sweat evaporates and cools down the

-

skin -

i Its evaporation has a

cooling effect because it gains
energy required to evaporate llatent heat) from the skin cooling
it down

② Role of hairs
when temperature is low,

Erector muscles contract → Hairs erect → trapping air→ air acts

as insulator
 When temperature is high ,

erector muscles relax → hairs lie flat→thinner layer of our →

less insulation → more heat loss

B) Role of blood vessels

when temperature is low,

vasoconstriction → vessels become narrower → less blood to skin

heat loss
→ less
by radoation

When temperature is high ,

vasodilation → vessels widen → more blood to skin → more
heatloss by radiation

(higher rate of metabolism , especially in liver, and shivering temp)

raise .
 2(j) Co-ordination and response without eyes)

Nervous co-ordination

⑦ How organisms are able to respond to their environment: -

EternalInternal
Muscle

M PENS sense Gland ←9

organs p
Stimulus → Receptor → co-ordination →Effector →
Response
-
first ,
a change in environment (external stimulus) takes place

Receptor cells detect this change and send messages to

-

CNS as fast nerve impulses

CNS co-ordinates the
response and sends message to effectors
-

-
Effectors do response (muscles contract / glands release chemicals)
•
stimulus : -

A change in the environment

Receptors:
•
-

They detect stimulus by changing its energy to electrical

energy of nerve impulses
eg eye converts light to electrical impulses
.

ear converts sound

energy to electrical impulses
-
The cells are able to detect different aspects of the
energy
eg .

eye senses different wavelengths

ear senses different loudness
 ② Nervous system
→
Central Nervous Peripheral nervous
system system
GNS) (PNS)
•
CNS ; -

-
consists of brain and spinal cord
-

They're connected to sense organs by nerves

• Nerves : -

-
Fibres consist of different neurons

Impulses travel along them to and from cus

3J Neuroses: -

Impulses from receptors to CNS trave along

-

neuroses
sensory
-

Impulses travel inside CNS from sensory to relay neuroses

then
-
to muscles along motor neurone
Axon carries
impulses away from the cell body
-

-
Dendrons carry impulses into the cell body
 •
Structure of motor neurone : -

cell body
Har:*

-5nÉ÷ÉÉ¥.:÷
&

*
"""
junction

This part
in CNS

⑦ cell body is at one end of the fibre in the cus

② It has fine cytoplasmic extensions called dendrons that

make finer extensions called dendrites

-
Dendrons & dendrites are connected to neurons in 003
-
The
junctions are coded synapses
③ Axon is long ;
deudvons are short
-
Axon is connected to muscles

-
At the end of the it divides to many cell
axon , endings
that make junctions with muscles Junctions . are a special
type and are called neuromuscular junctions
④ The cells are covered by a fatty sheath called myelin
sheath
•
It insulates the axon cells
from other
•
It speeds up
conduction of impulses
 Structure of sensory neurone

¥¥⇐
•

body
fell
⑥
Dendrites Msetineath junctions
with

¥¥ •
/ neurons

AXON

Dendron
This part in CNS
-
cell body is located on a side branch of the fibre
-

Dendrons are
long i axon is short
-

Dendrites at the end of dendrons connect to receptor cells

-

Axon connects to neurone5

the motor
Anything else is same as neurone
 (illustrated by withdrawal of finger from object)
6TH Reflex arc ; .
a hot

1) detected the skin

stimulus is
by temperature receptors in

2) They generate nerve impulses in sensory neurone

3) They enter CNS through dorsal root (part of spinal nerve)

4) They travel through synapses to relay neurone

5) Relay neurone then connects to motor neurone through

synapse
Muscle neurone exits spinal cord through ventral root
G) Nerve impulses travel along motor neurone to muscle of
the arm

7) Muscle of the arm contracts

pulling away the arm
and finger

8) Neurones in spinal cord form connections with other

neuroses entering and exiting the brain The brain .

receives information about the stimulus

Reflex action Is rapid a , automatic response to stimuli .

It's 0¥ protective

sometimes movements
,
are voluntary Impulses
>
travel along
same motor neuroses from the brain .
⑨ Synapses : -

Millions of them critical for nervous to

are
system work
-
-

-
They form links between different neuroses

-
It's actually a
gap between two neurone's

-
No electrical impulses pass through it

1) Electrical impulse arrive down the axon

2)They cause the end of the axon to secrete a chemical

called neurotransmitter
3) This chemical diffuses along the synapse to dendrite of
other neurone

4) It attaches to membrane of other cell membrane and starts

of impulse in the other neurone

5) It's broken down by an

enzyme after passing on the
message
-
Nerve cells , particularly in the brain , have thousands of synapses
with other cell
-

Output of a cell may depend on input of many cells together,

so synapses important in integrating information
are

since synapses are crossed by chemicals it's easy ,

for
other chemicals to interfere with their working . that's
how
many drugs work
-
 Chemical co-ordination
① Glands : -

-
Gland is an
organ that secretes a substance

-
Cells in the gland make a chemical which leaves the cell
through cell membrane

There two types of

gkynds
-
are

I 1
Endocrine Exocrine
no ducts
have ducts
directly into blood eg Salivary glands
eg pituitary glands
.

.
tear glands
glands
adrenal all digestive glands
They produce hormones

② Hormones : -

They travel in blood stream

They only affect certain tissues or organs/ target organs)

-
These organs have specific chemical receptors
•
Insulin (look at homeostasis , controlling blood glucose)

released in pancreas lowers blood glucose

-
Glucagon (look at homeostasis , controlling blood glucose)

released in pancreas raises blood glucose

•
ADH (look at excretion , rule of kidney in Osmo regulation)
released in
pituitary raises water reabsorption
ASH•
→ stimulates sperm production in males
d ↳ stimulates
Released follicle production in females + releases oestrogen
in pituitary
e.• LH →
Releases testosterone in males
↳ Makes
corpus luteum that releases progesterone
in testes > Testosterone : Develops 2nd.my sexual characteristics in males
in
ovaries Oestrogen Develops : 2h45 sexual characteristics in female + Builds up uterus wall
Progesterone : Maintains and thickens
.

in corrosion . uterus wall

 •
Adrenaline :-(fight or flight)
-
It 's released when you're scared, excited or
angry
source
-

Released in adrenal glands

Effects 1) Breathing rate and depth increases
to get more oxygen

2) Heart beats faster

to deliver more blood , oxygen & glucose to muscles

3) Blood is diverted away from the gut to the muscles

4) Glycogen in the liver is broken down to glucose and released to

the blood
for muscle cells to do more respiration
5) Pupils dilate
to increase field of vision

6) Mental awareness increases

for faster reactions

③ Differences between nervous and endocrine control ? -

Nervous system Endocrine system

works by nerve impulses works by hormones

impulses transmitted along nerves Hormones transported in the blood

Very fast , instant effect usually longer-lasting

localised effect can affect several target organs
 2-91,297 Eye

:#E;÷⑧%q%•
÷*Fi¥
:
÷
nd
'

cornea
-
choroid
Fovea
B-

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*

Iris •

suspensory
ligaments Blind spot

1- Sclera is the tough outer coat of the

eye
2- Cornea is the transparent window in the scelra infront of
the pupil
.

Function It refracts light to form image

3- Iris is the coloured tissue behind cornea

structure It's a ring that has radial and circular muscles

function It controls size of pupil

4- Pupil is the opening that lets light in

It 's black because light doesn't escape the eye

5- Lens is convex and can change shape

structure made of cells containing elastic crystalline protein

function refracts light by different strength

 G- suspensory ligaments hold lens in place and can be
stretched or slackened
Function involved in accommodation

7- Ciliary muscles slacken or stretch suspensory ligaments

tiring)
Function involved in accommodation reflex

8 -
choroid is a dark layer that has pigment cells and blood
vessels

Function Nutrition to living cells in the eye

Dark to absorb light and prevent light from reflecting

around inner of the
eye
I -
Retina is the innermost transparent part . It's light -

sensitive layer
function converts light energy to electrical energy of nerve impulses

structure ① Rods cells ? work in dim light

can't distinguish between different colours
Brain sees their images in black & white
Form blurry image

② Cones cells :
work bright light
in

sensitive to colours (Red green blue)

form sharp image

Both are found along the retina but , cones are concentrated
at fovea
(we have to look to an object to make a focused image , so that its
rays fall on fovea where cones at)

③ Fovea centre of retina -

contains lots of cones receptor
cells

to -
Optic light energy
nerve : is converted to electrical energy
in electrical impulses

Function Impulses travel from retina to brain along sensory neuroses in

optic nerve

Impulses travel from brain to muscles in the eye via

motor near ones in optic nerve

It's
• a mixed nerve
 11 - Blond spot is where optic nerve leaves the eye
It doesn't contain rods or cones> so no image is
formed

*Blind spots are not a problem because brain puts images

of two eyes together cancelling out blind spots of both
eyes
.

Also , blind spot is at the endge of the retina ,

so
image is not sharp any way

12 -
conjunctiva provides protection and lubrication of the
eye

It has blood vessels

function It provides nutrients to

living cells in the
eye
.

•
Forming an
image
-

Light is refracted
-
It's refracted in lens and in corned

It forms an inverted image on the retina

-
Briain inverts the image and interprets it
•
Pupil reflex
-

Pupil changes size in dim and bright light

-
Iris controls the size

-
Iris circular muscles that form
has a
ring shape
and radial muscles like spookes of a wheel
•
In bright light : -

Pupil constricts t.to protect retinal

Radial muscles relax

circular muscles contract

• In dim light : -

Pupil dilates
Radial muscles contract

circular muscles relax

-
This is a reflex action -

-
It 's
rapid and automatic
-
It 's
protective (too much light burns rods & cones
too little light wouldn't form an image)

stimulus Bright 1 dim

sensory neurone Optic nerve

Relay neurone Brain (optic centre)

Motor neurone Optic nerve

Effector Iris
• Accommodation .

Lens
-

## #
short and thick long thin
&
stronger refraction weaker refraction

-
Shape of the lens can be
changed according to
distance for'm the object to the eye .

- Lens in
eye is made of cells containing elastic
protein .

-
It's held by sdespensory ligaments that stretch and
Haken .

Gloomy muscles control them theyre circular muscles that

-

get narrower when contract

•
Distant object :-(eye is at rest

Rays are parallel They need weak refraction

ciliary muscles relax

liquid in
eye polishes against lens creating pressure
ligaments and
stretch lens becomes long and thin

• Near object : -

Rays are divergent They need strong refraction

ciliary muscles contract they get narrower

ligaments slacken and lens becomes short d fat

 21J) co-ordination and response
of flowering plants

Plants respond to stimuli : -

They change the rate of their growth

-

-
Different parts of the plant may grow at
different rates
Plants may towards light or
gravity
-

grow

⑦ Tropisms: -

Growth response of a plant to a directional stimuli

is called Tropism
-
Directional stimuli are stimuli that act in a particular
direction .

eg .

light or gravity
-
If the response is in the direction of the stimulus, it's
positive tropism .

If the
response is
away from the direction it's negative
,

tropism .

② Phototropism : -

-
It's the growth response to light from one direction
Cunidirectional light)
1- A shoot shows strong positive phototropism
-
A stem of a plant moves towards light
because leaves need light for photosynthesis
so when a shoot moves towards
light leaves will gain maximum light
,

possible .

2- Most roots show no phototropism

-

Some roots are

negatively phototropism
 ③ Geotropism :

growth responses to direction of gravity .

1- A shoot ,
in dark or cent - form light ,
shows negative geotropism .

-
It
grows upwards
2- A root shows positive geotropism
-
It
grows downwards in the soil

because it needs to reach water and minerals in the soil .

and for anchorage

49 Role of auxins in shoot phototropism : -

-
Aiexins are produced at the tips of shoots & roots .

-
When they 're released ,
escape from
they light source , so they
diffuse to the dark part of the stem .

They stimulate the growth of the dark side of the

stem shoot to bend towards light .

causing
-
If the shot is in dark or
the -

light distributed evenly

is
diffuse around the plant and
,

aaexins at equal rates

it grows upwards .

* It dark than
grows in more in

light .

9) Using elinostat to show tropisms .

-
The motor turns the disk and plant around very slowly
cancelling effects of geotropism .

-
A plant being rotated will grow
horizontally .

A plant not rotating will grow away from gravity .

 3 (a) Reproduction in
flowering plants
⑦ Differences between Asexual & sexual reproduction :
-

Asexual : -

No gametes are produced .

Offspring genetically identical

is to parent .

No fertilisation involved -

No variation in offspring .

survival in stable environment .

sexual : -

Male and female gametes are

produced by meiosis .

Offspring is different from the two parents .

Fertilisation takes
place between nuclei of gametes .

Genetic variation .

Survival in changing environment .

② Asexual reproduction in plants : -

Most methods of asexual reproduction involve part of

a plant growing then breaking away from parent
plant to produce other plant .

Runners eg .

strawberry
-
A horizontal stem touches the
ground near the parent plant .

-
It produces a new plant
where it touches the ground
 Tubers eg .
Potatoes
-
Potato tubers grow underground
at the ends of branches of
the main stem .

They form new plants from

the eyes which are buds .

Bulbs eg . Onions

-
Buds surrounded by swollen leaves full of food .

They can develop to new plants .

Artificial methods cutting :

-
A piece of plant stem ,
with leaves attached ,
is eat from
a healthy plant and planted in damp soil to form
a new plant

35 Sexual reproduction in plants

~ W *
Pollination Fertilisation Germination
Fusion of seed
J male and female
L
insect wind
Gametes

pollination
-
It's the transfer of pollen grains from male parts of
the flower to the female parts of the same flower
(self-pollination) or other flower in other plant Gross pollination]
-

-
In self -

pollination ,
anther must be higher than stigma and they
must tboth be mature .

-
self pollination does NOT produce genetically identical
seeds .
 Insect -
pollinated flowers

Anther
}
stamen

⇐°"¥£
-
yle filament
carpet
ovary
ovules
Petal

-
Flower stalk

Functions : -

•
Anther produces pollen filament supports
grains -
it .

•
stigma picks up pollen grains style supports
- it -
Ovary contains
ovules to be fertilised
•
petals attract insects and protect the flower

Adaptations :
.

• Petals are brightly coloured to attract insects .

They're also large .

•
Nectaries are present to produce nectar which attracts
insects
•

stigma is sticky so that it picks up pollen grains from

the insect .

•
It's enclosed in the flower to ensure contact with the insect .

stamen is also enclosed in the flower to ensure contact with

the insect .

•
Pollen grains are sticky and large with hooks to stick
to the body of the insects .

1) Insect is attracted to the coloured petals and the nectar , so

they land on the flower .

a) when they reach the nectar, they touch anther , which produces
pollen Pollen grains are
grains to its body
.
attached .

3) When it lands on another flower, it touches the stigma

and pollen grains stick to the stigma
 Wind-pollinated flower

ther

stigma '¥¥¥¥¥É¥¥É¥¥¥¥
¥¥*¥¥§y¥j¥¥stigma
•
Adaptations : .

•
Anther(stamen) is exposed to wind , so that pollen can
be easily blown
away
-

•
Stigma is feathery to catch pollen grains easily .

•
It's also exposed to catch pollen easily
•
Small green dull petals .

-
No nectaries .

•
Pollen grains are smaller, smooth and inflated to
be carried easily .

•
Pollen grains are produced in huge quantities to increase
chances of pollen landing on stigma
1) Anther produces pollen 2) Wind blows 3) It carries pollen
4) wind strikes a stigma SD Pollen lands on stigma .
 Fertilisation: -

1) After pollen grain lands on stigma ,

it forms a

pollen tube .

2) The pollen tube grows down the stigma into the ovary
to enter an opening in the ovary
3) The tip of the tube dissolves and neudeus of pollen
grain enters through it and moves till it reaches the ovule
.

4) The nucleus of pollen grain fuses with the nucleus of

the ovule Fertilisation takes place
.
.

5) Zygote forms which divides by mitosis to form embryo

that has small root (radicle) and small shoot (plumule)

6) Other contents of the ovule develop into food stores and

wall of the ovule becomes seed coat

ovule becomes seed

7) Ovary wall becomes fruit coat

ovary becomes fruit

 Germination : -

structure of the seed : -

zqk.gg#**Gg%f Bazef *c&•§oB_tEy• 1edonMLg-

too-
Radicle
testa

Food store

1) Embryo (plumule grows to shoot and radicle grows to root)

2) cotyledon (seed leaf ) 1 or 2
sometimes contain food store

3) Testa seed coat

protects the seed for periods (sometimes many years)

conditions required for germination :

-

1) Water to activate enzymes and be a solvent for reaction:

enters through micropyle
2) Warm to allow enzymes to act efficiently
temperature
3) Oxygen for respiration

The process

when the conditions are

present : -

1) Embryo uses the food stores to grow .

Plumule grows up to light to start performing photosynthesis .

Radicle grows down to soil to absorb water and minerals .

2) Once the seedling starts to perform photosynthesis, germination is

over .
 •
Practical :
Investigating conditions needed for germination :
-

Prepare four tubes with seeds from the same plant that
didn't germinate : -

control ←• Tube A : on wet cotton with tube open at room temperature .

•
Tube B :
on dry cotton wool with tube open at room temperature .

Tube C
•
: in boiled water (to remove oxygen]
and a layer of oil
above water (to prevent from
oxygen entering) at room temp .

Tube D:
•
in fridge at 4°C

Obs =D Seeds in tube A will germinate . Seeds in tube

D. germinate but
very slowly .

Seeds in tubes B and C will not germinate .

Conclusion D
oxygen and water are essential for germination
- .

Temperature is important but not essential .

* How to know seed has

germinated : -

seed coat
splits
shoot grows
root grows
 3(a) Reproduction in humans (+3-1,32)
⑦ Asexual reproduction vs sexual reproduction

→ Cells from part of body Gametes are produced

divide by mitosis and Gee below]
break from parent body to
form a new organism
-

Offspring is genetically identical -

offspring show variation
because they have exactly because they have some
same genes genes from each
-

The new cells produced by mitosis parent

have
exactly same genes -
Each time sexual
-

this is useful for stable intercourse takes place,

environment a different combination
-
If an organism is well adapted of genes will be produced
to this environment , all its
offspring will be well-adapted
too .

-
However , if it's a changing
environment , all the offspring
will be affected equally .

② stages of sexual reproduction : .

1) Gametes are produced : -

mobile → Male
sperm cell
:

Gametes have 2 types Female

Egg cell (ovum) : stationary →
-
"

-
Sperm cells are produced in the testes
-

Egg cells are produced in the ovaries

They 're produced when cells divide by meiosis
-

- Meiosis produces cells that have half number of chromosomes

•
They're called haploid cells

2) sperm transferred to i
-

egg

help them
-

Sperm cells have flagellum to swim

3) Fertilisation : -

-
Nucleus of sperm enters egg and fuses with its nucleus
forming a zygote
4) Zygote forms a new individual by dividing by mitosis .
③ Sexual reproduction in humans : -

s*-@f
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1) Production of gametes : -

Male →
sperm cells are produced in testis by meiosis

Female→ Egg cells are produced in the ovaries when cells

divide by meiosis

They're released into the fallopian tube each month

this is called ovulation

2)Transfer of sperm cell to

egg cell
: -

Sperms pass through sperm duct and are mixed .

with a fluid from the seminal vesicle .

The mixture is called semen .

During sexual intercourse semen , is

ejaculated through the
urethra into female's vagina .

Sperm cells swim towards egg cell in Fallopian tube .

The egg is released to tube and

the Fallopian can be
fertilised by the sperm cell when it reaches it

sperm cells have flagella to help them swim

Mitochondria for energy Nucleus
penetrate membrane
g,e Enzyme sac to
around egg
← Tidied
3) Fertilisation :

The sperm reaches the egg and penetrates the membrane by

the help of enzymes in its head -

Nucleus of sperm cell fuses with nucleus of egg cell

They form a zygote with hell number of chromosomes (Diploid)

Fertilisation membrane then forms preventing any more sperms

from entering -

Fertilisation provides genetic variation

-
.

sperms and eggs are

genetically different because they
were formed by meiosis

4) Development of zygote ; -

After fertilisation, zygote forms .

It then divides by mitosis to form more cells

the group of cells are called an embryo

④ Fetus and
giving
birth: -

Embryo moves along the fallopian tube to the uterus

It implants itself to the wall of uterus

① It then develops a placenta :-

It allows the
-

embryo to obtain Oz, carbohydrates, A.As and

vitamins .

-
It allows the embryo to get rid of waste products as coz
& area .

Maternal
Bbod___@BtdBEi F€gÉ
chorionic
Maternal blood is separated from
vessels ppgby-ggzumb.y.ua , Blood of fetus
c__BÉ_ Maternal blood forms pool
FETTERED
a

around the chroionic villi to provide

artery it with nutrients

ataman :÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷
"

baby
vein
to umbilical vein to , then

artery to the villi to mothers blood .

② A membrane called the amnion encloses the

developing embryo ;
-

It secretes the amniotic fluid to protect the fetus

from movements and bumps

The embryo keeps on dividing and some cells specialise

when it becomes a
recognisable human , it's called a fetus

After nine months ,

hormones are sent to mother that there isn't
left for and mother birth
room the baby gives :-

f- Dilation of the cervix :

cervix gets wider to allow the baby to pass through
Muscles of uterus contract strongly tearing the amnion
and allowing amniotic fluid to escape
2-
Delivery of the baby e-

Contraction of uterus muscles pushes the baby to

outside world
3- placenta and amnion are
pushed through vagina
⑤ Puberty : -

Presence of male female the

or sex organs is
primary
-

sexual characteristic

During teens, changes happen that lead to sexual maturity

Gametes mature
^
sexual sex
and are released characteristics

* Hormones : -

FSH → stimulates sperm production in males

↳ follicle production in females
Stimulates
↳Released 1- release
oestrogen
in pituitary

LH → Causes testis to release testosterone

↳ triggers ovulation females
↳ Released in pituitary
in

Testosterone develops ⇐ econdory sexual characteristics in males

↳ Voice breaks
↳ Facial hair pubic Released in testes
+ chest + armpit +

↳ Large cock
↳ Growth of muscles
↳sexual drive develops

Oestrogen develops secondary sexual characteristics in female

↳ deep voice without breaking
↳ Rounded shape to hips
↳ Breasts develop Released in ovaries

↳Growth of armpit +
pubic hair
builds wall
up uterus

progesterone thickens and maintain uterus wall for implantation

 AB uterine cycle
BA ovarian cycle
☒ Menstrual cycle:

⑦ Uterus lining is sheeted and

bleeding occurs

② FSH is released from pituitary: -

It causes the ovaries to release oestrogen

It switches on the growth of the follicle

dleanwhile uterus lining is being rebuilt by effect

of oestrogen

39 Oestrogen inhibits
stimulates
release
release of
of FSH
LH

Egg released from the follicle

is and ovulation occur
It travels to Fallopian tube

LH forms corpus luteum

⑦ Corpus luteum releases progesterone

progesterone inhibits release of PSH & LA to stop ovulation

progesterone maintains and thickens uterus lining to

it for implantation
prepare
a
B- £
8) Egg fertilised: -

5*9 Egg not fertilised : -

Corpus luteum continues Corpus luteum breaks

down
releasing progesterone
till placenta forms progesterone levels
decrease
and embryo is implanted . . .

Uterus lining breaks

down
and cycle is repeated
 3lb) Inheritance

•
chromosomes, genes and DNA
-
Each cell contains a nucleus that contains chromosomes
that contain DNA with sections of genes .

Gene : a section on DNA that codes for a particular

protein
Genome : is the entire DNA of an
organism (in each cell )

⑨ structure of chromosome: -

-
It consists of strands of DNA coiled around a

protein called histones

② structure of DNA :-(deoxyribonucleic acid)
-
It consists of two strands of molecules called nucleotides
•
structure of nucleotide "

phosphate
group

Nitrogen containing
-

base
Deoxyribose

*
complementary bases
Thymine
Cytosine Guanine
Adenine (c) (G)
A- T (A) (r)

c- G

-
The two strands form a double helix
-

shape

An RNA has ribose sugar

instead of deoxyribose
 ③ Protein synthesis : -

-
The strand on DNA which codes for proteins is the template
strand
-

Proteins are chains of amino acids

-

Each 3 bases on the template strand code for 1 amino acid .

Triplet ←
-
A
gene codes for the whole protein
-
the DNA is a triplet universal code .

•
RNAi .

(ribonucleic acid)

This forms a
copy
of DNA to be carried to ribosomes IMRNA)
It also carries amino acids to ribosomes (tRNA)

→ It has only one strand

→ It has the base uracil G) instead of thymine ft)
stages of protein synthesis

1 to
Translation
Transcription
The code is
copied It's carried to the
cytoplasm

⑦ Transcriptions -

1- Part of DNA double helix unwinds to expose bases of

template strand

2- The RNA nucleotides line up against DNA bases

according to base pairing rules A- U
-

1- = A
8=2
c- G -

3- The nucleotides line

up and start to form the RNA molecule
4- Once a whole
gene is transcribed , the RNA leaves the nucleus
②Translation a-

It takes place in ribosomes in the cytoplasm .

It Is making a
protein from the code -

sets of three bases in the code are called codons .

tRNA molecules have an anticodon for each codon -

1- mRNA attaches itself to a ribosome .

2- 1- RNA with the anticodon carries a specific amino acid

to the ribosome (first amino acid
3- Another tRNA molecule carries
the second amino acid to the
second base
4- The amino acids form bond
between each other .

5- The first tRNA molecule

is released and so on .

6. until the stop codon tells

the translation machinery that
the protein is
complete .
 Genes and inheritance :
haploid
• -

Gametes are

-
Each human cell contains 46 chromosomes , and have only 23 .

-
-
these are
arranged in 23 homologous pairs 146) in diploid cells
. .

-
Each pair contains genes for same features -

-
A gene has two forms called alleles (one . from father & one from mother)
-
chromosomes in homologous pairs carry same
genes
with the same
corded , but different alleles .

Dominant expresses itself in case of presence or absence of recessive

Alleles /
.

are
-

↳ Recessive can only express itself in the absence of dominant

Genotype the alleles each cell has for certain feature

-

the final feature

Phenotype : on the
organism
-
Each cell may
have 2 dominants ,
2 recessives or 141

Homozygous : two copies of the same allele

Heterozygous : 141

Example of genetic diagrams .

Phenotype of parents tall dwarf

Genotype of parents TT tt

Gametes a) TO ④

genotypes of Generation l Tt

phenotypes of Generation 1 All tall

Pheontype of parents All tall

Genotype of parents Tt Tt

Gametes ⑤④ ④ ④
of
Genotype Generation 2
T
Tt
TT Tt
t Tt tt
Phenotype of generation 2 Tall i Dwarf
3 : 1

751 . Tall 25% dwarf

Family pedigrees :
Dd Dd

Dd Dd D dd old

D old dd del D dd dd dd

Dd
Dd Dd del del

1- 4 generations are shown 4 horizontal lines

2- 1 & 2 are
parents of 4,46 Direct family lines

3- 4 is the first-born child of 182 Ordered from left to right

4- 3 & 7 are not children of 182 No direct family line

5- 3 & 4 6
& 7 889 of
, , ,
12813,1481s are
parents
same children joined by horizontal lines

The gene for

polydactyly is the dominant
↳ 142 showed the feature but gave birth to children
,
so they must have had the recessive
with no
polydactyly >
allele masked by the dominant allele

for 5,8112 → You can't determine whether they are Ddor DD

 sex determination : - sex chromosomes

The sex of an
organism
is controlled by x&Ychromosomes#
" in male cells
Apart from 44 other chromosomes there are
,
↳Two female cells
Xs in

•
Genetic diagram :-

Phenotype of parents Male Female

Genotype of parents ✗Y ✗✗

Gametes ④① ⑦
Genotype of children ✗
✗ ✗✗
Y ✗Y

Phenotype of children 50% male -

so 't female

codominance :

there are
many phenotypes where both alleles contribute .

They are called codominant & are both capitalized in diagrams .

eg when snapdragons with red flowers are bred with snapdragons

with white flowers, pink flowers are produced
↳ Both alleles contributed

eg Blood group AB

Polygenic inheritance : .

Most characteristics are controlled by many genes .

skin , several
eg In genes have allelesthat promote melanin
production and alleles who donot .

↳ As result, there colours

a are many
•
cell division and variation .

Mitosis : -

-
It happens during growth & asexual reproduction .

-
It
produces 2 cells with same DNA so genetically identical .

-
the two cells replace lost cells or are used for growth .

and form copies called

1- DNA chromosomes
replicates two
chromatids

2- Spindle forms and chromosomes are aligned in its

equator

3- Fibres of the spindle shorten and chromosomes

are attracted to poles of the cell .

4- Nuclei form in the two daughter cells -

 Meiosis : .

1- DNA replicates and chromosomes are doubled .

2- They align in
pairs in half of the cell .
Pair
from the father & from the mother
pair .

3- They align on the left or right randomly .

4- the eek separates to two cells with full

number of chromosomes .

5- chromosomes in two daughter cells align and

are separated further to two more cells .

6. The four daughter cells have haploid number of

chromosomes 123) .

Meiosis involves 2 cell divisions thatproduce 4 daughter

cells with half number of chromosomes .

-
Meiosis produces gametes in ovaries and testes .

→
Pairs of chromosomes are distributed independently in both
divisions of meiosis This causes a great
.
variation in the
gametes .
 Variation : -

can be because of genetic environmental

, or both
I t
1- Genetic 2- environmental
✓ * b
a) Meiosis b) Random c) Mutation
(variation fertilisation
of gametes)

a) Variation in gametes : .

Meiosis different combination of

alleles
produces gametes with

b) Random fertilisation; -

Any of the millions of sperm cells can fertilize any of the

thousands of egg cells .

This produces trillions of possibilities ,

so each emb.ro will have
different combination of alleles .

c) Mutation : .

When DNA of cell replicates , mistakes may be made and

the
wrong nucleotides may be used .

→ It's a random , rare condition that can inherited

be
If the mutation is in gametes
or cells that produce gametes
•
This alters order of bases
the
batters the order of amino acids
6 makes a
wrong protein
b- Affects the
phenotype
in humans
I t
occurs in a Occurs in
cell but
in gametes ,

single cell a ,
so it's inherited .

and cell it lives

dies and divides Genetic disease)
(neutral) giving cells
with mutations
(cancer)
•
Most mutations have no effect on phenotype and some have
insignificant effect and very rare have significant effect .
 chance
can be increased by: -

Exposure to
ionizing radiation (gamma ,
X-

,
ultraviolet)
• chemicals mutagens in tobacco & tar

2- environmental : -

Different environments
intellectual
affect the physical ,
social &
development -

eg . some plants may be shorter than others

because they receive less light .
•
Natural selection : .

Evolution : .
Oragnisms are not fixed & they change over time
by natural selection .

The mechanism: -

Different organisms show variation due to mutation .

They struggle to exist .

selective pressure (changing environmental *condition) favours species

with selective advantage .

The favoured organisms are best suited for the environment ,

so they survive
reproduce and pass on the characteristics
,
to their
offspring .

The unfavoured can't survive so they extinct

go
.

Resistance of bacteria to antibiotic :

A random mutation gives a bacterium resistance to a

certain antibiotic .

where the antibiotic is widely used the ,

resistant bacterium
will have an advantage over the non -
resistant one .

The non -

resistant will die and the resistant will survive

and reproduce giving rise to new resistant bacteria .

That means that antibiotic is no longer effective

in
controlling the disease .

Other examples of natural selection : -

may
Polar bears have evolved from brown bears
+

☒overflies have developed black n' yellow stripes

like wasps to scare the predators .
 5lb) selective breeding +

5 (d)
Cloning
⑦ selective breeding :
-

Also called "

artificial selection Human choice
"
is creating selection pressure
-

It's the breeding of only individuals with desirable features .

•
plants : -

-
earliest example is the cross-breeding of wheat
-

The aim was to produce wheat with increased yield of grain

& shorter , stronger stems .

① Two species of wild wheat were bred together ,

but only
produced infertile offspring .

② Later they produced

,
fertile offspring with high yield .

lemmer wheat)
③ This species was bred with another relative wild wheat
& they produced bread wheat
↳ Much bigger yield
↳ Much easier to process

-
Other plants were also bredfor certain characteristics
Terminal bud
eg Brassica →
→
head
↳ large flower
((↳
.

lateral buds
stem
leaves
flowers & stems

eg vegetables e.÷
.
Potatoes →
:÷s
•
Desired features: -

higher yield
Resistance to diseases

Resistance to insect pest damage

hardier ( survive in harsh climates & be more productive)
Better balance of nutrients (more amino acids needed by )
humans
•
Animals: -

•
desired features: -

more meat , mill or

eggs
more fur or better quality far

more
offspring
increased resistance to disease

Done by mating two animals with desired features

eg .
cows with high milk production with balls from
cows that had high milk production
•
Artificial insemination ? -

Semen of balls with desired features is frozen & stored .

-
It's then injected into a cow 's uterus
•

It makes it
possible to fertilize thousands of cows
using
one bull .

-
Modern shape was wild sheep that has been domensticated .

-
Modern species of dog evolved from domesticated wolf .

-
Cows evolved from wild aurochs
artificial selection
This is
by
-
② cloning : -

•
Plants :-(micropropagation)

1- Tips of stems and side shoots are removed from the plant
to be cloned .

These are called ex plants .

2- They've trimmed to size as-1.0mm and sterilised to kill

micro-organisms .

3- They we then placed in an

agar medium with nutrients &
plant hormones to
encourage growth
.

fhlore explant can be taken from new shoots that form on original
plants)
4-The explant's (with shoots now ) are transferred to cultural solution
with hormones to
encourage
not growth .

5- when the ex
plants grow roots , they're transferred to

#
fogging greenhouses
warm
temp .

Humid to reduce waterless

-
the plants produced are clones .

to the parent plant

They have identical genes
-
.

divide by mitosis to cells with the

They make same
-

new
identical genes
.

Advantages : -

Many thousand plants can be grown rapidly

•

species that are hard to be grown using seeds can be

grown by this method .

•
plants can be produced at
any time of the year
.

-
Genetic modification can be introduced to thousands of plants
quickly .

Many plants can be stored easily and grown as required .

• Animals : -

Dolly the sheep

1- Scientists got an egg cell from a donor sheep & removed its
enucleated
nucleus creating egg cell
.

2- Then
they took cells from the
mammary gland from Dolly's
mother and placed them in a solution to keep them alive
but not growing
.

3- They placed one of the

mammary gland cells next to the
e. nucleated cell and fused them together using
electric current .

The nucleus of the parent is now inside the cell

egg
.

4- when the resultingcell started dividing they transferred the ,

embryo to the uterus of another sheep (surrogate mother) .

5-
Dolly was born .
With the same characteristics to the parent
sheep .

The
-

procedure was repeated

with sheets
many
.

-
Some were born deformed .

Some did not survive till

birth .

Scientists believe this is

because chromosomes transferred
were old chromosomes from
an animal who lived for
several years

Using cloned animals to produce certain proteins : .

-
some sheep have been genetically modified to produce proteins
important to humans .

cloning these sheeps will produce more of these proteins .

 514 Genetic engineering

Recombinant DNA : -

-
A
gene is cut from DNA of a
species and inserted
to DNA of another .

The new DNA is called recombinant DNA .

-
The
organism that receives foreign DNA is called
transgenic organism .

-
The
organism
with the added gene will make a new protein -

Genetic inserting from

engineering organism to another
-

: a
gene an

organism to make a protein that's not

part of its metabolism .

Genetic
engineering
→
GM GM
GM .
plants Animals
Bacteria

⑦ Genetically modified bacteria: -

* other vector is bacteriophage la virus which

bacteria) The gene is added to the
-
Plasmid is used as a vector .
attacks
virus
-

DNA and DNA is inserted in the

bacterium .

Restriction enzyme is used to cut DNA Different

.

enzymes cut DNA

at different places -

Some cut DNA to form blunt ends and some make sticky ends with
exposed bases

Ligase enzyme is used to join DNA pieces .

• Method :
-

① Plasmids are isolated .

② Plasmids are opened by a specific restriction enzyme .

③ The same restriction enzyme is used to cut DNA of an organism

to isolate the desired gene .

④ plasmid and isolated mixed with

The
gene are
ligase enzyme
to form a recombinant plasmid .

⑤ Bacteria are incubated with the recombinant plasmids .

⑥ Bacteria now have the

foreign desired gene .

-
Uses of genetically modified bacteria: -

1- Human insulin production

Earlier insulin for diabetic people was taken from
pigs
.

It caused allergy & was ethically unaccepted .

* Now the gene for insulin production

,
is taken from
healthy pancreas cell and injected in a bacterium
a .

the bacterium is grown in Permenter and reproduces a

forminglarge quantities of insulin .

2- Human growth hormone

Gene for production of growth hormone taken

is from
pituitary glands and inserted in a bacterium -

Bacterium is grown
in a Permenter & large quantities
of the hormone is produced .

3- Human vaccines

A bacterium was
genetically modified to carry antigen of
hepatitis B virus -

Body makes immune

response without
an

risk of an actual illness .

Enzymes for washing powders

4-

Bacteria was GM to make

enzymes that work at high
temperatures .

5-
Enzymes for food industry

A bacterial enzyme is used to convert fructose Lmuch sweeter

glucose to .

Less sugar needed , so less cost + less sugar is healthier

② Genetically modified plants : -

-
Here you have
to introduce the
gene to a cell , and then make
plant from
,

a whole other this cell .

Method : -

① Plasmids are isolated and cut using restriction enzyme .

② Same restriction enzyme is used to cut the desired gene from DNA
of an
organism .

③ Opened plasmid mixed with

is the isolated gene and ligase enzyme
to make recombinant plasmid .

④ small leaf discs are mixed with the plasmids .

some will take the
plasmids .

⑤ The discs are micro propagated to make a whole GM plant .

•
Gene gun :

-
A device that fires small
pellets of
gold coated with DNA with
desired gene
at
plant tissues .

Uses of GM plants : -

1- Some fruits & vegetables have been modified to have longer

shelf lives (stay longer before going bad) .

2- some
crop plants were modified to be resistant to herbicides

farmers to to have
spray herbicides
This allows maximum
effect weeds without
on
harming the plants
3- Genes from an arctic fish that codes for an anti
-

freeze have been

transferred to a plant to make it frost -
resistant

4- Gene
gun
allowed scientists to produce genetically modified rice
called golden rice

This rice has 3 extra genes to make beta-carotene .

This chemical gives the carrot its colour and is converted

to vitamin A in human body .

This would save children in poor countries from blindness

of
because deficiency of vitamin A .

5- tobacco and soybeans have been modified to make antibodies

that can be given to
people .
G- Oilseed rape plants will be used in production of biodegradable
plastics

7- Future
roots
:
modify crop plants to
grow nitrogen-fixing bacteria on their

This would allow us to grow plants in

vast areas of
infertile soil without much fertilisers
Bacteria takes nitrogen from air and converts it to ammonia
for plants to use .

Cost of these plants would decrease dramatically -

other general aims include : -

increased heat & drought tolerance

- increased resistance to pests & pathogens
-
increased salt tolerance
-
better balance of nutrients
 /

③ Genetically modified animals : -

-
Most successful technique is
inserting the gene into a
zygote .

• Method :

①The required gene is cut from DNA using restriction enzyme .

② DNA is injected into the nucleus of zygote .

③ Zygote is implanted in uterus of a surrogate mother -

④ zygote will divide forming an embryo which will divide forming

an adult

•
Uses of GM animals : -

they're used to
produce human proteins

eg . when phagocytes attack they produce , trypsin .

Alpha 1- antitrypsin is a countermeasure

-
to protect the
tissues .

Some people don't make

enough AAT
Transgenic sheep have been
genetically modified to
produce AAT in their milk

* the
steeps can be cloned to increase the production .
 5cal Food production
(Micro-organisms)
-
Fermentation : metabolic processes in micro-organisms

Biotechnology :
using any organism to make
products beneficial to humans

⑦ Yeast :

When deprived of oxygen , Yeast respires anaerobically to produce

alcohol and carbon dioxide

Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon

dioxide
•

Making drinks ? -

-
Wine is made when yeast respires using sugar
in grape juice .

Commercial production is in large containers called vats .

It also be produced at home

using small containers with
-

can

air lock
-

-
Beer is made from barley which contains starch -

Barley seeds germinate to digest starch to

sugars

alcohol
Yeast respires using these sugars to produce
-
.

-
At a certain point ,
alcohol concentration kills yeast cells & fermentation
stops .

Making bread : -

-
Wheat flour & water are mixed . Water activates enzymes in the
flour They digest starch to sugar
•
-
Yeast is added .

Yeast at first respires aerobically to produce coz I water .

When air runs out , it

respires anaerobically producing coz & ethanol -

-
Coz makes bubbles and dough rises .

When dough is baked , bubbles expand and bread has a

fluffy
texture -

Yeast is killed & ethanol evaporates .

 Practical : investigating anaerobic respiration in yeast : .

1- Small amount of water is boiled to remove

any dissolved air -

2- Water is allowed to cool and glucose is added -

3- Little yeast is added & mixture is stirred .

4-
Liquid paraffin is added using pipette to prevent oxygen from diffusing .

5-
Apparatus is set
up as shown -

G- Another apparatus is set up as a control

using boiled yeast .

7- Both sets are left in a warm room for two hours .

8- Indicator shows coz in the apparatus with live yeast only .

9- The rate of respiration can be obtained by measuring time it takes

for indicator number of bubbles per minute
to
change or co, .

10 -
the rate can be investigated after
changing several factors:

of
type sugar
concentration of
sugar

temperature
② Bacteria : -

(lactobacillus)
-

AKA lactic acid bacteria

-
Used to make yoghurt
-

the effect of fermentation is turning liquid milk to semi -

liquid food
with sour taste

•
Method : -

① Milk is pasteurized at 85 -95°C for 15-30 minutes

to kill any natural bacteria

it contains

② Milk is
homogenized
to disperse fat globules

35 Milk is cooled to 40 -45°C and inoculated with culture

of lactic acid bacteria

-
The bacteria starts producing lactic acid
and digests the milk proteins
-
The culture is kept at this temperature
for a few hours until pH falls to
4-4
-
The mixture coagulates because the fall in pH
denatures proteins in milk -

⑦ Yoghurt is stirred and cooled to 5°C

Flavours & colouring s are added at this stage .

*the
drop in pH slows down reproduction of lactobacillus but does not
kill it .

It prevents other microbes from growing in it , so it preserves

the nutrients .
③ fermenter : -

-
It's vessel used to micro-organisms used
for fermentation
any grow
.

Industrial fermenters are large tanks that can

carry up to 2100000dam
}

of wguid culture
-

They control certain conditions to maximise

efficiency of growth

µ,\
of micro-organisms

Nutrient
temperature pH oxygen& supply
coz
concentration

At the start of
the
steam outlet
process , nutrients
-
gjeai.net
inlet
-
outlet
are fed through Exhaust
/
in
-
pipes that can
open
& dose .
Coldwater outlet
☒

Temp probe
. -

pH probe / stirring paddles

pH can be adjusted cold water mix up contents to keep
inlet
suspended
by adding acid or alkali micro-organisms
in liquid to be

water jacket - exposed to nutrients .

It distributes heat,
Fermentation produces nutrients and wastes
so cold water

|
heat
,

surrounds the Permenter Harvesting

outlet
evenly .

some Permenter use

to
keep temp constant . .

air jets instead .

Water is constantly Air inlet

replaced If the Most of the waste
organism respires
aerobically filtered
,
air produced is acidic ,

so a Permenter must
is
supplied llriltered to
prevent contamination) be made from a
material that doesn't
corrode leg . stainless steel)

* Aseptic precautions :
-

Before nutrients and organism are added ,

the walls and pipes
are sterilised using hot steam .

Any organism
that gets into the culture will
compete with the

organism and contaminate the product .

 4 (a) The
organism in the
environment

Population : All the organisms of a certain species found in an

ecosystem

Community :
Populations of all species found in an
ecosystem .

Habitat : A place where

organisms live

Ecosystem : consists of :

produce food

{
Producers plants that photosynthesis to

Biotic
consumers organisms that eat plants or eat organisms that
components eat plants

decomposes Organisms that break down dead materials

and recycle the nutrients .

Abiotic
components { Physical environment All non-biological components

① comparing population size in two areas

using quadrats :

-
A
biologist
would
that wants to know number of organisms of a certain species
not count them all .

-
He would count a smaller representative part called a sample .

Samplig is done using a

quadrat
→ its depends on size
size of
organisms being sampled
-

Sampling must be carried out at random to avoid bias .

•
Practical : using quadvats
1) Two ten metre
-

tapes are arranged to form two sides of a square

the
2) A pair of random numbers is
generated using random function on the
calculator .
They're used as co-ordinates to position the quadrat in

the large square .

3) Number of the organism is counted .

4) The process is repeated for 9 more quadrates and an

average
is obtained .

5) the whole experiment is

repeated for the other area .
② Biodiversity : -

-
this is the amount of variation shown by species in an ecosystem .

It depends on two measurements :

As the number
•
Number of species in the
ecosystem increases ,
biodiversity
increases
-
Abundance of each species
More evenly distributed species
show higher biodiversity .

A B

Both communities contain same number of species & organisms

community A has species more evenly distributed
community B is dominated by species E
Community A has higher biodiversity
-

Biodiversity is generally better for ecosystem .

Ecosystems with higher biodiversity are more stable .

Fg
. if a disease wiped out dominant tree species this would affect
,

organisms that relied on trees .

In an
ecosystem with
higher biodiversity , other tree

species may provide the shelter & food .

• Practical :
Using quadrat for
biodiversity
-

Same method in p186 in this notebook , but

1) Ten quadrat samples are taken in two different areas and

number of each plant species is obtained .
 that influence number and distribution
③ Biotic and abiotic factors : -
of organisms in an ecosystem

Biotic are
biological Abiotic are chemical or

of food
physical
① Availability

}
②Competition for
food 1 Light intensity climate
-

2 Temperature
Predation 3 Rainfall

☒ Parasitism 4 -
Hours of daylight
⑤ Disease s -
clay content in soil
6 ol soil Soil conditions
of
pH
⑧ presence pollinating insects , nitrate level in so

8 water content
⑧ availability of nest sites
g- Pollution

-
River → Flow rate

Lake →
oxygen concentration
-

Eg . A river
/ Abiotic :

Depth of water → Light intensity

flow rate
Type of material at the bottom
concentration of minerals in water --D Availability of food
pollution
pH
concentration
oxygen
cloudiness of water →
Light intensity

* It's impossible to say which factor is most important .

Some factors affect each other .

eg . 9 flow dissolved oxygen

rate 9
Main factor affecting most ecosystems is climate .
 4lb)
feeding relationships
① Food chains : .

Plankton → Producer :
photosynthesis & produce its own
food
Arrow
"
by
"
means eaten
V

Crustacean →
Primary consumer + Herbivore
✓
Fats plants
stages
"

trophic Fish >

Secondary consumer + Carnivore
levels /
Eats
meat

Ringed seal >

Tertiary consumer + Carnivore

Top
v

polar bear >

Quaternary consumer + carnivore

Decomposershot in the chain) Not eaten

by anything
② Food webs: .

they show interactions between different food chains

You predict how

change food chain would affect
-

can a in a

other food chains .

 eg Leeches decrease :
.
.

stonefly nymph may increase because there's more midge larvae

stonefly nymph decrease because salmon would feed

may
-

more on them since there are less leeches

constant of
-

Stonefly nymph may remain because a combination

of two
points
previous
-

-
Food webs don't info about number or masses of organisms
give
.

They don't show role

-
of decomposes .

③ Ecological pyramids
1- Pyramid of numbers : -

represents numbers of organisms in each food chain

irrespective of their masses .

2- Pyramid of biomass : -

shows total masses at each trophic level irrespective

of the numbers .

food food food

chain
food
2
Ctrain chain
2
ctrain

Pyramids for food chain 1 are quite similar .

In food chain 2
, pyramids are different :

-
that's because the size of oak trees
-
Oak trees have very large masses but , are
only
few
-

One oak tree can

support thousands of aphids .

-
same case here .

-
The pyramids are in this shape
if there is a parasite in
food chain .
④ why are ecological pyramids . .
pyramids ?
-
When a rabbit eats a grass , not all materials in the grass
end up as a rabbit .

-
There are losses :

Not all grass is eaten

some parts are not digested ; and not absorbed

.

Some materials form excretory products .

materials
Many are respired to release energy
-

Only a small fraction ends up creating new cells .

-
Similar losses
happen at each trophic level , so smaller biomasses
are available for growth at successive levels This is reflected by .

pyramid shape
8) Flow of energy through food chains : -

1) Photosynthesis fixes energy from sunlight in chemicals in plants .

2) Respiration releases energy from the chemicals (glucose)

oÉgyiusddÉ-
&
5) Energy is
cells
used for
(trapped in cells)
processes eg muscle contraction
. new

active transport
I
do 4) passed on to next
4) lost as heat eventually trophic level
↳this causes
energy
losses

Only about lot of

energy is
passed on to next trophic level
because energy is lost as
some heat in different biological
processes and not all of the organism is eaten
⑥ Role of decomposersi .

They recycle nutrients by breaking down complex organic molecules

-

into simpler substances that they release to the environment .

 467 Cycles within ecosystems
① Carbon cycle i.

Carbon dioxide ① photosynthesis

>
in atmosphere fixes the carbon in

organic compounds

③
Respiration
produces
carbon inorganic
from dioxide
organic
compounds as u
they're Nutrients
broken being
down
&
② Feeding
assimilation
passes the
carbon
along
combustion food chain
carbon
dioxide
is released 1 Still
when nutrients ←
feels
burn

⑤Fossilization sometimes
Living organisms
don't fully decay due
to
acidity of soil
and fossil fuels
,

V form

Fossil
fuels
② Nitrogen cycle : -

Nitrogen gas in
Free-living nitrogen fixing
7
soil bacteria
convert nitrogen to
ammonia and use

Nitrogen-fixing it to make
bacteria
in root
amino acids & proteins
nodules
make ammonia
used
by plants w
to make
Protein in
free-living
organic
compounds v
nitrogen fixing-

bacteria
Protein in

→ plants

feeding
Roots Death
absorb V
nitrates
& convert
protein Death
in
them to
amino
animals
acids
Denitrifying
bacteria Death
use nitrates N
as v
energy
source and s
convert them Protein in
to
nitrogen Excretion dead matter
gas
This reduces
amount of
nitrates in soil .

✓ Decomposition by
Ammonia
fungi & bacteria
Nitrate - Nitrite c-
< forms
Nitrifying Nitrifying ammonia

bacteria bacteria from nitrogen

Ammonia
oxidised
compounds
dead
in
is matter
 5 (a) Food production
(crop plants & Fish farming)
Humans have
increasing
demands on the environment for : -

food to sustain population

an
ever-increasing
•

-
materials to build homes schools & ,
factories
- fuels to heat homes & power
vehicles

space to build homes

, schools , factories & leisure activities

space to dump wastes

•

⑦ Crop plants : -

-
Farmers need to increase yield , so
they control the environment to
provide optimum conditions .

•
Conditions : Reasons to control them

salt ions Farmers fertilisers

use Extra ions are taken
up
leg nitrates)
. or
grow plants
in & used to make proteins
hydroponic culture for growth

soil structure -

ploughing soil to good aeration &

drainage
break
up compact allow better uptake
pieces of mineral ions & water
organic fertilisers
-

Adding manure
to improve
drainage & aeration

soil pH adding time to acidic unsuitable pH affects

soil raises the pH of mineral
uptake ions

carbon dioxide : -
can't be controlled in can affect photosynthesis
light ; open fields , but in and affect the production
Heat greenhouses polytunnels
& of organic substances
-

Fuels are burnt to for growth

release coz & heat
to maximise yield
of crops
 •

Greenhouses "

1) Transparent walls allow maximum sunlight to

pass to plants
for maximum photosynthesis .

Additional lighting gives a longer day in winter .

a) Greenhouse traps heat in the greenhouse

effect .

Heating
short wavelength IR pass to greenhouse

{ 3)
to Reflected long wavelength IR can lit escape glass
up
optimum
temp .
Glasshouse is heated to raise temp . if outside is too low -

for
photosynthesis 4) If heaters use fossil fuels , coz and water
vapour
is

maximise
yield .
produced ; -

Further CO ,
is raw material for photosynthesis
heating
is
waste
a
water vapour keeps humid atmosphere to reduce waterless
of
money
5) Plants can be grown in hydroponic culture to
give exact
amounts of balanced mineral ions

Fertilisers
•
:
farmers
replace
⇐↳ → Nitrate" lost
] lost N with

Plant protein /
fertilisers
Nitrogen →

↳ fed to animals → Animals sold

Holders) I
Nitrogen lost

-
fertilisers must be
carefully monitored to maximise yield without

wasting money .

→ Organic > Manure > made from animal faeces mixed

with straw
Fertilisers Artificial
inorganic eg
> > .

potassium nitrate
ammonium nitrate
 fertilisers ( animal faeces)
Organic manure :

Disadvantages i.
- can't replace all lost nitrogen and mineral ions
↳ made from indigestible
'

fodder & faeces

Advantages : .

-
improves soil as it contains decaying matter

-
No pollution Eutrophication)

Inorganic fertilisers (artificial eg potassium nitrate

. & ammonium nitrate )

Advantages : .

replace all lost nitrogen and mineral ions

Disadvantages : -

pollution problems (eutrophication)

don't improve soil structure like fertilisers because
they don't
-

organic
contain
many decaying materials

* Another
way
to
replace nitrogen is to
grow legumes one year in

four
> legumes have
nitrogen fixing
- bacteria in their roots

Nitrogen Nitrogen-fixing ammonia → Protein in plants Decompose"

> Ammonia
in
;so
Nitrifying
/ bacteria
air

Nitrate
1
Available
for next
year
crop
 • Pest control : -

by pesticides
-
Pests are
organisms
that reduce yield of plants or stock animals

-
in two ways :
.

1)
affecting growth by damaging leaves & reducing photo .

2) affecting
for sale
appearance or
quality of crop making it unsuitable

They 're only problem when they

a increase in population enough
to cause economic
damage .

-
A farmer uses
pesticides to kill pests and improve the yield of crop :

insecticides insects
herbicides weeds
fungicides fungi
mollusc icicles snails

Disadvantages : .

Some pests develop resistance through natural selection

-

may
-

slow
Environmental damage to
decompose persistent in the environment
-

: .
• -

•
build up in of tissues organisms (
bioaccumulation)
build become concentrated along food chains
up &
•
more

(bio magnification)
•
not specific - can kill harmless and useful insects
, ,

Advantages :

•
removes all pests

•
An ideal pesticide : .

•
control a pest efficiently
•
be biodegradable -
to prevent toxic materials from accumulating
in environment
•
be specific
store , &
•

easy to transport apply

• not accumulate in
organisms
 •

Example : DDT :
Why was it banned ?

1) very persistent
active for
half stays 10
years
other half will break to DDE -
other pesticide
carried by wind thousands of kilometres

2) Many insects developed

increased
resistance
of DDT increased
Their number as use

3) kills all insects including bees

food
damages ecosystems by disrupting chains

4) Bioaccumulation & Biomagnification

Plant contaminated with DDT

1
Bioaccumulation : Animal eats plant .
DPT dissolves
in
fatty tissues

1.
Biomagnification : carnivore eats animal Process . is

repeated food chain &

along
insecticide becomes more
concentrated
along the chain

•
Pest control ; by biological control

-
Uses another organism to reduce number of a
pest
•

Advantages •
Disadvantages : -

specific -
never remove
pest
reduce
completely
-
No need to reapply aims to its number to
•
no risk of resistance prevent economic damage
•
Methods of biological control : -

1) introducing predator control aphids

ladybirds
2) introducing herbivore (for weeds) moth controlled pear cactus in Australia
3) introducing a
parasite wasp Encavsia controlled whitefly
4) introducing a pathogen virus controlled rabbit population in Australia
a)
introducing
sterile males mate with females but no
offspring is produced
G) using pheromones chemicals used to attract insects for mating
used to attract them to traps
② Fish farming : -

of
-

Fish is a
good source protein

demands fish food

Aquaculture is
meeting the for as
supply
-

-
Fish are kept in densely stocked tanks or enclosures or sea cages

Advantages :
.

1- Water
quality can be monitored

temperature
levels
oxygen
water clarity
amount of chlorophyll →
large concentration warns about algal bloom

2- Some conditions can be modified

Air is pumped to raise

oxygen
levels
water is filtered to remove waste products of fish

3- Diet of fish is carefully controlled in its quality &

frequency of feeding
4- Pesticides are used to kill
parasites

5- Fish are
protected from predators to prevent interspecific predation
G- Small fish may be eaten by larger members of their own species ,

fish and placed in different cages

so are
regularly sorted by size
to
prevent intraspecific predation
carried
7- Selective
breeding programmes
are out to
improve quality of lists

faster growth AND

to
produce
be more Placid Kless aggressive)
•

Disadvantages :
-

1- Risk of disease than normal because animals

is
higher are so
close together → Antibiotics are used to control disease . .

2- Antibiotics may not have degraded by time fish are eaten which
adds of antibiotic resistance
to
problem in bacteria .
3- Pollution problem : -

organic materials from animal faeces I food pellets contaminate

•

water outside fish farm & causes eutrophication

-
Pesticides used to kill parasites may be harmful to harmless
of invertebrates
species
.

4- has a negative effect on wild fish stocks

species are fed with pellets

carnivorous made from other
wild fish species .

They need to eat several kilograms of wild fish to produce

1
kilogram of farmed fish .
 Ad) Human influence on the
environment

Pollution . contamination of environment by harmful substances produced

by activities of human

① Air pollution in
Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Methane Sulfur dioxide
•
• •
•

•
Carbon dioxide and global warming:
.

Coal
-
Carbon dioxide is produced by burning fossil fuels f-oil
/ Natural gas
Diesel k petrol
in car
engines
-
It 's made worse
by cutting trees

Harm contributes enhanced effect & global

→ to
greenhouse warming

Greenhouse effect : .

-
It's
important to trap heat from sun and to keep life as

we know it .

Short radiation reaches

wavelength IR earth from the
-

sun .

Some
energy is absorbed so long ,
wavelength IR is reflected .

Some escapes atmosphere and some is

,
absorbed
by greenhouse
gases I remitted carbon dioxide
Methane
-

Greenhouse gases -
- Nitrous oxides

\ Chlorofluorocarbons
water
vapour
CFCs)

cos produced by [above ]

CH
, tater]
Nitrous oxides vehicle exhausts

CFCs fridges ,
spray cans ,
foams for packaging ,
 Global warming /enhanced greenhouse effect) :
-
Humans are
polluting atmosphere with extra greenhouse gases .

-
This is
causing a rise in Earth 's temperature ( global warming) .

Consequences : -

1) Polar would melt levels will

ice
caps ; sea rise

2) A would
change in main ocean currents result in

warm water
flowing to
previously cooler areas .

3) A change inrainfall patterns As temp rise more

global .
.

water will evaporate from surface of the sea leading

to more water vapour in
atmosphere .
Some areas

will experience more rainfall and others will

experience
less .

Long-term climate changes will occur -

4) could change the nature of many ecosystems .

Species that can't migrate quickly enough or

adapt
quickly enough might go
extinct .

5) changes in
farming practices would be
necessary
some
pests may become more abundant as high
temp . causes them to complete their lifecycle quickly

•
Methane : .CH,

organic gas
-

produced when ferment larger molecules

micro-organisms
-

-
Sources : '

Decomposition of buried the

waste in
ground Handbill sites)

fermentation by microorganisms in the gut of cattle

fermentation by bacteria in rice

fields
-
It's a
greenhouse gas with effect similar to CQ
molecule
Each has greater greenhouse effect than CQ
*
a
•
Carbon monoxide : -
•

-
When substances containing carbon burn in limited supply of oxygen ,

carbon monoxide is,

produced .

(when petrol & diesel are burnt in vehicle

engines)

-
It's dangerous because it's tasteless odourless & colourless , and
,
can

be fatal .

Haemoglobin binds with carbon monoxide more

tightly than with
oxygen .

-
so if a
person inhales carbon monoxide for a period of time ,

more haemoglobin will bind with carbon monoxide so haemoglobin ,

and
oxygen can't be transported
can't bind to to
oxygen
body cells .

Soon ,
heart & brain
stop working , person loses consciousness and
eventually dies

•
Sulfur dioxide : -

-
It's an
important pollutant & forms when fossil fuels burn
It combines with water in air
forming acid rain
-
-

b sulfur dioxide & nitrous oxides dissolve in rain water forming

mixture of acids lthsoa + HNO,)
acidifies soil slowing down growth of trees
Acid ✓ acidifies bacteria & fish changing ecosystem
killing
-

rain lakes
kills conifers
② Water pollution : -

sewage
-
- Minerals from fertilisers (eutrophication)

Sewage:
• -

-
This is wet waste from houses, factories and farms
-
In developed countries , sewage from factories
& farms are separated from
sewage of household .

from contain wastewater from kitchens & bathrooms

Sewage houses
-

dissolved organic b inorganic compounds as soap

human urine & faeces
-
It 's carried in
pipes , treated and discharged
-
If sewage is discharged untreated :

•
Bacteria break down organic materials and use
oxygen
dissolved in water as
they do so .

Drop in
oxygen levels kills many freshwater insects and
fish .
Only species adapted to live in anaerobic conditions would survive .

•
Untreated
sewage contains pathogenic bacteria that 's dangerous
for human health .

Eutrophication : -

-
It's referred to as a situation where large amount of nutrients
enter a
body of water .

-
The nutrients in this case is mineral ions .

from inorganic
from untreated
or treated fertilisers
sewage

-
Nitrates are
very soluble in water
-

They're washed out of the soil by (

rain this is called teaching) -

1) Minerals stimulate rapid growth of algae (algal bloom) .

2) Algae die and are

decomposed by aerobic bacteria Bacteria .
uses
in water
up oxygen .

Algae blocks light from underwater plants causing further

decrease in
oxygen
 3)This causes fish & other aerobic animals to die .

* Eutrophication is less likelyto happen if farmers use manure (organic

fertilisers . These are less soluble so ,
are less likely to be leeched
quickly .

⑤ Deforestation : -

-
Rainforests form a belt around Earth at the equator .

They have very high biodiversity

-
-

they're being humans to build houses & farms

removed by
-
this is a
consequence of the rising population of humans .

Much of the cutting is done by " slash and burn methods this
"
-

adds to global warming .

-
Also , removing trees adds more to global warming .

Consequences of deforestation: .

1) adds to global warming because trees are cut down ,

so co,
is not absorbed .

2) destroyed and reduced biodiversity Rainforests

habitat .
are home
to millions of species of plants and animals .

3) reduced soil quality no trees to return minerals to soil when

they
die and no roots to keep soil together (soil erosion)

4) soil is
exposed due to lack of
canopy .
It may be blown
or washed away to rise water levels
rivers
causing in
and floods -

Heading)
5) produce climate change ; trees play a role in water cycle
by returning water from soil to air through transpiration .

wwater cycle is upset (disturbance . of evapotranspiration )

 6) undiscovered drugs & crop plants may
be lost with
deforestation

Reforestation are carried out and farmers are financially supported to

leave farms in rainforests