CHAPTER 6

NON-FLOWERING PLANTS (continuation)

Definition of terms:

Gametophyte - the gamete-producing and usually haploid phase, producing the zygote from which the
sporophyte arises. It is the dominant form in bryophytes.

Sporophyte - the asexual and usually diploid phase, producing spores from which the gametophyte arises.
It is the dominant form in vascular plants, e.g. the frond of a fern.

Embryo - refers to the early developmental stage of eukaryotic organisms following the fertilization of an egg
(derived from a female) by sperm (derived from a male) as a method of sexual reproduction.

Zygote - as a fertilized, diploid, eukaryotic cell that carries an organism's blueprint for continuing the
species. The zygote forms when a male gamete fertilizes a female gamete.
1.1. Gymnosperms
At Sequoia National Park in California are the
largest plants on Earth – giant sequoia trees. One tree,
name General Sherman, stands 84 meters tall and has a
trunk 31 meters around. Its bark is over a meter thick!
This giant tree grew from a seed much smaller than a
pencil eraser. A seed is actually a plant embryo and a
food supply surrounded by a protective coat.
Any plant that produces seeds but does not
form flowers is classified as a gymnosperm. Like ferns,
gymnosperms are vascular plants with true roots, stems, Fig. 1.1. Germination of seed
and leaves. Most gymnosperms are trees or shrubs that live
many years. A giant sequoia is a gymnosperm. So are the bristlecone pine and spruce trees.

1.1.1. Conifers
Like most people, you have probably collected many different kinds of pine cones. A cone is a
reproductive structure with overlapping scales made by many kinds of gymnosperms. A gymnosperm that
has needle-like leaves and produces seeds in cones is called a conifer. Conifers make up the largest and
most widespread group of gymnosperms. Pines, spruces, firs, and sequoias are examples of conifers.
 Fig. 1.1.1. Conifer Life Cycle
1.1.2. Conifer adaptation
Over millions of years, conifers have evolved and adapted to many different environments. Today,
they form dense forests in cold, northern regions. They grow on windy mountainsides. They thrive in dry
areas or where water is frozen most of the year. What adaptations allow conifers to survive in these harsh
environments?
First, conifers have pointed leaves called needles. Needles have a thick cuticle that protects them
from freezing or drying out. The needles’ narrow shape reduces their surface from drying out. The needles’
narrow shape reduces their surface area, which helps save water. Second, most conifers are evergreens.
So their needles make food throughout the year. Finally, many conifers grow large taproots that collect water
deep underground.
All conifers have woody stems. Recall that a woody stem produces xylem in layers. The xylem
strengthens and supports the stem. This makes it possible for a giant sequoia to ports the stem. This makes
it possible for a giant sequoia to reach its enormous size. What covers and protects the stem?
1.1.2.1. Conifer Uses
Conifers are important for many reasons. They supply 90% of the world’s paper and 75%
of the world’s lumber. Products such as turpentine, varnish, and rayon are made from conifers. Wood
from conifers is burned as fuel. Animals use conifers for food and shelter.

1.1.3. Pine Life Cycle

Have you ever noticed cones on the ground near a pine tree? If so, the cones were probably female
cones. But pines also make male cones. You can see the difference between the two types of cones in the
picture. Male cones, which are very small, grow in clusters at the ends of branches. The male cones form
pollen, a fine powder that produces sperm. Most pollen looks like yellow dust. Notice that the female cones
are made of large, overlapping scales. Each scale of a young female cone has two ovules near its base. An
ovule is a reproductive structure that produces one or more eggs. The ovule surrounds and protects the eggs.
 Fig. 1.1.3. Pine Life Cycle

In spring, male cones release pollen into the air. Pollen grains, each with tiny wing-like parts, are
dispersed by wind. The pollen from one pine tree is usually carried to other pine trees. When pollen from a
male cone lands on a young female cone, pollination occurs. Pollination is the transfer of pollen from a male
reproductive structure to a female reproductive structure.
Once a pollen grain lands on a female cone, it slides down between the scales and gets caught in a
sticky substance produced by an ovule. The pollen grain produces a tube, which grows to an egg in the ovule.
The pollen tube usually takes more than a year to reach the egg. Once it does, a sperm travels through the
tube and fertilizes the egg. Thus, the sperm fertilizes the egg without water. The fertilized egg or zygote,
divides by mitosis and grows into an embryo. The ovule develops into a seed. With the evolution of the seed
which occurred about 360 million years ago, plants could reproduce in drier environments.

1.1.4. Pine Seed and Dispersal

The picture below shows the parts of a pine seed. Find the embryo, food supply, and seed coat food
supply nourishes the embryo. The seed coat is a tough outer covering that protects the seed. When the
seeds in a cone mature, the cone opens and releases the seeds.
This happens during the autumn of the second year after pollination. The seeds of most conifers
have wings and are dispersed by wind. But animals disperse the seeds of conifers too. Birds and squirrels
collect the seeds and hide them away to eat later. Sometimes they never return for the seeds.
A pine seed dispersed away from its parent plant can survive harsh conditions. The food supply
continues to nourish the embryo. The seed coat protects the seed from extreme weather conditions. Once
the seed germinates, the food supply supports the young plant until it produces food on its own.
Thus, the seed is like a "life capsule" that develops into a new pine tree. This picture summarizes
the life cycle of a pine. Study the drawing carefully. Why does pollination always occur before fertilization?
 Fig. 1.1.4. Pine Seed Dispersal

1.1.5. Other Gymnosperms

Imagine you are a scientist studying unusual
gymnosperms around the world. You have travelled to the
deserts of Africa to study a plant named Welwitschia [well wit'
shēa]. Welwitschia belongs to a group of gymnosperms called
gnetophytes [në tõ fīts]. Welwitschia produces just two leaves
during its entire lifetime of 100 years or more.

Next, you journey to China to study "living fossils," or Fig. 1.1.5. Ginkgo trees
ginkgo [gin' kõ] trees. Scientists who once thought that
ginkgoes were extinct, later discovered ginkgoes growing in China. Chinese monks had planted ginkgoes
around their temples for centuries. A ginkgo is shown in the picture below. Today ginkgoes are planted in
American cities because they are not affected by air pollution. Finally, you travel to Mexico to study its cycad
[sī' kad] trees. The cycads, which have scaly bark and feathery leaves, remind you of small palm trees. But
unlike palms, the cycads have cones. Cycads grow in warm climates throughout the world.
 CHAPTER 7

FLOWERING PLANTS

Definition of terms:

Angiosperms - are vascular plants. They have stems, roots, and leaves. Unlike gymnosperms such as
conifers and cycads, angiosperm's seeds are found in a flower.

Evolution - is the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the
process of natural selection
1.1. Angiosperms
Suppose you had to list ten plants that you could
identify. What plants would you list? Your list might include
roses, dandelions, sunflowers, or tulips. Like many people,
you probably identify plants by their flowers. Plants that
produce flowers are called angiosperms [an je a sperms].
Angiosperms are the most well-known group of plants on
Earth.

1.1.1. Characteristics of Angiosperms

Like gymnosperms, all angiosperms reproduce by
making seeds. But unlike gymnosperms, angiosperms Fig. 1.1. Angiosperm
produce their seeds in flowers. A flower is the reproductive structure of an angiosperm. As the seeds in a
flower mature, part of the flower develops into a fruit, such as an apple or peach. A fruit is a structure that
covers and protects the seeds of an angiosperm. Therefore, an angiosperm has covered seeds, whereas a
gymnosperm has uncovered seeds.
You will learn more about flowers and fruits later in this chapter. In addition to their flowers, seeds,
and fruits, angiosperms share other common characteristics. They have roots, stems, and leaves. Some
angiosperms, such as carrots and beets, have taproots. Others, such as oats and barley, have fibrous roots.
Geraniums and tomato plants are angiosperms with herbaceous stems. Oak and hickory trees are
angiosperms with woody stems. Most angiosperms, including palm trees, dandelions, and crabgrass, have
broad leaves.
1.1.2. Origin and Success of Angiosperms
Fossils show that angiosperms appeared on Earth about 130 million years ago. Since that time,
angiosperms have become the most successful plants on Earth. There are more species of angiosperms than
any other group of plants.
1.1.2.1. Evolution of Angiosperms
Look at the evolutionary tree in the picture below. Notice that angiosperms evolved from a
gymnosperm ancestor. Scientists hypothesize that this gymnosperm ancestor was a shrub-like plant
that is now extinct. Angiosperms and gymnosperms share many major characteristics. Both groups of
plants have stems that contain xylem and phloem. Also, both groups make pollen and re-produce by
making seeds. These similarities indicate a close evolutionary relationship. However, as angiosperms
evolved, they developed their own special adaptations that distinguish them from gymnosperms.
 Fig. 1.1.2.1. Angiosperm Evolution
1.1.2.2. Angiosperm Adaptations
Angiosperms have many adaptations that are important to their success. First, flowers,
seeds, and fruits enable angiosperms to reproduce in a variety of environments. Flowering plants
grow in deserts, rainforests, arctic regions, and lakes. Second, angiosperms have vascular tissue
that is very specialized. This adaptation strengthens their stems and speeds up the transport of food
and water. Third, angiosperms conserve water during dry periods by shedding their leaves. This is
an adaptation to times of little rainfall. Finally, some angiosperms produce special chemicals that kill
other plants, fight disease, or repel plant-eating animals.

1.1.3. Importance of Angiosperms

Angiosperms play an important part in your daily life. Some of the most important ang1osperms are
grasses. For example, the rice plant is a member of the grass family. It provides food for millions of people all
over the world. Breads, cereals, and pasta are made from wheat, corn, and other grasses. Of course you eat
parts of other flowering plants such as tomatoes, peas, lettuce, and cucumbers. You also use angiosperms
to flavor your food. Herbs and spices, such as cinnamon, pepper, mustard, and dill, come from angiosperms.
Flowering plants such as maple, oak, ash, and cherry trees are an important source of lumber. The
lumber is used to build cabinets and furniture. The same types of lumber are used to make sports equipment.
Can you name a few examples?
You would probably have fewer clothes without angiosperms. Cotton from cotton plants is used to
make jeans, shirts, and socks. Cotton is also used in curtains, towels, and sheets. Fibers from other
angiosperms are found in carpets, burlap sacks, and canvas tents.
A variety of other useful products are made from flowering plants. These products include bus and
airplane tires, cooking oils, natural dyes, and paper supplies. Cosmetics, soaps, and perfumes contain
ingredients taken from angiosperms.
Finally, flowering plants supply food, shelter, and oxygen for squirrels, deer, birds, and other animals.
They make up parks and forests that people use for picnics, hiking, and camping. They also add beauty to
our houses and yards.