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第四章 议定赔偿(liquidated damage)

1. SAJ 有关条文

这方面在 SAJ 是 Article III 如下:


“The Contract Price shall be subject to adjustment, as hereinafter set forth, in the event of
the following contingencies (it being understood by both parties that any reduction of the
Contract Price is by way of liquidated damages and not by way of penalty):

1 Delivery:
(a) No adjustment shall be made and the Contract Price shall remain unchanged for the first
thirty (30) days of delay in delivery of the VESSEL beyond the Delivery Date as defined in
Article VII hereof (ending as of twelve o’clock midnight of the thirtieth (30th) day of delay).

(b) If the delivery of the VESSEL is delayed more than thirty (30) days after the Delivery
Date, then, in such event, beginning at twelve o’clock midnight of the thirtieth (30 th) day after
the Delivery Date, the Contract Price shall be reduced by deducting therefrom as follows:
31st—60th day ¥ … per diem
st
61 —90 day th
¥ …”
91st—120 day ¥ …”
st
121 —150 day th
¥ …”
151st—180th day ¥ …”
st
181 —210 day th
¥ …”

However, the total reduction in the Contract Price shall not be more than as would be the case
for a delay of hundred and eighty (180) days, counting from midnight of the thirtieth (30 th)
day after the Delivery Date at the above specified rate of reduction.

2 Speed:
(a) The Contract Price shall not be affected or changed by reason of the actual speed, as
determined by the trial run, being less than three—tenths (3/10) of one (1) knot in actual
speed below the guaranteed speed of the VESSEL.

(b) However, commencing with and including such deficiency of three-tenth (3/10) of one
knot in actual speed below the guaranteed speed of the VESSEL, the Contract Price shall be
reduced as follows (but disregarding fractions of one—tenth (1/10) of a knot).
For Three—tenths (3/10) of a knot … a total sum of ¥ …
For Four—tenths (4/10) of a knot … a total sum of ¥ …
For Five—tenths (5/10) of a knot … a total sum of ¥ …
For Six—tenths (6/10) of a knot … a total sum of ¥ …
For Seven—tenths (7/10) of a knot … a total sum of ¥ …
For Eight—tenths (8/10) of a knot … a total sum of ¥ …
For Nine—tenths (9/10) of a knot … a total sum of ¥ …
For One (1) knot

(c) If the deficiency in actual speed of the VESSEL upon trial run is more than one (1) full
knot below the guaranteed speed of the VESSEL, then the BUYER may, at its option, reject
the VESSEL and rescind this Contract in accordance with the provisions of Article X hereof,
or may accept the VESSEL at a reduction in the Contract Price as above provided for one (1)
full knot only, that is, at a total reduction of …

3 Fuel Consumption:
(a) The Contract Price shall not be affected or changed by reason of the fuel consumption of
the VESSEL, as determined by … trial as per the Specifications, being more than the
guaranteed fuel consumption of the VESSEL, if such excess is not more than … percent (…
%) over the guaranteed fuel consumption.

(b) However, commencing with and including an excess of … percent (… %) in the actual
fuel consumption over the guaranteed fuel consumption of the VESSEL, the Contract Price
shall be reduced by the sum of … for each full one percent (1%) increase in fuel consumption
above said … percent (… %) (fractions of one percent (1%) to be prorated) up to a maximum
of … percent (… %) over the guaranteed fuel consumption of the VESSEL.

(c) If such actual fuel consumption exceeds … percent (… %) of the guaranteed fuel
consumption of the VESSEL, the BUYER may, at its option, reject the VESSEL and rescind
this Contract in accordance with the provisions of Article X hereof, or may accept the
VESSEL at a reduction in the Contract Price as above specified for … percent (… %) only,
that is, at a total reduction of …

4 Deadweight
(a) In the event that the actual deadweight of the VESSEL as determined in accordance with
the Specifications is less than or in excess of the guaranteed deadweight of the VESSEL, the
Contract Price shall be either reduced by the sum of … for each full long ton of such
deficiency being more than … (…) long tons, up to a maximum reduction of …, or increased
by the sum of … for each full long ton of such excess being more than … (…) long tons, as
the case may be (in both cases disregarding fractions of one (1) long ton).
(b) In the event of such deficiency in the actual deadweight of the VESSEL being … (…)
long tons or more, then, the BUYER may, at its option, reject the VESSEL and rescind the
Contract in accordance with the provisions of Article X hereof or accept the VESSEL at a
reduction in the Contract Price as above provided for … (…) long tons only, that is, at a total
reduction of …

5 Effect of Rescission
It is expressly understood and agreed by the parties hereto that in any case, if the BUYER
rescinds this Contract under this Article, the BUYER shall not be entitled to any liquidated
damages.”

在 NEWBUILDCON,有关条文是在第 8 至 13 条文,只去在此节录第 12 与 13 条文,前


者是针对船舶如果有其他特殊技术要求(例如集装箱数目或拖车空间数目等),交的
船舶有缺陷的话,一样适合以议定赔偿去针对而不必对真正的损失作出猜测与争议。而
第 13 条文是针对延误交船,本质上与 SAJ 条文一致。条文如下:
“12. Other Deficiencies(optional clause)
NOTE: This clause has been left blank intentionally to allow the parties to insert, where
appropriate, a liquidated damages provision deficiencies in any special technical requirements
for a particular vessel type and specified by the parties in Box 4E and Box 17. (See also
Clause 39 (a)(viii)).
13. Late Delivery for non-permissible delays
If delivery takes place more than 30 days after the Delivery Date then for each day thereafter
the Contract Price shall be reduced by the amount stated in Box 18 per day as liquidated
damages up to a maximum delay of 180 days (comprising a 30 day grace period plus 150
days).”

2. 议定赔偿的介绍

议定赔偿在造船合约是十分普遍的做法,它通常是去针对两种经常会发生的情况。
(一)是晚了约定交船的日期,这就会去约定每一天的延误要支付多少固定的一笔钱。
(二)是针对船厂对所造船舶的一些主要规范说明达不到约定的标准,比如是船速,
耗油量,载重量,船舱容积等。这种约定会是如船速慢了半节,船价要扣减 5%。

本来在普通法,受害方可去向违约方索赔损失是默示的地位,根本不必去说明。但怎样
去计算或是证明真正损失在有一些违约是十分不容易,而且经常会导致昂贵的诉讼。这
种真正的损失说不准是多少,大原则是只要违约引起的损失类别不是在订约的时候不
可以合理预见(Hadley v Baxendale [1854] 9 Exch 341),以及违约与造成损失类别之
间的因果关系(causation)之间没有中断,都可以计算在内以求将受害人回复到一个
合约没有被违反的地位。所以,真正损失可被称为是“非议定赔偿”( unliquidated
damage)。

一般在合约中,针对一些计算真正损失不容易,但又经常会发生的违约,订约双方就
会为了省事,先去约定议定赔偿。这样将来就算出了争议也可以局限在责任方面的而不
必在损失计算方面加添麻烦。反之,针对一些不经常会发生的违约,甚至加上了计算损
失相对容易的因素,就不存在要在订约的时候去约定议定赔偿了。

以程租合约(voyage charter)为例,议定赔偿的做法就是滞期费(demurrage),因为
承租人超出了固定的装卸时间导致违约是经常会发生的事情。但程租合约其他的违约,
例如船东晚了交船或疏忽造成货损货差,或是承租人短装了货物,等,就会以个别不
同的违约去计算与证明真正损失。毕竟在这种千变万化的违约下,订约的时候即使估计
会发生也难以估计违约程度的严重性,难以去约定一笔划唯一的议定赔偿。

在造船合约,交船延误如果是根据船东真正损失,也就是非议定赔偿,就会对船厂而
言带来相当大的不稳定。有可能在交船的时候,航运市场低迷,加上船东还没有找到下
一个租约,反正接了船也是要去抛老锚或待命,就表示船厂的延误交船也没有对船东
造成任何真正的损失。但也会是另一个极端,就是交船的时候航运市场高涨,早日交船
可以替船东带来很大的利润损失。更不用说是今天在计算损失的法律看来是在放宽或是
有一点不稳定,例如刚在贵族院判的 The “Achilleas” (2007) 2 Lloyd’s Rep 555,就是去
推翻了高院与上诉庭的判决。它是一个 5-7 个月的期租,并后来去再续期 5-7 个月,租
金是每天 16,750 美元。反正,可计算出来的还船最后日子(terminal redelivery date)是
2004 年 5 月 2 日。在这一天之前之 4 月 20 日,承租人给了还船通知说是在 4 月 30 日至
5 月 2 日之间。这一来,船东就去在市场订下下一个 4-6 个月的期租,租金是每天
39,500 美元,而销约期是 5 月 8 日。可以说如果承租人能准时在 5 月 2 日还船,赶得及
下一个租约的销约期可以说是绰绰有余。但最终船舶是在 5 月 11 日才在日本的大分港
(Oita)卸清了煤炭并去还船给船东。这一来超出或延迟的时间是 9 天,与市场租金的
差价去比较损失应是 158,301.17 美元。但实际上船东的损失远不止此数,这是因为延迟
至 5 月 11 日还船就错过了下一个租约的 5 月 8 日销约期,而当时市场租金急剧下挫,
这导致了船东最终被下一个租约承租人压价才保住了这份租约。这压的价是从原先订下
的 39,500 美元变为 31,500 美元,等于每天损失 8,000 美元。这去乘以至少 4 个月的租约
期,船东真正的损失就变成了 1,364,584.37 美元。这笔庞大的损失起初被高院与上诉庭
支持,但最终被贵族院改变过来,判是根据市场租金的差价作为损失计算。这一个先例
与造船合约有关的地方就是船厂交船如果发生延误,即使是只有几天时间,也会有危
险会带来船东庞大的损失,因为他可能因此而错过下一个租约的销约期。但船厂不必担
心,除了贵族院的判决外,就是双方对交船延误几乎一定会约定议定赔偿。
同样在船厂对新造船舶的保证例如是航速,如果她慢了半节,这对将来可能要把该船
舶营运 20 年的船东带来真正的损失会是难以计算,甚至难以去作出粗略的估计,因为
期间船舶会停停开开或去出售,带来双方很大的争议。也会是,根据英国 1979《货物销
售法》Section 50 (3):“Where there is an available market for the goods in question the
measure of damage is prima facie to be ascertained by the difference between the contract
price and the market or current price at the time or times when the goods ought to have been
accepted or (if no time was fixed for acceptance) at the time of the refusal to accept. ”,即
著名的“breach date rule”,损失计算是以违约当天的市场价格与合约价格的差价作为
受害方的损失。以这种方法计算也会对船东带来不稳定或不足够,例如是一艘巴拿马型
船舶,船速是 15.75 节或 15.25 节在一个高昂的船舶买卖市场恐怕没有太大的价格上的
分别。而如果换了是一些没有市场的船舶,例如是特殊的船型,更加不适用这一种损失
计算方法。所以,又是在订约的时候约定议定赔偿可以更好地解决损失计算的问题。

对一些中国船厂来说,交船延误是家常便饭。除了各种因素外,在 2008 年中开始据报


道部分船厂也面对资金短缺的情况,从而导致更长的延误。这一来他们也会无可避免地
面对庞大金额的议定赔偿(索赔是有 6 年时效)。但样样事情都有好的一面也有坏的一
面,外国船东有说法是中国船厂大批延误交船令航运市场的好景会相应延长。

3. 议定赔偿的好处

去总结,造船合约中去约定议定赔偿的好处有以下几种:
(一)它可以很大程度上减少计算与证明真正损失的麻烦与费用,特别是一些非常复
杂 、 困 难 与 经 常 发 生 的 违 约 : Clydebank Engineering & Shipbuilding Co. v. Don Jose
Yzquierdo y Castaneda (1905) AC 6 (HL);Philips Hong Kong v. Attorney General of Hong
Kong (1993) 61 BLR 41, PC。

(二)它可以让船厂知道如果发生违约事件,他面对的赔偿责任是多少,甚至可以去
对某一些的风险作出投保。在 Widnes Foundry v Cellulose Acetate (1931) 2 KB 393, CA 中,
Scrutton 大法官说:“In many cases a man before entering in contract wishes to know for
what he is to be liable if he breaks it, and he agrees a sum payable by him in that event. That
obviously has nothing to do with figures fixed in terrorem.”

(三)在一定程度上,议定赔偿还可以去作为一种责任限制。所以在程租合约的谈判中
经常会见到承租人大力去压低滞期费,但船东大力去提高,特别是面对航次中估计会
遇上港口拥挤的情况。最后双方同意的滞期费金额则是要取决于双方谈判的力量、地位
与知识水平等等。Cellulose Acetate v. Widnes Foundry (1933) A.C. 20, HL,该案例涉及一
个建造丙酮回收的工厂,双方约定是完工日期如果被延误,承建商就要每周赔偿 20 英
镑。建造慢了 30 周,而承建商也在责任上被判是违约,但损失只限制在 600 英镑而不
是原告真正与更大的损失。看来,在造船合约下,将来要去作出支付的船厂应该在谈判
的时候与程租合约下的承租人有同样的心态,要大力去争取减低延误交船每天的赔偿
金额。而且,为了防止一些船厂不能控制的严重延误(这种延误也不一定可以去根据不
可抗力事件条文而得到允许,从而去延后交船日期,因为这是要看该条文是否写得对
船厂有利,够广泛),导致船厂要支付完全不能接受的巨额议定赔偿(比方说是船价
的一半甚至是全部),通常还会去来一个封顶(cap),就是说明在延误的议定赔偿金
额到了 150 万或者其他金额,或每天的议定赔偿累计到 180 日后,船厂就再也不必去
赔偿。至于这严重延误下船东可否去中断造船合约,这是要看其他的条文怎样规定以及
当时的船价市场,是另外一个问题。

4. 议定赔偿金额的考虑

针对延误交船,在订约时去估计损失金额多少所需要考虑的在 Clydebank Engineering &


Shipbuilding Co. v. Don Jose Yzquierdo y Castaneda (1905) AC 6 (HL) 有介绍,贵族院是
说要作出以下的考虑:
“… finding out what the ordinary use of a vessel of this size, capacity and so forth would be,
what would be the hire of such a vessel, and what would therefore be the equivalent in money
of not obtaining the use of that vessel according to the agreement during the period which had
elapsed between the time of proper delivery and the time at which it was delivered in fact.”

但这是一个古老的造船合约争议,今天去估计延误交船通常不再是去作同样的考虑,
因为航运市场波动太大,难以作出交船时候的运费市场估计。当然如果要去作出粗略的
估计,或者订造船合约的时候已经是有了租约,知道交船之后会赚多少钱,以此作为
根据约定为议定赔偿也无妨,不会被视为是惩罚性条文。今天的造船合约议定赔偿普遍
还是会去根据买方以分期付款作出了船价的预付,延误交船就会导致船东这一笔投资
需要获得补偿,也就是船东为预付融资所需要的费用与利息损失。

这是新船的造船合约,但针对改装船舶合约(conversion contract),议定赔偿的金额
又会有其他的考虑。改装船舶表示船东把一艘在市场上营运的船舶交给船厂,表示该艘
船舶一直是有盈利的机会。所以遇上延误,船东的损失最起码就是该艘船舶原来可以在
市场上赚取的租金。这表示在今天航运市场高涨但相对利息还是偏低,就会导致一艘相
似的船舶,造船合约下的议定赔偿会比改装合约下的议定赔偿金额为低。但即使是两个
不同的金额,它们都不会有任何一个被视为是惩罚性条文。

5. 针对议定赔偿的抗辩或争议

5.1 议定赔偿是否惩罚性条文
议定赔偿虽然有以上所讲的好处,但仍会面对各种抗辩或争议,而最主要与常见的抗
辩就是争议它是一条惩罚性条文因而无效,损失要以真正损失计算与证明。一种经常会
出现情况,就是要赔偿的一方声称议定赔偿定得太高,属于惩罚性条文,法律不应该
去承认或执行:Watts, Watts & Co. Ltd v. Mitsui & Co. Ltd (1917) AC 227;cf. Jobson v.
Johnson (1989) 1 WLR 1026, CA。

会造成这种情况就是在订约的时候,双方所约定的议定赔偿金额并非是一个真正损失
的估计。更明显的是,有证据显示一方为了去威胁另一方不敢去违约,而逼另一方接受
天文数字的议定赔偿,该数字是大大超出真正损失的估计。在这方面权威的说法是贵族
院的 Scandinavian Trading v. Flota Ecuatoriana (1983) 2 AC 694 中 Diplock 勋爵所说的:
“The classic form of penalty clause is one which provides that upon breach of a primary
obligation under the contract a secondary obligation shall arise on the part of the party in
breach which does not represent a genuine pre-estimate of any loss likely to be sustained by
him as the result of the breach of primary obligation but is substantially in excess of that
sum.”

另一个著名的说法是 Clarke 大法官在 Murray v. Leisurepaly (2005) EWCA Civ 963 是去


考虑议定赔偿金额与真正的损失相比是否是夸大的,不诚实与不是一个真正对损失的
估计(extravagant, unconscionable and not a genuine pre-estimate of loss)。另 Clarke 大法官
也 提 到 了 是 去 找 出 议 定 赔 偿 金 额 是 否 是 阻 吓 性 或 是 赔 偿 性 ( deterrent or
compensation)。

如果议定赔偿是低过真正损失的估计,就不存在惩罚性条文的争议,这也是较早时所
说的其可作为一种责任限制的道理。在 Widnes Foundry v. Cellulose Acetate (1931) 2 KB
393 中,上诉庭的 Scrutton 大法官说:“I find great difficulty in saying that an estimate
less than the actual loss can ever be a penalty in terrorem.”

举证责任是在声称议定赔偿属于惩罚性条文的一方,毕竟,法院通常是不会警觉议定
赔偿与惩罚性条文的分别:Robophone Facilities v. Blank (1966) 1 WLR 1428。

5.1.1 怎样去区分是否属于惩罚性条文

至于它们之间怎样去区分,一些大原则有在著名的贵族院先例 Dunlop Ltd. v. New


Garage Co. Ltd. (1915) AC 79 中 Dunedin 勋爵有说明,以下可去作其中的一些介绍:

5.1.1.1 区分原则之一:条文的标题并不重要

Though the parties to a contract who use the words “penalty” or “liquidated damages” may
prima facie be supposed to mean what they say, yet the expression used is not conclusive.
The court must find out whether the payment stipulated is in truth a penalty or liquidated
damages …

这里也体现了英国法一贯的精神,也就是重视实质内容而非标题,这与我们中国人重
视标题有所不同。在英国法下一条条文可以写作是“议定损失赔偿条文”,但实质内容
却是一条惩罚性条文:Re Newman (1876) 4 Ch.D. 724, CA;Public Works Commissioner
v. Hills (1906) AC 368, PC。反之,也可能是一条条文写作“惩罚性条文”,但被判为仅
仅是对违约损失合理估计的“议定损失赔偿条文”: Ranger v. G.W. Railway (1854) 5
HLC 72, HL ; Crux v. Aldred (1866) 14 WR 656 ; Re White (1901) 17 TLR 461, DC ;
Clydebank, etc., Co. v. Yzquierdo, etc. (1905) AC 6, HL。

5.1.1.2 区分原则之二:约定的金额比真正损失大为去威吓一方当事人不敢去违约

The essence of a penalty is payment of money (or other non-monetary rights) stipulated as in
terroem of the offending party; the essence of liquidated damages is a genuine convenanted
pre-estimate of damage.

这一个大原则已经解释过,不必再去重复。只去多提一句就是作为惩罚性条文而导致不
被法律所承认,主要就是金钱上大大超出订约时估计的真正损失,毕竟商业合约都是
针对金钱。但如果是那些非金钱的约定,有这种惩罚的味道的话,也会有同样的后果。
例如在 Jobson v. Johnson (1989) 1 WLR 1026,涉及了违约要去把财产转让作为惩罚。但
这种情况千变万化,有时候法院也要现实。例如贷款合约经常就会涉及了一条条文是如
果贷款人违约,借款人或银行会有什么合约上的救济。而这违约的定义可以是很广泛的,
例如贷款人晚了去定期还款,但也可以是许多其他方面。例如是贷款合约中针对贷款人
哪些行为属于违约,例如违犯一些规定,或是被其他债权人在法院申请要将其清盘,
又或是对船舶作为抵押品作出伤害(例如不去进行维修保养,这会导致抵押品的价值
下降,或者不投保)等等。这方面可以看在一般船舶贷款合约内的“保证契约”内的多
种违约事件,这在笔者的《船舶融资与抵押》一书第五章 4.2.1 段有详细介绍。这时作为
融资的银行其中的一个权力就可以马上把所有的贷款全部要求归还。这种所谓的“加速
还款条文”(accelerated payment)也曾经被贷款方指称为惩罚性条文。

在 The “Angelic Star” (1988) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 122,涉及船厂对船东作出的贷款,这些情


况在今天好像是不可思议,但在 70、80 年代是非常普遍的现象。因为航运低迷而造成造
船业非常不景气,而一些造船国家不论是一些老牌的西方国家或是一些新兴的造船国
家,例如是韩国、日本或巴西面对激烈的竞争下都去对自己国家的造船业作出庞大的经
济援助。它们各有各的理由,包括保护造船工业对国防很重要,或是保护劳工市场,又
或是带起自己国家其他的工业,等等。The “Angelic Star”先例就是一个典型的例子,就
是船东只需要支付船价的 20%就可以接船去航运市场营运,而余下的 80%就在接船后
分 8 年,每半年共 16 期来摊还,其中摊还的利率也是固定的。显然,没有国家的资助 ,
船厂是无法承担这种做法的,因为造船期间船厂是需要大量的资金。这样一来,造船合
约就好像船舶融资合约一样,需要各种担保,例如要船东作出个人的担保或是集团公
司作出担保,对船舶要去登记抵押权,等等。其中亦包括一条针对船东违约的情况下的
“加速还款条文”。在该 The “Angelic Star”先例,该条文是如下:
“13. The loan together with all other monies due to the Lenders by the Owners shall
immediately become payable and the Lender shall forthwith be put in funds to cover all
existing and future liability under any outstanding bills drawn in connection with the loan,
and the security for the loan and such monies shall become enforceable … if … (a) The
Owners fail to make payments of capital or interest … on due dates.”

由于船东违约,船厂向船东本人(作为担保人)提出诉讼,船东作出的抗辩就是说上
述条文是惩罚性条文,但这不被法院接受,上诉庭的 Donaldson 大法官这样说:
“Whatever the merits or demerits of this argument viewed as a whole, it depends upon the
proposition that loan condition 13 is penalty clause. This I do not accept. Clearly a clause
which provided that in the event of any breach of contract a long term loan would
immediately become repayable and that interest thereon for the full term would not only be
still payable but would be payable at once would constitute a penalty as being ‘a payment of
money stipulated as in terrorem of the offending party’ (proposition 2 in the speech of Lord
Dunedin in Dunlop Ltd. v. New Garage Co. Ltd. (1915) AC 79.) But I do not so read
condition 13. ‘The loan’ is the capital sum. ‘All other monies due to the lenders by the
owners’ cannot be construed as ‘all other monies which would otherwise become due by the
owners in the future.’ It means ‘all other monies due at the time of the happening of an event
of default’. The mere fact that the capital sum becomes immediately repayable upon a failure
to comply with the conditions upon which credit was extended cannot constitute a penalty.
The provision that the lenders shall forthwith be put under any outstanding bills drawn in
connection with the loan is intended to safeguard the shipbuilders against their potential
liability as drawers should the bills have been negotiated and the purchaser, as acceptor, fails
to honour the bills upon maturity. This again is not a penalty provision.”

在笔者看来,英国法院的这种现实的做法与长远的考虑,建立起一套对银行与金融机
构非常有利的法律环境,从而给自己带来了很大的经济利益。就拿上述例子来说,如果
这样的“加速还款条文”被判为是惩罚性条文的话,除了这一期未支付的款项,很有
可能是银行再也无法向贷款人拿到剩余但未到期的款项。因为贷款人可能面对清盘,而
其届时对银行的违约责任仅限于当时到期未付的一期款项。而有了这“加速还款条文”,
就可以因为贷款人违约而令到全部剩余的款项一并到期需要支付,而贷款人不支付就
导致了对这些所有剩余款项的违约,从而给了银行理由与诉因来追讨这些款项,趁手
中还有担保的时候一次过把欠款全数取回来。

5.1.1.3 区分原则之三:判断是否惩罚性条文是去看订约一刻的情况

The question whether a sum stipulated is penalty or liquidated damages is a question of


construction to be decided upon the terms and inherent circumstances of each particular
contract, judged of as at the time of the making of the contract, not as at the time of the
breach.

这方面也已经说过,一条条文是属于议定赔偿还是惩罚性条文,是要看在订约时候其
是否是对将来会发生的违约损失的合理估计,而不是在真正违约时候去看是否合理。因
为到了真正违约时,可能已经是订了合约的几年后,市场可能已经发生了很大的变化 ,
导致赔偿议定损失的金额相比当时的市场看来是太高与太不合理。

当然发生了违约去事后诸葛亮看看是否在订约时是一个对真正损失合的理估计也不是
说完全没有作用。因为在一些违约,导致复杂的真正损失类别,就可以出了事才回头去
看订约的时候这种损失类别是否可以合理预见,会否是在考虑之中,从而得出议定赔
偿 是 否 有 惩 罚 性 的 味 道 。 这 在 Philips Hong Kong v. Attorney-General of Hong Kong
(1993) 61 BLR 41 中所讲的:
“The fact that the issue has to be determined objectively, judged at the date the contract was
made, does not mean what happens subsequently is irrelevant. On the contrary it can provide
valuable evidence as to what could reasonably be expected to be the loss at the time the
contract was made …”

通常去挑出会可能有其中一种情况是议定损失会比真正损失高是并不足够,除非有其
他客观的因素例如是强势的订约一方逼弱势方非要接受该议定赔偿条文。这也是在
Philips Hong Kong v. Attorney-General of Hong Kong 一案所说的:
“Except possibly in the case of situation where one of the parties to the contract is able to
dominate the other as to the choice of the terms of a contract, it will normally be insufficient
to establish that a provision is objectionably penal to identify situations where the application
of the provision could result in a large sum being recovered by the injured party than his
actual loss.”

5.1.1.4 区分原则之四:其他帮助区分的考虑

To assist this task of construction various tests have been suggested, which if applicable to the
case under consideration may prove helpful, or even conclusive. Such are:
5.1.1.4.1 将来可能发生的违约最大的损失也低于约定的金额

It will be held to be a penalty if the sum stipulated for is extravagant and unconscionable in
amount in comparison with the greatest loss that could conceivably be proved to have
followed from the breach.

这里是介绍一些大原则去考验哪些情况属于惩罚性条文,而其中第一个考验也是最重
要 的 , 就 是 议 定 赔 偿 的 金 额 是 非 常 夸 大 与 过 度 的 。 这 里 又 可 以 去 举 Clydebank
Engineering & Shipbuilding Co. v Don Jose Yzquierdo y Castaneda (1905) AC 6 (HL) 的先
例,Halsbury 勋爵曾经举例说双方约定以 50 英镑造房子,1 年内完工,如果做不到就
要支付 100 万英镑作为惩罚,这就是明显的惩罚性条文。他说:
“if you agreed to build a house in a year, and agreed that if you did not build the house for
£50, you were to pay a million of money as a penalty, the extravagance of that would become
at once apparent. Between such an extreme case as I have supposed and other cases, a great
deal must depend on the nature of the transaction—the thing to be done, the loss likely to
accrue to the person who is endeavouring to enforce the performance of the contract, and so
forth.”

上述是一个极端的例子,很容易可以看到是该惩罚性条文,但遇上比较模棱两可的例
子就不是这么容易掌握,而且判法也不会稳定。在上述的例子也要说明是合约的标的或
对价与议定赔偿的金额也不是有必然的关系。甚至是没有关系,因为对价会只是名义上
的,例如是一块钱,但这种合约如果双方去作出承诺并约定在违约的时候要作出议定
赔偿,这是完全不会受只有一块钱对价的影响。又例如,一个收费十分廉宜的工程去建
造一个展览场地,而且时间上非常急迫,如果不能准时完工就会带来很大的真正损失。
这一来,双方约定了一个高昂的议定赔偿针对工程延误,而相对工程的费用并不高。结
果因为工程延误了一段很短的时间,议定赔偿超出了工程的费用,但这并不表示这议
定赔偿是一条惩罚性条文。

5.1.1.4.2 对纯金钱债务约定比债务更高的赔偿金额

It will be held to be a penalty if the breach consists only in not paying a sum of money, and
the sum stipulated is a sum greater than the sum which ought to have been paid.

这是另一个考验有关议定赔偿是否惩罚性条文,它是去针对一种违约就是晚了支付一
笔钱。认为这种条文无效是因为这种违约的真正损失是完全知道,就是该付的这笔钱。
所以再去约定另一个金额更高的议定赔偿就很明显是惩罚性条文了。

另一方面,银行为了避免贷款人延迟还钱,可以与贷款人在合约中约定迟付款的利息
为伦敦同业拆放利率(London Interbank Offered Rate 或简称 LIBOR)或最优惠利率
(prime rate)+3%(为例),这种条文不能说是惩罚性条文。虽然它比一般仲裁或者法
院判的利率为高(一般是 prime+1%),毕竟,每个人的融资成本或机会成本都不一样,
以较高利息向银行、母公司或者是其他第三者借贷的情况经常发生,但是到了一个程度
是如果该约定的利息百分比订得太高的话就会变成是惩罚性条文,当然分水线并不是
那么容易掌握。一个明显的例子是有传言说香港甘泉航空公司在 2008 年 4 月发生经济
困难与在清盘之前曾向一位香港首富借贷,其中规定要支付的利息高达 40%,这就几
乎肯定是惩罚性条文了。

5.1.1.4.3 对于大小及严重程度不一的多种违约约定一个单一的赔偿金额

There is a presumption (but no more) that it is penalty when “a single lump sum is made
payable by way of compensation, on the occurrence of one or more or all of several events,
some of which may occasion serious and others but trifling damage.” (Lord Elphinstone v.
Monkland Iron and Coal Co. [1886] 11 App. Cas 332, HL)

举一个例子是,在一个建造合约中,除了约定一般的延误一星期要赔偿的一笔金额外 ,
还有一条文规定如果该承包商不能按时履行所有的合约规定项目的话就要给雇主一笔
议定赔偿金额的 10,000 英镑,这后面的规定被判是一条惩罚性条文:Re Newman, ex p.
Capper (1876) 4 Ch. D 724;Cooden Engineering Co. Ltd v Stanford (1953) 1 QB 86, CA。
这等于在该条文下不能按时履行的合约规定项目即使只是一粒螺丝,承包商也要赔偿
雇主 10,000 英镑。换言之,不能按时履行的所有项目会是有很多,有大有小,都去要承
包商在许多小的项目支付 10,000 英镑就会是惩罚性了。加上,大小事项,不论严重与否,
都去约定要违约的承包商赔偿 10,000 英镑,本身就显示了双方没有在订约时去估计或
者想过不同事项下的违约会带来的真正损失。所以,就有了假设这种条文本质上是惩罚
性的。此外,如果同一个建造合约其条文约定为当承包商不能在约定的日子前履行合约,
要支付雇主 200 英镑加上延误一星期要支付 5 英镑,这被判是议定赔偿条文,因为这
些金额是基于同一件事情(就是工程延误)而支付的: Law v Redditch Local Board
(1892) 1 QB 127, CA;Pye v British Automobile Commercial Syndicate (1906) 1 KB. 425;
Robophone Facilities Ltd v Blank (1966) 1 WLR 1428, CA。

这里也可以去举一个造船合约的上诉庭先例 Cenargo Ltd v Empresa Nacional Bazan de


Construcciones Navales Militares SA (2002) EWCA Civ 524,案情部分是关系到一个船厂
(Astilleros)的保证就是该建造的滚装渡轮可容纳 146 辆长 13 米的拖车,但所交的船
舶由于甲板内的局限导致船东(Cenargo)声称少了 6 辆拖车的空间。该造船合约针对
这一个船厂的担保如果受到破坏有一条文去针对就是每一辆拖车空间的减少要去支付
150,000 美元。该条文是如下:
“If the actual trailer carrying capacity of the Vessel is less than 146 Units of 13 metres each
the Builder shall pay to the Buyer as liquidated damages One hundred and fifty thousand
United States Dollars ($150,000) for each trailer unit by which the Vessel is deficient but
excluding the first one (1) in respect of which deficiency no liquidated damages shall be
payable. If the deficiency in trailer carrying capacity is ten (10) or more the Buyer as an
alternative to receiving the aforementioned liquidated damages may rescind the Contract.”

问题出在针对这 6 个减少了的拖车空间,可以很容易去作出一些调整就可以解决问题,
例如去搬走备用螺旋桨的桨翼与在龙骨上作结构上的调整等。反正是双方专家估计的调
整费用由欧洲船厂进行也只不过是 11,000 美元,但如果允许船东去向船厂根据造船合
约索赔议定赔偿,6 个拖车空间乘 150,000 美元就变成是 900,000 美元了。这里就带来争
议就是议定赔偿能否用在一些很轻微的违约还是只能用于较为严重或者是不能补救的
违约。或会问,如果是这么廉宜就可以作出调整的话船厂为什么不自己作出?这里可以
有几种情况,一个是船厂自己不小心错失了这个机会;另一种情况可以是去作出调整
需要时间,而交船的“死亡日期”(drop dead date)已经届临导致船厂要硬着头皮马
上交船。在该先例,更是又一个原因,就是在造船合约约定了的拖车空间数目,这是与
其他船舶的特征不一样,例如是船速与耗油不符合造船合约规定。这些都可以在交船前
的试航时被确定下来,如果船厂花很少金钱就可以把一些找到的缺陷解决,船厂肯定
会这样做。顶多解决问题后再来一次试航才去交船。但在本案例,涉及了装运拖车的空
间,这一个船舶特征不存在有试航,所以有了数目不足的情况会是很容易去看漏。这导
致船东在事后经营船舶的时候才会发觉这 6 个减少了的拖车空间。而被发觉后,船东认
为他可以向船厂要求支付一大笔的议定赔偿。

船厂其中一个争议是议定赔偿是要在最后一期船价的支付中扣减,所以在接船以后就
不再适用。这抗辩看来不被接受,令主要的争议就是议定赔偿是否适用。

在该先例中,上诉庭推翻了高院的判决,认为该造船合约的议定赔偿条文只是针对重
大的违约(违反船厂担保),因为双方在订约时的意图应该是这样想的,而没有想到
去适用在一些轻微与容易补救的违约。否则,这条文在大小违约都可以适用同一笔议定
赔偿就会变成是一条惩罚性条文而无效。Longmore 大法官是这样说:
“27 If there was a breach of art. 1.4. I would, for my part, conclude that the true loss of the
buyers cannot have been intended to be covered by the liquidated damages clause. There is a
danger that, if a liquidated damages clause is held to apply to trifling breaches of contract or
breaches of contract which result in a trifling loss, the whole clause might be struck down as a
penalty clause. In the court below Mr. Kendrick (船厂代表大律师) did indeed make that
submission in relation to art. III.5, but he did not wish to repeat that submission to this court;
that was, no doubt, because liquidated damages clauses of the kind used in the present case
have a genuinely useful function in pre-estimating damage which is likely to result. But it is
important that such contracts should be construed, if possible, to avoid the result that breaches
of contract resulting in minor losses will be covered by such clauses. As Lord Woolf said in
Philips Hong Kong Ltd v Attorney General of Hong Kong (1993) 61 BLR 41 at p. 59:
'So long as the sum payable in the event of non-compliance with a contract is not extravagant,
having regard to the range of losses that it could be reasonably anticipated it [the relevant
clause] would have to cover at the time the contract was made, it can still be a genuine pre-
estimate of the loss that would be suffered and so a perfectly valid liquidated damage
provision.'

28 That shows that it is important to have in mind the range of losses the parties would
anticipate the clause would cover when they made their contract. I do not consider that the
parties in this case, when agreeing liquidated damages in relation to trailer carrying capacity,
could have had in mind defects in design or workmanship which could be rectified without
incurring major expense, even if it could be said that until such defects were rectified the
vessel's spaces were, in breach of contract, not fully available.

29 This approach to construction of a liquidated damages clause is similar to that of the Privy
Council in Webster v Bosanquet [1912] AC 394, where it was held that a potentially penal
clause did not apply to every sale contrary to a right of pre-emption clause (for breach of
which liquidated damages were agreed to be payable) but only to sales in the sort of
commercial quantity which the parties must have had in mind when they made their contract.

30 Mr. Kendrick(船厂代表大律师) relied on a passage in Professor Sir Guenther Treitel's


book on the Law of Contract (10th edn, 1999), at p. 932 as follows:
'A sum may, therefore, be regarded as penal if it might have become due on a trifling breach,
even though the breach which actually occurred was quite a serious one, and one for which
the sum could be regarded as a genuine pre-estimate. In this way, the rule can invalidate
perfectly fair bargains. The courts will do their best to avoid such results by construing the
contract so as to make the sum payable only on major breaches, for which it is a valid pre-
estimate.'

31 For this proposition Webster v Bosanquet is cited. Mr. Eder(船东代表大律师) attacked


the passage, firstly, as not justified by Webster v Bosanquet and, secondly, as being difficult
to justify in principle since a distinction between major breaches and minor breaches of
contract would give rise to uncertainty and unnecessary argument.

32 For my part, I think the passage correctly states the law, for the reasons that I have given,
so long as one understands the phrase 'major breaches' as referring to breaches of contract
giving rise to substantial loss of the kind contemplated by the liquidated damages clause.
33 For these reasons I would hold that, even if there was a breach of art. 1.4 of the contract to
the extent of an inability on the part of the vessel to provide six required slots, the loss
resulting from that breach was not intended to be covered by the liquidated damages clause. I
would therefore allow the builders' appeal by setting aside the judgment ….”

5.1.1.4.4 真正损失很难估计的情况

It is no obstacle to the sum stipulated being a genuine pre-estimate of damage, that the
consequences of the breach are such as to make precise pre-estimation almost an
impossibility. On the contrary, that is just the situation when it is probable that pre-estimated
damage was the true bargain between the parties.

如果一种违约是明显会导致很大程度的损失而真正损失是多少却很难预先估计的情况
下,就存在一个假设是议定赔偿条文而不是惩罚性条文:Philips Hong Kong v. Attorney
General of Hong Kong (1993) 61 BLR 41, PC。

5.1.1.4.5 一连串合约中的中间方(party in between)

在一连串的合约,如果对一位夹在中间的合约方而言,前后合约如果都有约定不同议
定赔偿的金额去针对某一些违约(例如是前后租约下不同的滞期费率),这会导致中
间方会在有些情况下可以赚取一些差价。例如是中间方与原船东的租约约定滞期费是
25,000 美元一天,但去转租给分承租人是 35,000 美元一天。但显然在同样的违约下(超
出装卸时间),中间方的损失只是需要支付给原船东 25,000 美元一天,变了他可去赚
10,000 美元一天。问题是分承租人能否争辩这是惩罚性条文?笔者认为是不可以,因为
中间方去赚取差价也不表示这 35,000 美元一天的滞期费条文是去阻吓分承租人别去违
约,再说两个租约去订立的时间不一样,市场也不一样,谈判手段与强弱也不一样,
不可能是要求滞期费金额都要一致或是十分接近才不算是惩罚性条文。此外,在 Steria
Ltd v. Sigma Wireless Communications Ltd. (2008) BLR 79 先例也提到了去把一个双方都
是有水平的人士去约定的商业合约中的有关条文判是惩罚性条文而无效,这是法院尽
量 要 去 避 免 的 ( in commercial contracts the courts should exercise great caution before
striking down a clause as penal.)。

事实上,在该先例正是有类似的争议。该先例的总承包商 Sigma 与雇主的主合约内有一


条针对整个工程完工日期延误的议定赔偿条文。Sigma 把有关的电脑工程去给了分包商
Steria。在分包合约中,也有一条议定赔偿条文,但条文内容与主合约中的条文内容不
同,因为它分别针对了 4 个不同工程的延误。这一来,就会造成在分包合约出现了延误,
但整个工程完工日期是没有受到延误的情况,就会导致 Sigma 根本没有损失也可以去
向分包商 Steria 收取议定赔偿。所以该条文被分包商指称在本质上是惩罚性条文。但
Stephen Davies 大法官不同意,说:
“In such circumstances, in my judgment: (i) there is no substantial discrepancy between the
liquidated damages provision of the subcontract and the level of damages likely to be suffered
by Sigma; (ii) on the facts of this case I am unable to conclude that the clause was –
objectively considered as at the date the contract was entered into – intended to be deterrent
rather than compensatory. Overall, this being a commercial contract entered into between two
substantial and experienced companies with knowledge of the difficulties which can occur
where after the event one party seeks to recover general damages from the other for delay, I
am not prepared to strike down the clause as penal.”

5.1.1.4.6 针对同一种违约有不同金额的议定赔偿

会有情况是去针对同一个违约有不同金额的议定赔偿,这包括在造船合约。例如在著名
的 Pacific Ocean Shipping Corp v. Sembawang Corp Ltd (No. 1) (1998) Commercial Court 4
June 1998,该造船/改装合约针对工程的延误有以下的条文去针对:
“33.4 If the BUILDER should fail to deliver the VESSEL by the DELIVERY DATE or any
extension thereof granted in accordance with the CONTRACT, the BUILDER shall pay
LIQUIDATED DAMAGES to the OWNERS for such default at the rates shown below …
… first four weeks 70,000 Singapore dollars per week; next four weeks 140,000 Singapore
dollars per week. For any delay in excess of the first eight weeks 200,000 Singapore dollars a
week.
Delay for the purposes of this article shall mean the period which may elapse between the
DELIVERY DATE and the actual date of the DELIVERY of the VESSEL.
33.5 The rates of LIQUIDATED DAMAGES to which the BUILDER may become liable
represent a genuine pre-estimate of the loss which the OWNERS would sustain in the event of
delay and is not to be construed as a penalty.”

在该先例不像有去争论这是否惩罚性赔偿的条文,但完全可以理解。因为很容易解释过
去就是随着工程的延误加剧,后果会更严重,也代表损失会是更大。毕竟,该合约中有
一条文说明工程的时间是条件条文(time is of the essence of the contract)。

5.2 议定赔偿是全部与唯一的赔偿

还有一个关于议定赔偿的争议也是有所见闻,就是受害方(在造船合约就是船东)会
争议说议定赔偿的金额不足赔偿他的损失,而要违约方另去追加赔偿。为了说服法官或
者仲裁员,受害方会去添枝加叶使对方的违约看来与议定赔偿所针对的违约有不同之
处。例如说,在造船合约约定的超出交船时间每天的延误是 30,000 美元,结果是超出了
5 天,船厂总共要赔的就是 150,000 美元。但实际上船东晚了这 5 天接收船舶带来了十
分庞大的损失,就是他一早订下的长期期租合约因为销约期十分紧张,就因此而错过
了,而当时的航运市场下跌。这一来,就给了下一个租约的承租人有了谈判的筹码,逼
船东去减少每天租金,最终令船东在整个租约损失估计达好几百万美元。这种情况并非
是天方夜谭,已经介绍过的有关贵族院先例 The “Achilleas” (2007) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 19,
它就是几天的延误带来了一个非常庞大的索赔金额。

船厂不否认要支付 150,000 美元,但船东要索赔几百万美元,其中会去添加其他的诉因,


例如说船厂曾经误述或/误导有关交船日期或船厂恶意(不光是疏忽)造成不准时交船 ,
等等。但要问题是,有关的违约(不管是轻是重)与造成的后果就是延误交船这么简单,
而这正正是议定赔偿所针对的违约。所以,笔者认为是不可以也不允许去这样做,请看
贵 族 院 的 : Suisse Atlantique Societe d’Armement S.A. v. N.V. Rotterdamsche Kolen
Centrale (1966) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 529。

有关这一方面的问题,在笔者的《装卸时间与滞期费》一书之第 18 章有十分详尽的针对,
请参阅。

6. 造船合约的船价与议定赔偿订得低如何去利用作为谈判筹码的例子

关于议定赔偿的重要性,笔者可以在此举一个真实的例子,就是一家中国船厂与欧洲
船东签订的造船合约中,船价为 2,000 万美元。由于船价不高,因为当时的航运市场仍
是低迷,所以延误交船的议定赔偿也只是约定在 9,000 美元一天。接下来的一两年内,
市场大涨,到了临近交船日期之时,市场船价已经达到了 5,000 万美元。欧洲船东非常
想准时甚至提早接收船舶投入营运,可去在高涨的市场大赚一笔。但中国船厂就因为钢
材价格上涨所带来的造价上涨而会损失惨重。结果在笔者的建议下,船厂去准备延误交
船(但绝不是拒绝交船,因为这是毁约而会带来庞大的索赔)并向欧洲船东承诺一定
愿意承担这 9,000 美元一天的议定赔偿,甚至是封顶的 150 万美元。字里行间给船东一
个信号就是会延误交船很长一段时间,这带来了欧洲船东的恐慌,毕竟航运市场会好
多久,事先是没人知道的。结果是很快就帮助中国船厂与欧洲船东达成协议,就是去把
造船合约约定的船价提高至船厂满意的一个金额。笔者听说中国船厂有不少现在在用同
样的技巧去迫使船东提高造船合约的价格,甚至知悉在中国法院也有类似的官司。

船东或会想可否在船价订得低的时候,但延误交船每天的议定赔偿却订得高,例如在
上述例子不是 9,000 美元而是 40,000 美元一天,这岂非可以避免了上述的不利情况。毕
竟,议定赔偿是付给船东,好像滞期费付给船东一样,总会是订得越高越好。但这样一
来,这 40,000 美元一天的议定赔偿就有很大可能在出争议的时候被船厂指称是惩罚性
条文。因为当时的航运市场每天的租金也只有这笔钱的 1/3 或者 1/4,而根据廉宜的船价,
对预付金额的融资成本及利息支出也无法计算出要损失 4 万美元一天。所以,想去这样
做船东也不会成功。这样看来,笔者见过不少近期的案件,就是中国船厂在航运市场相
对低迷的时候承诺了外国船东大量的“造船选择权协议”(optional agreement),即允
许船东有选择权去添加一艘或多艘船舶的建造,而船价是与原来造的船舶一样或多加
5-10%不等。结果船价狂涨而导致了外国船东纷纷行使他们的选择权,而部分中国船厂
面对这个困难的局面,要去建造一些赚不了钱甚至要亏本的预算外船舶,干脆选择去
毁约,一句“不干了”就以为可以不了了之。结果纷纷面对外国船东通过伦敦仲裁索赔
庞大的损失(造船合约的价格与市场价格的差额)导致非常被动的地位。举其中一个例
子,就是已经刚在 2008 年 5 月 11 日中华人民共和国厦门海事法院([2006]厦海法认字
第 1 号)有关裁决书执行申请的判例,是有关马尾公司与福船集团给了外国船东 8 艘
船舶的造船选择权,其中前 4 艘每艘单价 1,840 万美元,后 4 艘 1,900 万美元。后来伦敦
仲裁判的结果是船厂毁约,不履行这 8 艘船舶的造船协议,从而要赔偿船东高达 4,540
万美元加上利息与庞大律师费用的损失。而这损失的结算是根据市场价格(breach date
rule),即该 8 艘船舶在毁约时的市场价格与造船合约中价格的差额,这与议定赔偿毫
无关系。

笔者在想,如果中国船厂堂堂正正地去履行合约,那既然承诺了给船东的选择权就应
该去严格遵守。但遵守之余,还是有很多合法的途径可以作出部分挽救,例如在
Gyllenhammar v. Split (1989) 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 403 提到过的“合约生效条文”(effective
contract clause)会是先决或后续条件的确无法去满足,或是在本章提到的有关延误的
议定赔偿上限,又或是第六章提到的船东要求一些重要的修改(modification),等等。
这总比去赔偿数以千万甚至上亿美元强得多。当然,船厂本来就应该知道选择权对自己
的严重不利之处,所以要在承诺之前十分小心与节制。但据笔者了解,中国有部分船厂
的领导其实并非太了解这方面的法律,甚至听说有个别船厂在拿到一份 2 艘船舶的造
船合约,内中有 10 艘船舶的建造选择权,就上报给有关部门或总公司说自己拿到了 12
艘船舶的订单,这反映了其对选择权的危险是知之甚少。

7. 有关交船延误的议定赔偿条文

7.1 SAJ 标准格式合约

SAJ 有关交船延误的议定赔偿在本章开始有节录,可以看到在第一段的末尾就有一句
说明这是议定赔偿而非惩罚性条文,但这样的规定并非是结论性的,它也只不过是一
个标语。在目前的英国法律下,是不是惩罚性条文主要还是要看其内容。

在第 1(a)小项是说明了在约定交船日期的 30 日内都不需要支付议定赔偿,这显然是去
考虑到建造船舶这么大的工程,即使是样样顺利,交船日期有一点出入也是在所难免,
所以去约定了 30 天船厂不必支付议定赔偿的延误。这样的计算当然是当事人的订约自
由,双方也可以约定这 30 日也一视同仁需要每天支付议定赔偿。
在第 1(b)小项可以看到要船厂要给船东的议定赔偿是有一个阶段性,以 30 日为一个阶
段,让双方自己填写议定赔偿金额,从第 31 天开始直到第 210 天封顶,总共 180 天需
要支付议定赔偿。这样安排是因为由于融资成本与利息损失随着延误的延长而有所增加,
因为船东会多支付了船价的预付。这样以 30 日为一阶段安排一个递增的议定赔偿,可
以更加准确地反映船东会面临的损失,也让这条议定赔偿条文看上去更接近双方对于
损失真实的估计而不是惩罚性条文。但话说回来,如果随着延误的增加,每天的议定赔
偿金额反而去减少,又或者每过 30 天一个阶段就把每天的议定赔偿金额翻倍,这又会
带来了惩罚性条文的质疑。

另要注意也提过的就是这议定损失有一个 180 天的封顶,过了这 180 天的议定赔偿的


支付后,而船东也仍在等待交船,这期间直到真正交船船厂就没有支付议定赔偿的义
务了。

最后要一提的是如果船东中断造船合约(例如是因为交船日期延误超出了死亡日期,
或其他的原因可去合法中断),船东就可以向船厂要回已经支付了的部分预付船价。船
厂也会有了还款担保(refund guarantee)的保障。至于已经产生了的议定赔偿(例如是
延误了超过 180 天就表示已经要支付 180 天的议定赔偿),表面上合理来说照道理说
就再也不必支付了。如果有部分议定赔偿已经付给了船东,船厂也可以要求船东归还。
这是因为船东已经把预付的船价加上利息要了回来(另有还款担保去保证支付),就
再也不应该有损失了。如果这仍不足够,例如是市场的船舶价格比造船合约价格为高,
船东也就不会行使选择权去中断合约了。而即使是有这种例外的情况,船东也难去索赔
损失,因为船东在行使选择权中断造船合约时就已经令造成船价差额损失的因果关系
打断了。这与船厂毁约,船东去选择接受并中断造船合约的情况不一样。根据造船合约
的选择权去中断合约,会是有可能不涉及船厂的过错,例如不可抗力的原因造成过了
死亡日期无法交船。就算船厂有一定的过错,也不足构成毁约,去中断合约纯粹是船东
形式合约的权利。所以,船东再向船厂索赔就会有一定的困难。这里可以举 The
“Tropwind” (1982) 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 232 为例,案情是有关迟付租金,船东在租约内有选
择权可去撤船,船东在撤船后想去想去向承租人索赔完成提单航次的损失,但并不成
功,因为损失是他自己撤船所造成的。Denning 勋爵这样说:
“I cannot see any basis on which the shipowners could recover any sum from the charterer.
The charterer who is a few minutes late or pays a few dollars too little is not thereby guilty of
a repudiation of the charter. The damages of such breaches would be trifling. If there is cargo
on board at the time of notice of withdrawal- and the shipowner carries it to the destination –
he does so by way of fulfilling the original charter or bill of lading – and not by way of any
new request by the charter. So he cannot recover the market rate either on a quantum meruit
or otherwise.”
这里还有一个现实的问题,就是通常的做法是议定赔偿是在交船前最后一期的船价支
付中扣减,并非是由船厂真金白银掏出来。既然船东中断造船合约,也不再存在有交船
这回事了,等于没有机会去扣减这一笔已经产生了的议定赔偿。预付的船价船东有还款
担保的保证,但这笔议定赔偿就不会有了。所以船东怎样去追讨(如果可以的话),也
是个问题。

但这里没有什么合理不合理的争议,如果造船合约规定了延误交船超过 180 天船东可


以去选择中断合约,另有条文说明每天的延误可收取一定金额的议定赔偿,就会有很
大的危险被解释为两种救济或权利船东都可以拥有。所以,小心的造船合约都会去规定
如果船东选择中断合约,就不能去收取议定赔偿了,这是在 SAJ 的 Article III (5)。另在
SAJ 标准格式之 Article X (3)也有写清楚,就是在船东行使选择权中断造船合约后,船
厂作出还款(有关预付船价的款项),双方之间就再也没有任何义务与责任了,说:
“Upon such refund by the BUILDER to the BUYER, all obligations, duties and liabilities of
each of the parties hereto to the other under this Contract shall be forthwith completely
discharged.”

但 NEWBUILDCON 中就不像有类似条文。

上述 SAJ 的条文清楚表示在船厂还款后,不存在船东可再向船厂索赔已经产生了的议
定赔偿,甚至其他的损失(例如已经提到过,在少有的情况下,船舶的市场价格比造
船合约价格偏高而导致船东取回了预付船价还是有一点损失,而船东在这种情况下选
择中断合约是由于其他原因)。

8. 有关船速的议定赔偿条文

这是船舶一个重要的规范说明,特别是针对一些速度快的船,例如是旅游船以及集装
箱船,更不说是军舰了。但如果所造的船舶船速不足,这在一般情况下,除非合约有明
确的规定,只会被视为是合约的保证条文(warranty),船厂违约也只允许船东索赔损
失。但真正损失也不好计算,因为这是涉及了船舶将来的经营情况,完全是要靠估计速
度慢半节到底会带来一些什么损失。去解决这些问题,在 SAJ 与 NEWBUILDCON 都去
约定议定赔偿来针对程度上不严重的船速不足,另去明示了程度严重的船速不足就给
船东一个选择权去中断合约。至于什么是程度不严重与议定赔偿是多少,什么是程度严
重可允许中断合约,就是以双方的谈判与约定为准。在 SAJ Article III (2)(c)是规定了如
果实际船速比约定的船速慢 1 节就给船东一个选择权去中断合约,但这不一定在每一
个不同船舶的建造都适用(例如在 Admiralty Commissioners v. Cox and King [1927] 27
Lloyd’s Rep. 223 就涉及了一艘 40 节的摩托艇),而且船厂也不会希望太容易给船东有
选择权可去中断合约。所以,大可以去将 1 节改为 2 节的航速,反正这是订约自由。
船速到底是否符合造船合约的规定,是在试航的时候确定。如果双方有计算上的争议,
笔者见过有造船合约去让一个这方面技术权威性的组织作出决定,这等于也是一种专
家判断。如果确定下来,并且产生议定赔偿,双方就可以在试航后不久的交船时在船东
最后支付的船价中作出扣减。有关船速的确定的技术性问题,请参阅本书第七章。

9. 有关耗油量的议定赔偿条文

这在油价高涨的今天会是一条很重要的条文,有关 SAJ 标准格式合约的有关条文已经


在本章开始的时候节录了。NEWBUILDCON 是在第 9 条,它的结构与精神基本上与
SAJ 完全一样,但有几个方面是规定得更加细致。在去进一步解释前,先把该条文节录
如下:
“9 Excessive Fuel Consumption
If the fuel consumption of the Vessel’s main engine on the test bed using the fuel specified in
Box 4C(vii) exceeds the figure stated in Box 4C(iv) the following shall apply:

(a) If the excess fuel consumption is less than 2% (two percent) of the specified fuel
consumption there shall be no adjustment of the Contract Price.

(b) If the excess fuel consumption is greater than or equal to 2% (two percent) of the
specified fuel consumption the Contract Price shall be reduced by the amount stated in Box
14(i) for each whole percentage thereafter as liquidated damages up to a maximum amount as
stated in Box 14(ii).

(c) If the excess fuel consumption would entitle the Buyer to a reduction in the Contract
Price greater than the maximum amount stated in Box 14(ii), the Buyer shall have the option
to:
(i) accept the main engine at a reduction of the Contract Price corresponding to the
maximum amount stated in Box 14(ii) or

(ii) reject the main engine and either


(1) require the Builder to rectify the deficiency and repeat the trial or replace the main
engine with one that conforms to the requirements of the Contract. (The time taken to rectify
the deficiency and repeat the trial or replace the main engine in accordance with this S ub-
clause shall not be a Permissible Delay) or

(2) terminate this Contract forthwith in accordance with Clause 39(a)(v) (Suspension and
Termination).”
以下就是 NEWBUILDCON 与 SAJ 不一样的地方:
(1)SAJ 没有去针对怎样厘定耗油量的增加,这也无法在短短的试航中可以确定。但
在 NEWBUILDCON 就明确了是根据测试车床(test bed)。事实上,这也是 SAJ 合约下
的一贯做法,不论是 SAJ 有没有去这样规定。这方面可去节录 Simon Curtis 的《The Law
of Shipbuilding Contracts》一书第三版 67 页所讲如下:
“In contrast to the assessment of her speed and deadweight, the fuel consumption of the
vessel’s main engine will typically be ascertained well prior to the sea trials and delivery and
acceptance of the vessel. The required tests will usually be conducted at a test bed facility in
the workshops of the engine manufacturer and under conditions carefully detailed in either the
contract itself or the specifications. No guarantee is provided by the builder that the engine
will necessarily give the same results when installed on board the vessel.”

(2)如果耗油量超过了规定的百分比,这就可以给船东一个中断造船合约的选择权。
如果船东这样做,通常会为船厂带来极度的困难,特别是该主机可以去作出修改
(modify)或去完全更换,当然这样做有可能会影响约定的交船日期。这没有在 SAJ 标
准格式合约内规定,所以有使用该格式的订约方去补充说明如果船厂可以去这样做,
船东就不中断造船合约。这在 NEWBUILDCON 也有了这样的规定,再也不需要当事人
去记得补充。但对船厂并非是有利,因为是船东的选择权去要求船厂对主机作出补救或
者完全更换,而且所需要花的时间不属于允许延误,即船厂要额外支付议定赔偿。船东
有了这个选择权,就可以在船价市场下跌的时候去选择中断造船合约。这不是因为耗油
量超出了合约规定无法去补救,而是船东根据商业理由去中断合约。这一来,船厂的困
境还是没有改变。即使船东不去中断造船合约,船东有了这个选择权也可以去充分利用
作为谈判筹码,例如对船厂说:“如果船价肯去同时减掉多少钱,我才会去行使选择
权对主机作出修理或者完全更换。”。所以,对船厂有利的写法是去规定船东必须先提
出要求去修改或者完全替代主机以符合合约的耗油量,如果船厂无法在合理时间内做
到,船东才有权去中断造船合约。

10. 其他有关的议定赔偿

除了上诉所介绍的有关交船日期、船速与耗油量的议定赔偿外,通常还会有其他方面要
船厂向船东作出保证,而如果交的船舶是不符合保证的要求,也会涉及议定赔偿或在
严重的情况下给船东权利去中断合约。这包括了在 SAJ 与 NEWBUILDCON 标注格式都
有去针对的规定,就是船舶的载重(deadweight)。另在 NEWBUILDCON 第 11 条文去
针对了船舶的容积(cubic capacity)。NEWBUILDCON 这样的写法也很有道理,因为
载重只是对油轮与干货轮十分重要,但对其他一些船舶例如是杂货船就会是容积比载
重更重要了。至于像集装箱轮,就会要求船厂保证是多少个 20 尺长的集装箱(Twenty-
foot equivalent unit 或简称 TEU)。至于像滚装船,重要的会是多少拖车空间:Cenargo
Ltd v. Empresa Nacional Bazan de Construcciones Navales Militares SA (2002) EWCA Civ
524。这些都是关系到有关的船舶能够装多少货物,因为这些就是将来营运去盈利的本
钱。

但也会有其他一些船舶规范说明是十分重要,船东要船厂去保证。例如是,旅游船航行
的噪音分贝(noise)与震动(vibration),冷藏船的能够保持的温度,在水浅港口营运
的船舶要求保证最高的吃水(Australian Steamship Proprietary Ltd. v. John Lewis & Sons
Ltd. [1933] 47 Lloyd’s Rep. 132),等。

在 SAJ 标准格式,没有去在这些额外的保证作出针对,虽然这不影响船东去在附加条
文增加其他的保证。但在 NEWBUILDCON 的第 12 条文,就有了针对。

总的说来,船厂应该尽量避免去作出这种保证。除了面对议定赔偿的风险外(这实际上
就是减船价),还要给船东有选择权去在严重的情况下中断合约。去让对方有这种选择
权总会是危险的,因为对方有了取巧的机会,可以说是对船厂是有百害而无一利。特别
是对一些船厂没有太多建造经验的船舶,或是要在技术上或供应上倚赖船东,都表示
船厂比较难去控制自己的命运,就更加应该减少去作出任何没百分百把握的保证。

11. 有关议定赔偿支付的时间

有关议定赔偿支付的时间,SAJ 与 NEWBUILDCON 都有去规定,也是一般造船合约的


做法。在 SAJ 的 Article II (3)(d)的第四期,也是交船前最后一期的分期支付船价,去加
上或者扣减任何在合约船价的调整:
“… plus any increase or minus any decrease due to adjustments of the Contract Price
hereunder, shall be paid upon delivery of the VESSEL.”

这有关合约船价的调整是 Article III,其中主要的内容就是针对各种议定赔偿。至于在


NEWBUILDCON,它有第 15(c)条文去作出同样的规定如下:
“(c) Payment of Liquidated Damages
Any amounts for liquidated damages under Clause 8 (Speed Deficiency), Clause 9 (Excessive
Fuel Consumption), Clause 10 (Deadweight Deficiency), Clause 11 (Cubic Capacity
Deficiency), Clause 12 (Other Deficiencies) and Clause 13 (Late Delivery for non-
permissible delays) shall be calculated and determined before delivery and may be deducted
from the Final Instalment.”

这样的明示规定也是公平合理,可以保证在交船前大家结清帐目,互不相欠。如果没有
这样去规定,所产生的议定赔偿在法律的默示地位下就变了是要在有了诉因之后的一
个合理时间内支付。这表示在交船日期延误的违约后,船厂有一段合理的时间去支付议
定赔偿。什么是“合理”有争议的余地外,也表示船厂要支付的时间几乎肯定是在交船
后才会届临。船东肯定会感觉到不安心,毕竟今天在国际上追偿债务或索赔不是一个简
易的问题。

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