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Sediment-Hosted Lead-Zinc DepositsA Global Perspective

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©2005 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.
100th Anniversary Volume, pp. 561–607

Sediment-Hosted Lead-Zinc Deposits: A Global Perspective

DAVID L. LEACH,†
U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 973, Box 25046, Denver, Colorado 80225

DONALD F. SANGSTER,
2335 Russvern Drive, North Gower, Ontario, Canada K0A 2T0

KAREN D. KELLEY,
U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 973, Box 25046, Denver, Colorado 80225

ROSS R. LARGE,
University of Tasmania, CODES, Private Bag 79, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia

GRANT GARVEN,
Johns Hopkins University, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21218

CAMERON R. ALLEN,
Teck Cominco American Inc., 15918 E. Euclid, Spokane, Washington 99216

FT JENS GUTZMER,
Rand Afrikaans University, Department of Geology, P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park, Gauteng South Africa 2006

A
AND STEVE WALTERS

R
University of Tasmania, CODES, Private Bag 79, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia

Abstract

D
Sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits contain the world’s greatest lead and zinc resources and dominate world
production of these metals. They are a diverse group of ore deposits hosted by a wide variety of carbonate and
siliciclastic rocks that have no obvious genetic association with igneous activity. A range of ore-forming
processes in a variety of geologic and tectonic environments created these deposits over at least two billion
years of Earth history. The metals were precipitated by basinal brines in synsedimentary and early diagenetic
to low-grade metamorphic environments. The deposits display a broad range of relationships to enclosing host
rocks that includes stratiform, strata-bound, and discordant ores.
These ores are divided into two broad subtypes: Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) and sedimentary exhalative
(SEDEX). Despite the “exhalative” component inherent in the term “SEDEX,” in this manuscript, direct evi-
dence of an exhalite in the ore or alteration component is not essential for a deposit to be classified as SEDEX.
The presence of laminated sulfides parallel to bedding is assumed to be permissive evidence for exhalative ores.
The distinction between some SEDEX and MVT deposits can be quite subjective because some SEDEX ores
replaced carbonate, whereas some MVT deposits formed in an early diagenetic environment and display lam-
inated ore textures.
Geologic and resource information are presented for 248 deposits that provide a framework to describe and
compare these deposits. Nine of the 10 largest sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits are SEDEX. Of the deposits
that contain at least 2.5 million metric tons (Mt), there are 35 SEDEX (excluding Broken Hill-type) deposits
and 15 MVT (excluding Irish-type) deposits. Despite the skewed distribution of the deposit size, the two de-
posits types have an excellent correlation between total tonnage and tonnage of contained metal (Pb + Zn),
with a fairly consistent ratio of about 10/1, regardless of the size of the deposit or district. Zinc grades are ap-
proximately the same for both, whereas Pb and Ag grades are about 25 percent greater for SEDEX deposits.
The largest difference between SEDEX and MVT deposits is their Cu content. Three times as many SEDEX
deposits have reported Cu contents, and the median Cu value of SEDEX deposits is nearly double that of MVT
deposits. Furthermore, grade-tonnage values for MVT deposits compared to a subset of SEDEX deposits
hosted in carbonate rocks are virtually indistinguishable.
The distribution of MVT deposits through geologic time shows that they are mainly a Phanerozoic phenom-
enon. The ages of SEDEX deposits are grouped into two major groups, one in the Proterozoic and another in
the Phanerozoic. MVT deposits dominantly formed in platform carbonate sequences typically located within
† Corresponding author: e-mail, dleach@usgs.gov

0361-0128/01/0000/561-47 561
562 LEACH ET AL.

extensional zones inboard of orogenic belts, whereas SEDEX deposits formed in intracontinental or failed rifts,
and rifted continental margins. The ages of MVT ores are generally tens of millions of years younger than their
host rocks; however, a few are close (<~5 m.y.) to the age of their host rocks. In the absence of direct dates for
SEDEX deposits, their age of formation is generally constrained by relationships to sedimentary or diagenetic
features in the rocks. These studies suggest that deposition of SEDEX ores was coeval with sedimentation or
early diagenesis, whereas some deposits formed at least 20 m.y. after sedimentation.
Fluid inclusion, isotopic studies, and deposit modeling suggest that MVT and SEDEX deposits formed from
basin brines with similar temperatures of mainly 90° to 200°C and 10 to 30 wt percent NaCl equiv. Lead iso-
tope compositions for MVT and SEDEX deposits show that Pb was mainly derived from a variety of crustal
sources. Lead isotope compositions do not provide criteria that distinguish MVT from SEDEX subtypes. How-
ever, sulfur isotope compositions for sphalerite and galena show an apparent difference. SEDEX and MVT sul-
fur isotope compositions extend over a large range; however, most data for SEDEX ores have mainly positive
isotopic compositions from 0 to 20 per mil. Isotopic values for MVT ores extend over a wider range and include
more data with negative isotopic values.
Given that there are relatively small differences between the metal character of MVT and SEDEX deposits
and the fluids that deposited them, perhaps the most significant difference between these deposits is their de-
positional environment, which is determined by their respective tectonic settings. The contrasting tectonic set-
ting also dictates the fundamental deposit attributes that generally set them apart, such as host-rock lithology,
deposit morphology, and ore textures.
Brief discussions are also presented on two controversial sets of deposits: Broken Hill-type deposits and a
subset of deposits in the MVT group located in the Irish Midlands, considered by some authors to be a distinct
ore type (Irish type). There are no significant differences in grade tonnage values between MVT deposits and
the subset that is described as Irish type. Most features of the Irish deposits are not distinct from the family of
MVT deposits; however, the age of mineralization that is the same as or close to the age of the host rocks and
the anomalously high fluid inclusion temperatures (up to 250°C) stand out as distinctly different from typical
MVT ores. The dominance of bacteriogenic sulfur in the Irish ores commonly ascribed as uniquely Irish type
is in fact no different from several MVT deposits or districts.
A comparison of SEDEX and Broken Hill-type deposits shows that the latter deposits contain significantly
higher contents of Ag and Pb relative to SEDEX deposits. In terms of median values, Broken Hill-type de-
posits are almost three times more enriched in Ag and one and a half times more enriched in Pb compared to
other SEDEX deposits. Metamorphism is a characteristic feature but not a prerequisite for inclusion in the
Broken Hill-type category, and known Broken Hill-type examples appear to occur in Paleo- to Mesoprotero-
zoic terranes. Broken Hill-type deposits remain an enigmatic grouping; however, there is sufficient evidence to
support their inclusion as a separate category of SEDEX deposits.

Introduction deposits. We will not discuss the fracture-controlled deposits

SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn deposits are a diverse group of ore
deposits hosted by a wide variety of carbonate and siliciclastic
rocks that have no obvious genetic association with igneous
activity. These deposits have historically been the world’s
most important lead and zinc resources and continue to dom-
inate world production of these metals. Sphalerite and galena
are the major sulfide minerals, although, in certain deposits,
significant amounts of iron sulfide are present. The deposits
are typically Cu poor and some contain economically impor-
tant amounts of Ag and Ge. The nonsulfide gangue minerals
are mainly dolomite, siderite, ankerite, calcite, barite, and
quartz (including chert and ore-related silicification). These
deposits formed from a range of ore-forming processes in a
variety of geologic and tectonic environments over at least the
last two billion years of Earth history. The metals were de-
posited by basinal brines in synsedimentary and early diage-
netic to low-grade metamorphic environments. The deposits
display a broad range of relationships to enclosing host rocks,
including stratiform, strata-bound, and discordant ores. The
sulfides may be present as open-space fill and replacement of
sediments or sedimentary rocks, filling porosity created by
displaced pore fluids in sediments, or precipitated directly on
the sea floor.
Excluded ore types
Considering the large task of describing the broad subject
matter, we excluded certain types of sediment-hosted Pb-Zn
in which fluorite is dominant and barite typically abundant
(e.g., Central Kentucky, Hansonburg, New Mexico, or the
English Pennines) or the fluorite-rich deposits such as those
in southern Illinois, considered a genetic variant of carbon-
ate-hosted Pb-Zn deposits (Leach and Sangster, 1993). We
exclude the Pb-Zn vein districts such as Freiberg, Germany,
Coeur d’Alene, Idaho, Woodcutters in northern Australia,
and the veins of the Rhenish massif in Germany, because
some may be the product of deep-seated igneous or meta-
morphic fluids. Skarn and igneous-related Pb-Zn manto de-
posits are also excluded from this paper (see Meinert et al.,
2005). We do not discuss oxide zinc deposits because they
have been discussed in a special issue devoted to “Nonsulfide
Zinc Deposits: A New Look” (Economic Geology, v. 98, no. 4,
2003).
Objectives
The main objectives of this paper are to summarize the
salient features of sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits and to de-
fine the current understanding on why and where these de-
posits formed in the Earth’s crust. The authors of this paper
share broad agreement on many aspects of sediment-hosted
Pb-Zn deposits; however, there are differing opinions and in-
terpretations on a number of issues that required consider-
able compromise and acceptance of alternative views. A fun-
damental contribution of this paper is the compilation of
basic mineral resource data on known deposits, age of host

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 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
rocks, age of ore formation, host-rock lithology, and related
deposit attributes in the Appendix A (Tables A1–A4).
The problem of classification
Sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits are best described as a
family of related subtypes having sets of attributes that, to a
limited extent, set them apart from others. However, the di-
versity of ore-forming environments and ore-deposit mor-
phologies, together with the overlapping attributes among the
deposit subtypes, has prevented establishing descriptive or ge-
netic models that uniquely separate the subtypes. The litera-
ture contains many classifications of sediment-hosted Pb-Zn
deposits, including use of descriptive attributes such as host-
rock lithology (e.g., carbonate-hosted, shale-hosted), deposit
morphologies (e.g., strata-bound, stratiform) or genetic char-
acteristics (e.g., syngenetic, synsedimentary, syndiagenetic).
Previous reviews of sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits, in-
cluding the Seventy-fifth Anniversary Volume of Economic
Geology (1981), Sangster (1996), Fontbote and Boni (1994),
and the 1966 Symposium on Carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn de-
posits (Brown, 1967), concluded that no single classification
scheme provided rigorous classification criteria. Consistent
with this “historical controversy”, the authors of this paper
were unable to establish a classification scheme that uniquely
separates each subtype. Consequently, we used a broad clas-
sification scheme that is biased toward descriptive attributes
over genetic features, and provides alternative classifications
for many deposits. This classification scheme is used in the
text and is used for the 248 deposits described in Appendix A
(Table A1: MVT and SEDEX, and Table A4: sandstone-lead
and sandstone-hosted lead).
Classification and terminology
The sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits are divided primarily
among four subtypes: Mississippi Valley-type (MVT), sedi-
mentary exhalative (SEDEX; Tables A1–A3), sandstone-lead
(Sst-Pb; Table A4), and sandstone-hosted deposits. None of
these deposits has any obvious genetic connection to igneous
activity. The sandstone-lead and sandstone-hosted lead de-
posits are only briefly discussed because they form small sub-
types of sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits, and also because
Sst-Pb deposits were extensively described by Bjørlykke and
Sangster (1981).
Neither the MVT nor SEDEX subtypes are ideal classifica-
tion terms nor do these categories have criteria that allow un-
equivocal classification for all sediment-hosted Pb-Zn de-
posits. Our inability to select more appropriate terms,
together with the widespread use of these terms in the litera-
ture, led us to continue using these two terms. Criteria used
to classify the deposits and districts in Tables A1 to A3 were
based on the specific subtype assigned to the deposits in the
literature and, in some cases, the opinions of the authors. We
attempt here to minimize “process-related,” “interpretive,”
and “model-driven” features to classify the deposits. The par-
ticular assignment of a subtype to some deposits may not be
universally accepted; therefore, we provided alternative clas-
sifications (deposit type B and deposit type C, Tables A1, A4).
Characteristics of the deposit classifications are briefly pre-
sented below and discussed in more detail elsewhere in the
text.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 563
563
MVT deposits: The most important characteristics of MVT
deposits, modified from Leach and Sangster (1993) are (1)
they are epigenetic; (2) they are not associated with igneous
activity; (3) they are hosted mainly by dolostone and lime-
stone, rarely in sandstone; (4) the dominant minerals are spha-
lerite, galena, pyrite, marcasite, dolomite, and calcite; barite is
typically minor to absent and fluorite is rare; (5) they occur in
platform carbonate sequences commonly at flanks of basins or
foreland thrust belts; (6) they are commonly strata bound but
may be locally stratiform; (7) they typically occur in large dis-
tricts; (8) the ore fluids were basinal brines with ~10 to 30 wt
percent salts; (9) they have crustal sources for metals and sul-
fur; (10) temperatures of ore deposition are typically 75° to
about 200°C; (11) the most important ore controls are faults
and fractures, dissolution collapse breccias, and lithological
transitions; (12) the sulfides are coarsely crystalline to fine-
grained, massive to disseminated; (13) the sulfides occur
mainly as replacement of carbonate rocks and to a lesser ex-
tent, open-space fill; and (14) alteration consists mainly of
dolomitization, host-rock dissolution, and brecciation.
Diversity between MVT districts resulted in the historic ap-
plication of MVT subsets or alternative classifications to char-
acterize specific sets of deposit attributes deemed unique
within the broader family of MVT deposits. The use of sub-
sets mainly reflects a philosophical difference between geolo-
gists that are “splitters” and focus on the differences between
ore deposits versus the “lumpers” that view diversity among
the ores as the norm. Important subsets historically used in-
clude the Appalachian-, Alpine-, Bleiberg-, Upper Silesia-,
Reocin-, and Irish-type deposits.
Irish-type: Of the MVT subsets or alternative classifications
mentioned, deposits in the Irish Midlands are debated as a
distinct ore style referred to as Irish type (Table A1, column
G, “deposit type B”). The term “Irish-type” deposit is based
on current usage in the literature (e.g., Hitzman and Large,
1986; Hitzman, 1999; Wilkinson, 2003). Hitzman and Beaty
(1996, p. 499) include the following abbreviated characteris-
tics: (1) ore is located in the lowest nonargillaceous unit; (2)
ore is associated with normal faults; (3) sphalerite and galena
dominate, pyrite may be abundant, and minor to abundant
barite is present; (4) they are strata bound; and (5) they have
complex textures including replacement, colloform, and fine-
to coarse-grained sulfides and cavity fillings. Wilkinson (2003,
p. 980) added the following to the above list of characteristics:
(1) the normal faults are synsedimentary; (2) ore formation
occurred during diagenesis; (3) orebodies are dominated by
massive sulfides with lateral metal zonation; and finally (4) re-
duced sulfur is dominantly of bacteriogenic origin. In Appen-
dix A, we included these deposits in the broad classification of
MVT ores but offer an alternative classification as Irish type.
We include them in the general discussion of MVT ores that
follows with a discussion of the specific attributes that some
believe uniquely define a different subtype of sediment-
hosted Pb-Zn deposits.
SEDEX: The term SEDEX evolved from the original term
proposed by Carne and Cathro (1982) that included lami-
nated, exhalative sulfides in fine-grained clastic rocks to a di-
verse group of deposits containing laminated ores in clastic,
carbonate, and metasedimentary rocks. Despite the exhala-
tive component inherent in the term SEDEX, we do not
564 LEACH ET AL.
require direct evidence of an exhalite in the ore or alteration
component to be classified as a SEDEX. Rather, the presence
of laminated sulfides parallel to bedding is assumed to be per-
missive evidence for exhalative ores. Some SEDEX deposits
are known to have replaced carbonate host rocks (e.g., Kelley
et al., 2004a). Thus, the distinction between some SEDEX
and MVT deposits can be quite subjective.
The general characteristics of SEDEX deposits are sum-
marized in Gustafson and Williams (1981), Large (1983),
Sangster (1990), Goodfellow et al. (1993), Lydon (1996,
2004b), Sangster and Hillary (1998), Large et al. (2002), and
Goodfellow (2004. The key classification features are (1) they
occur as tabular Zn-Pb-Ag deposits that contain laminated,
stratiform mineralization; (2) they may be hosted in shale,
carbonate, or carbonate- or organic-rich clastic rocks (silt-
stone and less commonly sandstone and conglomerate rich);
(3) spatially and/or genetically associated igneous rocks are
generally absent or volumetrically minor; and (4) they form in
intra- and/or epicratonic rift and passive margin environ-
ments (Large, 1980; Large et al., 2002).
The divisions of the SEDEX deposits used in this report
(Table A1, column G) include Broken Hill-type (Broken Hill-
type), carbonate replacement (CR), carbonate-hosted (carb-
hst), shale-hosted (sh-hst), and coarse clastic-hosted (cc-hst).
The host-rock terminology is based on the dominant rock
lithology that hosts the ore. “Unclassified” is used if meta-
morphism and deformation of the proto-ore obscured the
original deposit morphology and ore fabric so that it is impos-
sible to determine the original ore subset. VMS (vol-
canogenic-hosted massive sulfide) is used for a few deposits
that are described in the literature as having possible igneous
affinities and that may reflect a transition between SEDEX
and volcanogenic massive sulfide environments.
Broken Hill-type deposits: Some workers (including some
authors of this paper) consider Broken Hill-type deposits to
be SEDEX deposits that formed from fluids, or in deposi-
tional conditions, slightly different from typical SEDEX de-
posits, whereas others (including other authors of this paper)
consider Broken Hill-type to be a unique class and represent
a different genetic model from SEDEX deposits (see Large et
al., 2005). In Table A1 (column G), we use Broken Hill type
for deposits that have been considered in the literature to be
Broken Hill type or if some authors of this paper preferred to
apply Broken Hill type to a particular deposit.
Mineralization is dominantly strata bound and hosted by
amphibolite-granulite facies of Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic
clastic metasedimentary host sequences and is characterized
by complex metamorphic, metasomatic, and structural over-
prints. Consequently, protolith interpretations and definitions
of genetic models are varied and often poorly constrained.
Published genetic models range from syngenetic exhalative or
subsea-floor replacement, distal skarn, metamorphogenic, or
hybrid combinations (Walters et al., 2002).
Data Compilations
The compilation of information on 248 deposits and dis-
tricts presented in Table A1 provides a framework and basis
for describing and comparing the world’s sediment-hosted
Pb-Zn deposits. The data compilations in these tables were
based on the World Minerals Geoscience database project
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 564
(Sinclair et al., 1999). The second author of this paper com-
piled the information on Pb-Zn deposits in the World Miner-
als Geoscience database project and led the effort for the ex-
panded database in Table A1.
We decided not to exclude deposits or prospects in the data
compilation that were below some arbitrary resource thresh-
old or a perceived value-in-the-ground, because a major ob-
jective was the usefulness of the table to a diverse group of
geologists with presumably different economic objectives.
The data will hopefully be used by exploration companies,
academic researchers, and government agencies alike. Al-
though most of the small deposits and prospects will never be
anything more than small deposits, many small deposits or
prospects have pointed the way for some major discoveries.
Table 1 and Appendix B Figure B1 summarize the metal
endowments for the subtypes and these will be referred to
throughout this paper. In terms of metal character, the most
striking difference between SEDEX and MVT deposits is
that there are 13 SEDEX deposits (excluding Broken Hill-
type deposits) with 10 Mt or more contained metal relative to
two MVT deposits of this size (excluding Irish-type). How-
ever, this comparison does not consider the resource data for
two giant MVT districts (e.g., Viburnum Trend and Upper
Silesisa) that report data for “mines” that are actually “pro-
duction units” within a more or less continuous mineralized
zone. In terms of median values for deposits, MVT size is
about 72 percent of SEDEX, Zn grade is approximately the
same, MVT Pb grade is 75 percent of SEDEX, and Ag grade
is 82 percent that of SEDEX. Three times as many SEDEX
deposits have reported Cu contents and the median Cu value
of SEDEX deposits is nearly double that of MVT deposits
(Table A1). Broken Hill-type deposits are significantly larger
than SEDEX in terms of size and Pb and Ag content. In
terms of median values, MVT deposits (excluding Irish) are
about 30 percent larger, contain 10 percent more Pb, 30 per-
cent more Ag grade, and about the same Zn grade relative to
Irish type. However, the few Irish-type deposits do not yield
a robust comparison.
Mississippi Valley-Type Deposits
Mississippi Valley-type deposits are found throughout the
world (App. A Map Files, App. B, Fig. B2) but are most abun-
dant in North America and Europe. Previous reviews of MVT
deposits include Ohle (1959, 1980), Callahan (1964), Snyder
(1967), Heyl et al. (1974), Hoagland (1976), Anderson and
Macqueen (1982), Sverjensky (1986), Leach and Sangster
(1993), and papers in Brown (1967), Kisvarsanyi et al. (1983),
and Sangster (1996). Mississippi Valley-type deposits owe
their commonly accepted name to the fact that several classic
districts are located in the drainage basin of the Mississippi
River in the central United States. Early models called upon
ore formation by dilute meteoric ground water, magmatic,
and connate fluids and invoked processes that ranged from
synsedimentary-exhalative to supergene activity involving
meteoric water. Sharp divisions of opinion existed between
geologists who believed the ores were syngenetic, early dia-
genetic, or epigenetic in origin. The syngenetic interpreta-
tions were mainly based on the stratiform nature of some ores
and ore textures that are now known to be the result of host-
rock replacement that mimic sedimentary features. Excellent
 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 565

TABLE 1. Summary Statistics for Select Parameters of Sediment-Hosted Pb-Zn Deposits,

including Subgroups MVT, SEDEX, Broken Hill-, and Irish-Type Deposits (data from Table A1)

Min 10th 25th 50th 75th Max n

MVT deposits (110 deposits, includes Irish)

Size (Mt) 0.6 0.65 2.0 7.2 19 300 110
Pb (Mt) 0 0.01 0.04 0.14 0.4 4.99 96
Zn (Mt) 0 0.04 0.13 0.37 1.08 15.62 104
Pb (%) 0.18 0.7 1.165 1.75 3.2 13 96
Zn (%) 0.23 1.9 3.7 6 9.58 24 104
Cu (%) 0.1 0.1 0.17 0.28 0.4 0.52 6
Ag (g/t) 1.2 10 17 37 69.7 485 31

SEDEX deposits (137 deposits, includes BHT)

Size (Mt) 0.01 1 2.78 11.5 42 476 137
Pb (Mt) 0 0.03 0.08 0.29 1 28 120
Zn (Mt) 0 0.05 0.15 0.58 1.97 27.39 130
Pb (%) 0.2 0.78 1.39 2.37 4.6 11.6 120
Zn (%) 0.4 1.66 3.11 5.12 8 21.7 130
Cu (%) 0.09 0.1 0.19 0.5 0.74 4.39 23
Ag (g/t) 1.1 10 23 46 71 538 76

MVT deposits (94 deposits, excludes Irish)

Size (Mt) 0.06 0.65 2 7.26 20 300 94
Pb (Mt) 0 0.01 0.05 0.15 0.46 5.0 80
Zn (Mt) 0 0.04 0.13 0.37 1.08 15.62 88
Pb (%) 0.3 0.7 1.17 2.0 3.5 13 80
Zn (%) 0.23 1.68 3.5 6 9.94 24 88
Cu (%) 0.1 0.1 0.15 0.26 0.33 0.4 5
Ag (g/t) 1.2 8.5 17 42 75 485 22

Irish deposits (16 deposits)

Size (Mt) 0.15 1.04 2.03 5.3 13.95 95.3 16
Pb (Mt) 0 0.002 0.02 0.08 0.29 2 16
Zn (Mt) 0.01 0.04 0.11 0.34 1.01 7.9 16
Pb (%) 0.18 0.64 1.2 1.5 1.8 6.19 16
Zn (%) 2.67 3.5 4.65 5.98 7.65 12.43 16
Cu (%) 0.52 NA NA NA NA 0.52 1
Ag (g/t) 10 11.6 21.6 27 39.7 66 9

SEDEX deposits (129 deposits, excludes BHT)

Size (Mt) 0.01 1 2.72 10 31 476 129
Pb (Mt) 0 0.03 0.08 0.26 0.95 19.5 112
Zn (Mt) 0 0.05 0.15 0.57 1.96 27.39 122
Pb (%) 0.2 0.77 1.39 2.26 4.1 8 112
Zn (%) 0.4 1.68 3.25 5.55 8.5 21.7 122
Cu (%) 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.6 0.9 4.39 19
Ag (g/t) 1.1 7.5 22 45 67 224 70

BHT deposits (8 deposits)

Size (Mt) 0.8 3.14 26.2 83.3 125.5 280 8
Pb (Mt) 0.09 0.26 0.75 1.6 4.06 28 8
Zn (Mt) 0.02 0.10 0.39 1.72 6.56 23.8 8
Pb (%) 0.55 0.69 1.84 5.64 10.5 11.6 8
Zn (%) 0.59 0.94 2.1 2.95 5.75 8.5 8
Cu (%) 0.09 NA 0.09 0.22 0.54 0.75 4
Ag (g/t) 12.9 14.59 29.83 98.05 400 538 6

Notes: Max = maximum value; Min = minimum value; NA = not applicable; 10th = 10th percentile; 25th = 25th percentile; 75th = 75th percentile, n = num-
ber of deposits with data for given parameter; (g/t) = grams per ton

perspectives of this debate are summarized by Snyder (1967),
Brown (1970), and Ohle (1970).
Modern thoughts on the origin of MVT deposits began with
fluid inclusion studies that showed the ore fluids were similar
to oil-field brines (Newhouse, 1933; Hall and Friedman,
1963; Roedder et al., 1963; White, 1968). A major step in
understanding their genesis was the suggestion that they
formed by the mixing of multiple basinal fluids with contrast-
ing reduced sulfur and metal content (e.g., Dunham, 1966).
Early models assumed that MVT deposits had no connection
with tectonic processes. However, in the last 25 years, studies
have noted the association of MVT ore genesis to major

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566 LEACH ET AL.
crustal tectonic events (e.g., Garven, 1985; Leach and Rowan
1986; Oliver, 1986; Bethke and Marshak, 1990; Oliver, 1992).
Perhaps the most significant achievements in understanding
MVT ore genesis have been from advances in dating MVT
ores (e.g., Leach et al. 2001, and references therein).
Scale of mineralization and diversity
Some MVT hydrothermal events formed multiple districts
in a large area that define huge metallogenic provinces (e.g.,
Ozark and the Appalachian provinces: Ohle, 1959; Leach,
1994, Kesler, 1996). Deposits within districts usually have
similar deposit attributes and ore controls, whereas districts
can be quite distinct. This diversity is well illustrated by the
Ozark MVT province in the United States midcontinent (Fig.
B3) that includes the world-class districts of the Old Lead
Belt and Viburnum Trend (galena dominant), the Tri-State
district, and the smaller Northern Arkansas, Central Missouri
(sphalerite, galena, plus barite), and Southeast Missouri
barite districts (barite dominant), and regional iron sulfide
mineralization. This metallogenic province was the product of
an enormous hydrothermal system that affected more than
350,000 km3 of rock in the late Paleozoic in response to con-
vergent plate tectonics in the Ouachita fold belt (Leach, 1994,
and references therein). Each ore district has a unique com-
bination of ore assemblages, ore controls, host rocks, alter-
ation, isotopic characteristics, and geochemistry (Table B1;
Fig. B4). The diversity shown by these ore districts is the re-
sult of the interplay between a range of ore depositional
processes (Fig. B5) and paleohydrological controls on the mi-
gration of the ore fluids, together with rock-water interactions
in multiple aquifers.
The Appalachian province consists of several districts and
widespread occurrences in the eastern United States and
Canada that formed during a series of Paleozoic tectonic
events in the Appalachian orogen (Kesler, 1996). Kesler (1996)
proposed that mineralization was controlled by four different
paleoaquifers, within some 10 Appalachian MVT brine
provinces, which produced numerous deposits by the mixing
of metal-bearing brines with fluids containing reduced sulfur.
Included in the Appalachian province are the East Tennessee
district (including the Mascot-Jefferson City district), New-
foundland Zinc, and the Austinville-Ivanhoe district.
Host rocks
The age of MVT host rocks peaks in the Cambrian to Late
Carboniferous and Triassic to Cretaceous with a paucity of
deposits in Silurian and Permian rocks. Despite the abun-
dance of Proterozoic carbonate rocks, there are relatively few
MVT deposits in these rocks. The significance of these obser-
vations is discussed below.
More MVT deposits are hosted in dolostone relative to
limestone, and dolostone-hosted deposits are generally larger
and contain higher Pb, Zn, and Ag grades. The preference for
mineralization to be hosted by dolostone may be related to a
higher transmissivity to fluid flow relative to limestone. An ex-
ception to this tendency is the large and high-grade Navan
deposit in the Irish Midlands that is hosted by limestone.
Most dolostones in MVT districts have a complex history
that can include pre-, syn-, and postore dolomitizing events.
It is commonly unclear if the dolostone played a role in local-
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 566
izing the ore or if the dolostone was a product of the miner-
alization event. For example, all of the ore produced from the
Upper Silesia district is hosted in what is locally called the
“ore-bearing dolostone.” Two main opinions are debated for
the origin of the ore-bearing dolostone: pre- and synmineral-
ization (e.g., Sass-Gustkiewicz and Dzulynski, 1998; Leach et
al., 2003). In the Viburnum Trend, 95 percent of the ore is
hosted in a regional dolostone, located less than 2 km from a
facies transition to limestone. The host dolostone formed dur-
ing several preore diagenetic events (e.g., Gerdemann and
Meyers, 1972; Lyle, 1977). However, there is abundant re-
gional hydrothermal dolomite that is pre-, syn-, and postmin-
eralization (Gregg, 1985; Voss and Hagni, 1985; Rowan,
1986).
Grade and tonnage
Mississippi Valley-type deposits are characteristically dis-
tributed over hundreds of square kilometers that define indi-
vidual ore districts. Large MVT districts include Southeast
Missouri (3,000 km2), Tri-State (1,800 km2), Pine Point (1,600
km2), Alpine (10,000 km2), Upper Silesia (2,800 km2), Irish
Midlands (8,000 km2), and the Upper Mississippi Valley
(7,800 km2). Pine Point contains more than 80 deposits and
the Upper Mississippi Valley nearly 400 deposits. Individual
deposits can be small in some districts. Most deposits in the
Pine Point district contain between 0.2 and 2 million tons
(Mt) of ore, and the largest has nearly 18 Mt (Sangster, 1990).
Heyl et al. (1959) reported that the average deposit size in the
Upper Mississippi Valley district was between 0.1 and 0.5 Mt,
although a few contained as much as 3 Mt of ore.
Because production and reserve data for MVT deposits,
particularly in the United States, are commonly presented
only as district totals, the size, grade, and metal-ratio parame-
ters for individual deposits are difficult to compile. For exam-
ple, the Viburnum Trend deposits in Table A1 are effectively
production units within a mineralized zone that continues for
more than 60 km (Fig. B6).
The largest 30 MVT deposits are shown in Figure 1. Figure
2 compares the size of MVT districts to individual deposits
and exhibits a correlation between size and grade that will be
addressed below. Navan (95.3 Mt at 2.1 wt % Pb and 8.3 wt
% Zn) is the largest active mine, with a metal endowment
greater than most districts.
Mineralogy, zoning, and geochemical halos
Most MVT deposits have a simple mineralogy, consisting
primarily of sulfide minerals that are dominated by sphalerite,
galena, and iron sulfides. Barite may be present in minor to
trace amounts and fluorite is rare. Barite dominates over sul-
fides in a few smaller districts that include the Central Mis-
souri and Southeast Missouri barite districts (Leach, 1980)
and the Sweetwater district in Tennessee (e.g., Kesler, 1996).
The Viburnum Trend has one of the most complex mineralo-
gies, consisting of a variety of Cu, Co, Ni, Fe, Ag, and Sb sul-
fides and sulfosalts (e.g., Heyl, 1983). Cadmium, Ge, Ga, In,
barite, and fluorite have been recovered from some districts.
Copper and Ni are not common constituents of MVT deposits
except those in the Southeast Missouri lead district. Silver is
reported for 31 of 110 deposits in Table A1, with a median
value of 37 g/t and the 90th percentile value of 41 g/t. Total
 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 567

22.5 Missouri district. Some ores, such as those in the East Ten-
nessee and Newfoundland Zinc districts, are essentially Pb
20 free.
17.5
In the Ozark region (Fig. B3), Erickson et al. (1983) iden-
Total Pb + Zn Metal (Mt)

tified regional geochemical halos of trace elements in insolu-

15 ble residues of barren carbonate rocks that extend for several
hundred kilometers from the MVT districts. Primary disper-
12.5 sion halos of metals around deposits are generally small (less
than 50–75 m in the Upper Mississippi Valley districts and
10
less than 125 cm in Central Tennessee; Lavery et al., 1994,
7.5 and references therein). Zones of Zn-bearing hydrothermal
dolomite (Zn bound in the crystal lattice) extend to 50 m from
5 ore in the Viburnum Trend (Viets et al., 1983) and several
kilometers in the Upper Silesia district (Bak, 1986).
2.5
Geochemical zoning in MVT deposits has been described
0 in only a few areas (e.g., in the Irish Midlands, Southeast Mis-
Touissit-Bou Beker
Mehdiabad
Admiral Bay
Navan
Reocin
Fankou
Pavlovskoye
Buick
Komdok
Daliangzi

Polaris

Florida Canyon

Tianbaoshan
Lisheen

El Abed
Pillara (Blendvale)
Urultun
Magmont
Nanisivik
Huayuan
Silvermines
Galmoy
Emarat
Raibl
Gayna River
Sumsar
Prairie Creek
Bleiberg

Cadjebut Trend

souri, Pine Point, and Upper Mississippi Valley districts). Per-

San Vicente

haps the best-developed zoning is for some deposits in the

Irish Midland, where metal-bearing fluids were highly fo-
cused into limestone by steeply dipping basement-rooted
faults. Deposits in the Southeast Missouri districts have zon-
FIG. 1. Bar diagram showing largest 30 MVT deposits based on total Pb +
ing patterns of Pb, Zn, Fe, Cu, Ni, and Co; however, these
Zn content (Mt). Data listed in Table A1. patterns are highly irregular along the trend of deposits (e.g.,
Hagni, 1983; Mavrogenes et al., 1992, and references
therein). At Pine Point, Fe/(Fe + Zn + Pb) and Zn/(Zn + Pb)
silver production can be substantial; for example, during the ratios increase outward from prismatic brecccia (high verti-
period 1960 to 1990, silver production from the Viburnum cal-lateral aspect ratio) orebodies (Kyle, 1981).
Trend averaged 45.9 t/yr. With the exception of the Southeast
Missouri district, all major MVT districts are Zn rich relative Alteration
to Pb and have Zn/(Zn + Pb) ratios greater than 0.5. By Dissolution of carbonate host rocks: The most common al-
contrast, this metal ratio is less than 0.1 for the Southeast teration associated with MVT deposits is dissolution and hy-
drothermal brecciation of the carbonate host rocks that result
from acid-producing reactions commonly associated with
Deposits fluid mixing (Corbella et al., 2004). The most significant acid
100 production occurs from the mixing of reduced sulfur-bearing
Mehdiabad fluids with a metal-bearing fluid and, to a lesser extent, by sul-
Reocin fate reduction in the ore zone.
Navan Hydrothermal carbonates: Hydrothermal dolomite occurs
Fankou in most MVT deposits as replacement of the host carbonates
10 Buick Admiral Bay and/or as cement in intergranular porosity and open-space
Pavlovskoye fill. Calcite is common in a few MVT districts (e.g., Central
Pb +Zn (Mt)

Polaris Komdok Tennessee) and is more likely to be present in limestone-

Daliangzi
dominated lithologies (e.g., Irish Midlands). Hydrothermal
dolomite may be pre-, syn-, or postore and form distinctive al-
teration halos around the deposits (e.g., Irish Midlands, East
1
Tennessee, and Tri-State districts). At Pine Point, Krebs and
Macqueen (1984) reported eight major paragenetic stages,
within which there were at least seven periods of dolomite or
calcite deposition. Hydrothermal dolomite cement, com-
monly associated with trace amounts of sulfides, may be pre-
sent in ore-barren carbonate rocks hundreds of kilometers
1 10 100 1000
Size (Mt) from the ore deposits, reflecting the regional scale of some
Districts MVT ore events, such as in the Ozark region (Rowan, 1986),
Austinville-Ivanhoe Lennard Shelf Sanandaj - Sirjan
Central Tennessee Metaline SE Missouri Lead
Central and East Tennessee districts (e.g., Montanez, 1996),
Cevennes Morrocco Tri-State and the Western Canada basin (e.g., Qing and Mountjoy,
Cornwallis Nanling Upper Mississippi Valley 1992).
Irish Midlands Pine Point Upper Silesia Although hydrothermal dolomite is usually associated with
Kildare Red Sea Touissit-Bou Beker MVT mineralizing events, its complex relationship with sulfides
FIG. 2. Size (Mt) of MVT deposits vs. total metal (Pb + Zn) content (Mt) and common widespread distribution without associated min-
for MVT deposits and districts. Data listed in Table A1. eralization restricts its use in exploration. The Irish Midlands

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 567

568 LEACH ET AL.
is an exception because specific types of hydrothermal
dolomite (dolomite-matrix breccias) are usually associated
with mineralization (Hitzman et al, 1992; Doyle and Bowden,
1995; Hitzman, 1996; Wilkinson and Earls, 2000).
Silicification: Quartz and hydrothermal silicification of the
host carbonate rocks are generally minor in most MVT de-
posits. The amount of quartz present depends largely on the
temperature of ore deposition and the amount of cooling that
occurred during ore formation. Silica precipitation can be
suppressed by dilution and cooling as a consequence of fluid
mixing during ore deposition (e.g., Plumlee et al., 1994), due
to kinetic inhibition of precipitation at low temperatures.
However, if the dilutant is above about 200°C, the rate of sil-
ica precipitation is higher, and thus there is more quartz in
hotter systems (Rimstidt, 1997). Extensive silicification is
most abundant in the Tri-State (Brockie et al., 1968) and the
Northern Arkansas districts (McKnight, 1935).
Organic matter: Although organic matter is present in vari-
able amounts and types in MVT deposits (Leventhal, 1990),
its relationship to ore genesis is generally uncertain. Liquid or
solid petroleum-type organic matter, if present in the ores,
has rarely been observed in primary fluid inclusions in main-
stage minerals. Studies of organic material from the Vibur-
num Trend district (e.g, Leventhal, 1990) show that organic
matter in the ore was thermally and compositionally altered
by the ore fluids. Thermal alteration of biomarkers in organic
matter was used to calculate the duration of the ore-forming
event in the Upper Mississippi Valley district (Rowan and
Goldhaber, 1995).
Clay, mica, and feldspar diagenesis: Formation or destruc-
tion of clay, mica, and feldspar minerals is recognized in a few
deposits. Authigenic K silicates related to ore formation are
reported in the Upper Mississippi Valley (Hay et al., 1988),
East Tennessee (Hearn et al., 1987), Newfoundland Zinc
(Hall et al., 1989), and Gays River (Ravenhurst et al., 1987)
districts. Alteration of feldspars has been observed in the
Southeast Missouri lead district (Stormo and Sverjensky,
1983) and regionally in the basal sandstone (Diehl et al.,
1989).
Deposit morphology
Deposits are commonly discordant on a deposit scale but
strata bound on a district scale. The location and geometry of
most MVT deposits reflect the interplay between faults, pre-
ore carbonate dissolution features, and permeable strati-
graphic units. In some deposits, extensive mineralized zones
are stratiform in nature (Fig. 3A).
One of the most characteristic morphologies of many MVT
deposits is dissolution-collapse breccias. They vary from the
prismatic breccias of Pine Point (Rhodes et al., 1984; Kyle,
1981) and columnar breccias of East Tennessee (Ohle, 1985)
to the low domal breccias and stratiform breccias of the Tri-
State and Upper Silesia districts. In plan view, some breccia-
hosted deposits (East and Central Tennessee districts) appear
as a reticulate pattern similar to karst cave systems. In con-
trast, the Viburnum Trend contains breccia-hosted ores that
occur in narrow breccia trends (less than several hundred me-
ters wide but up to 10 km long).
Fault-controlled deposits vary significantly in shape and
size, reflecting the influence of a variety of structural and
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 568
lithological controls. Important variations on fault-controlled
morphology range from the steeply dipping fracture-con-
trolled ores of Raible and the Irish Midlands (discussed in
more detail below), to the graben-controlled ores of Upper
Silesia (Fig. B7), Morocco (Fig. 3B), and Reocin (Fig. 3C).
Salt-dome environments provide a minor but interesting
form of MVT ores. Sulfides are present in the cap-rock min-
eral assemblage, as fracture fill and as replacement of car-
bonate host rocks. The most important deposits are the Fedj
el Adoum and Bou Grine deposits (Fig. B8) in Tunisia. Other
significant but presently noneconomic occurrences are in the
Gulf Coast of the United States (Kyle and Saunders, 1996)
and Tunisia (Rouvier et al., 1985; Orgeval, 1994).
Ore textures
Deposition of ore in MVT districts throughout the world
involves an inextricable link between sulfide precipitation,
dissolution, host-rock replacement, open-space filling, and
solution-collapse brecciation. This interrelationship exists be-
cause sulfide precipitation is nearly always an acid-generating
process. Ore textures from MVT deposits can be highly com-
plex due to commonly inherited fabrics of the replaced host
rock and the ore-forming processes. The ores can be ex-
tremely fine grained but in some districts crystals up to a
meter or more occur (e.g., Tri-State and Central Tennessee
districts).
The large variety of ore textures present in MVT deposits
are described in detail in Leach and Sangster (1993) and ref-
erences therein. The most important textures include the fol-
lowing features. Fine-grained banded ore: Fine-scale banding
(millimeter- to micron-size bands) is common in individual
crystals and in some deposits (e.g., Upper Mississippi Valley
district) and can be correlated throughout the district (McLi-
mans et al., 1980; Fig. 4); colloform and dendritic ores: These
are fine-scale (<1-mm) banded sulfides, spherolitic aggre-
gates of colloform sphalerite, dark bands of fibrous aggregates
of crystals (schalenblende), zones of dendritic galena, and
iron sulfides in discrete bands or botryoidal masses. This tex-
ture provides evidence for open-space deposition. (Fig. 4D-
F); replacement ores: Nearly complete replacement of host
rock can produce massive sulfides (e.g., Nanisivik, Fig. 4A, C,
G, H). Replacement can be remarkably selective (Fig. 4H, I)
for a specific rock fabric; sulfides can replace fossils, stylolitic
seams, thin organic-rich or stromatolitic layers (Fig. 4I); dis-
solution collapse breccias: These are commonly multistage
breccias that may include pre- and synore breccias. Textures
in dissolution collapse bodies include (1) rock-matrix brec-
cias, composed of fragments of the host carbonate rocks sup-
ported by a matrix of finer grained carbonate rock fragments
(Fig. 4J); (2) crackle breccias, which may occur in the upper
part of dissolution collapse bodies, which consist of highly
fractured rock without rotation of individual clasts; (3) ore-
matrix breccias (Fig. 4B, E, K, M, P) that consist of host-rock
fragments cemented by sparry calcite, dolomite, or sulfides;
(4) hydrothermally altered and replaced breccias (Fig. 4L-N)
that are produced by hydrothermal dissolution coeval with
ore formation, and the presence of rotated and transported
clasts of previously deposited sulfides are diagnostic; and (5)
internal sediments (Fig. B9) of stratified sand- to clay-size
disaggregated wall rock may contain sulfide and rock clasts
 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 569

A) B) N
NW SE S Chebikat
Mennjel
Mine el Akhal Missouine Graben el Hamra
Horst

r
Rive
Horst
Shaft 1 Shaft 9 Shaft 12
Metaline Fm
Ledbetter Fm Josephine

Yellowhead

Yellowhead mineralization Slate Creek Fault

Josephine mineralization 500 m

C) Old open pit MEKTA BEDDIANE

SE ore zone ore zone
NW
~ 50 m
Rubble ~ 1 km

r VISEAN BASEMENT MESOZOIC COVER

Su
pa
Ca Upper Bajocian-Bathonian (marls
and carbonated sandstones)
Schists
rte Callovo-Oxfordian (marls and sandstones)
o
p aN Dacites
Ca Aalenobajocian (dolostones)

Marly limestones and calcarenites Pb-Cu (Zn) mineralization

Sandstones and marls
Dolostones, sandstones, and marls
E)
100 m Dolostones
SW SILVERMINES NE
0 500 1000 m Marly limestones
Ore zones and lens
Chadian carbonate turbidites
G Zone
D) Ballysteen Limestone Waulsortian Limestone
S WAULSORTIAN N Lower
Palaeozoic Old Red
rocks Sandstone B Zone
Pyrite
ABL Pyrite HG DS
200m

Oolite
S TYNAGH N
X XX Zinc - lead - (iron) ore zones
X XX ABL MS ABL X
X
ABL X Silica - hematite zone
Not to Scale (”Iron formation”)
Old Red Ballysteen Limestone Hydrothermal dolostone
Type 1 - Pyritic massive sulfide X X
Type 4 - Vein/Stringer sulfide Sandstone (ABL) breccia
Type 2 - Massive sulfide Type 5 - ABL hosted sulfide Interbedded shale and limestone
(Silvermines)
Type 3 - Disseminated sulfide Type 6 - Oolite hosted sulfide
Reef core (Tynagh only)
ABL MS - Massive sulfide in ABL HG DS - High grade disseminated Fault
mineralization
FIG. 3. Sections showing geology and mineralization in select MVT deposits. A. Cross section of the Metaline area, Wash-
ington State, United States. Modified from Hoy et al. (2000). B. Generalized section showing piano keylike horst/graben
structure of the Toussit-Bou Bou-Beker mining district, Morocco. From Bouabdellah et al. (1996). C. Cross section through
the central part of the Reocin deposit, Spain, showing the relationship of the ore lenses and the host dolostones. Modified
from Velasco et al. (2003). D. Conceptual model (not to scale) for mineralization at Lisheen, Ireland. From Fusciardi et al.
(2003). E. Cross sections through the Silvermines and Tynagh deposits, Ireland. From Hitzman and Beaty (1996).

(Fig. 4O). Fault and sedimentary breccias: Fault breccias
consist of clasts of adjacent local host rocks in contrast to
polylithic fragments in dissolution collapse breccias. Sedi-
mentary breccias can show soft-sediment deformation and, in
the case of the Boulder Conglomerate in the Navan mine,
provide critical constraints on timing of mineralization. Other
textures include: (1) snow on roof which typically consists of
sulfides preferentially coating the tops of crystals or breccia
clasts in open space (Fig. 4D, P); (2) pseudobreccia is a brec-
cia-like fabric that is produced by the selective replacement
of a particular host-rock fabric; (3) zebra texture is usually
gangue dolomite that formed by a variety of processes (i.e.,
selective replacement of primary rock fabric, open-space fill-
ing of dilated bedding planes and fractures); (4) rhythmites
consist of rhythmically banded ore containing distinct gener-
ations of sphalerite or gangue carbonate that usually develop

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 569

570 LEACH ET AL.

A B

C D

10 cm
2 cm

E F

1 cm

G H

1 cm

FIG. 4. Samples from selected MVT deposits showing diversity of textures. A. Zebra texture from the Newfoundland Zinc
district consisting of interlayered dolomite, host rock, and sulfides. Photograph from Tom Lane. B. Sphalerite and hy-
drothermal dolomite cementing dolostone breccia clasts, Lucky Dog Mine, northern Arkansas district. C. Stratiform spha-
lerite and pyrite from the Reocin mine, Spain. This ore type extends for hundreds of meters in the lower part of the deposit.
D. Sample of spheroidal sphalerite with dendritic sphalerite, galena, and iron sulfides (pyrite plus marcasite) from the Po-
morzany mine. Note the “up direction” is indicated by “snow-on-the-roof” texture of galena and sphalerite along colloform
layers of light-colored sphalerite. Hydrothermal sulfide clasts in the left center of the sample are encrusted by sphalerite and
iron sulfides. Size of sample is 20 × 13 cm. E. Brecciated fragments of colloform sphalerite cemented by hydrothermal
dolomite, Pine Point district, Canada. F. Dendritic galena and colloform sphalerite from the Pomorzany mine, Upper Sile-
sia, Poland.

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 570

 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 571

I J

5 cm

K L

M N

3cm

O P

10 cm 2 cm

FIG. 4. (Cont.) G. Massive sulfide ore from the Nanisivik deposit, Northwest Territories, Canada, showing bedding-par-
allel sphalerite and pyrite with sparry dolomite. H. Selective replacement of fine-grained dolostone by pyrite, controlled by
fractures. Fabric of the host rock remains visible in the pyrite. From Salah Bouhlel. I. Selective sphalerite replacement of
thin, organic-rich layers in dolostone, Monte Cristo Mine, northern Arkansas district. J. Preore dissolution collapse breccia
in the Buick mine, Viburnum Trend. This breccia is the host for the ore matrix breccia in Figure 11N. K. Sample from the
Gayna River Proterozoic MVT deposit, Canada. L. Hydrothermally altered and replaced preore dissolution collapse breccia
in the Upper Silesia district, Poland. Stratigraphic top is to left in the image. Note the selective replacement of the fine rock
matrix by sulfides. M. Replaced preore dissolution breccia of the Yellowhead ore zone in the Metaline mine, Washington,
United States. Superimposed hydrothermal alteration has modified the original texture. Note rotated mineralized clasts.
From Jerry Zieg. N. Galena replacement of fine rock matrix in preore dissolution collapse breccia in the Buick mine, Vibur-
num Trend. O. Hydrothermal internal sediments for the Polaris mine, Northwest Territories, Canada. Note clastic sulfides
and the graded bedding. P. Cavity fill of sparry dolomite and sphalerite from the Newfoundland Zinc district. Note the spha-
lerite lining the bottoms of cavities and top of clasts. From Tom Lane.

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 571

572 LEACH ET AL.

from cycles of dissolution and open-space filling; and (5) spe- serious conflict exists between Rb-Sr and paleomagnetic
oleothem-like sulfides consists of a variety of dripstone-like dates for three of the four districts in dispute: Pine Point, East
stalactites, stalagmites, curtains, and drape stones. Tennessee (Mascot-Jefferson City), and Upper Silesia. The
Heijlen et al. (2003) study for Upper Silesia was challenged
Age of ore deposition by Bradley et al. (2004) and Emsbo et al. (in prep.) because
For many years, the most significant obstacle to under- of clay included in the sphalerite from the Upper Silesia dis-
standing the genesis of MVT deposits was the lack of infor- trict. The pros and cons of Rb-Sr isotope and paleomagnetic
mation on the age of mineralization. Recent advances for dat- dating of MVT deposits are presented in Kesler and Carrigan
ing MVT deposits (Leach et al., 2001) have used (2002), Leach et al. (2002), Bradley et al (2004), and Kesler et
high-precision paleomagnetic dating and radiometric dating al. (2004). Resolution of this dispute is a critical area for fu-
by Re-Os, U-Pb, U-Th in calcite, Rb-Sr in sphalerite, Ar-Ar ture research.
and K-Ar on feldspar and clay minerals. The results of these
dating efforts are shown in Figure 5, including recent dates Tectonic setting of MVT deposits
for Re-Os on bitumen from the Polaris mine (Selby and The most important period for MVT genesis was the De-
Creaser, 2003), an Ar-Ar date for Nanisivik (Sherlock et al., vonian to the Permian, which corresponds to a series of in-
2004), and an Rb-Sr date for Upper Silesia (Heijlen et al., tense tectonic events during the assimilation of Pangea (Fig.
2003). Leach et al. (2001) did not include a few published 5). The second most important period for MVT deposit gen-
dates because they provided unusually broad age constraints esis was the Cretaceous to the Tertiary when microplate as-
(minimum or maximum ages) or they were geologically un- similation affected the western margin of North America and
reasonable (i.e., provided ages that were older than the host Africa-Eurasia. Based on the deposits that have been dated, it
rocks). appears that few MVT deposits were formed during periods
There is good agreement between the reported ages from of major plate dispersal represented by the Late Proterozoic
radiometric and paleomagnetic techniques. Nevertheless, the to early Paleozoic period and the rapid breakup of Pangea in
timing of ore deposition continues to be hotly debated for the Triassic through the Jurassic. Thus, the time of most MVT
some districts. Part of the debate is due to large uncertainties deposits broadly coincides with major contractional events in
in the ages for some studies (on the order of ±10–20 m.y.) and the Phanerozoic. This interpretation is consistent with a long-
debatable interpretations of the geologic constraints on the recognized connection between many MVT deposits and oro-
timing of ore deposition. Only four of the 19 districts or de- genic forelands (Garven, 1985; Mitchell, 1985; Leach and
posits that have been dated have conflicting ages of mineral- Rowan, 1986; Oliver, 1986; Leach et al., 2001). Bradley and
ization. One dispute is between the paleomagnetic age Leach (2003) examined the tectonic aspects of foreland evo-
(Symons et al., 2001) and Ar-Ar age for the Proterozoic- lution and concluded that the type of foreland is not a critical
hosted Nanisivik deposit (Sherlock et al., 2004). The most control on ore formation. Mississippi Valley-type deposits are
located in collisional (Ozark MVT province), Andean (west-
ern Canada basin deposits), and transpressional orogens
(Cévennes district; Fig. 6). Also associated with orogens are
Assimilation of Pangea Pangea Pangea Rapid Alpine-
MVT deposits that occur in fold and thrust belts. Some de-
Stable Unstable Breakup Laramide
District/Deposit of Pangea Assimilation posits formed in flat-lying rocks or were later caught up in the
age PC C O S D C P Tr J K T thrusting. Others formed synchronously with thrusting and
others formed after burial by the thrusts.
Ma 600 500 400 300 200 100
Some MVT deposits clearly formed in a large-scale exten-
Polaris
sional environment. The best examples of MVT formation in
Pine Point
Newfoundland an extensional environment are the Lennard Shelf deposits.
Zinc The age obtained for ore deposition (Christensen et al., 1995;
Gays River
Eastern Tennessee Brannon et al, 1996) coincides with crustal extension of the
Central Tennessee Fitzroy trough. There are no compressive tectonic events that
Southeastern
Missouri
affected the region since the time that the host rocks were
Central Missouri deposited.
N. Ark.Tri-State
Avecilla Extensional tectonic control
Upper Silesia Although MVT deposits typically formed during crustal-
U. Miss Valley scale contractional events, the single most important tectonic
Lennard Shelf
Cevènnes
controls at the deposit or district scale are extensional faults
Irish (normal, transtensional, and wrench faults) and associated
Robb Lake Legend fractures and dilatancy zones. This relationship applies to
Monarch- Host Rocks most MVT districts, including the Ozark MVT province (e.g.,
Kicking Horse
Paleomag. Clendenin and Duane, 1990). Bradley and Leach (2003) dis-
Nanisivik*
* Paleomagnetic age for Nanisivik 1100 Ma Radiometric cussed MVT deposits that formed within extensional domains
FIG. 5. Distribution of radiometric and paleomagnetic ages of MVT de-
that developed due to lithospheric flexure (Fig. 7) or in large
posits and their host rocks in the Phanerozoic. Modified from Leach et al. dilational zones within bounding strike-slip faults during
(2001). large-scale contractional events. Ordovician normal faults

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 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 573

A) Collisional orogen A) Syncollision

continental migrating
arc crust crust forebulge axis of advancing
Ozark MVT drowning submarine
oceanic crust
foredeep Province emerging karst platform outer slope migrating
foredeep orogen
platform sea level
mantle lithosphere

asthenosphere SEDEX barite

backflow

B) Andean-type orogen foreland Western MVT

basin Canada flexurally
Basin MVT (Sedex?)
induced
normal fault

~250 km

asthenosphere
backflow B) Post collision
overfilled degraded
200 km forebulge mountain front
foreland basin

C) Inversion orogen
foreland foreland
Ave basin basin Cevennes
recharge

basinal
brines

MVT in MVT in fault

Ore deposit
FIG. 6. Comparison of collisional, Andean, and transpressional orogens. A.
Collisional-type orogen. Arc-passive margin collision, based on Neogene ex-
amples from Timor, New Guinea, and Taiwan, and various older examples in-
cluding the Taconic and Ouachita orogenies. B. Andean-type orogen. Based
on the present-day Andes and the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene Laramide sys-
tem of western North America. Convecting asthenosphere contributes to
foreland subsidence on a broad, regional scale, which sets this type of fore-
land system apart from others. C. Inversion-type orogen. Flanking both sides
are thrust-loaded foreland basins, based on the Pyrenees. From Bradley and
Leach (2003).
related to the Taconic collision controlled MVT mineraliza-
tion in the Newfoundland Zinc district (Bradley, 1993). Far-
field tectonic effects in the host rocks for MVT deposits com-
monly reflect reactivation of preexisting faults and fractures
in the basement (e.g., Ozark province, Irish Midlands, and
Cèvennes). Far-field extension inboard of orogenic belts can
extend several hundred kilometers into the foreland and may
explain districts such as those in the Western Canada basin,
Upper Mississippi Valley, and the Irish Midlands. Thus, the
endowment of orogenic forelands with MVT deposits reflects
the link between contractional events in orogenic zones, in-
board extensional tectonic domains, and fluid flow. The ex-
tensional domains provide fluid drains for large regional
aquifers (i.e., Ozark region) or focused pathways for the as-
cent of fluids in buoyancy driven hydrothermal systems.
Nature of the ore fluids
Temperature of the ore fluids: Fluid inclusion temperatures
in MVT deposits range from about 50° to 250°C; however,
most of the temperatures are between 90° and 150°C (Fig. 8).
These ranges are similar to values determined by Basuki and
Spooner (2004). The highest fluid inclusion temperatures
(~180° to >200°C) recorded are for the Irish Midlands and
Gays River, ores that were relatively near each other during
buried karst
~250 km
Ore deposit
FIG. 7. Block diagrams showing foreland evolution. A. During plate con-
vergence, a submarine thrust belt loads the passive margin, thereby forming
the foreland basin, extensional domain, and forebulge. Plate convergence
continually causes these features to migrate across the foreland plate. The
foreland basin remains underfilled because the depocenter migrates. Barite
mineralization along the foredeep axis is based on examples from the Oua-
chitas. B. Plate convergence has ceased and the foreland basin has filled with
sediment, creating hydrologic conditions favorable for MVT mineralization.
This is the situation corresponding to mineralization in the Ozark region.
From Bradley and Leach (2003).
ore deposition but drifted apart during the opening of the At-
lantic (Leach et al., 2001). In many districts (e.g. the deposits
in the Ozarks region in the United States midcontinent, Irish
Midlands, Upper Silesia, and Cèvennes districts), the fluid in-
clusion temperatures generally exceed values expected for ge-
ologically reasonable thermal gradients and estimated strati-
graphic burial temperatures at the time of mineralization.
Therefore, the temperatures observed for many ore deposits
must be explained by unusually high geothermal gradients,
advective heat transport from deeper parts of the basin (i.e.,
Ozark MVT province), or the ascent of deeply circulating flu-
ids in basement rocks beneath the deposits (e.g., Upper Sile-
sia and Irish Midlands).
Salinity: The salinities of MVT fluids determined from
fluid inclusions are typically 10 to 30 wt percent NaCl equiv
(Fig. 9). The compositional similarities between MVT inclu-
sion fluids and oil-field brines are well established and have
led to widespread acceptance of a basin-generated origin for
MVT fluids (e.g., White, 1958; Hanor, 1979). The high salin-
ity of sedimentary basins brines is explained by the dissolution
of evaporites, incorporation of connate bittern brines, or

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574 LEACH ET AL.

Deposit / District Deposit / District

Ozark region
Central Missouri Central Missouri
Ozark region

Tri-State

U.S.
Northern Arkansas
U.S.

Tri-State Viburnum Trend

Old Lead Belt Old Lead Belt

Mid-Cont.
Viburnum Trend

western U.S. Appalachian U.S.

Mid-cont.

Upper Mississippi Central Tennessee

U.S.

Valley
Central Tennessee
Austinville/Ivanhoe
Gays River
Appalachian

Austinville/Ivanhoe
East Tennessee
Gays River
East Tennessee

Canada -
Polaris
Pine Point Pine Point
western U.S.
Canada -

Robb Lake Robb Lake

Metaline Metaline
Nanisivik
Polaris Tynagh

Ireland
Silvermines
Tynagh Lisheen
Ireland

Silvermines Navan
Lisheen
Navan

U. Silesia
Alpine -
Upper Silesia
Africa Cevennes Upper Silesia

Bleiberg
Alpine -

Upper Silesia
Bleiberg
South Cevennes

Treves
Le Malines
Treves
Africa

Le Malines
Bushy Park
South

Bushy Park Morocco

Other

Reocin
Bou Grine
Reocin Lennard Shelf
Morocco
Other

Bou Grine
Lennard Shelf
60 90 120 150 180
Homogenization Temperature (oC)
FIG. 8. Summary of homogenization temperatures for sphalerite for se-
lected MVT deposits based on fluid inclusion studies. Vertical bar is the vi-
sually estimated median value. U.S. = United States, mid-cont. = middle con-
tinental. A complete list of data sources is presented in Appendix C (Fig. C1).
through infiltration of evaporated surface waters (Hanor,
1979).
For some deposits, fluid inclusion data show distinct mixing
trends between two different fluids (e.g., Irish Midlands,
Upper Silesia). More commonly, the fluid inclusion data show
large ranges in salinity that could reflect the presence and
variable mixing of multiple fluids during ore deposition (i.e.,
Viburnum Trend: Leach, 1994, and references therein).
Source of the fluids: The mole ratios of solutes measured in
present-day basinal brines (e.g., Rittenhouse, 1967; Carpen-
ter, 1978; Kharaka et al., 1987) have been used to determine
the source(s) of dissolved salts. These studies show that the
major solutes in basinal brines are derived from the subaerial
evaporation of seawater or from the dissolution of evaporate
minerals (primarily halite) in the subsurface. The brine com-
positions measured from fluid inclusions in sphalerite from
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
Salinity (NaCl wt.% eqv.)
FIG. 9. Summary of fluid inclusion salinity data from sphalerite for se-
210 240 270 lected MVT deposits based on fluid inclusion studies. Vertical bar is the vi-
sually estimated median value. U.S. = United States, mid-cont. = middle con-
tinental. A complete list of data sources is presented Appendix C (Fig. C2).
MVT districts are shown in Figure 10 (and Fig. C3A-E). De-
spite the fact that the data come from various laboratories
using several techniques for fluid inclusion extraction, they
are remarkably consistent and similar to present-day brines
that are formed mainly from subaerially evaporated seawater
(Kesler et al., 1996; Viets et al., 1996). Most of the data plot
close to the seawater evaporation line (Fig. 10). Although
these values do not entirely rule out the input of brines gen-
erated by halite dissolution (Chi and Savard, 1997), they in-
dicate that the contribution from such a fluid must be minor
except for a few districts. Fluid-rock reactions (dolomitiza-
tion, and feldspar and clay mineral diagenesis) explain the
slight shift of the molar ratios away from the evaporated sea-
water trend (Fig. C3A-E shows the Ca, Mg, and K systemat-
ics for the fluid inclusion electrolyte data corresponding to
Fig. 10).
Metal content of the ore fluids: The solubility of Zn and Pb
in chloride-rich brines at the conditions of MVT ore forma-
tion are reasonably established. Although metal-bisulfide and

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 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 575

1500 by the sediments in various minerals and or connate water

world MVT that was subsequently reduced by one or more processes
values outside (Sangster, 1990). The δ34S values for MVT sphalerite and
the main MVT field galena are typically less than those for seawater contempora-
neous in age with the host rocks (Sangster, 1990). Given that
1000 the isotopic compositions of oceanic sulfate varies consider-
ably with age, the range of δ34S values can be expanded de-
Cl/Br

pending on the mechanisms of sulfate reduction, and whether

Sea water the reduction occurred in an open or closed system, or
Gypsum whether the H2S was derived from organic material. Further-
500
more, the δ34S values for many districts reflect mixing of sul-
fur from different sources, isotopic fractionation as a function
Ksalts NaCl
of mineralogy, disequilibrium and kinetic effects between
MgSO4 mineral pairs, and chemical environment.
0 Given the complexities possible for sulfur isotope frac-
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 tionation, extreme variations in the δ34S values (Fig. 11) are
Na/Cl expected. Plotted in the diagram are the ranges of δ34S values
FIG. 10. Cl/Br- and Na/Br molar ratios of fluid inclusion solutes in spha-
lerite from world MVT deposits. The line is the change in the Cl/Br- and
Na/Br molar ratios of the residual fluid as seawater evaporates and precipi- Deposit / District
tates evaporite minerals. Details of the data, supplemental electrolyte data,

U.S. Ozark region

and data sources are given in Appendix C (Fig. C3). Viburnum Trend
Central Missouri
Old Lead Belt
organometallic complexes have been proposed, only metal- Tri-State
chloride complexes are considered likely base metal-transport- Appalachian Mid-Cont.
Central Tennessee
ing species for MVT ore fluids. Given the high salinity (~>10 Upper Mississippi Valley
wt %), the most important factors that control the solubility of
Pb and Zn in MVT brines are temperature, pH, and the activ-
ity of reduced sulfur. The effects of temperature and pH are Austinville/Ivanhoe
East Tennessee
considered less important than the activity of reduced sulfur Gays River
due to the low temperature of MVT ore fluids (~<200°C), high
chloride content, and limits imposed on the pH of the fluids by Pine Point
western U.S.
Canada -

the carbonate host rocks (e.g., Plumlee et al., 1994). This con- Rob Lake
Metaline
clusion is consistent with thermodynamic modeling (Fig. B10) Polaris
that shows that the dominant control on the content of Pb and Nanisivik
Zn in the MVT ore fluids is the activity of reduced sulfur (e.g.,
Anderson, 1983; Plumlee et al., 1994; Cooke et al., 2000; Tynagh
Ireland

Emsbo, 2000). Cooke et al. (2000) termed the two end-mem- Silvermines
Lisheen
ber fluid compositions (Emsbo, 2000) as either oxidized (sul- Navan
fate dominate) or reduced (reduced sulfur dominate), reflect-
ing the oxidation state of sulfur in basin brines.
U. Silesia
Alpine-

Mezica Upper Silesia

Present-day oil-field brines with significant metal content in- Bleiberg
clude brines in the Arkansas and Gulf Coast region in the United Raible
States (Carpenter et al., 1974; Kharaka et al., 1987; Moldovanyi
Africa Cevennes

and Walter, 1992; Hanor, 1996), northern Alberta (Billings et al., Villemagne
Treves
1969), and the Cheleken peninsula (Lebedev, 1973) regions. Le Malines
Present-day brines rarely have a pH below 4 and are more typi-
cally between 4.5 and 6 (e.g., Emsbo, 2000, and references
South

Pering
Bushy Park
therein). The Pb and Zn content of these brines can reach sev-
eral hundred parts per million and there is a pronounced inverse Reocin
Other

relationship with reduced sulfur content (Fig. B11). Morocco

Bou Grine
Sources of reduced sulfur: Sulfur isotope values of MVT
Lennard Shelf
sulfides throughout the world are consistent with sulfur being
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
derived from a variety of crustal sources (Ohmoto and Rye,
δ 34S (‰ CDT)
1979; Sangster, 1990). Individual deposits or districts have
one or more possible sources of sulfur that may include sul- FIG. 11. Distribution of sulfur isotopes compositions for sphalerite from
fate-bearing evaporites, connate seawater, diagenetic sulfides, selected MVT deposits. If source included a numerical listing of data, the
median (vertical white line), 25th and 90th percentiles (extent of box) and total
sulfur-bearing organic material, H2S reservoir gas, and reduced range of data (horizontal bar) were calculated and plotted. If source listed
sulfur in anoxic waters of stratified basins. The ultimate only range of values, data are shown by horizontal bar only. A complete list of
source of the sulfur is most likely seawater sulfate contained data sources is presented in Appendix D (Fig. D1).

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 575

576 LEACH ET AL.
for sphalerite from selected MVT deposits or districts and the
visually estimated values for the median and ~ 90th percentile
values of the data. Some of these distributions contain more
than one population of data representing multiple sulfur
sources (e.g., Navan, Viburnum Trend, Upper Silesia). For
these districts with multiple sources of sulfur, sampling arti-
facts are possible (Fallick et al., 2001). Furthermore, varia-
tions in isotopic values for different paragenetic stages are not
shown in Figure 11. For example, the δ34S values for spha-
lerite become more positive with younger paragenetic stages
for Navan (Anderson et al., 1998) but the contrary is true for
Upper Silesia (Leach et al., 1996).
Despite the variability of the data, some general observa-
tions are warranted. Biogenic sulfate reduction (BSR) is com-
monly invoked to explain the wide range in δ34S values in
MVT deposits and is the best explanation for the extreme
negative values of δ34S observed in some deposits. Because
the temperature of sulfide deposition in the deposits gener-
ally exceeded conditions capable of sustaining efficient bacte-
rial processes, BSR must have occurred at a different place
and/or time relative to sulfide deposition. However, fluid in-
clusion data suggest temperatures for some sphalerite depo-
sition as low as 50° to 70°C, which would permit BSR to occur
in some portion of the ore zones. Some MVT deposits had
steep thermal gradients away from ore (e.g., Upper Silesia)
that would permit BSR proximal to the ore zone. Tri-State,
Bleiberg, Mezica, Les Malines, and the Irish Midlands dis-
tricts all contain sphalerites with δ34S values characterized by
reduced sulfur produced from BSR.
Reduced sulfur can be derived from the thermal decompo-
sition of sulfur bound in organic matter and which yields
about 15 per mil fractionation of the original isotopic value of
sulfur in the organic matter (Hunt, 1996). Reduced sulfur can
be also be derived from the thermochemical reduction of sul-
fate (TSR) by organic matter, which yields sulfur isotope frac-
tionations less than about 0 to 15 per mil (see references in
Ohmoto and Rye, 1979) of the isotopic value of the sulfate
source. The rate of sulfate reduction by organic material is
thought to be too slow at the relatively low temperatures of
about 80° to 150°C (Orr, 1982) to account for sufficient pro-
duction of reduced sulfur locally within the ore deposit. How-
ever, reduced sulfur in many sedimentary basin fluids is com-
monly attributed to TSR at burial depths where temperatures
are sufficient to overcome the kinetic constraints (Orr, 1974;
Hanor 1994; Hunt 1996).
Mississippi Valley-type deposits with δ34S values lighter
than 15 per mil marine sulfate, corresponding to the ages of
the host rocks, are commonly interpreted to have involved
reduced sulfur derived by TSR. Such ores with large posi-
tive δ34S values (e.g., Austinville, East Tennessee-Mascot
Jefferson City, Nanisivik, Pine Point, and the Lennard
Shelf) are suggestive of TSR-derived reduced sulfur
(Ohmoto and Rye, 1979, p. 548). It is important to note,
however, that positive isotopic values with restricted ranges
can also be produced by closed-system BSR, as well as
through mixing of reduced sulfur from multiple sources in-
volving more than one reduction process. Considering that
both BSR and TSR processes can yield narrow distributions
with positive isotopic values, proof of the reduction process
is equivocal.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 576
Metal sources
A fundamental but unanswered question is whether the
metal-bearing fluids that formed the deposits required spe-
cific host-rock lithologies or rocks that contain high concen-
trations of metals Pb and Zn. Information from Pb isotope
data, discussed elsewhere in this paper, suggest a variety of
crustal sources for MVT deposits that include basement rocks
of various compositions, weathered regolith, basal sand-
stones, and carbonate aquifers. If there is no favored lithology
for sourcing the metals, then the temperature and composi-
tion of the fluids may have the critical controls on the extrac-
tion of metals from crustal materials.
As noted above, the reduced sulfur content is the dominant
control on the concentration of metals in MVT ore fluids,
thus reduced, low sulfur basin brines will have greater poten-
tial to extract metals from a variety of lithologies. An impor-
tant control on reduced sulfur content in basin brines is the
presence of chemically reactive iron that can be sulfidized
(Hunt, 1996; Emsbo, 2000). Rocks with high contents of re-
active iron (i.e., hematitic sandstone aquifers) provide an ex-
cellent way to help form metalliferrous brines from a variety
of host-rock lithologies.
Precipitation processes
Table B2 summarizes the more commonly proposed depo-
sitional processes for MVT ores. These models refer to
whether reduced sulfur traveled with the metals or was in-
troduced at the depositional site. The reduced sulfur model
requires metals and reduced sulfur to be transported to-
gether to the depositional site, with ore deposition by cool-
ing, mixing with dilute fluids, addition of H2S, or changes in
pH produced by wall-rock alteration or loss of volatiles (e.g.,
Anderson, 1975; Sverjensky, 1981). In order for reduced sul-
fur and metals to be transported together, pH values of about
4.5 or lower are required, and high temperatures
(~200°–250°C) are also necessary (e.g., Sverjensky, 1984;
Cooke et al., 2000; Emsbo, 2000). The low pH required for
the reduced sulfur model limits MVT fluid migration to
rocks with low acid-buffering capability (i.e., siliciclastic
rocks) rather than carbonate aquifers and may be applicable
to MVT deposits with a component of fluid flow in fractured
siliciclastic basement rocks. The local sulfate reduction
model calls upon increasing the concentration of reduced
sulfur at the depositional site through sulfate reduction (Bar-
ton, 1967; Anderson, 1975; Beales, 1975). The most com-
monly proposed mechanism involves bringing metals and
sulfate in the same fluid to the depositional site where
methane or other organic matter reduces sulfate and precip-
itates sulfides. A variation of this process involves the ore
fluid carrying the reducing agent until it encounters a local
source of sulfate. The metal and reduced sulfur-mixing
model calls upon the mixing of a metal-rich but reduced sul-
fur-poor brine with a fluid rich in hydrogen sulfide at the de-
positional site (e.g., Jackson, 1966; Anderson, 1975; Beales
and Kesler, 1996). The essential aspect of this model is that
any sulfur transported with the metals must be as sulfate.
Corbella et al. (2004) showed that fluid mixing is an efficient
way to make MVT ores and produce a variety of carbonate
dissolution features in MVT deposits.
 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 577

Ore controls produce carbonate dissolution and therefore destruction of

The ore controls recognized for selected MVT districts are
shown in Figure 12. The ore controls can be viewed as fun-
damental factors in fluid transmissivity, either at the district
or mine scale, that allow the focusing of fluid flow and create
opportunities for depositional processes to occur. Each ore-
controlling feature typically has an unmineralized counter-
part in each district, suggesting that the coincidence of sev-
eral controls must have been important in localizing ore. The
various controls are generally interrelated (Fig. 12). For ex-
ample, shale-depositional edges, limestone to dolostone tran-
sitions, and reef complexes are parts of sedimentary facies, all
of which may be related to basement topography or faults.
Preore solution-collapse breccias: In nearly all MVT dis-
tricts, preexisting solution-collapse breccias and related car-
bonate-dissolution features are important hosts for ore. These
preore solution-collapse features are commonly located be-
neath an unconformity or disconformity, suggesting they orig-
inated by subaerial karstification. However, the absence of
speoleothems and other cave features could indicate that they
were simply destroyed prior to or during mineralization. For
example, Corbella et al. (2004) proposed that the initial as-
cent of mineralizing fluids into the ore zone, fluid mixing can
S
possible speoleothems and other cave features.
Faults and fractures: Faults and fractures are important
controls in most MVT districts. The faults are usually unmin-
eralized; rather, ore is localized in dilatancy zones associated
with the faults. Ores located in dilatancy zones of normal
faults include the deposits in the Irish Midlands (e.g., Hitz-
man, 1999) and Upper Silesia (Kibitlewski, 1991). Mineral-
ization is localized in dilatancy zones associated with wrench
faulting in the Viburnum Trend (Clendenin, 1993; Clendenin
et al., 1994). Transtensional faults are important in the Ozark
MVT province (Hudson, 2000) and dilatancy zones between
strike-slip faults are important ore controls in the Cévennes
district.
Facies transitions: Shales and shaly carbonate units that act
as aquitards within a stratigraphic sequence provide an im-
portant control on fluid migration. The relationship between
a shale edge and location of MVT deposits in the Tri-State
district is shown by the occurrence of ore only beyond the
subcrop edge of the Chattanooga and Northview shales, both
of which stratigraphically underlie the main ore-bearing car-
bonate units in the district (Siebenthal, 1916; Brockie et al.,
1968). In the Viburnum Trend, ore deposits are restricted to
a diagenetic dolostone located within a few kilometers of a fa-
cies transition to shaly limestone. Mississippi Valley-type ore
deposits typically occur near a limestone to dolostone transi-
tion (e.g., Upper Silesia, Viburnum Trend, and Old Lead Belt

HY

RE ON
UR D
NE

ES
S T ON E /
GE

of Southeast Missouri) that may simply reflect contrasting

CT AN
G RE N T
C OA R R IAEN D

SO ORE
B R L L A PI O N

AP
C I AS E

S
I
LEX
MP R
ED

FEA LUT
DO STO

permeability.
F R A LT S
TO SEM
CO UT

DIS E-
ALE

TU
B EF
LO

Reef and barrier complexes: The Viburnum Trend, Old

E

EC

PO

FA U

R
L
RE
LIM

DEPOSIT/
BA

P
SO

Lead Belt, Pine Point, Lennard Shelf districts, Gays River,

SH

DISTRICT
Viburnum Trend and the Gayna River deposits are examples of ore related to
Old Lead Belt carbonate reef complexes. In the Viburnum Trend, little ore
Tri-State actually occurs within reef rock; rather, ore is located in per-
North-Arkansas meable carbonate facies and sedimentary breccias that fringe
Cent. Tennessee
the original reef. The Pine Point orebodies occur in solution-
Mascot-Jefferson
City (East Tenn.) collapse breccias developed in a biohermal to bioclastic car-
Austinville bonate buildup (Rhodes et al., 1984). Both reef and carbon-
Gays River ate barrier complexes are parts of a sequence in which abrupt
Daniels Harbor changes in sedimentary facies produce dramatic permeability
Nanisivik
Polaris
contrasts.
Pine Point Basement topography: Some deposits are situated above or
Gayna near basement highs that controlled the development of sed-
Upper Mississippi imentary facies, brecciation, faulting, and pinchouts of sand-
Valley stone aquifers (e.g., Viburnum Trend and Old Lead Belt of
Alpine
the Southeast Missouri district, Pine Point, Upper Silesia, and
Robb Lake
Monarch-Kicking
Gays River).
Horse
Upper Silesia
The Irish Midlands Deposits
Lennard Shelf The carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn deposits of the Irish Midlands
Coxco have been the focus of intense debate regarding their origin,
Irish Midlands
Metaline
classification, and age of mineralization. They have been de-
Cevennes scribed as exhalative, SEDEX, synsedimentary, syndiage-
Bushy Park netic, diagenetic, epigenetic, MVT, and Irish-type deposits.
Pering “Irish-type” deposits emerged as a distinct ore classification in
Reocin the 1970s and early 1980s, at a time when many of the larger
Majo r Le ss Imp orta nt Mi nor deposits in the Irish Midlands were interpreted to be synsed-
Ore Co ntrol s i n Se l e c te d MV T D i stri c ts imentary or early diagenetic (syndiagenetic) in origin. This
FIG. 12. Summary of ore controls in selected MVT districts. Modified Irish-type classification was subsequently formalized into a
from Leach and Sangster (1993). genetic ore type by Hitzman and Large (1986), Russel and

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 577

578 LEACH ET AL.
Skauli (1991), and Hitzman and Beaty (1996), recognizing
that some carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn deposits in the Irish Mid-
lands were unequivocally typical MVT deposits (e.g., Harber-
ton Bridge in the Kildare subdistrict; Trude and Wilkinson,
2001). In this paper, we use Irish Midlands for all the car-
bonate-hosted Pb-Zn ores in the region, whereas Irish type is
reserved for a subset of deposits that some believe have a
unique origin.
A detailed discussion of the Pb-Zn deposits of the Irish
Midlands is not presented because there is a rich literature
available for these deposits. The reader is referred to Andrew
et al. (1986), Hitzman and Large (1986), McArdle (1990),
Bowden et al. (1992), Andrew (1993), Anderson et al. (1995),
Hitzman and Beaty (1996), Johnston (1999), Blakeman et al.
(2002), and a series of papers in Andrew et al. (1986) and
Kelly et al. (2003). In recent years, a broad consensus has
been reached that the ores replaced carbonate rocks with
only a minor component interpreted to have formed on the
sea floor. Continuing debate mainly focuses on the precise
timing of mineralization, depth below the sea floor where the
ore precipitated, and the deposit attributes and genetic
processes that some believe set them apart from MVT ores.
As previously noted, the authors of this paper are divided on
the issue of classification of the Irish Midlands deposits. Are
these simply MVT deposits located in the Irish Midlands or a
unique class of carbonate-hosted deposits Pb-Zn deposits? In
Table A1 we indicate the deposits under the broad classifica-
tion of MVT deposits, with an alternative classification as
“Irish-type.”
Part of the controversy about the Irish deposits is rooted in
the terminology commonly used to describe the ores (e.g.,
syndiagenetic, diagenetic, epigenetic, early and late diage-
netic) and the overlapping conditions inherent in these terms.
Age determinations of the ore deposits are limited to one pa-
leomagnetic study (Symons et al., 2002) and one Ar-Ar study
of alteration of the Old Red Sandstone beneath the Silver-
mines and Lisheen deposits (Hitzman et al., 1994). Because
of the limited geochronology, mineralization ages are mainly
based on the relative timing of ore deposition with respect to
sequences of diagenetic features or events interpreted for the
host rocks. The difficulty is that these features are subject to
different interpretations by different authors (e.g., the discus-
sions of ore deposition relative to stylolite formation; Peace
and Wallace, 2000; Reed and Wallace, 2001; Wilkinson and
Lee, 2003).
Geology of the Irish Midlands Pb-Zn deposits
The Pb-Zn ores of the Irish Midlands are hosted by Lower
Carboniferous (Dinantian) carbonate rocks that overlie a se-
quence of red beds, mainly sandstones, conglomerates, and
mudstones of the Old Red Sandstone (Fig. B12). The Old
Red Sandstone unconformably overlies an early Paleozoic
basement of varied composition containing sedimentary and
volcanic rocks and intrusions. Mineralization is hosted mainly
by limestone of the Waulsortian Limestone and Navan
Group, both of Courceyan age. The ores are mostly strata
bound and according to Wilkinson et al. (2003) about 98 per-
cent of all production has been from Courceyan rocks. Cha-
dian-Arundian rocks are the youngest rocks that host miner-
alization (e.g., Harberton Bridge deposit in the Kildare
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 578
district and the Conglomerate Group ore at the Navan de-
posit). Perhaps the most striking feature of the Irish Midlands
deposits is their dominant structural control (Fig. B13). Min-
eralization is mainly concentrated along the downthrown
blocks of normal faults that in some areas (e.g., Lisheen and
Galmoy deposits) form a ramp-relay system (Hitzman and
Beaty, 1996; Hitzman, 1999; Lowther et al., 1999; Fusciardi
et al., 2003). The fault pattern in the host rocks was inherited
from Caledonian basement structures (Hitzman and Beaty,
1996; Everett et al., 1999; Hitzman, 1999) that were reacti-
vated during Late Courceyan-Arundian extension as a result
of the Hercynian orogeny to the south. Late Varisican-stage
strike-slip faulting offset the ore deposits, thus providing an
upper limit to the age of mineralization.
Three sets of ore deposits that span the different ore types
in the Irish Midlands are discussed below. These include (1)
the Silvermines and Tynagh deposits that have possible syn-
genetic components, (2) deposits in the Rathdowney Trend
(Lisheen and Galmoy) and Navan that are typical of the pro-
ductive deposits in the district, and (3) the prospects in the
Kildare district that many consider typical MVT ores.
Silvermines and Tynagh deposits: The Ballynoe barite de-
posit at Silvermines (Fig. 3E) has long been considered the
best example of mineral deposition by exhalative processes in
the Irish Midlands (e.g., Wilkinson and Lee, 2003, and refer-
ences therein). Features interpreted to be evidence for an ex-
halative origin include massive collomorphic pyrite zones and
stratiform barite (Larter et al., 1981; Boyce et al., 1983; Mul-
lane and Kinnard, 1998), a pyritized worm tube (Boyce et al.,
2003), and fossil vent biota and vents from the Tynagh deposit
(Banks, 1986). The syngenetic environment is not universally
accepted, partly because the temporal and genetic link be-
tween the barite and collomorphic pyrite deposits at Ballynoe
with the replacive Pb-Zn ores at the adjacent Mogul deposits
is equivocal (e.g., Hitzman and Beaty, 1996). Some workers
(Sevastupolo and Redmond, 1999) argue that the vent fauna
noted above are simply replacements of fossils in typical
Waulsortian Limestone.
Navan, Lisheen, and Galmoy deposits: The deposits in the
Rathdowney Trend, including Lisheen and Galmoy, are
broadly accepted as strata-bound (locally stratiform) replace-
ment ore deposits localized by normal faulting (Fig. 3D), with
no evidence for synsedimentary ore deposition (e.g., Shearley
et al., 1996; Hitzman et al., 2003). Economic mineralization is
concentrated at the stratigraphic base of the Waulsortian
Limestone (Reed and Wallace, 2001, Wilkinson et al., 2005),
similar to mineralization at Silvermines and Tynagh. Fuscia-
rdi et al. (2003) stated that the bulk of the mineralization at
Lisheen postdates faulting, suggesting that mineralization is
younger than mid-Chadian. Hitzman et al. (1994) used 40Ar-
39
Ar dating of muscovite from hydrothermally altered Old
Red Sandstone and obtained an age of ~350 to 337 Ma (Cha-
dian-Arundian) for the alteration that may be related to ore
deposition.
The Navan mine (Ashton et al., 2003) is the world’s largest
carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn deposit. The Navan deposit is hosted
in rocks of the Navan Group (Fig. B14), and ore deposition
was localized by normal faults. Peace et al. (2003) described
various ore textures at Navan that are typical of MVT deposits
(colloform, snow on the roof, and a variety of hydrothermal
 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
dissolution textures). Navan has the best constrained, but still
controversial, estimates for the age of mineralization. Peace
and Wallace (2000) proposed a Holkerian age (or younger)
based on carbonate petrology, and Symons (2002) obtained
an Arundian/Holkerian age for mineralization using paleo-
magnetic dating. The presence of mineralized clasts in the
Chadian-Arundian Boulder Conglomerate together with min-
eralization that postdate the Boulder Conglomerate are inter-
preted (e.g., Blakeman et al., 2002) to show that mineraliza-
tion spanned the Chadian to the Holkerian (e.g., McArdle,
1990; Ashton et al., 1992). The mineralized clasts in the
Boulder Conglomerate are consistent with some mineraliza-
tion near the sea floor.
Prospects in the Kildare district: Small low-grade deposits
in the Kildare district of the Irish Midlands occur as tabular
and strata-bound replacement ores within domal or pipelike
breccia bodies and are generally considered to be MVT de-
posits (e.g., Hitzman, 1986; Andrew, 1993; Hitzman and
Beaty, 1996). The deposits are hosted in rocks of Courceyan
to Arundian age and have isotopic characteristics that are con-
sidered distinct from other deposits in the district (Gallagher
et al., 1992; Trude and Wilkinson, 2001).
Comparison of Irish-type to MVT deposit features
The features considered most characteristic of Irish-type
deposits (Wilkinson, 2003) are listed below, with examples
of MVT deposits bearing similar characteristics noted as
appropriate.
1. The sulfides are dominated by bacteria-derived reduced
sulfur, considered to be the most characteristic feature of
Irish-type deposits by Wilkinson (2003, p. 980). Bacteria-de-
rived reduced sulfur is characteristic of some MVT deposits
(e.g., Tri-State, Les Malines, Mezica, Bleiberg, Raible). These
MVT examples have sulfur isotope values lighter than –25 per
mil and median values of about –8 to –15 per mil (Fig. 11),
clearly derived from BSR. Therefore, the dominance of bac-
teria-derived reduced sulfur in the ores do not set the Irish
deposits apart from MVT deposits, as stated by Wilkinson et
al. (2005, p. 78).
2. Ore is localized by steeply dipping normal faults that
were the pathways for metal-bearing fluids. Ore control by
steeply dipping faults is also characteristic of many MVT de-
posits such as the Reocin, Upper Silesia, Cévennes, Lennard
Shelf, Alpine deposits, Metaline, and Tri-State MVT ores.
3. Syndepositional faults are important ore controls. Corre-
sponding MVT examples are Reocin, Bleiberg, Moro Agudo,
and Pine Point.
4. Ore deposition occurred by the mixing of a metal-bear-
ing fluid with a fluid containing reduced sulfur. This same
process has been proposed for many MVT ore deposits (e.g.,
Southeast Missouri, Pine Point, East Tennessee).
5. Basement rocks and or detritus from the basement are
the principle source for Pb and other metals. This relation-
ship is also proposed for many MVT ores, including those in
the Upper Silesia, Cévennes, and Alpine districts (see discus-
sions on Pb isotopes below).
6. Temperatures of the Irish deposits are unusually hot (up
to 250°C). Although some MVT deposits have a few fluid in-
clusion temperatures that exceed 150°C, only the Gays River
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579
deposit has temperatures near these values. However, the re-
liability of the fluid inclusion temperatures for the Irish Mid-
lands deposits has been questioned (e.g., Hitzman, 1995;
Peace, 1999; Reed and Wallace, 2001).
7. Ore formation is considered to be at or close to the age
of the host rocks (~<5 m.y.), and deposition was at or near the
sea floor. Although some MVT deposits are believed to have
formed within a few hundred meters of the sea floor (e.g., tri-
State, Upper Silesia), only the Lennard Shelf MVT deposits
have such a small difference between the age of the ore and
the host rocks.
Comments on the classification of the Irish-type ores
The controversial age of mineralization ranges from late
Courceyan (~352–355 Ma) for the proposed SEDEX or syn-
depositional ages for Silvermines, to Chadian-Arundian-
Holkerian for Navan. Mineralization is as young as Abian for
the Abbeytown deposit. To reconcile the various proposed
ages, it is possible that mineralization was a relatively pro-
tracted process, spanning Chadian to Holkerian, as suggested
by Ashton et al. (2003). In addition to the age of mineraliza-
tion relative to the host rocks, the anomalously high fluid in-
clusion temperatures stand out as distinctly different from
typical MVT ores. Other than these two distinctions, the de-
bate regarding the classification of the Pb-Zn deposits in the
Irish Midlands as Irish type can be viewed as a philosophical
choice between splitting a broad family of MVT ores into dif-
ferent types based on the diversity of deposit attributes or
treating diversity as a feature of MVT deposits. The authors
defer this decision to the readers.
SEDEX Deposits
SEDEX deposits are widely distributed but are most com-
mon in North America, Australia, and Asia (Fig. B15). The
SEDEX term was originally applied to laminated sulfide de-
posits that were believed to have formed by the exhalation of
the ore fluids onto the sea floor. However, SEDEX ore fluids
are now considered to be basin brines that either exhaled
onto a basin floor (e.g., Lydon, 1983; Sangster, 1990, 2002)
and/or replaced basin sediments in the shallow subsurface.
Resource data for all SEDEX deposits are included in Table
A1. The geologic and geochemical characteristics of selected
SEDEX deposits (excluding Broken Hill-type) are listed in
Table B3.
Genetic based subclassifications
Although we use descriptive classifications for our data
compilations, some widely used classifications include genetic
aspects. For example, a two-fold division was proposed by
Sangster (2002) that is based on the presence or absence of a
discordant feeder pipe and associated alteration underneath
the stratiform deposits. Vent-proximal deposits have a discor-
dant feeder pipe and alteration complex that lies directly un-
derneath the stratiform body, whereas vent-distal deposits
lack such a feature and are considered to have been spatially
disconnected from hydrothermal vent zones. Vent-distal de-
posits are stratiform, concordant with enclosing strata, and
display well-developed internal layering. Sangster and Hillary
(1998) suggested that more than 80 percent of deposits con-
sidered to be SEDEX type are vent-distal deposits.
580 LEACH ET AL.
Cooke et al. (2000) proposed that the composition of the
sedimentary basin fill controls the redox nature of the basinal
brines and suggested a subclassification based on brine type:
cool, oxidized, acidic to near-neutral pH brines, which formed
what they termed McArthur-type deposits, and hotter, re-
duced, acidic brines which formed Selwyn-type deposits. Di-
rect evidence of the chemistry of the brines responsible for
deposition of most SEDEX deposits is lacking, so inferences
about brine chemistry are derived from the composition of
the sedimentary basin fill and/or the mineralogy of the de-
posit. Cooke et al. (2000) proposed that most vent-proximal
deposits formed from reduced brines (Selwyn type), whereas
most vent-distal deposits formed from oxidized brines
(McArthur type).
Another classification was proposed by Emsbo (2000),
based largely on studies of deposits in Nevada that are inter-
preted to be gold-rich SEDEX deposits. According to Emsbo
(2000), depending on size and relative proportions of base
metals, barite, and gold, three general deposit types exist: (1)
very large Zn-Pb deposits representing the base metal-rich
end of the spectrum (HYC, Century, Mt. Isa, Sullivan, and
Red Dog); (2) intermediate Zn-Pb-Ba deposits that are gen-
erally smaller (Rammelsberg, Tom, Jason, and deposits in the
Qinling belt of China) that typically contain high gold con-
tents; and (3) barite deposits that have a low content of base
metal sulfides but are Au rich, such as those in Nevada
(Emsbo, 2000). Historically, gold has been considered to be
unimportant in SEDEX deposits, but the concept of gold-rich
end members is intriguing and warrants further study and
consideration.
Although any of the above classifications may be broadly
applicable to most SEDEX deposits, there are always signifi-
cant exceptions. For example, the classification by Cooke et
al. (2000) suggested that the brines responsible for producing
Selwyn-type deposits with abundant barite (e.g., Selwyn basin
deposits, Red Dog) are hot, reduced, and acidic, based on
thermodynamic modeling and the assumption that Ba, Pb,
and Zn are carried together in the same fluid. However, re-
cent data from the Red Dog deposit show most barite was de-
posited before the main sulfide stage, suggesting that the
fluid that deposited barite was not necessarily the same as
that responsible for sulfide deposition (Kelley et al., 2004b).
Difficulty also arises in applying the vent-proximal versus
vent-distal classification due to the common inability or diffi-
culty in identifying a vent zone. Some vent zones may not be
exposed due to postmineralization structural disruption
and/or overprinting by later hydrothermal or metamorphic
events. Second, the evidence cited for the presence of a vent
zone is commonly ambiguous. For example, the presence of
veins is commonly cited as evidence for a vent zone in many
deposits. However, as Sangster and Hillary (1998) pointed
out, footwall alteration, in conjunction with the veins, is re-
quired in order to classify deposits as vent proximal. And last,
the vent-distal classification does not consider deposits that
formed from subsea-floor replacement of preexisting sedi-
ments that do not require the venting of ore fluids.
Host-rock lithology
Originally regarded as being more or less confined to black
shales, SEDEX deposits are recognized to be hosted by a
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 580
wide variety of rock types that include shale, carbonate, and
carbonate- and organic-rich clastic rocks such as siltstone and
less commonly sandstone- and conglomerate-rich sequences
(Sangster, 1990). In Table A1, SEDEX deposits are divided
into carbonate-hosted (carb-hst), shale-hosted (sh-hst), and
coarse clastic-hosted (cc-hst) varieties, based on the dominant
lithology that hosts the ore. Figure B16 compares resource
data for the three dominant lithologies listed above. As a
group, the subclass shale-hosted deposits have the largest
tonnage of Zn + Pb deposits. The relatively large mean size of
the shale-hosted deposits is greatly influenced by a few very
large deposits (Red Dog, Kholodninskoye, and Howards
Pass). These large shale-hosted deposits are carbonaceous
(Table B3), suggesting that the presence of organic matter
may have been a factor in their size. As shown in Figure B16,
there appears to be no distinction in Pb or Zn grade with re-
spect to host-rock type. However, coarse clastic-hosted de-
posits have higher mean concentrations of Ag, and shale-
hosted deposits contain more Cu.
Regardless of the dominant lithology of the host rocks, lo-
cally derived fragmental sedimentary rocks are a common
feature of most SEDEX deposits (Lydon, 2004a). These com-
prise debris flows, stratiform and discordant breccias, con-
glomerates, and mud flows and are usually composed of rock
types which occur at the same or deeper stratigraphic levels
as the SEDEX deposit itself.
Grade and tonnage
Globally, SEDEX deposits constitute a very important re-
source, comprising more than 50 percent of the world’s Zn
and Pb reserves and more than 25 percent of the world’s Zn
and Pb production (Goodfellow, 2004; Table A1). Based on
data compiled and included in Appendix A, there are 25
SEDEX deposits worldwide (out of 130 deposits in the data-
base, excluding Broken Hill-type deposits) that are 50 Mt or
greater in size; 13 of these contain 10 Mt or more of com-
bined Zn + Pb (Figs. 13, 14).
Figure 14 shows an excellent correlation between total
tonnage and contained metal (Pb + Zn), with a fairly consis-
tent ratio of about 10:1, or average grade of 10 percent, re-
gardless of the size of the deposit or district. This is consis-
tent with trends shown by MVT deposits and may indicate
that the ore fluids for both ore types were saturated (or near
saturated) with respect to both Pb and Zn, as indicated from
solubility relationships shown in Figure B10. However, the
controls on the amount of metal in the deposit could reflect
the total volume of ore fluid that produced the deposit or the
metal content of the ore fluid, the latter dependent mainly
on the temperature, salinity, and reduced sulfur content of
the ore fluid. Given that SEDEX and MVT ore fluids are
probably similar, insights into the correlation of total tonnage
and contained metal for SEDEX and MVT deposits noted
above are possible from the the fluid inclusion summary by
Basuki and Spooner (2002). They noted that the tempera-
tures of MVT ore fluids do not correlate with deposit grade
or tonnage (Basuki and Spooner, 2002), whereas salinities
seem to have a more complex relationship. Perhaps the
amount of reduced sulfur in the ore fluids may be the most
important control on the metal content, as suggested by
Hanor (1996).
 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 581

35 aspect ratio of 20 or more comprise sheets of stratiform sul-

fides (Fig. 15E) up to a few tens of meters in thickness and
32.5 hundreds to thousands of meters in lateral extent (e.g., Cen-
30
tury: Broadbent et al., 1998; HYC: Large et al., 2005). In
some cases, the deposits contain more than ten stacked lenses
27.5 (Mt. Isa, George Fisher, Aguilar, Santa Lucia; Table B3; Fig.
15F), but in such cases, most of the ore is contained in only a
25 few lenses.
Some deposits have been interpreted as having a well-de-
22.5
veloped feeder zone that underlies or is adjacent to bedded
20 ores; these include Sullivan, Rammelsberg, Tom, and Jason
Pb + Zn (Mt)

(Table B3; Fig. 15C, D). Typically the feeder zones are rooted
17.5 in a synsedimentary fault (Large, 1983; Goodfellow et al.,
1993) and consist of brecciated and altered sedimentary rocks
15
overprinted by veins and vein networks composed principally
12.5 of quartz, Fe-Mn carbonates, and sulfides. Other vein and al-
teration minerals reported in feeder zones are barite, mus-
10 covite, chlorite, and tourmaline (Table B3). Many of these de-
posits have a complex sulfide-altered zone, interpreted as a
7.5 “vent complex” overlying the feeder zone (Goodfellow et al.,
5
1993). Unlike volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VHMS) de-
posits, the feeder zones in SEDEX deposits contain fewer
2.5 sulfides, more carbonate, and are rarely chalcopyrite rich. Ex-
ceptions to this are the Cu-bearing stockwork zones at Ram-
0 melsberg (termed the Kniest) and Mt. Isa (silica-dolomite).
Sullivan
Mount Isa

Dongshengmiao

Cirque
Hilton

Changba-Lijiagou

Zinkgruvan
Kholodninskoye

Arditurri

Meggen
Faro

Balmat
Lik
Howards Pass

Dairi
HYC

Rampura-Agucha

Anarraaq
Red Dog

Rammelsberg

Lady Loretta
Gorevsk

Filizchai

Tekeli
Dugald River
George Fisher

Zawarmala
Century

Aguilar
Rajpura-Dariba

In the latter case, the Cu mineralization is suggested to be

FIG. 13. Bar diagram showing the largest 30 SEDEX deposits based on
total Pb + Zn content (Mt). Data are listed in Table A1.
Deposit morphology
SEDEX deposits are commonly described in terms of their
aspect ratio—i.e., the ratio of the lateral extent of the body to
their maximum stratigraphic thickness (Lydon, 1996). Some
SEDEX deposits have a low aspect ratio (e.g., Red Dog,
Anarraaq) and are lens or wedge shaped with a relatively flat
top and a convex base (Fig. 15A-C). SEDEX deposits with an
100
Pb+Zn (Mt)
significantly later than the stratiform Zn-Pb mineralization
(Large et al., 2005).
The large deposits in north Australia (Century, HYC, Lady
Loretta, Hilton, and George Fisher) occur as a series of thin
stacked sulfide-rich sheets with intervening unaltered sedi-
mentary rocks (Fig. 15E, F) and are close to major faults in-
terpreted to be the conduits for ore fluids. The absence of
footwall alteration zones in the faults is interpreted as evi-
dence that the deposits formed distal from the vent complex
(Sangster and Hillary, 1998; Large et al., 2002, 2005).
The deposit morphology largely reflects the depositional
environment (Fig. 16). For example, mound or lens-shaped
deposits with low aspect ratios are those that are classified as
vent proximal (Fig. 16A) or they may form partly by replace-
ment of a preexisting mound- or lens-shaped barite body, as
in the case of the Red Dog deposits (Fig. 16E). Other de-
posits that typically comprise stacked elongate lenses are
thought to have formed in stratified brine pools, (e.g., HYC
deposit: Large et al., 2001, 2002) or in a preexisting hydro-
carbon source reservoir (e.g., Century: Broadbent et al., 1998,
2002) (Fig. 16B, C). Elongate orebodies that are layered or
lens shaped may also result from replacement of carbonate

10 layers within shale or mudstone (Fig. 16D).

Mineralogy and zoning
The most important primary minerals in SEDEX deposits
1 are sulfides, carbonates, barite, and quartz (including chert
and siliceous shale), although proportions of these vary signif-
icantly (Table B3). Pyrite is generally the iron sulfide mineral
present in the deposits and its abundance can vary from rare
.1 or minor (e.g., Red Dog, Howards Pass, Century) to compris-
1 10 100 1000
Size (Mt) ing the most abundant sulfide (e.g., Cirque, Meggen, HYC).
FIG. 14. Size (Mt) of SEDEX deposits vs. total metal (Pb + Zn) content In some Proterozoic deposits (Mt. Isa, Sullivan), pyrrhotite is
(Mt). Data are listed in Table A1. common and can exceed pyrite abundance in certain parts of

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 581

582 LEACH ET AL.

A) Aqqaluk deposit (Red Dog) B) Anarraaq deposit

W E NW SE

?
?
?

PERMIAN-CRETACEOUS MISSISSIPPIAN
Hangingwall mudstone, Barite Ore Melange
PERMIAN-TRIASSIC MISSISSIPPIAN
siltstone, shale, and chert
Massive Ore Thrust fault Hangingwall shale Carbonaceous shale; Fe-rich sulfides
MISSISSIPPIAN Vein Ore and chert unmineralized

60 m
Barite Thrust fault
100 m MISSISSIPPIAN Massive sulfides

60 m
Carbonaceous shale; Footwall
unmineralized calcareous shale Barite Banded sulfides

C) Sullivan deposit D) Jason deposit

W E
SURFACE
VENT COMPLEX

TRANSITION ZONE
100 m

BEDDED ORE
1000 m

Jason fault
100 m
MIDDLE/LATE DEVONIAN SILURIAN
Carbonaceous shale Sandstone/conglomerate Silty limestone
Bedded sulfides Gabbro Turbidites Sedimentary breccia Zn-Pb mineralized zone Fault
Transition zone Chaotic breccia Stratigraphic Siltstone turbidites EARLY/MIDDLE DEVONIAN
Massive sulfides Marker units
Unconformity
Conglomerate Conglomerate Chert
Fault

E) Century deposit F) George Fisher deposit

W E

W E Undifferentiated Urquhart
Shale
Siltstone
Mineralized interval: Zn +/-
Pb-bearing rhythmically lamina-
Pandora fault ted pyritic siltstones intercala-
ted with banded mudstones

Cambrian limestone Footwall shale-siltstone Mineralized Barren mudstone

Proterozoic weathering surface Interval
Unit 1 Major post-D3 fault
Hangingwall sandstone Footwall carbonaceous
Unit 2
shale
Hangingwall siltstone-shale Unit 3
Unit 4

0 500 m Fault 0 100 m

FIG. 15. Generalized cross sections showing the diversity in morphology of SEDEX deposits. A. Aqqaluk deposit, one of
four deposits at Red Dog (from Kelley et al., 2004b). B. Anarraaq deposit (from Kelley et al., 2004a). C. Sullivan deposit
(from Lydon, 2004a). D. Jason deposit (from Goodfellow et al., 1993). E. Century deposit (from Broadbent et al., 2002). F.
George Fisher deposit (from Chapman, 2004).

the deposit (Large et al., 2005). At the Duddar deposit in Pak-
istan, marcasite is the dominant iron sulfide (Jankovic, 1986).
The main Pb-Zn minerals are sphalerite and galena. Al-
though the Mt. Isa and Sullivan deposits contain near-equal
proportions of Pb and Zn in some parts of the deposits
(Lydon, 2004b; Large et al., 2005), most SEDEX deposits
are Zn rich relative to Pb and have Zn/(Zn + Pb) ratios that
average about 0.7 (Table A1). Silver is reported for 66 de-
posits (median value is 46 g/t). Sulfosalts such as tetrahedrite,
freibergite, and boulangerite are typically concentrated

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 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 583

A. Vent-proximal B. Vent-distal
(e.g. Sullivan, Lydon 1996; Goodfellow et al. 1993) (e.g. HYC, Large et al. 2001)

SL SL
oxic sw oxic sw
plume mixed layer
anoxic sw
stratified brine pool, anoxic

massive hydrothermal
ore products
feeder
bedded
zone
ore

C. Replacement of oil trap D. Carbonate replacement

(e.g. Century, Broadbent et al. 1998) (e.g. Anarraaq; Kelley et al., 2004a)

dolomite breccia
siderite alteration alteration

Zn-Pb
lenses

E. Barite replacement
(e.g. Red Dog. Kelley et al., 2004b)

S sulfides: disseminated and interstitial to coarse barite barite N

Veins

Black carbonaceous and siliceous mudstone

Calcareous shale

FIG. 16. Depositional models for stratiform Zn-Pb-Ag deposits. A. Vent-proximal deposits (i.e., Sullivan, Canada). B. Vent-
distal deposits (i.e., HYC, Australia). C. Replacement of oil trap (i.e., Century, Australia). D. Replacement of carbonate units
Anarraaq, Alaska). E. Replacement of barite. Modified from Large et al. (2002).

near-vent complexes and are the main host of silver in some
deposits (Lydon, 1996). Chalcopyrite can be a minor (0.1–0.5
wt %) constituent of some deposits (Red Dog, HYC, Meggen)
but is rarely a significant component (>2 wt %; Rammelsberg,
Rajpura-Dariba).
Carbonate minerals include calcite, siderite, dolomite, and
ankerite. Manganese-bearing carbonates are common in
many deposits (e.g., Century, Rammelsberg, Lady Loretta,
Meggen, Anarraaq). Barite may be peripheral to or strati-
graphically above the deposit (e.g., Anarraaq), or it may form
crudely segregated mixtures with sulfide minerals (Red Dog,
Rammelsberg, Jason), but many deposits have no associated
barite (Table B3).
Quartz (or silica as chert or siliceous shale) is listed as a
common gangue mineral in many deposits (e.g., Rammels-
berg: Red Dog; Moore et al., 1986; Large and Walcher, 1999).

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584 LEACH ET AL.

It occurs as irregular veins and patches in what is interpreted 1 2 3

as the vent complex in many of the Selwyn basin deposits Massive, brecciated, crudely
bedded pyrite, galena,
Laminated, and
occasionally fragmented
Chert, barite +/- minor
sphalerite, pyrite, Ca-
(Goodfellow et al., 1993; Goodfellow, 2004). Numerous de- sphalerite, Fe-and Fe-Mg-Ca pyrite, sphalerite, galena, Mg carbonates,
chert, barite, Fe-Mg magnetite,hematite,
carbonates, barite (at top)+/-
posits contain quartz, as chert, in the layered or bedded ore pyrrhotite, sulfosalts carbonates +/- beds of
host rock types
Mn enrichment
zones (Geer, 1988; Turner, 1990; Goodfellow, 2004). The Ore grade decreases
Fe:Zn increases
timing of quartz deposition is assumed to be coincident with Pb:Zn decreases Fe:Pb increases
Zn:Pb increases
sulfides, but some quartz may form earlier or later than the Ba:Zn increases Zn:Ba decreases
Zn:Mn decreases
ore-stage sulfides. For example, veins along the perimeter of Thickness decreases
the main deposit at Century are paragenetically late, as indi-
cated by Pb isotope data (Broadbent et al., 2002), and Ans-
1 2 3
dell et al. (1989) suggested that late quartz veins that cut the SEDIMENTARY
main ore zones in the Tom deposit formed during postore FRAGMENTAL
LITHOLOGIES
deformation and metamorphism. Quartz, including chert (Breccia flows, average scale:
talus breccias,
and siliceous shale, are unusually abundant in the Red Dog conglomerates, 100 m
etc.)
deposits compared to other SEDEX deposits. Some silica SYNSEDIMENTARY Veins and replacement
20 m
deposition predates sulfide deposition, some formed concur- FAULT ZONE galena, sphalerite, Fe- and Fe-Mg-Ca
carbonates, pyrite, pyrrhotite,
rent with sulfide deposition (Slack et al., 2004b), and some minor chalcopyrite
formed during burial 150 m.y. after sulfide deposition (Leach FIG. 17. Cross section through an idealized SEDEX deposit showing geo-
et al., 2004). chemical zoning (modified from Lydon, 2004a).
Apatite (fluorapatite) is a common constituent in some de-
posits (Anarraaq, Red Dog, Howards Pass). In the Howards
Pass deposit, there is an inverse relationship between calcite of Fe/Pb and Fe/Zn also generally increase with increasing
and apatite, with calcite decreasing and apatite increasing distance from the vent complex (Fig. 17).
from the base to the top of the mineralized zone (Goodfellow, Vertical metal zonation is also common. Large et al. (2005)
2004). In the Red Dog and Anarraaq deposits, the rare earth show that on a deposit scale, the average Zn concentration
element (REE) patterns of apatite assumed to be temporally (and generally Zn/Pb ratio) decreases upward in many of the
associated with the sulfides differ from those of sedimentary Australian deposits (e.g., HYC, Century, George Fisher). This
apatite in host rocks away from known mineralization. The is consistent with the Red Dog deposits where the Zn/Pb ratio
former have positive Eu anomalies compared to the latter decreases from about 4.5 at the base of the deposit to about 3
(Slack et. al., 2004b). Positive Eu anomalies are also charac- at the top, accompanied by a generally increasing Zn/Fe ratio
teristic of apatite in the Gamsberg deposit (Stalder and (Kelley et al., 2004b). The vertical geochemical variations in
Rozendaal, 2004). Fluorite has been reported as a rare trace SEDEX deposits may reflect changes in the overall abun-
mineral at the Drenchwater deposit in Alaska (Werdon, 1996) dances of ore minerals (relative proportions of sphalerite and
and the Gunga deposit in Pakistan (Jankovic, 1986), and galena), or alternatively, they could reflect the chemical com-
molybdenite occurs in trace amounts in the Howards Pass de- position of the sulfides. For example, the Fe content in spha-
posits (Goodfellow, 2004). lerite in some deposits (e.g., Howards Pass; Goodfellow,
Iron sulfide or sulfosalts are the main mineralogical hosts 2004) generally decreases upward.
for As, Sb, and Tl (Kelley et al., 2004b), although arsenopyrite
is present in some deposits (e.g., Tom; Goodfellow, 2004). Alteration
Sphalerite is the mineral host for Cd and Hg, although trace The style of alteration and halo development related to
amounts of cinnabar have been reported in a few deposits SEDEX deposits depends on the composition and perme-
(Large, 1983). Selenium is enriched in some ores and/or al- ability plus porosity characteristics of the host sediments. Al-
tered wall rocks (hundreds of ppm), but the mineralogical though the intensity of alteration in SEDEX systems is com-
residence is poorly known. monly much less than VMS systems, the extent of the halos
Mineralogical zoning is common in many deposits (Fig. 17). along the favorable stratigraphy may be far greater. Based on
Lydon (2004a) described a zonation from reduced mineral fa- detailed studies of selected deposits, two broad types of alter-
cies (sulfides, ferroan carbonates) within the upflow zone to ation patterns are apparent.
more oxidized facies (barite, iron oxides, calcic carbonates) at Fe-Mn carbonate alteration halos: This type of alteration is
the periphery. This is particularly well demonstrated for some best developed in the dolomitic siltstone-hosted deposits of
of the Selwyn basin deposits (e.g., Jason; Goodfellow, 2004). northern Australia (Lady Loretta: Large and McGoldrick,
This trend is reflected in decreasing ratios of Zn/Ba and 1998; HYC: Large et al., 2000; Century: Broadbent et al.,
Zn/Mn (Fig. 17; Lydon, 2004a) away from the upflow zone. 2002; George Fisher: Chapman, 2004). The halos are thickest
There is also a common increase in Zn/Pb ratios outward surrounding the ore and extend along stratigraphy for dis-
from the vent complex and this has been well documented for tances of a few hundred meters to tens of kilometers (Fig.
the Tom (Goodfellow and Rhodes, 1990), Jason (Turner, 18). The Fe and Mn contents of sedimentary and hydrother-
1990), Cirque (Jefferson et al., 1983), and Sullivan (Hamilton mal carbonates commonly decrease away from ore. At Lady
et al., 1982) deposits. Other element ratios including Pb/Ag, Loretta, the carbonate zonation away from the sulfide deposit
Cu/(Zn + Pb), and SiO2/Zn ratios decrease away from the is Mn siderite to Mn ankerite to ferroan dolomite to dolomite.
vent complex (Goodfellow, 2004) in the Selwyn deposits. In Century shows a similar Mn siderite and ankerite envelope
deposits in which most of the Fe is contained in pyrite, ratios (Large et al., 2005; Fig. 7). Siderite is missing from the

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 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
weak
Mn, TI
Carbonate zones
siderite + pyrite
100 m
Mn,Tl
ankerite + pyrite
Mn-Fe-dolomite
1km
dolomite
FIG. 18. Schematic Fe-Mn carbonate alteration halos (from Large et al., 2002b).
extensive halo at HYC and the highest concentrations of Mn
in dolomitic siltstone are in the immediate footwall of the de-
posit, where values of up to 1.7 wt percent MnO in whole
rock, equivalent to 12 wt percent MnO in dolomite, have
been measured (Large et al., 2000). Chemical changes in sed-
iments within the carbonate alteration halo involve addition
of FeO and MnO and depletion of MgO, CaO, and rarely
Na2O (Large and McGoldrick, 1998).
Other SEDEX deposits hosted by carbonate-bearing sedi-
ments show some aspects of the Fe-Mn halo zones described
above. At Meggen, Gwosdz and Krebs (1977) defined a Mn
halo in the ore-equivalent limestone that extends for over 5
km from the edges of the orebody. Turner (1990) and Good-
fellow (2004) recorded the common occurrence of Fe-rich
carbonate alteration at the Tom and Jason deposits, particu-
larly in the footwall calcareous sediments adjacent to the
feeder zones and extending laterally away from these zones
along permeable units. In the Red Dog district, some shales
interbedded with barite in the hangingwall of the deposits
contain sparse to abundant MnO (up to 8.7 wt %) but it is un-
certain if the Mn-rich shales are alteration products of the
ore-forming event (Slack et al., 2004b).
Silicate alteration halos: Silicate alteration has been
recorded in some SEDEX deposits hosted by siliciclastic sed-
iments. At Sullivan, tourmaline alteration is concentrated in a
pipe-like zone below the thickest part of the deposit (Fig.
B17). Minor chlorite-pyrrhotite alteration occurs lateral to
the tourmaline pipe, and the bedded ores are underlain by
muscovite-altered sediments. Hanging-wall alteration is char-
acterized by a zone of chlorite-albite-pyrite alteration extend-
ing up to 200 m above the deposit, surrounded by an exten-
sive zone of muscovite alteration (Fig. B17). Near the
transition between bedded sulfides and the vent complex,
there is abundant carbonate alteration. Similar envelopes of
muscovite alteration occur within the non-calcareous sedi-
ments that host the deposits in the Anvil camp (Carne and
Cathro, 1982; Shanks et al., 1987).
Silicification in the form of quartz is reported as an alter-
ation phase for some SEDEX deposits. For example, silicified
wall rocks are known at the Tom, Jason, Vangorda, Rammels-
berg and Century deposits (Broadbent et al., 1998) and sev-
eral other deposits (Slack et al., 2004b, and references therein).
For the deposits that contain added silica, the timing between
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
585
ore
lenses
Mn
Mn
hydrothermal
contact between overlying shale fluids
and underlying dolomite
fault
silicification and sulfide deposition is controversial because
textural relations between quartz and sulfides are ambiguous
owing to the commonly fine-grained nature of the silica min-
eral. Paragenetic studies by Broadbent et al. (1998) suggest
that deposition of base metal sulfides postdates the silica
event at the Century deposit. Slack et al. (2004b) suggest that
the silicification precedes or overlaps with the early main ore
stage at Red Dog, whereas Leach et al. (2004) provide an al-
ternative postore explanation for the majority of quartz in the
deposit.
Trace element halos: Within the siderite and ankerite halos
of some deposits, metals are enriched to values of 1,000 ppm
to 1 wt percent Zn and 100 to 1,000 ppm Pb (Lambert and
Scott, 1973; Large and McGoldrick, 1998). The metal enrich-
ment occurs in the immediate hanging-wall sediments, up to
several hundred meters, and along the favorable horizon for
hundreds to thousands of meters. At HYC, Zn-Pb enrichment
extends for at least 15 km from ore along the favorable hori-
zon (Large et al., 2000). This compares with Zn-Pb dispersion
of 500 m from ore at Rammelsberg (Walcher, 1986).
In addition to Mn, Tl is an important geochemical indicator
and vector to mineralization. In the Australian deposits, Tl oc-
curs at values of 100 to 1,000 ppm through the Zn-Pb ores
and decreases to values of less than 1 ppm at distances of 1 to
20 km along the favorable horizon (Large et al., 2000). Thal-
lium can be a geochemical indicator for exploration of
SEDEX deposits in Alaska (Slack et al., 2004b), although due
to postore structural complexities, it is not possible to track
the anomalies for great distances along favorable horizons.
On a regional scale, the concentrations of Tl in black shale
away from known mineralization (>1 km) range from <0.1 to
1.1 ppm (Slack et al., 2004a), whereas the ores contain as
much as 315 ppm, and siliceous black shale in and around the
deposits in the Red Dog district contains from 60 to 110 ppm
Tl (Slack et al., 2004b). In situ trace element analyses (LA-
ICP-MS) of pyrite show similar enrichments, with pyrite near
the deposits having significantly greater Tl (up to 12,220
ppm) and Ag (up to 900 ppm) than pyrite in black shale dis-
tal (>1 km) from known mineralization (<3.3 ppm Tl and <12
ppm Ag; Slack et al., 2004b).
Other elements that may show dispersion in sediments sur-
rounding SEDEX deposits include As, Ba, Bi, Ge, Hg, Ni, P,
and Sb (Table B3). Although REE data are available for only
585
586 LEACH ET AL.
a few deposits, studies to date show that generally positive Eu
anomalies characterize ore and adjacent wall rocks in some
deposits (Red Dog, Anarraaq: Slack et al., 2004b; Dengjiasha
deposit in the Oinling belt of China: Ma et al., 2004). Other
deposits exhibiting similar trace element anomalies include
the Drenchwater prospect in the central Brooks Range (Slack
et al., 2004b), bedded and massive sulfide ores of the Sullivan
deposit in British Columbia (Slack et al., 2000), the Meggen
and Rammelsberg deposits in Germany (Geer, 1988; Large
and Walcher, 1999), and the Howards Pass and Tom deposits
in Yukon Territory (Goodfellow et al., 1983; Goodfellow and
Rhodes, 1990).
Isotopic halos: Recent research at HYC and Lady Loretta
(McGoldrick et al., 1998; Large et al., 2001) indicates that ex-
tensive variations in carbon and oxygen isotopes exist around
the Mn-Tl and Fe carbonate lithogeochemical halos.
Dolomite within the siltstones for at least 15 km along strike
from the HYC deposit exhibits 18O-enriched (δ18O =
23–26‰) and 13C-depleted (δ13C = –2 to –3.5‰) isotopic
signatures compared to typical sedimentary dolomites of the
Barney Creek Formation from the region (δ18O = 20–23‰
and δ13C = 0 to –2‰). A similar isotopic trend has been
recorded in carbonates from the Sullivan deposit, where Tay-
lor et al. (2000) reported a 3 per mil increase in δ18O and 2
per mil decrease in δ13C of calcite from the footwall slates to
the “Main band” bedded ore. Goodfellow (2004) reported
negative δ13C values (–3 to –9‰) for altered siliceous lime-
stone, with a trend to less negative values from the base to the
top of the mineralized zone in the Howards Pass deposit.
Large et al. (2001) suggested two possible mechanisms for
producing the isotopic patterns: lateral flow of hydrothermal
fluids through porous strata in the subsea floor (replacement
model), and regionally extensive, warm, stratified brine pools
(brine pool or exhalative model). Large et al. (2001) suggests
the brine-pool model is more compatible with the great lat-
eral extent of the halo and the uniformity of the isotopic com-
positions within the halo.
Preliminary studies on the strontium isotope compositions
of barite and carbonates associated with SEDEX deposits
commonly have radiogenic Sr compositions (Fig. B18). Good-
fellow (2000) showed that 87Sr/86Sr in barite and Zn-Pb de-
posits from the Selwyn basin have strongly radiogenic values,
up to 0.718 compared to seawater values of around 0.708
(Fig. B18). At HYC, the orebody and surrounding ankeritic
shales display an Sr isotope halo of similar dimension to the
carbon and oxygen isotope halo. Initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios range
from about 0.720 to 0.750, compared to normal marine values
in dolomites beyond the halo of 0.706 (Large et al., 2001).
Barite from deposits in the Red Dog district has a total range
in 87Sr/86Sr from 0.709 to 0.710 (Ayuso et al., 2004; Fig. B18).
Carbonate (87Sr/86Sr = 0.710–0.714) and witherite (87Sr/86Sr =
0.711) are more radiogenic than barite. The radiogenic Sr iso-
tope ratios of barite and carbonate minerals in the deposits
suggest the ore fluid pathway involved extensive interaction
with evolved rocks deep in the basin or within the basement.
Ore textures
Photographs of hand samples from selected deposits (Fig.
19) illustrate the highly variable textures of SEDEX deposits.
Nearly all SEDEX deposits described in the literature
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 586
include fine-grained layered and banded textures (Fig. 19A-
H), with or without coarser grained brecciated, veined, frag-
mental, or chaotic textures (Fig. 19H-P). The highly variable
grain size is generally controlled by primary sulfide mineral-
ogy and the extent of hydrothermal coarsening and/or recrys-
tallization during diagenesis and burial metamorphism.
A common texture in many deposits is bedding-parallel lay-
ers of base metal sulfides or other hydrothermal products that
alternate with beds of the host rock types (Fig. 19A-H). Indi-
vidual layers of sulfides range in thickness from millimeters to
several tens of centimeters. Bedding contacts are commonly
sharp, particularly between layers of sulfide minerals and host
rock types. In some unmetamorphosed examples (e.g., Cen-
tury: Fig. 19F; HYC: Fig. 19G, H; Anarraaq: Fig. 19D), the
sulfides are very fine grained, with individual sphalerite grains
less than 0.5 µm. In contrast to the regularly layered textures
common in some deposits, many deposits contain textures
that are much more chaotic and varied. Large zones in some
deposits are composed of massive and/or replacement zones,
breccias, irregular veins, nodular textures and/or dissemi-
nated sulfides, barite, or carbonates (Fig. 19I-P). Such zones
are usually interpreted as having formed by the reaction of
upflowing hydrothermal fluids with earlier hydrothermal
minerals and host sediment (Large et al., 2002; Goodfellow,
2004).
Synsedimentary versus replacement textures: Textural evi-
dence commonly used for synsedimentary sulfides includes
the following: (1) sulfide-rich bands that are intricately inter-
layered with host sediments and which have sharp boundaries
between sulfides and unmineralized host-sediment bands
(e.g., Large et al., 1998); however, these textures may be pro-
duced as a result of sulfide replacement of carbonate layers
within mudstone, for example, at the Anarraaq deposit (Fig.
19D; Kelley et al., 2004a); (2) compaction load-cast features
that are described by Large et al. (1998) for the HYC deposit
(Fig. 19H; (3) microbreccia layers and rounded and sub-
rounded sulfide clasts in graded sediments interpreted as re-
worked sulfide layers deposited on the basin floor (Moore et
al., 1986; Large et al., 1998; Fig. 19H, N); and (4) beds that
are composed of multiple sulfide layers suggesting a sedi-
mentary origin and deposition from a density flow (e.g., Jason:
Goodfellow, 2004; Sullivan: Lydon, 2004b).
Evidence cited to indicate subsea-floor replacement in-
cludes (1) carbonate or barite layers or nodules that have
been partly or wholly replaced by pyrite or base metal sulfides
(e.g., part of the HYC deposit: Large et al., 1998; Anarraaq
deposit: Kelley et al., 2004a; Fig. 19O), (2) base metal sulfides
replacing earlier pyrite (e.g., Meggen: Geer, 1988; Anarraaq:
Kelley et al., 2004a), (3) base metal sulfides replacing fossils
in carbonate (Anarraaq: Kelley et al., 2004a), (4) pseudo-
morphs of barite or other minerals, now filled with sulfides
(e.g., Red Dog: Kelley et al., 2004b; Fig. 19K), or (5) sulfides
replacing glass shards in mass flow and tuff units (HYC: El-
dridge et al., 1993). However, all of these features can also
occur during subsea-floor hydrothermal replacement below
an exhalative orebody.
Tectonic setting
SEDEX deposits occur in two broad settings: intraconti-
nental or intracratonic failed rifts, and rifted Atlantic-type
 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 587

A B C

2cm 2cm

D E F

1cm
1cm

G H I

4cm 1cm 1 cm

FIG. 19. Hand samples of selected SEDEX deposits showing diversity of textures. A. Intensely folded delicate lamina-
tions of sphalerite, galena, and pyrite with pale gray cherty limestone, and dark gray carbonaceous chert in a sample from
the Active Member, lower unit, Howards Pass (XY) deposit, Yukon Territory, Canada. From W.D. Goodfellow. B. Layered
ore typical of the upper two thirds of the Main Band and overlying A, B, C, and D bands, Sullivan deposit, British Colum-
bia, Canada. Layers of galena, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, and argillite are intercalated. From K.R. McClay. C. Interbedded semi-
layered white barite, cream sphalerite, and dark gray mudstone from the Tom deposit. Galena occurs finely disseminated in
sphalerite layers. From W.D. Goodfellow. D. Banded sulfides from the Anarraaq deposit, northern Alaska, United States.
Light tan bands are sphalerite that alternate with iron sulfides. Thin section petrography reveals pyrite and sphalerite re-
placed preexisting radiolarian-bearing carbonate turbidites (Kelley et al., 2004a). E. Layered sulfides alternating with
siliceous shale/mudstone from the Rammelsberg deposit, Germany. F. Very fine layering of sulfides (tan) in calcareous and
carbonaceous shale from the Century mine, Australia. Based partly on detailed thin section analyses, Broadbent et al. (1998,
2002) interpret the textures to be replacement of carbonate (siderite) by sulfides. G. Fine layering of sulfides with carbon-
ate (dolomitic siltstone) from the HYC deposit, McArthur basin, Australia. H. Sedimentary breccia and laminated sphalerite-
galena ore from the HYC deposit. Note the lode cast contact relationship between the base of the graded breccia bed and
the laminated Zn-Pb siltstone layer, indicative of synsedimentary deposition of the ores. I. Sulfide-bearing barite from the
Aqqaluk deposit (Red Dog), northern Alaska, United States. White coarse barite and interstitial brown sphalerite and pyrite.
Kelley et al. (2004b) interpreted the textures to indicate coarsening of preexisting fine-grained barite by the introduction of
fluids that deposited sphalerite.

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 587

588 LEACH ET AL.

J K L

psuedomorph
of barite

1cm 1cm 1cm

M N

1cm 1cm

O P

sphalerite

pyrite

1cm 1cm

FIG. 19. (Cont.) J. Massive sulfide ore from the Main deposit (Red Dog). Sphalerite, galena, and pyrite are disseminated
in black siliceous matrix. Note fragmental character of ore. K. Massive sulfide ore from the Main deposit (Red Dog), show-
ing psuedomorphs of barite, now filled with pyrite and sphalerite. L. Planar veins from the Main deposit (Red Dog). Note
the multiple episodes of veining. M. Black silicified argillite cut by veins of ferroan carbonate containing pyrite, pyrrhotite,
galena, and arsenopyrite from the Tom deposit, Yukon Territory, Canada. Later tectonic veins also present. Goodfellow
(2004) interpreted the veins to represent the stringer zone deposit. From W.D. Goodfellow. N. Rounded clasts of fine-
grained pyrite and argillite in the Main band, Sullivan deposit. Lydon (2004a) interpreted the larger and elongated clasts at
the bottom of the sample, which is the base of the Main Band, to reflect proximity to their source in the immediate footwall.
Upward and farther from the base, rounding of pyrite and comminution of argillite clasts reflect a greater distance of trans-
port and a greater amount of autogenous milling during sulfide flow (Lydon, 2004a). From J.W. Lydon. O. Nodular carbon-
ate in black siliceous mudstone from the Anarraaq deposit. Note pyrite and sphalerite partially replacing the carbonate. P.
Highly mineralized sample from massive sulfide zone at Anarraaq, showing chaotically textured iron sulfide, dark red-brown
sphalerite and minor galena.

continental margins (Fig. 20). The only deposits that are
clearly formed in failed rifts are those of the northern Aus-
tralian Proterozoic (Table A1), which are described by Large
et al. (2005). SEDEX deposits occurring in continental mar-
gin settings have a greater temporal and geographic range.
Because many of the continental margin-hosted deposits
are Paleozoic in age, they can be reasonably located on plate
reconstructions (e.g., Goodfellow, 2004). However, Protero-
zoic tectonic configurations are poorly constrained. Thus, the
paleogeographic placement of the northern Australian

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 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 589

A) continental back-arc extension However, recent isotopic studies show that the abundant mi-
accretion & sedimentary basins crobial carbonates clearly record C isotope signatures consis-
arc magmatism hosting SEDEX deposits tent with precipitation from Proterozoic seawater (e.g.,
crust Braisier and Lindsay, 1998; Large et al., 2001). Thus, al-
mantle though they were intracontinental and were developed on
upwelling thinned continental crust, these basins were embayments in
asthenosphere the sense that they were connected to the open ocean for
440 km much of their history. As such, they were natural factories for
the generation of the basinwide shallow water to emergent
570 km carbonate-platform and evaporite strata that characterize the
500 km upper mineralized parts of these basins.
A summary of the understanding of the intracontinental
B) AXIAL
RIFT
RIFTED MARGIN PLATFORM
rift-hosted deposits in the Proterozoic basins of northern Aus-
platform sediments
Sea Level
alkaline volcanism tralia is presented by Large et al. (2005). In terms of the rela-
tholeiitic sills tionships between tectonic setting and mineralization, basin-
scale architecture and hydrologic models exist that arguably
crust explain both the tectonostratigraphic location of the deposits
and the overall fertility of the Australian basins (Large et al.,
extensive 2002). These are reliant on long-lived, intracontinental (but
partial melting
alkaline
uppervolcanism
mantle
marine-linked) basin systems that incorporate regionally ex-
tensive (>500,000 km2) clastic aquifer systems overlain by
equally extensive hydrologic aquitards, provided in this case
upwelling by platform carbonates. Large et al. (2002) suggested that
asthenosphere basins with these configurations are rare in Paleozoic conti-
nental settings, perhaps explaining the apparent restriction of
RIFTED MARGIN PLATFORM
C) alkaline volcanism
large intracontinental rift-hosted deposits to the Proterozoic.
Sea Level In contrast to the intracontinental rift-hosted deposits,
where it can be argued that the requisite basin settings are
rare, rifted passive margins are common in time and space
oceanic crust
throughout the Paleozoic. However, most of these systems do
continental not host stratiform Zn deposits. Some of the known deposits
crust and deposit clusters (e.g., Selwyn basin, Red Dog district)
upper have been studied in various degrees of detail, and general-
mantle
ized basin-scale models for their formation have been pro-
mantle posed (e.g., Large, 1983; Lydon, 1983; Goodfellow et al.,
1993; Dumoulin et al., 2004; Young, 2004; Fig. 20B,C).
Sedimentary and basin setting: Regardless of the tectonic
FIG. 20. Cartoons showing tectonic models for the development of sedi- setting, most basins that contain SEDEX deposits have the
mentary basins hosting SEDEX deposits. A. Intracontinental or failed rift same basic stratigraphic elements comprising a basal clastic
setting where extensional basins are developed in the overriding plate related
to a north-dipping subduction zone along the southern margin of the craton
and/or volcanic dominated succession, overlain by shales and
(e.g., northern Australia; Large et al., 2005). B. Continental rift floored by carbonates. Within this broad basin architecture, the deposits
oeanic crust and filled with a thick sequence of clastic sediments (e.g., Sel- occur in the upper succession where they are linked by two
wyn basin; Goodfellow, 2004). C. Passive continental margin rift with oceanic common factors. First, they are hosted by reduced, fine-
crust outboard from continental crust and sedimentary basin (e.g., northern grained siltstones-shales-mudstones and/or carbonate units
Alaska; Young, 2004).
within these reduced sediments. With one exception (Lady
Loretta: Large et al., 2005), where sedimentological analysis
SEDEX basins is limited only within a reconstruction of the is available, these host rocks reflect deposition in relatively
northern Australian terrane. The overall setting for these deep-water subwave base settings. In the intracontinental rift
basins has recently been related to extension in the overriding systems that are dominated by shallow to emergent clastics,
plate associated with a northerly dipping subduction system carbonates, and evaporites, these subwave-base facies may re-
in central Australia (Betts et al., 2003). In contrast to the open flect anything from relatively abrupt and short-lived periods
marine setting that prevailed for the continental margin- of localized structurally controlled increases in accommoda-
hosted deposits, the northern Australian basins are generally tion space (e.g., HYC: Large et al., 1998), to longer lived pe-
portrayed as extensional (e.g., Plumb et al., 1980; Betts et al., riods of more aerially extensive marine transgressions (e.g.,
2003) or transtensional (e.g., Muir, 1983) rifts developed en- Century: Andrews, 1996). In the case of the continental mar-
tirely within continental crust (Fig. 20A) in the manner of the gin systems, deep-water reduced sedimentation rates are gen-
landlocked East African rift system. Consequently, much of erally the rule rather that the exception (e.g., in the Belt and
the carbonate- and evaporite-dominated part of the basin fill Selwyn basins, the shale host for SEDEX deposits highlights
for these deposits has been interpreted in terms of lacustrine the importance of restricted sedimentation rates in preserv-
facies models (e.g., Muir, 1983; Donnelly and Jackson, 1988). ing organic matter). This is borne out in the Selwyn basin

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 589

590 LEACH ET AL.
itself, where the subbasins that host the Howards Pass de-
posits were almost entirely starved of siliciclastic sediment
(Goodfellow and Jonasson, 1987). It is also the case for the
Kuna basin, where Red Dog and Anarraaq are hosted by 45
to 250 m of sediments that accumulated over ~30 m.y. (Du-
moulin et al., 2004; Young, 2004). In both cases, adjacent car-
bonate platforms that rim the basin are interpreted to have
restricted siliciclastic input, preserving organic carbon and
creating conditions for anoxic bottom water with locally high
productivity.
The second factor that links all SEDEX deposits is that they
occur in areas affected to some degree by synsedimentary
faulting and/or subbasin formation. This can be the most
striking feature of the deposit area geology, reflected in
abrupt lateral facies and thickness changes and interfingering
of coarse-grained fault scarp-derived debris with the fine-
grained mineralized host rocks such as at HYC (Large et al.,
1998) and many of the Selwyn basin deposits (e.g., Jason and
Tom: Goodfellow, 2004), or it can be subtle changes in the fa-
cies and thickness of the host strata such as at Century
(Broadbent et al., 1998) or Anarraaq (Dumoulin et al., 2004).
There are two reasons for this association. In all cases, synsed-
imentary faults are an obvious pathway for the focused ascent
of metal-bearing brines from deeper basin aquifers. In addi-
tion, for the deposits that are considered to have formed in
brine pools, some form of depression or subbasin is necessary
to trap the exhaled brines.
Nature of the ore fluids
Temperature and salinity: Definitive fluid inclusion evi-
dence on the temperature, composition, and source of the
ore-forming fluids for SEDEX deposits is extremely limited.
Although the temperatures of SEDEX ore fluids are com-
monly considered to be higher than MVT ore fluids, there are
few data that support this assumption. The most widely
quoted fluid inclusion data for SEDEX deposits are from the
Jason (Gardner and Hutcheon, 1985) and Tom (Ansdell et al.,
1989) deposits in the Selwyn basin. Ansdell et al. (1989) re-
ported fluid inclusion data for ankerite in the alteration zone
and quartz in veins that cut the main ore zones in the Tom de-
posit. They discounted the data from quartz because it prob-
ably formed during postore deformation and metamorphism.
The salinity data for ankerite could be valid but possible pos-
tore modification of the fluid inclusion densities may have af-
fected the homogenization temperatures. The salinities for
ankerite are 2 to 18.3 wt percent NaCl equiv (Ansdell et al.,
1989). Gardner and Hutcheon (1985) reported fluid inclusion
data for the Jason deposit which also experienced postore de-
formation and low-grade metamorphism. Temperatures re-
ported for the Jason deposit (in ankerite) range from 234° to
274°C, with salinities of 8.1 to 15.2 wt percent NaCl equiv
(Gardner and Hutcheon, 1985).
A wide range of salinities (<1 wt % to > 45 wt % NaCl
equiv) and temperatures (<100°–>400°C) are reported for
the Sullivan deposit (Leitch and Lydon, 2000). However, un-
certainties as to the geologic context of the veins and a history
of concurrent fluid flow make interpretation of the fluid in-
clusion data difficult (Lydon, 2004b). Frimmel (2001) reported
that a few primary fluid inclusions in the silicified footwall at
the Rosh Pinah deposit in Namibia yielded temperatures of
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 590
approximately 400°C and high salinity. However, the Rosh
Pinah deposit may be a transitional shale-hosted to VMS de-
posit. Sphalerite-bearing veins near the Century deposit are
believed to represent a late paragenetic stage of the Century
mineralizing event (Broadbent et al., 1998). Fluid inclusions
studies (Bresser, 1992) yielded homogenization temperatures
of 98° to 180°C and 8.9 to 21.5 wt percent NaCl equiv. Polito
et al. (2005) report preliminary fluid inclusion temperatures
of 70° to 160°C, with salinities of 15 to 23 wt percent NaCl
equiv from coarse-grained sphalerite in the ore zone.
Fluid inclusion data have been reported for the Red Dog
deposit (Forrest, 1983; Edgerton, 1997a, b; Leach et al.,
2004). Homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions from
quartz in vein and massive sulfide ore at Red Dog are be-
tween 175° and 329°C and salinities were 0 to 8 wt percent
NaCl equiv (Forrest, 1983). Homogenization temperatures of
between 255° and 302°C and salinities of 4 to 5 wt percent
NaCl equiv were reported for five fluid inclusions of uncer-
tain trapping origin in vein sphalerite. Edgerton (1997a) pro-
vided a large data set that contains more than 300 measure-
ments on barite, quartz, calcite, witherite, and sphalerite that
span an extremely wide range in temperatures
(100°–>350°C). Subsequent work on the Red Dog deposits
determined that a later hydrothermal fluid deposited much of
the quartz. Primary fluid inclusions in sphalerite yielded ho-
mogenization temperatures of between 100° to 200°C and ice
melting determinations indicated salinities of about 14 to 19
wt percent NaCl equiv (Leach et al., 2004).
Source of the ore fluids: In spite of the fact that direct fluid
inclusion data are limited, it is generally assumed that the ore
fluids were principally hot metalliferous basinal brines (e.g.,
Badham, 1981; Lydon, 1983). A generalized model is shown in
Figure B19 (from Lydon, 2004a). Elevated temperatures of
brines that formed SEDEX deposits could be due to unusually
high geothermal gradients associated with extensional tecton-
ism or from the circulation of the brines to sufficiently large
crustal depths. High heat flow could be linked to contempora-
neous, usually deep, magmatic activity in some cases, particu-
larly for deposits that have spatially and temporally associated
igneous rocks (i.e., Sullivan), although the volume of igneous
rocks for most deposits is usually minor. In most deposits,
however, there is generally little to no evidence to support di-
rect heating, or contribution of metals, by a magmatic body to
the hydrothermal systems (Leach et al., 2004; Lydon, 2004a).
High salinities have been attributed to either subsurface
dissolution of evaporites (Land and Macpherson, 1992) or the
downward migration of dense brines. However, except for the
northern Australian Proterozoic basins, sequences of evapor-
ites have not been reported in most sedimentary basins host-
ing SEDEX deposits, and therefore the dissolution of evap-
orites in the subsurface is unlikely to be the dominant source
of the high salinities in most SEDEX deposits. The case for
gravitational settling of evaporitic brines into the lower part of
the rift-fill sequence is much more supportable (Leach et al.,
2004; Lydon, 2004a). Direct evidence comes from fluid in-
clusion electrolyte data from the Red Dog deposits that show
that the ore fluids derived their salinity from the evaporation
of seawater (Leach et al., 2004). Other more indirect evi-
dence in support of the evaporitic brine model are that many
SEDEX deposits formed in the high evaporation latitudes of
 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
the contemporaneous equator (see discussion below). In ad-
dition, indications of evaporitic conditions have been found in
the host sequences or their lateral stratigraphic equivalents
for several sedimentary basins that host SEDEX deposits,
such as gypsum nodules and salt casts in the McArthur basin
(e.g., Goodfellow, 1983; Muir, 1983; Cooke et al., 2000), gyp-
sum nodules on the margins of the Belt-Purcell basin (Chan-
dler and Gregoire, 2000), and anhydrite-bearing red beds and
supratidal dolomite in shallow platform carbonate rocks adja-
cent to the Kuna basin in the Brooks Range, Alaska (Du-
moulin et al., 2004).
The sinking of basin-hugging brines is a process that has
been described for brine-pool models of ore deposition
(Sangster, 2002). Deposits that display evidence for shallow
subsea-floor replacement could form by the infiltration of
brines into sediments underlying a brine pool. A critical fac-
tor regarding the feasibility of such a process is the perme-
ability and porosity of the sediments. The brines will not sink
if the underlying sediments have low permeability (e.g., mud-
stone). However, if the sediments are coarse clastics, the per-
meability may be sufficiently high to allow the overlying brine
to sink by displacing the less dense pore water. The sinking
brine process was mentioned by Williams (1978) with refer-
ence to the origin of the HYC deposit in Australia but re-
cently challenged by Ireland et al. (2004).
Metal content of the ore fluids: Considering that both MVT
and SEDEX deposits formed from basinal brines at similar
temperatures and brine compositions, the previous discussion
on the transport of metals for MVT ore fluids are applicable
to SEDEX deposits. However, Cooke et al. (2000) empha-
sized control of the metal content of the ore fluid by the redox
character of the rocks in the basin that hosts SEDEX de-
posits. Cooke et al. (2000) proposed two types of SEDEX ore
fluids dependent on the nature of the dominant sulfur species
present in solution (H2S or SO): (1) reduced, acidic, and mod-
erate- to high-temperature (200°–300°C) brines similar to
those that form VMS deposits, which contain barite ± Au in
the ore assemblage; and (2) oxidized, neutral to mildly alka-
line pH, low-temperature (100°–250°C) brines that do not
contain appreciable barite or Au. Cooke et al. (2000) sug-
gested that the H2S-rich brines are generated in reduced
shale and siliciclastic turbidite-bearing sedimentary basins
and commonly form vent-proximal SEDEX deposits, whereas
the SO4-rich brines are generated in oxidized sedimentary
basins containing red-bed rift fill and a carbonate sag phase
and commonly form vent-distal Zn-Pb-Ag deposits.
Sources of sulfur
The sulfur isotope values of galena and sphalerite in
SEDEX deposits show a spread of data from about –10 (Sul-
livan) to nearly 30 per mil (Aguilar), but the bulk of the val-
ues fall within the –5 to 15 per mil range (Fig. 21). In most
cases, the data are consistent with the ultimate source of the
sulfur as marine sulfate (either as seawater, porewater, or in
preexisting sulfate minerals such as barite), with reduction of
sulfate to sulfide usually involving biogenic sulfate reduction
(BSR), thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR), or both, de-
pending on the temperature and the availability of reductant.
In some deposits, there is an isotopic fractionation trend to
heavier δ34S values in the later stages of the paragenesis. For
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 591
591
Deposit/District
North Australia
HYC
Century
Lady Loretta
Mt. Isa
George Fisher
Sullivan
Canada
Howards
Pass Tom
Jason
Argentina India U.S.A. Germany
Meggen
Rammelsberg
Red Dog
Balmat
Rampura Agucha
Aguilar
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
δ 34 S (‰CDT)
FIG. 21. Distribution of sulfur isotope compositions for sphalerite from
selected SEDEX deposits. If source included a numerical listing of data, the
median (vertical white line), 25th and 90th percentiles (extent of box), and
total range of data (horizontal bar) were calculated and plotted. If source
listed only range of values, data are shown by horizontal bar only. A complete
list of data sources is presented in Appendix D (Fig. D2).
deposits with sufficient data, this trend is well established
(e.g., HYC, Century deposits: Large et. al., 2005; Red Dog
deposits: Kelley et al., 2004b). This isotopic progression may
indicate that the mechanism for deriving reduced sulfur pro-
gressed from BSR (producing light values) to TSR (heavier
values) through time and with increasing temperature (Kelley
et al., 2004b). Alternatively, it is possible that the reduction of
sulfate occurred in an isotopically closed system that became
progressively enriched in heavy sulfur over the life of the min-
eralization (Broadbent et al., 1998; Large et al., 2005).
In some deposits, there is a lateral or vertical zoning of sul-
fur isotope values. For example, in the Tom deposit, the δ34S
values of galena increase from about 6 to 8 per mil in distal
parts of the orebody to greater than 10 per mil in the vent
complex, a pattern that has been interpreted to represent in-
creased replacement of barite by galena (Goodfellow, 2004).
Similar increasing δ34S values have been reported for the Sul-
livan deposit (Lydon, 2004a) with bedded ore sulfides gener-
ally lighter (–10 to +5‰) than sulfide minerals in the vent
complex (–5 to +5‰). Stratigraphic variations have also been
recorded. In the Howards Pass deposit, δ34S values of 10 to
20 per mil display a general decrease upward in the XY de-
posit. This is consistent with banded ore in the Sullivan de-
posit which displays a general trend for decreasing sulfur iso-
tope composition stratigraphically upward but with
superimposed steps to heavier values at the base of successive
sulfide bands higher in the sequence (Lydon, 2004a). How-
ever, this contrasts with the HYC deposit in Australia, which
generally shows an increase in δ34S values higher up the sec-
tion (Large et al., 2005). Taylor and Beaudoin (2000) attrib-
uted the stratigraphic trends toward lighter values to an in-
creasing proportion of sulfide being derived by BSR and
592 LEACH ET AL.
trends toward heavier values to an increase in the proportion
of hydrothermally supplied sulfide. Trends toward heavier
values upward may reflect sulfate reduction under restricted
or closed conditions or an evolution toward a dominance of
hydrothermal sulfur with later and higher ore lenses.
Broken Hill-Type Deposits
We regard Broken Hill-type deposits as a category of
SEDEX deposits (Table A1). This reflects the dominant
strata-bound, metasedimentary rock-hosted nature of miner-
alization (Goodfellow, 2004). However, a number of authors
have argued that Broken Hill-type deposits are sufficiently
different compared to other recognized SEDEX deposits so
as to warrant a separate classification (Parr and Plimer, 1993;
Walters, 1998). A comparison of SEDEX and Broken Hill-
type deposits shows that Broken Hill-type deposits contain
significantly higher contents of Ag and Pb relative to the
SEDEX category (Fig. B1, Table 1). In terms of median val-
ues, Broken Hill-type deposits are almost three times more
enriched in Ag and one and a half times more enriched in Pb
compared to other SEDEX deposits.
Characteristic features of Broken Hill-type deposits (Wal-
ters et al., 2002) include: (1) amphibolite-granulite facies of
Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic clastic metasedimentary host se-
quences, (2) spatial associations with thin amphibolites and
felsic gneisses interpreted as probable metavolcanic rocks, (3)
relationships with thin, laterally extensive marker units such
as quartz-gahnites and iron formations (Fig. B20), (4) no sig-
nificant association with reduced graphitic or pyritic stratigra-
phy, (5) stacked, low-aspect ore lenses modified by complex
structural overprints, (6) association with large-scale strata-
bound alteration halos characterized by high K/Na ratios
(>10) and Fe-(Mn) garnet spotting, (7) lack of an associated
stringer zone or evidence for Mg-rich alteration assemblages,
(8) association with Fe-Mn-Ca-F–rich skarnlike gangue as-
semblages, (9) extreme zonation between Pb-Ag– versus Zn-
dominant ore lenses, (10) a distinctive element association in-
cluding Sb, Cu, As, Bi, and Au, and (11) a general lack of
pyrite within ore lenses.
The extent that these differences reflect metamorphic and
structural overprinting and reworking of a SEDEX protolith
versus fundamentally different genetic models remains a con-
troversial and poorly resolved issue (Marshall and Spry, 2000;
Walters et al., 2002). Large et al. (1996) argued that a signifi-
cant difference between Broken Hill-type and SEDEX de-
posits relates to the redox difference between ore fluid and
the sedimentary environment. In this model, Broken Hill-
type deposits are interpreted as having formed from reduced
H2S-bearing metalliferous brines that were exhaled or infil-
trated into oxic sedimentary sequences. This is supported by
the relatively sulphur poor nature of Broken Hill-type miner-
alization, general absence of pyritic host sequences, associa-
tions with magnetite-bearing Fe formations, occurrence of
well-developed Mn halos, and the restricted range of δ34S val-
ues in sulfides.
However, classification schemes based on interpretation of
premetamorphic relationships are fraught with difficulty.
There is increasing awareness of the role played by postpeak
metamorphic hydrothermal and structural processes associ-
ated with Broken Hill-type deposits. This is mainly the result
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 592
of recent research at the Cannington deposit (Bodon, 1998;
Chapman and Williams, 1998; Walters and Bailey, 1998).
Some authors have suggested that Broken Hill-type deposits
are essentially metamorphogenic, with mineralization con-
trolled by fluid migration along thrusts and shear zones influ-
enced by localized rheological and chemical contrasts (Hobbs
et al., 1998; Fig. B21). This interpretation is difficult to rec-
oncile with other lines of evidence such as Pb isotope signa-
tures (Large et al., 2005), sulfide textures (Bodon, 1998), or
REE systematics (Bodon, 1996). A more realistic hybrid
model involves structurally influenced hydrothermal zone re-
fining of a premetamorphic protolith (Walters and Bailey,
1998; Marshall and Spry, 2000). In this model, refining does
not involve significant external introduction of metals but
does result in significant modification of metal zonation (Wal-
ters and Bailey, 1998).
Given the extent and complexity of metamorphic, struc-
tural, and metasomatic overprinting, effective exploration
strategies for Broken Hill-type mineralization are generally
based on empirical associations (Willis, 1996; Walters et al.,
2002). This is reflected in the separate listing of exploration
characteristics for Broken Hill-type deposits in Appendix E
Table E1. Some of the exploration strategies utilize charac-
teristics related to metamorphism and metasomatism that are
specific to Broken Hill-type deposits. Examples include use
of geochemical signatures in detrital resistate indicator min-
erals such as gahnite and garnet formed during amphibolite-
to granulite-facies metamorphism and high-temperature
metasomatism (Walters, 2001).
However, it is important to stress that not all SEDEX de-
posits that have undergone metamorphism are included in
the Broken Hill-type category. Examples of SEDEX deposits
metamorphosed to amphibolite facies that are not regarded
as Broken Hill type (Table A1) includes the Rampura-
Agucha, Rajpura-Dariba, and Sindesar-Khurd deposits in the
Rajasthan district of northwest India (Deb and Pal, 2004; Roy
et al., 2004; Shah, 2004).
Given that metamorphism is a characteristic feature but not
a prerequisite for inclusion in the Broken Hill-type category,
this raises the question of why all known Broken Hill-type ex-
amples appear to occur in Paleo-Mesoproterozoic terranes
and what are the apparent premetamorphic differences com-
pared to other SEDEX categories. Although premetamorphic
interpretation is a contentious process, significant differences
that appear to represent mainly premetamorphic associations
in Broken Hill-type deposits include the following: (1) nature
of the host sequence, characterized by dominant immature
clastic metasedimentary sequences ranging from pelites to
psammopelites and psammites, an absence of calcareous
units or carbonates, and very minor graphite or pyrite in the
immediate host sequences; (2) a spatial association with
minor bimodal metavolcanic units; (3) well-developed lateral
marker horizons; (4) high concentrations of Cu, As, Sb, Bi,
Au, F, and Cl; (5) relative sulfur deficient assemblages with
only localized pyrrhotite or pyrite; (6) a small range of δ34S
values in sulfides; (7) strong zonation between Fe-Mn-Ca-Pb-
Ag– and Si-Zn–dominant ore lenses; and (8) extensive strata-
bound alteration halos involving Na, Ca, Mg, and Sr deple-
tion, and K, Rb, Pb, and Mn enrichment with no evidence for
footwall feeder zones or breccia pipes.
 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
A significant factor in the ongoing debate for a separate clas-
sification of Broken Hill-type deposits reflects an Australian
perspective based on the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic basins of
northern Australia and the Broken Hill block. The Broken Hill
and Cannington deposits are broadly coeval in terms of host
stratigraphic ages, with SEDEX deposits in lower metamor-
phic grade sequences in the Mount Isa Western Succession
and McArthur basin (Large et al., 2005). The quartz-
feldspar–dominant clastic rocks with minor bimodal igneous
units that characterize the host sequences at Broken Hill and
Cannington contrast markedly with the reduced dolomitic silt-
stones and shales that typically host Australian SEDEX de-
posits. This is further emphasized by differences in Pb isotope
ratios, with lower 207Pb/204Pb ratios in Broken Hill-type de-
posits that lie on a different growth curve to Australian
SEDEX deposits, suggesting derivation of Pb from mantle-re-
lated, rather than upper crustal source rocks (Large et al.,
2005). However, differences are less marked in comparison to
SEDEX deposits elsewhere in the world that are hosted by
more clastic dominated sequences (e.g., Sullivan) or in com-
parison to Broken Hill-type deposits outside of Australia that
show more transitional SEDEX features (e.g., Gamsberg).
The Sullivan district and deposit (Leitch et al., 2000; Turner
et al., 2000) are particularly relevant to improving our under-
standing of premetamorphic associations in the Broken Hill-
type category. The quartz wacke and quartz arenite turbidite
sequences that characterize the host Lower and Middle
Aldridge Formations at Sullivan are similar to the interpreted
host sequences for Broken Hill-type deposits, although the
anoxic nature of the Aldridge Formation (Goodfellow, 2000) is
less comparable. The spatial association of mineralization at
Sullivan with the Moyie sills is also reminiscent of the associa-
tion with amphibolite units in Broken Hill-type settings. While
the Moyie sills postdate the main phase of mineralization they
are associated with extensive albite alteration and may have in-
fluenced fluid migration during subsequent phases of over-
printing hydrothermal events. There are indications that these
later hydrothermal events were long lived and resulted in sig-
nificant textural and mineralogical refining of the Sullivan de-
posit, with massive pyrrhotite replacing sphalerite and galena
in the vent complex and bedded ores. Sericitic alteration
forms an extensive strata-bound halo around the Sullivan de-
posit (Leitch at al., 2000), involving enrichment of K and de-
pletion of Ca, Na, and Mg. This is similar to the alteration
trends around Broken Hill-type deposits (Stanley et al., 2001),
which in turn are comparable to sericitic alteration associated
with VMS deposits, and contrasts with alteration trends asso-
ciated with other SEDEX deposits (Large et al., 2000).
Some Broken Hill-type deposits show transitional trends
that suggest affinities with other SEDEX categories or VMS
styles. The Gamsberg deposit in South Africa has undergone
less extensive metamorphic and hydrothermal overprinting
compared to other Broken Hill-type deposits and shows tran-
sitional associations with other SEDEX categories (Rozen-
daal, 1980; Rozendaal and Stumpfl, 1984). This includes fine-
scale banding, zones of banded pyrite, graphitic host
sequences, and distal stratiform barite. The Zinkgruvan de-
posit in the southern Bergslagen district of Sweden is gener-
ally considered to be a Broken Hill-type deposit but shows
transitional relationships to VMS deposit styles that become
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593
more clearly evident and dominant in the main Bergslagen
district (Walters, 1998). While it is acknowledged that the
Broken Hill-type deposits remain an enigmatic grouping,
there is sufficient evidence to support its inclusion within a
separate category of SEDEX deposits.
Lead Isotopes
In compiling data for a review and comparison of Pb iso-
tope compositions in MVT and SEDEX deposits, only those
for which an arbitrary minimum of five published analyses
were available of ore-stage galena or sphalerite were selected.
Data for gangue dolomite, barite, calcite, etc., were not in-
cluded. By these criteria, approximately 340 analyses for 18
individual MVT deposits and 560 analyses for 28 SEDEX de-
posits were compiled. An additional 230 analyses for 12 MVT
districts, for which insufficient data were available for indi-
vidual deposits, have been included. Data are presented on
standard 207Pb/204Pb versus 206Pb/204Pb diagrams (Fig. 22)
along with Pb isotope growth curves of Zartman (1984).
Expanded scales in some figures resulted in steep north-
east-southwest linear arrays for several deposits (see App. D).
Such arrays are analytical in nature and therefore have no ge-
ologic meaning. The most common cause of these arrays is
mass discrimination errors caused by slight variations in fila-
ment temperatures and sample loads and produces arrays
with a constant slope of ~1.4. For modern analyses performed
under conditions of near-constant run temperature and load-
ing techniques, errors due to mass fractionation effects
should be ~0.15 percent for 207Pb/204Pb and ~0.1 percent for
206
Pb/204Pb. Error bars reflecting these average values are in-
cluded in the Pb isotope diagrams.
This overview of Pb isotope compositions of sediment-
hosted Pb-Zn deposits does not attempt to present either a
detailed analysis or interpretation of the available data.
Rather, the data are graphically presented in what the authors
regarded as logical groupings and general observations are of-
fered regarding the nature and distribution of the data.
Figure 22 illustrates the extreme range of data represented
by these deposits and districts. 206Pb/204Pb values, for exam-
ple, range from about 13.5 to more than 24, a spread which is
entirely accounted for by MVT deposits and districts. Data
points beyond the 0 Ma isochron represent samples from
MVT deposits in the midcontinent region of the United
States and Canada and are discussed in more detail in the Ap-
pendix D. Although both data sets illustrate that some de-
posits contain Pb of mainly mantle derivation, the large ma-
jority of deposits lie above the orogene curve indicating, not
surprisingly, the predominance of continental crustal sources
for these sediment-hosted deposits.
SEDEX deposits, as a global group (Fig. 22A), are bimodal in
terms of model Pb ages and display a hiatus between ~800 and
~1100 Ma. Mississippi Valley-type deposits (Fig. 22B), although
almost entirely comprising a younger model Pb age grouping,
present a hiatus between ~800 and ~1400 Ma. Mississippi Val-
ley-type deposits also exhibit an abundance of so-called future
model Pb ages, a feature lacking in the SEDEX data.
MVT deposits and districts
A basement source for Pb is indicated for many MVT
districts or deposits, including several of the world’s major
594 LEACH ET AL.

16.2 SEDEX deposits

A) Pb isotope data for a majority of SEDEX deposits plot
above the orogene curve, indicating a predominance of conti-
15.8
800
UC nental crust sources for these deposits. Furthermore, a few
1600 ORG even plot above the upper crust curve (i.e., high micrometer),
0 Ma
UM indicating a large component of a very radiogenic source.
Pb

15.4 2000 LC SEDEX dating: Traditionally, SEDEX deposits have been

204

400
800 assumed to be essentially contemporaneous with host-rock
Pb /

2400
1200 sedimentation. The Red Dog deposit, which is the only one
15.0
directly dated to test this assumption, yielded an Re-Os age
207

1600
2800 which coincides with that of the host rock age (Morelli et al.,
2000
2004).
14.6
More commonly, global growth curves are used to calculate
SEDEX only model Pb ages for SEDEX deposits. To test this, model Pb
ages of a selection of eight SEDEX deposits were compared
14.2 with their host-rock ages. All gave model ages that ranged
13 15 17 19 21 23
206 204
from slightly older to much older than their respective host
Pb / Pb rocks (see App. D), indicating that global U-Pb growth curves
16.2 should not be used to calculate model Pb ages. A better ap-
B) proach involves application of terrane-specific Pb growth
curves, as was done for the northern Australia deposits (Large
15.8 et al., 2005).
800 UC
1200 MVT versus SEDEX comparison
1600 ORG
0 Ma
UM The degree of within-deposit Pb isotope homogeneity is
Pb

15.4 2000 LC
frequently cited in the literature as a distinguishing feature
204

400
800 between SEDEX and MVT deposits. Comparison of the data
Pb /

2400
1200
15.0
compiled for the present review demonstrates the similarity
207

1600
in homogeneity between the two deposit subtypes, thus pre-
2800
2000 cluding the general use of within-deposit variation to distin-
14.6
guish between MVT and SEDEX deposits (Fig. D3A-O).
2400 Other observations include: (1) Pb in both subtypes ap-
MVT only pears to have been derived from crustal sources, in accord
with their close association with sedimentary basins; (2) MVT
14.2
13 15 17 19 21 23 deposits in the United States midcontinent region contain
206 204 very high abundances of radiogenic Pb, whereas no SEDEX
Pb / Pb deposits analyzed to date reveal such abundant radiogenic Pb;
FIG. 22. Pb isotope plots for (A) MVT and (B) SEDEX deposits. All but a (3) model Pb ages in SEDEX deposits are generally older
very few analyses represent ore-stage galena; the others are sphalerite. Non- than the ages of their host rocks. MVT model ages, in con-
sulfide phases are not included. Growth curves from Zartman (1984). Values trast, show little or no correlation with mineralization-age de-
of mm (238U/204Pb) for each growth curve are as follows: mantle = 8.37; lower
crust = 6.21; orogene = 11.31; upper crust = 13.22. Small dots on the growth terminations; some MVT deposits yield future model ages
curves denote positions of isochrons at 400-m.y. intervals. Lack of space pre- while others show model ages significantly older than the host
cluded consideration of 208Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb data plots. rocks.
A complete list of data sources is presented in Appendix D (Fig. D3).

Fluid Flow, Metal Transport, and

districts. Lead isotope data for Bushy Park, Pering, Gays
River, Irish Midlands, Lennard Shelf, Upper Mississippi Val-
ley, Southeast Missouri, and Tri-State (see App. D) have all
been interpreted in terms of a significant component from
basement-derived Pb. High micrometer values for several
districts also confirm a supracrustal origin for Pb. In contrast,
Newfoundland Zinc is alone among the MVT deposits to in-
dicate an anomalously low-micrometer source for Pb.
MVT dating: A comparison of MVT model Pb ages shows a
very poor correlation with measured mineralization ages (see
App. D), suggesting strongly that the former should not be re-
lied on to accurately date MVT mineralization.
Modeling of Pb-Zn Ore Genesis
Hydrogeologic studies of sediment-hosted ores have ad-
dressed fundamental research issues concerning the mecha-
nisms of flow, controls on rates and flow patterns, effects of
faults, and geochemistry of transport and mechanisms of ore
deposition. Addressing these issues in a quantitative fashion,
numerical models have been developed which are based on
the equations governing fluid flow, heat transfer, and metal
transport in sedimentary rocks. Although both theory and
computer technology exist to model three-dimensional fields,
most studies have focused on two-dimensional calculations
because they are easier to build and analyze, and because in
many cases geologic and geochemical data are not well
enough constrained or three-dimensional hydrologic results

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 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
too cumbersome to render at the basin scale (Garven, 1995;
Raffensperger, 1996).
MVT ores in foreland basins: These deposits have received
the greatest amount of hydrogeologic study, motivated mostly
by curiosity and scientific debates in the 1970s and 1980s
about the hydrologic mechanisms driving large-scale brine
migration (Garven and Freeze, 1984; Person and Garven,
1994) and the geochemistry of metal transport and ore depo-
sition (Sverjensky, 1986; Plumlee et al., 1994). The methods
used for modeling reactive transport with heat and fluid flow
are reviewed by Garven (1985, 1995).
Garvin and Freeze (1984) suggested that topography-dri-
ven flow appears to be the most robust hydrologic mechanism
for MVT ores, although Cathles and Adams (2005) disagree.
The primary argument for topography-driven flow is that
MVT deposits are commonly associated with the uplifted
margins of foreland and intracratonic basins. Furthermore,
the flow patterns, rates of flow, and thermal effects generated
by topography-driven hydrologic systems seem to provide op-
timal conditions for ore genesis, conditions that are not simu-
lated in models of other fluid-flow processes, such as basin
subsidence and compaction (Cathles and Smith, 1983;
Bethke, 1985; Swenson et al., 2004), rupturing of overpres-
sured sediments and basement by normal faults (Sharp and
Domenico, 1976; Roberts et al., 1996), convection near high
heat-producing granites (Fehn et al., 1978; Solomon and
Heinrich, 1992), or the postseismic flow associated with
thrust faulting (Oliver, 1986; Garven et al., 1993). Some geo-
physicists argued that the models of Garven and Freeze
(1984) require permeabilities that are too large and/or flow
rates too high, which would lead to premature flushing of
brines from the foreland basin (Deming and Nunn, 1991;
Cathles and Adams, 2005). Whatever the numerical limita-
tions of modeling topography-driven flow with respect to
MVT ore genesis, it is difficult to ignore the close association
with tectonic uplift, orogenesis, and other geochemical
processes that appear to be affiliated with continental-scale
brine migrations documented in North America (Leach and
Rowan, 1986; Oliver, 1986; Bethke and Marshak, 1990;
Arnold et al., 1996; Appold and Garven, 1999; Rowan and
Marsily, 2001; Bradley and Leach, 2003).
Multicomponent chemical species transport and reactive
flow modeling have been applied to carbonate-hosted ores in
the MVT districts and Irish Midlands (Garven and Raf-
fensperger, 1997; Appold and Garven, 1999, 2000; Garven et
al., 1999; Corbella et al., 2004). These numerical studies
model various geochemical scenarios for ore deposition and
show that replacement of preexisting iron sulfides and/or
local mixing of fluids rich in H2S and metals are the most ef-
fective way to deposit sphalerite and galena ores, whereas
processes of cooling, pH shift, or dilution are less effective hy-
drologically. For example, Appold and Garven (2000) pre-
sented two-dimensional numerical models of mixing that re-
produce generally the metal zonation pattern observed in the
Viburnum Trend.
Irish Midlands basin ores: Consistent with the debate on
the origin and classification of the Irish Midlands ores, there
is uncertainty regarding the fluid-flow mechanisms for the
Irish ores, dating back to classic models of thermal convection
for seawater (Russell, 1978).
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595
Only one Ph.D. dissertation deals with the hydrology for
Pb-Zn ore formation in the Irish Midlands/Carboniferous
basin (Hazlett, 1997). This thesis presents finite element
models for both thermal convection and topography-driven
flow in the Carboniferous platform. Hazlett (1997) was not
able to resolve which fluid-flow mechanism best represented
the ore system for the Midlands, as neither hydrologic model
could replicate fluid inclusion data under geologically realis-
tic boundary conditions. Overall, however, the fault-con-
trolled free convection simulations were more encouraging.
With these results in hand, Garven et al. (1999) presented re-
active flow simulations at the deposit scale, to test a concep-
tual model whereby metal-bearing fluids migrate up normal
faults to mix with sulfide-bearing fluids within platform car-
bonate strata at Lisheen, Ireland. The reactive flow model
shows how the fluids mix on time scales of 104 to 105 yr and
how ore mineralization is concentrated in the deepest porous
carbonate beds adjacent to the faults, provided adequate
sources of metals and H2S are sustained.
SEDEX ores in extensional basins: For the McArthur basin,
Garven et al. (2001) built and compared hydrologic models
for topography-driven flow, thermally-driven flow (free con-
vection), and transient flows associated with overpressuring
and fault rupture. These models were designed to test a vari-
ety of hypotheses concerning deep fluid migration and the
origin of base metal ores at HYC (Large et al., 1998). The
numerical results for thermal convection display a strong
structural control on fluid flow caused by multiple north-
trending fault systems, which characterize the Batten trough.
The basin-wide flow pattern suggests that Na-Ca-Cl brines
acquired base metals in the deepest levels of the basin stratig-
raphy as fluids migrated eastward through the aquifer system.
Upward flow was relatively rapid along the Emu Fault zone,
where fluid-discharge temperatures are predicted to have
been 130°C in the muddy sediments near the sea floor at
HYC. Transient pulses of flow probably characterized later
periods of transpressional stress, thrusting, and strike-slip
faulting that punctuated the basin history. Further hydro-
geologic studies of thermohaline convection by Simms and
Garven (2004) and Yang et al. (2004) explored these topics
further.
A similar hydrologic scenario may apply for stratiform ore
mineralization in the extensional late Paleozoic Kuna basin of
northwestern Alaska. Garven et al. (2003) modeled hy-
drothermal flow patterns in the Kuna basin, but reactive flow
modeling needs to be integrated with the heat and fluid-flow
modeling to evaluate geochemical mechanisms of metal
transport, fluid mixing, and ore deposition. Unfortunately, the
stratigraphic sequence and ore deposits at Red Dog have
been severely deformed, thrust faulted, and silicified during
the Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous Brooks orogeny, and
therefore it is difficult to identify the late Paleozoic normal
faults that probably served as conduits for hydrothermal con-
vection in this extensional basin.
The Secular Distribution of MVT and SEDEX Ores
The uneven distributions of MVT and SEDEX deposits
(Fig. 23) in the rock record (Meyer, 1981, 1988; Sangster,
1990; Barley and Groves, 1992; Goodfellow et al., 1993;
Titley, 1993; Leach et al., 2001; Lydon, 2004b) are generally
595
596 LEACH ET AL.

A) MVT deposits (Fig. 23A). This pattern is more pronounced when the ages of
Phanerozoic Proterozoic Archean
MVT deposits are plotted against tons of contained metal
NP MP PP (Fig. 24). The paucity of MVT ores in the Proterozoic con-
50 trasts with the abundance of SEDEX ores (Fig. 23B). The
45 NPa K J Tr P C D S O C
contrast in abundance between MVT and SEDEX ores in the
50 Precambrian is unlikely related to preservation because
45
40
40
SEDEX deposits that formed mainly along passive margins
35 would be more prone to erosion and destruction relative to
Pb + Zn (Mt)

35
MVT deposits that formed mainly inboard of orogenic belts.
Pb + Zn (Mt)

30
30 25 The different distributions can also not be attributed to the
20
25
abundance of carbonate rocks required for MVT deposits, be-
15
10 cause carbonate rocks are abundant in the Precambrian
20 5 (Condie, 2000). Considering the possible implications of this
15
0 observation, a more detailed discussion of the Precambrian
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
MVT deposits is presented.
Age (Ma)
10
Precambrian MVT deposits
5
The significant Precambrian MVT deposits are listed in
0 Table 2. Stromatolitic dolostone of the Campbellrand Sub-
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
group (2.52–2.65 Ga), Transvaal Supergroup, is the only
Age (Ma)
known Archean carbonate succession that hosts Pb-Zn min-
eralization similar to MVT deposits. Among numerous
B) SEDEX deposits known occurrences, at least two, the Bushy Park prospect
Phanerozoic Proterozoic Archean (Schaefer, 2002) and the Pering deposit (Wheatley et al.,
NP MP PP 1986) are of economic size. A small number of dolostone suc-
80
cessions of late Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic age
70 host subeconomic strata-bound Pb-Zn mineralization. Min-
eralization ages have been determined for only two deposits
60 (Table 2). A Paleoproterozoic mineralization age (2.0–2.1
Ga) has been firmly established for the deposits hosted by
Pb + Zn (Mt)

50 the Neoarchean Transvaal Supergroup (Schaefer, 2002;

Duane et al., 2004). Attempts to date the Nanisivik deposit
40 have yielded ambiguous results. Based on paleomagnetic
studies, Symons et al. (2001) suggested an age of 1095 Ma,
30 whereas an Ar-Ar age of 461 Ma was obtained on alteration
orthoclase (Sherlock et al., 2004). There are no radiometric
20

10 Phanerozoic Proterozoic
NPa K J Tr P C D S O C NP MP
45
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
40
Age (Ma)

FIG. 23. Age distribution of mean host-rock age vs. Pb + Zn (Mt) contents 35
for (A) MVT and (B) SEDEX deposits. Bars with light gray shading include
deposits with extreme uncertainty (~ ±300 m.y.) for the ages of the ores. Data 30
Pb + Zn (Mt)

from Table A1.

25

20
attributed to secular variations in geologic processes that con-
trolled the formation and destruction of these deposits. Al- 15
though these secular distributions are poorly understood,
10
they have the potential to focus exploration to favorable re-
gions or time slices in the rock record. The deposit endow- 5
ment data in Table A1 provide an opportunity to quantita-
tively examine the distribution of Pb and Zn ores during 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Earth history. Age (Ma)
MVT deposits Mascot-Jefferson City Pine Point
The relatively few MVT deposits hosted in Precambrian Nanisivik Upper Silesia
rocks contrasts with their abundance in Phanerozoic rocks FIG. 24. Age of MVT ores vs. Pb + Zn (Mt). Data from Table A1.

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 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 597

TABLE 2. Secular Data Showing Precambrian Deposits and Host-Rock Ages

Name Location Formation/Supergroup Host-rock age (Ga) Reference

Late Archean carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn mineralization

Bushy Park South Africa Campbellrand /Transvaal SG 2.52–2.651 Duane (2002)
Pering deposit South Africa Campbellrand/Transvaal SG 2.52–2.65 Wheatley et al. (1986); Greyling (2000)

Paleoproterozoic dolostone-hosted Pb-Zn mineralization

Esker prospect Canada Rocknest Fm /Coronation SG 1.89 Gummer et al. (1996)
Blende deposit Canada Gillespie Lake/Wernecke Mts SG 1.71–7.84 Robinson and Godwin (1995)
Coxco Australia McArthur Group 1.6–1.8 Walker et al. (1983)
Various occurrences Australia McArthur Group 1.6–1.8 Williams (1972); Solomon and Groves (2000)
Kamarga deposit Australia Lawn Hill Platform/Mt Isa inlier 1.6-1.8 Jones et al. (1999)

Neoproterozoic dolostone-hosted Pb-Zn mineralization

Nanisivik deposit Canada Society Cliffs Fm, Bylot SG 1.2 Sherlock et al. (2004)
Morro Agudo deposit Brazil Bambui SG 0.75 Oliveira et al. (undated)
Tianbaoshan Distict China Dengying Fm ?? Xiaochun et al. (2000)
Gayna River District Canada Little Dal Group ?? Gibbins (1983)
Goz Creek Prospect Canada Backbone Ranges Fm ?? Gibbins (1983)

Notes: Fm = Formation; SG = Supergroup; ?? = host-rock age unknown

1 Mineralization age of for the Archean deposits of the Transvaal SG have been established as 2.0 to 2.1 Ga (Schaefer, 2002; Duane et al., 2004)

or paleomagnetic age constraints available for any of the
other examples. Thus, it is uncertain for most examples
whether or not the epigenetic mineralization is indeed of Pre-
cambrian age.
However, it is apparent that all the examples listed above
have many characteristics common to Phanerozoic MVT ores.
Strata-bound breccia bodies host epigenetic sphalerite and
galena mineralization, with variable amounts of pyrite and/or
marcasite, and minor chalcopyrite. Important gangue miner-
als are sparry dolomite, calcite, quartz, and minor solid hy-
drocarbon residues. Stable isotope and fluid inclusion data for
some deposits (Ghazban et al., 1990; Arne et al., 1991; Robin-
son and Godwin, 1995; Wachowiak et al., 1997; Greyling,
2000; Solomon et al., 2000; Schaefer, 2002) show that the ore
fluids were high-salinity brines at temperatures up to 300°C.
Marine sulfate, reduced either by biogenic and/or thermo-
chemical reduction mechanisms, was evidently the most im-
portant source of sulfide (Robinson and Goodwin, 1995;
Greyling, 2000; Solomon et al., 2000). Limited Pb and Sr iso-
tope data identify cratonic basement rocks as metal sources
(Schaefer, 2002; Duane et al., 2004).
Although the characteristics described above are similar
to Phanerozoic MVT deposits, the genetic status of these
deposits is uncertain due to the spatial association of some
with igneous activity and the paucity of dates for mineral-
ization. The mineralization age for the deposits hosted by
the Transvaal Supergroup, for example, coincides with the
intrusion of the giant Bushveld Igneous Complex, and a
magmatic origin of these deposits may be invoked. The
Blende deposit may also have an igneous-related origin
since it is closely associated with a dioritic sill (Robinson and
Goodwin, 1995) and spatially associated with the enigmatic
Wernecke breccia bodies (Thorkelson et al., 2001). Little is
known about the Esker prospect, but its size and extensive
thin, tabular nature (Gummer et al., 1997) is exceptional for
a MVT deposit. Thus, the classification of some of the Pb-
Zn ores hosted by ancient carbonate successions remains
questionable. However, Pb-Zn ores hosted by Neoprotero-
zoic dolostones are clearly MVT.
The absence of MVT deposits in the Archean may be attrib-
uted to elevated heat flow through the early Earth’s crust (Nis-
bet and Fowler, 1983), the increased rates of tectonic recycling
(de Wit, 1998), and the dominance of small crustal blocks.
These conditions were unsuitable to establish large carbonate
platforms. With the stabilization of the first large cratonic
blocks in the Neoarchean and Paleoproterozoic, extensive car-
bonate platform environments developed for the first time.
These ancient carbonate platforms, though as vast and as com-
positionally diverse as their Phanerozoic counterparts
(Grotzinger and James, 2000), consisted primarily of stromato-
lites and sea-floor precipitates. Synsedimentary lithification,
early diagenetic dolomitization and silicification, lack of biotur-
bation, and coarse skeletal carbonate debris render these plat-
form carbonate successions impermeable (Grotzinger, 1989).
Sufficent permeability for MVT ore fluids may have been lim-
ited to fractures or karst systems that tapped suitable aquifers.
This may explain the strong structural control on most Pre-
cambrian carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn deposits.
Neoproterozoic platform carbonate successions reveal the
shift from in situ precipitation of carbonate to trapping and
binding of loose sediment in Neoproterozoic stromatolites
plus reefs with increased complexity and porosity for the first
time in Earth’s history (Grotzinger and James, 2000). There is
also no doubt that modern plate tectonic processes operated
at this time. It is during the Neoproterozoic that all the fun-
damental requirements to form MVT deposits approached
the conditions encountered in the Phanerozoic.
SEDEX deposits
SEDEX ores are mainly restricted to two time periods (Fig.
23); one in the Proterozoic and another in the Phanerozoic
(e.g., Goodfellow et al., 1993; Goodfellow, 2004; Lydon,
2004a). The Proterozoic group (~1.4–1.8 Ga) includes the
large deposits in the Mt. Isa-McArthur basin of Australia

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598 LEACH ET AL.
(Large et al. 2005), the Sullivan deposit in Canada, and the
deposits in the highly metamorphosed rocks of the Aravalli-
Delhi belt of northwestern India. The Phanerozoic ores in-
cludes the large Red Dog deposits and the deposits in the Sel-
wyn basin. The older age group corresponds to SEDEX
deposits formed in failed continental rifts, whereas deposits
of the younger age group formed along passive continental
margins (e.g., Large et al., 2005, and references therein).
SEDEX deposits are not known to have formed prior to about
2.2 Ga. The specific tectonic factors controlling the emer-
gence of SEDEX deposits are elusive, because the two set-
tings in which they are known—rifts and passive margins—
appear to have existed back as old as 3 Ga (e.g., Kusky and
Hudleston, 1999). However, the emergence of SEDEX de-
posits (~1.8–2.2 Ga) correspond to the time when 80 percent
of the preserved continental crust had formed, global radi-
ogenic heat production was about 1.5 times as great as today,
and plates, accordingly, may have been smaller (Leach et al.,
2005, and references therein).
SEDEX Pb-Zn deposits form mainly from oxidized fluids
which contain low concentrations of reduced sulfur. Any sul-
fur that is present in these fluids must be in an oxidized state
(e.g., sulfate). Therefore, the appearance of SEDEX Pb-Zn
deposits is likely a consequence of the evolution of the oxy-
genation of the hydrosphere and atmosphere (Huston and
Logan, 2004, and references therein). Between 2.4 and 1.8
Ga, the atmosphere became oxygenated, with the hydros-
phere also progressively becoming oxidized, sulfide poor, and
sulfate rich (e.g., Huston and Logan, 2004). Huston and
Logan (2004) suggested that changes in oceanic geochemistry
probably led to the flowering of SEDEX deposits, beginning
at ~1.8 Ga in India and between 1655 and 1575 Ma in Aus-
tralia. The evolution of sulfate-reducing bacteria by this time
may have been critical to the production of H2S at the site of
deposition, allowing deposition of ore metals (Goodfellow,
2004; Huston and Logan, 2004). Goodfellow and Jonasson
(1987) and Turner (1992) suggested that periods of SEDEX
ore deposition were related to global periods of oceanic
anoxia that provided ideal conditions for the accumulation of
biogenically reduced sulfur in restricted basins, as well as
preservation in these redox environments.
Goodfellow et al. (1993) noted that Proterozoic and Paleo-
zoic SEDEX deposits formed at high-evaporation latitudes,
consistent with the suggestion that some SEDEX ore fluids
derived their salinity from the evaporation of seawater (Leach
et al., 2004). Furthermore, indicators of evaporitic conditions
are present in the sedimentary sequences for several sedi-
mentary basins that host SEDEX deposits (e.g., McArthur
and Belt-Purcell basins). These observations suggest that
both passive margin and intracratonic basins that evolve in
evaporative zones are fertile sites for the genesis of SEDEX
ores. Support for this is the observation that more than 85
percent of the Phanerozoic ores were deposited at paleolati-
tudes that mirror present-day high-evaporative global regions
(Leach et al., 2005).
Comparison of MVT and SEDEX Deposits and
Their Ore-Forming Processes
Having examined each of the MVT and SEDEX subtypes
internally, we now compare them against one another. Given
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the extreme deposit attributes of Broken Hill-type deposits,
they are excluded from this comparison. We focus on the
broad features of SEDEX and MVT deposits that may be
used to compare the similarities and contrast the differences
between these two subtypes of ores.
Metal character
Nine of the 10 largest sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits are
SEDEX. Of the deposits that contain at least 2.5 Mt total
metals, there are 35 SEDEX and 15 MVT deposits. However,
these comparisons do not consider some giant MVT districts
(e.g., Viburnum Trend) that resource data are available only
for district totals, despite the fact that the mines are simply
production units of a continuous mineralized zone. Although
the size distribution of Pb-Zn deposits is skewed by large
SEDEX deposits, the two deposit types have an excellent cor-
relation between total tonnage and contained metal (Pb +
Zn), with a fairly consistent ratio of about 10:1, or average
grade of 10 percent, regardless of the size of the deposit or
district. Zinc grades are approximately the same for both,
whereas Pb and Ag grades are about 25 percent greater for
SEDEX deposits. Three times as many SEDEX deposits have
reported Cu contents and the median Cu value of SEDEX
deposits is nearly double that of MVT deposits.
Higher Cu contents of SEDEX deposits could reflect
higher fluid temperatures and sulfur redox conditions of the
ore fluids. However, the greater Cu content of SEDEX ores
could be related to the silicliclastic nature of the host rocks
that may also account for their greater Pb grades. These com-
parisons suggest that the ore fluids and ore-forming processes
are similar for MVT and SEDEX ores.
Nature of the ore fluids: Temperature, composition,
and source of the ore fluids
The wealth of fluid inclusion data for MVT deposits shows
they formed from basin brines that were mainly derived from
the evaporation of seawater. Temperatures of ore deposition
were usually between 90° and 150°C; a few deposits have
fluid inclusion homogenization temperatures in excess of
200°C. Metals were transported as chloride complexes in
brines containing low amounts of reduced sulfur at near-neu-
tral pH to slightly acidic conditions and buffered by carbon-
ate rocks. However, some MVT deposits may have formed
from metal-bearing fluids circulating in basements rocks that
mixed with fluids rich in reduced sulfur in the sedimentary
cover rocks.
Despite the paucity of direct information on the nature of
SEDEX ore fluids, isotopic studies and deposit modeling
suggest that they also formed from basin brines with similar
temperatures and salinities. Supporting evidence for these
conclusions are the few fluid inclusion studies on sphalerite
that show the ore fluids were seawater evaporative brines
at temperatures less than 200°C. Other studies (e.g., Selwyn
basin) indicate that temperatures could have been as high as
~275°C. Modeling studies, together with observed mineral
assemblages, are consistent with transport of metals in flu-
ids at near-neutral pH and low contents of reduced sulfur.
However, hot (>200°C) acidic fluids in equilibrium with re-
duced siliciclastic-dominated basin sediments may have
formed some SEDEX deposits. There is no evidence that
 SEDIMENT-HOSTED Pb-Zn DEPOSITS: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
there were discernible differences between MVT and
SEDEX ore fluids.
Lead and reduced sulfur sources
Lead isotope compositions for MVT and SEDEX deposits
indicate that Pb was derived from a variety of crustal sources.
Neither MVT nor SEDEX deposits have Pb isotope compo-
sitions that are more homogeneous than the other. However,
only MVT deposits in the United States midcontinent
Lennard Shelf and Robb Lake region uniquely contain very
high abundances of radiogenic Pb. Thus, Pb isotope data for
MVT and SEDEX do not indicate fundamental differences in
the source of Pb.
There is an apparent difference between the sulfur isotope
composition of SEDEX and MVT ores. Both SEDEX and
MVT isotopic compositions extend over a large range; how-
ever, most SEDEX deposits have isotopic compositions that
are largely positive but range between –5 to 15 per mil. Val-
ues for MVT ores also extend over a wider range but include
relatively more deposits or districts with negative values.
Processes that could account for the isotopically heavier re-
duced sulfur in SEDEX ores include closed-system BSR of
seawater or sulfate in pore water in restricted basins, or TSR
processes at higher temperatures; both pathways for sulfate
reduction may have been enhanced by the abundance of or-
ganic matter in the SEDEX environment.
Deposit morphology and laminated ores in carbonate rocks
Mississippi Valley-type and SEDEX deposits typically have
distinct morphologies that set them apart. Most MVT de-
posits were localized by the interplay between extensional
faults and extensive carbonate dissolution features that are
usually strata bound. Consequently, MVT deposits are usually
strata bound on a district scale but commonly discordant at a
deposit scale. SEDEX ores are usually stratiform and have
laminated and bedding-parallel sulfides that commonly com-
prise a series of stacked ores lenses. SEDEX deposits with
vent-proximal ore facies have both discordant and stratiform
aspects. The distinction between SEDEX from MVT ores
based on deposit morphology is equivocal. For example, the
common occurrence of stratiform and laminated carbonate
replacement ores in some MVT deposits has generated de-
bate regarding their classification as SEDEX ores.
Mississippi Valley-type ores are, by definition, hosted in
carbonate rocks, yet some SEDEX ores are also contained in
carbonates. Therefore, the presence of ore in carbonate rocks
does not always provide a clear distinction. For example, the
Anarraaq deposit in the Red Dog district formed by the sub-
sea-floor replacement of carbonate rocks. Furthermore, the
classification of some SEDEX deposits in metamorphosed
rocks is based solely on the stratiform nature of the ores. It is
odd that there are no MVT deposits in Table A1 that are
metamorphosed.
Age of ore deposition
The ages of MVT ores are generally tens of millions of years
younger than their host rocks. However, a few MVT deposits
(e.g., Irish Midlands, Lennard Shelf, and Gays River ores) are
close (<~5 m.y.) to the age of their host rocks. In the absence
of direct dates for SEDEX deposits, their age of formation is
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599
generally constrained by relationships to sedimentary or dia-
genetic features in the rocks. These studies suggest that de-
position of SEDEX ores was coeval with sedimentation or
early diagenesis, whereas some deposits such as Century
formed by replacement processes about 20 m.y. after sedi-
mentation. Thus, MVT and SEDEX ores generally formed at
distinctly different times with respect to the age of the rocks,
the latter closer to the host-rock age; however, there is some
overlap in the range of timing.
Tectonic setting
Mississippi Valley-type deposits dominantly formed in plat-
form carbonate sequences, usually localized within exten-
sional zones inboard of orogenic belts, whereas SEDEX de-
posits formed in intracontinental or failed rifts and rifted
continental margins. Sedimentary packages that contain
SEDEX and MVT deposits have similar stratigraphic ele-
ments, consisting of a basal clastic and/or volcanic-dominated
succession and overlain by shales and/or carbonates. SEDEX
deposits are hosted mainly by reduced, fine-grained silt-
stones-shales-mudstones and/or carbonate units within clastic
sediments, whereas MVT deposits are located in carbonate-
dominated sequences. Although most SEDEX and many
MVT deposits were localized by extensional faults, SEDEX
deposits are mainly related to growth faults active at the time
of mineralization.
Given the similar metal character of MVT and SEDEX de-
posits, and the fluids that deposited them, perhaps the most
significant difference between the two subtypes is the depo-
sitional environment that was controlled by their respective
tectonic settings. Mississippi Valley-type ores formed mainly
inboard of orogenic belts in platform carbonates, whereas
SEDEX ores were deposited in passive margins and intra-
continental failed rifts. These contrasting depositional envi-
ronments could account for the differences in sulfur isotope
compositions, metal endowments, deposit morphology, and
their temporal distributions in the rock record.
Concluding Remarks
This review points out many advances in our understanding
of sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits since the 75th Society of
Economic Geologists Anniversary. However, it is abundantly
clear that we still debate many fundamental issues. As
Charles Behre wrote in the foreword to Economic Geology
Monograph 3 on carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn deposits (Brown,
1967, p. vii): “For at least two centuries and a corresponding
number of generations of geologists and miners there have
been active arguments concerning the origin of a certain type
of mineral deposit. How to characterize the type itself is de-
batable and, indeed, objections have been raised to grouping
several possible examples under one heading because each
has its individually distinctive features.” The failure of the au-
thors to agree on a classification scheme that adequately de-
scribes and characterizes sediment-hosted Pb-Zn ores under-
scores an issue more fundamental than simply being able to
ascribe a “type” to some deposits. The most important need is
to have the ability to constrain the age of the ore deposition
processes using high-precision geochronology. If we were
able to precisely date ore deposition, we could settle the is-
sues of whether the deposit is Irish or Broken Hill type or for
599
600 LEACH ET AL.
that matter, SEDEX or MVT. We must move away from
model-driven debates based on textures or deposit morphol-
ogy and toward processes constrained by the age and duration
of ore-forming events and their association with tectonic
events.
Acknowledgments
We especially thank Wayne Premo for his exceptional input
to the interpretations and discussion on Pb isotopes,
Cameron Rombach for his invaluable compilations of data,
Beth Hillary for her careful management of the deposit data
base, and Stuart Bull for his contribution on the tectonic set-
ting of SEDEX deposits. Garth Graham, Erin Marsh, Sara
Felling, and Phillip Zelenak helped with various aspects of
the manuscript. The authors gratefully acknowledge the fol-
lowing individuals who provided information for the compila-
tion of Table A1: Arne Bjørlykke and Leif Furuhaug (Geolog-
ical Survey of Norway), Jan-Anders Perdahl (Geological
Survey of Sweden), Tony Page and Elizabeth Haynes (U.S.
Geological Survey), Gerry Stanley (Geological Survey of Ire-
land), Ian Jonasson (Geological Survey of Canada), Mats
Willden (Boliden Mining Co.), Richard Kyle (Univ. of Texas
at Austin), and G.M. Derrick.
The authors appreciate the variety of contributions made to
this manuscript by the following individuals: Colin Andrew,
John Ashton, Maria Boni, Mohammed Bouabdellah, Salah
Bouhlel, Dwight Bradley, Terry Briggs, Stuart Bull, Lucy
Chapman, Poul Emsbo, Leo Fusciardi, Murray Hitzman,
Craig Johnson, Tom Lane, Joel Leventhal, Michael Lewchuk,
Ghislain de Marsily, Jean-Claude Macquar, Craig McClung,
Derrick Rhodes, Henri Rouvier, David Sinclair, David Symons,
Jacques Thibieroz, Francisco Velasco, and Jerry Zieg. Reviews
and comments by Wayne Goodfellow, Jeff Hedenquist, John
Thompson, and Jamie Wilkinson improved the manuscript.
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