CHAPTER 11

SEAWEEDS

Definition of terms:

Biomass - the total mass of organisms in a given area or volume.

Benthic - of, relating to, or occurring at the bottom of a body of water.

Buoyant - able or apt to stay afloat or rise to the top of a liquid or gas.

Aquaculture - the culture of aquatic animals or the cultivation of aquatic plants for food.

1.1. Introduction

Algae are a large and diverse group of simple plant like organisms ranging from unicellular to
multicellular forms. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds. Seaweeds are a
group of macroscopic marine algae that form the biomass in the intertidal zone and the term seaweeds
and sea vegetables are used interchangeably. Seaweeds are multicellular and macrothallic. Seaweeds
are salt water tolerant, land dependent plants growing almost exclusively at narrow interface where
land and sea meet. They are photosynthetic and must be firmly attached to a stratum to stay in the
photic zone where they can receive sufficient sunlight.

Seaweeds are also called the benthic marine algae which just mean attached algae that live in
the sea. Seaweeds are macrophytic algae, a primitive type of plants lacking true roots, stems and leaves.
Most seaweeds belong to one of the three divisions namely Chlorophyta (green algae), Phaeophyta
(brown algae) and Rhodophyta (red algae). There are about 900 species of green seaweed, 4000 red
species and 1500 brown species found in nature. A large variety of red and green seaweeds are found in
subtropical and tropical waters, while brown seaweeds are more common in cooler and temperate
waters.

1.2. Anatomy and physiology

Macroalgae come in a great many varieties. Some of the larger ones have complex structures
with special tissues that provide support or transport nutrients and the products of photosynthesis;
others are made up of cells that are all virtually identical. The smallest seaweeds are only a few
millimeters or centimeters in size, while the largest routinely grow to a length of 30 to 50 meters.
Seaweed cells also come in different sizes; in many species they can measure one centimeter or more.
These large cells can contain several cell nuclei and organelles in order to ensure that the production of
proteins is sufficient to sustain the function of the cell and the rapid growth of the seaweed as a whole.

Most species of seaweeds have soft tissues but some are, to a greater or lesser degree, calcified,
an example being calcareous red algae. The growth of the calcium layer is precisely controlled by the
polysaccharides that are present on their cell walls.

Seaweeds, especially the brown algae, are generally made up of three distinctly recognizable
parts. At the bottom there is a root-like structure, the holdfast, which, as the name implies, secures the
organism to its habitat. It is usually joined by a stipe (or stem) to the leaf-like blades. The seaweed can
have one or more blades, and the blades can have different shapes. In some cases, the blades have a
distinct midrib. Photosynthesis takes place primarily in the blades and it is, therefore, important that the
stipe is long enough to place them sufficiently close to the surface of the water to reach the light. Some
species have air-filled bladders, a familiar sight on bladder wrack, which ensure their access to light by
holding them upright in the water. These bladders can be up to 15 centimeters in diameter. Because
brown algae are so much like plants, they are often confused with them. Principal component of
seaweeds are carbohydrates, small quantities of protein and fat, ash and water. They contain 80–90 %
water and their dry weight basis contains 50 % carbohydrates, 1–3 % lipids, and 7–38 % minerals.
 1.2.1. Body parts of a seaweed:
a. Holdfasts - Attach seaweeds to the sea floor.
A holdfast is not necessary for water and
nutrient uptake, but is needed as an anchor.
b. Stipe - The stalk or stem of seaweed. The
function of the stipe is to support the rest of
the plant.
c. Blades - The leaves of seaweeds. The main
function of the blades is to provide a large
surface for the absorption of sunlight.
d. Floats or pneumatocysts - Hollow, gas-filled
structures that help to keep the
photosynthetic structures of the seaweed
buoyant so they are able to absorb energy
from the sun.
e. Thallus - Refers to the entire plant body of a
seaweed.
Fig. 1.2.1. Seaweed Structure
1.3. Classification

1.3.1. Chlorophyta (green algae) - Abundant in freshwater but widely distributed in oceans
especially in tropical waters. Only 10% are found in marine. The colors of Chlorophyta range
from Green to Orange. The orange color is due to Carotenoids which form the Accessory
Pigments for this Division. Their photosynthetic pigments are Similar to those of Vascular Plants.
Chlorophyll a, b are typically present along with a, b Carotene plus Xanthophylls. The cell wall is
very similar to that of terrestrial plants because its main components are Cellulose & Pectins.
Some species deposit Calcium Carbonate in their walls.

A B

C D F

Fig. 1.3.1. Pictures (a) to (f) are as follows; Enteromorpha (Sea lettuce), Eucheuma (Guso), Halimeda
(calcified green algae), Caulerpa (Sea grapes or Lato), Ulva (Sea lettuce).

1.3.2. Phaeophyta (brown algae) - Almost entirely marine. They contain accessory
pigment called fucoxanthin. Also, it includes the largest and most complex seaweed.
Sargassum contains totally free-floating species with no requirement for attachment
1.3.2.1. Kelp - This is the most common and complex of all brown algae.
 They are considered as the largest among all seaweeds. Also,
they are capable of growing up to 50cm per day under optimal
condition.

A B C

Fig. 1.3.2. Picture A to C are as follows; Laminara (Kelp), Macrocystis (Kelp), Sargassum (brown algae)

1.3.3. Rhodophyta (red algae) – These seaweeds are found in tropical waters but are
also abundant in cold oceans. They are the primary source of agar and carrageenan.
Also, they contain red pigments called phycobilins. They have the greatest economic
value although the brown algae are becoming important.

A B C

Fig. 1.3.3. Picture A to C are as follows; Gracilaria, Porphyra (black algae), Kappaphycus alvarezii

1.3.4. Life cycle

The life history of algae is complicated, and this is what really differentiates them from plants. In
fact, macroalgae can pass through life stages so distinct that, in the past, they have been mistaken for
separate species. Seaweed reproduction can involve either exclusively sexual or asexual phases, while
some species display an alternation of generations that involves both in succession. In the former, the
seaweed produces gametes (egg and sperm cells) with a single set of chromosomes and, in the latter,
spores containing two sets of chromosomes. Some species can also reproduce asexually by
fragmentation—that is, the blades shed small pieces that develop into completely independent
organisms.

Asexual reproduction allows for fast propagation of the species but carries with it an inherent
danger of limited genetic variation. Sexual reproduction ensures better genetic variation, but it leaves
the species that depend on this method of reproduction with an enormous match-making problem, as
the egg and sperm cells need to find each other in water that is often turbulent.
 Fig. 1.4. Seaweeds Life Cycle

Some species solve the match-making problem by equipping the reproductive cells with light-
sensitive eyespots or with flagella so that they can swim. Others make use of chemical substances,
known as pheromones or sex attractants. These are secreted and released by egg cells and serve to
attract the sperm. Some species (for example, the large seaweed masses in the Sargasso Sea) secrete
enormous quantities of slime, which ensures that the egg and sperm cells stick close to each other and
do not go astray.

The red alga Porphyra has an especially complicated life cycle, with a fascinating aspect that
merits further discussion because of the interesting history associated with its discovery. It relates
directly to the cultivation of Porphyra for the production of nori, which is especially widely used in
Japanese cuisine—most familiarly, as for the wrapping for maki rolls.

The blades used in nori production grow while the seaweed is in the generation that reproduces
sexually, although the organism itself can actually develop asexually from spores. The blades produce
egg cells and sperm cells. The egg cells remain on the blades, where they are fertilized by the sperm
cells. The fertilized eggs can then form a new type of spores, which are released.

Until the 1940s it was thought that this sexual stage was actually an entirely separate species of
alga, given the name Conchocelis rosea. Without an understanding of the true life cycle, it was not
possible to grow Porphyra effectively in aquaculture. No one knew where the spores for the fully
grown Porphyra originated. This was the main reason for the recurring problems experienced by the
Japanese seaweed fishers in their attempts to cultivate Porphyra in a predictable manner.