BSRIA _—— A BSRIA Guide a eRe The Illustrated Guide to Mechanical Cooling By Kevin Pennycook BG 1/2010ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘The guide has been compiled by BSRIA’s Kevin Pennyeook with additions from Roderic Bunn, designed by Ruth Radburn and produced by Alex Goddard. BSRIA would like to thank the following organisations who Kindly provided photographs, diagrams and information: TROX UK Led Cliver Air Conditioning Led Toshiba Air Conditioning Mirsubishi Electric JS Humidifiers ple ‘Voyant Solutions Dravo Environmental Services ‘Max Fordham We would also like to thank the reviewers of the document: Les Smith, Cudd Bentley Nick Cullen, Hoare Lea Richard Tudor, WSP. “Their input has been invaluable but the responsibility of the final document remains entirely that of BSRIA. This publication has ben printed on Nine Lives Sik recycled paper whichis rmanufsctured from 100% recycled fbr. {All rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored ina "retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic or ‘mechanical including photocopying recarding or otherwise without prior writen permision of the publisher (SeSRA 2010 May 2010 SEN 978096026758 Pina by lgeDan LdINTRODUCTION BG 1/2010 The Musrated Guide to Mecunical Goong starts with a general overview of the various cooling systems and their purpose in maintaining comfortable conditions in buildings. It then describes the main reffigeration systems and theit application principles, the types of refrigerants available, and the various ways in which renewable forms of cooling energy can be used. The ‘guide goes on Co explain the various ways in which cooling can be delivered to an occupied space, The use of buildings is intensifying. More people are using more IT equipment and the internal heat loads are growing. In addition, expectations are increasing with almost every new car being sold \with air conditioning. And climate change is resulting in more extremes of weather. Hardly surprising that the demand for cooling our buildings is alo growing As concems over our impact on the environment escalate, we need to maximise every opportunity to reduce cooling loads before we consider how to remove the remaining unwanted heat. ‘Traditionally we have used reffigeration based cooling but for the lay person, what is ie? Escetilly i's where the water in hydraulic circuits or the air in ventilation systems is cooled by some form of powered reffigeration cycle. It can either be gas-powered or elecrically- powered, and some or all ofthe cooling work can be dane by recourse to natural resources, such as the use of ground water. At the more complex end, equipment known as absorption chillers can utilise hot water to create cold water. The absorption eycle enables wasce heat ftom combined heat and power machines or any other source of high grade waste heat such as exhaust steam froma luundty to be used to produce cooling, But all that, of course, just begs another question: “what is combined heat and power"? Nontechnical people struggle with these concepts on a regular basis. Even technical people can have difficulty with explaining hhow systems work ~ the absorption refrigeration cyele being a classic example. This is why BSRIA has ereated a series of| illustrated guides that explain and demystify complex environmental engineering systems. The various technologies are described in straightforward language that non-technical people can understand, Simple illustrations ako provide a deeper insight ‘0 the workings of often arcane concep {e's important to appreciate that cooling systems can be both augmented and/or boosted by passive design measures, such as thermally heavyweight and well-insulated building structures. Some systems, sich as ground-coupling, can provide what is Known as five cooling. This can significantly reduce or even climinate the electrical energy required to cool air or water.Itis vital for everyone involved in considering a cooling system — clients and designers alike - to ensure that a building’s cooling loads are reduced as far a is practicable. Whatever equipment is installed must be as efficient as posible to reduce waste. Those ‘wo principles are inviolate ~ they're not negotiable, Clients need tw accept them, and designers need to uphold them. Once cooling loads have been driven down, and the equipment efficiencies driven up, sources of on site or offsite renewable energy ean be used to offiet the remainder. This sequence is important — just because renewable energy is clean (and often fee), doesn’t mean it is acceptable to waste it. In fact, wasting renewable energy is arguably a greater crime than wasting fossil fuel energy. as there is so litle of t to go round. ‘Twenty five years ago, cooling systems tended to rely on simple ‘mechanical refrigeration based on chlorofluorocarbons (CFCS). Today, cooling involves far greater complexity, and often requires more than one system, Commissioning, controlling and ‘maintaining these systems places a greater burden on both the construction team and the client's premises management team. “This publication therefore provides some key commissioning and ‘maintenance guidance, along with key design checks for each technology described ‘There is much more that ean be siid, but for more detailed guidance on commissioning and operation, readers are urged to consult other BSRIA guides that go into these topics in far greater detail. A list of these guides is provided in the appendix. “This guide is chiefly but not exclusively concerned with central systems. It covers all of the most popular types of central ‘mechanical cooling systems and other important types such as absorption cooling, even though the purists might argue that cis, is not mechanical cooling Whatever cooling system is being considered, clients and designers are urged to keep things simple, install it well, plan for commissioning well in advance, and fine-tune it during the petiod of operation. It must be easy to maintain, and straightforward to control. A provision in the budget for seasonal commissioning may ako show dividends. Occupants of buildings like stable conditions - they don't like disruption, and they don't like unreliable or unmanageably complex control. And of course comfortable people are productive people. When selecting a cooling system, that's a good place from which to start talThe Illustrated Guide to Mechanical Cooling The latest addition to BSRIA’s series of illustrated guides attempts to show the dif ways of operating mechanical cooling, from gas or electrically powered chillers to the more complex absorption chillers. Copiously illustrat with simple line diagrams and photos, the Guide demystifies the subject of mechanical cooling for lay people and qualified engineers al Other guides in the series include The Illustrated Guide to Electrical Building Se The Illustrated Guide to Ventilation, and The Illustrated Guide to Renewable Technologies. All of these guides are available from the BSRIA Bookshop. ‘wwwbsria.co.uk/bookshop or Tel: +44 (0)1344 465529CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ALPHABETICAL LIST OVERVIEW OF COOLING SYSTEMS CENTRAL SYSTEMS RENEWABLE COOLING TECHNOLOGIES CENTRALISED AIR SYSTEMS LOCAL SYSTEMS COMMISSIONING MAINTENANCE AND UPKEEP STANDARDS AND REQUIREMENTS REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY GLOSSARY OF TERMS 2 34 43 51 87 58 60 62 64ALPHABETICAL LIST Absorption chillers 15,39 Legionnaires’ disease Absorption chillers and CHP systems 17 Ughting Adiabatic processes 19 Local systems Air movement 45 Open loop systems Air-side fan coil units 47 Partially centralised air/water system Centralised air systems 8.43 Plate heat-exchanger Centralised plant 8 Reciprocating compressors Centrifugal compressors 14 Recirculation air systems Chilled beams 48,55 Refrigerants Chilled ceilings 50,56 Room-based heat pumps Chillers 12,39 Run-around coil system Closed loop systems 37,41 Screw compressors Constant volume systems 43. Scroll compressors Control of ventilation rates 10 Simultaneous air and water free-cooling Cooling towers 28,40 Solar shading Desiccant cooling systems 29 Split systems Diffusers 45 Steam humidifiers Direct heat recovery 26 Surface water cooling DX systems 12. Thermal storage Fanaassisted VAV 44 Thermal whee! Fan coils 46,55 Thermolabyrinths Figas Regulation 33,58 Thermosyphon systems Fall fresheair systems 27 Vapour generators Gas turbine combined heat and power (CHP) 17. Variable air volume Ground water cooling 36,41-42 Variable geometry supply diffusers Heat pipes 24 Variable refrigerant flow systems Heat recovery 21 Variable speed pumping Heat rejection techniques 18 Water atomising Humidifiers 19 Water spray Improved airtightness TH Water-side fan coil units Innovative and ground-coupled cooling 34 Wetted media Isothermal processes 19 Zoning and space useOVERVIEW OF COOLING SYSTEMS A fill ir conditioning system provides complete control of at ‘emperature, humidity sr freshness and cleanliness. In practies, che trm sie conditioning is often mi-applicd to describe «ystems that donot provide fill contol of humidity in the occupied space. Systeme without humidity conrol are more correctly known as comfort cooling systems. This guide uses the term cooling to cover both aie conditioning and confor cooling systems. ‘The decision to cool a building requires consideration of many fictors, including the following: > Cost. Both nial costs and ie eel cos > Comfort, The level of thermal comfort required. liens and thet designers nc to determin whether intemal conditions Can be reac allowing ncn orton ofc fy 25°C in Drak sete Condon itd of wating tay 21°C ia Hrdc ape cncng eines te ge of teak come Flan ov cven Beg condiering hoger > Control. The lve and types of conta eye D Comptetity. Chena nd designer need to detemine wha type of stem wl be appropriate and how dificale il bet ‘perate and maintain A flair condoning syst provides Clos contol of sr empercre and huni. but ths comes aa jac > Noise levels. Some sr conditioning tenn adverly aft noise levels in occupied ares. The amount of acceptable mechanical nose will need tobe determined > Adaptability and flexibility, To mect posible fatare conte D nergy use, The amount of ergy require to operat the glen A rcigton aed airbag le Ea Scone foe Ingo profs bul’ decal ood > Global warming potential, The environmen efécts of chiles can be determined using the Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWD. This isa measure ofthe global warming impact ‘of equipment based onthe vt relted emissions of greenhouse {ase dhrng the operation ofthe equipment andthe disper of the operating fi at she end of i ie. This takes into account both treet legive wiisiong and foddtct eioin redid through the energy consumed in operating the equipment. ‘TEW! is mensred in unis of mas of exon dione (CO) cine Plant space. Ai condoning stems can require a lage nia a yack Aiea ne steel Toneling ple Aces foe ppt, olateoncrel ‘plement mst be considered ‘The most common types of cooling system cat been classified as centralised or parlly centralised air/water ystems, oF local systems.Types of systems Centralised plant As the mame suggests, a centralised cooling sytem has all the plant located in single aea, for example in a basement or roof-top plant room. (One or more air bandling units (AHUS) condition che ar which is then supplied by diacawork to the loors/spaces within the building, ‘The aie-hanaling units ypically contain heating and cooling cols, humidifier fiers, and fins to move the ai. One oF more chillers will ¢ypically be locazd nearby to provide chilled water for the cooling coils). Hot water for the heating coil) is provided bya heat-misingsystom (uch as gas boilers or heat pumps). Centralised air systems (Centralised ar systems can be categorised ay > Constane volume (CV) > Variable air volume (VAY) Partially centralised alriwater systems Ina partially centralised air/water system the bulk of the cooling/heating is carried out within the occupied space by individual room units sich a: fan coils. These are supplied with hot/chilled water from a central plant area via 3 pipework syste Parially concralised air/water systems consis of > Fan coils > Chilled beams > Child citings > Room-based heat pumps (Central plant also supplics outside air throughout the building by means ‘of ductwork for ventition dilution of edours and prevent build up of CO, The sie of the ductwork installation and asociated air-handling plant i smaller than that required by the centralised air system. Unlike a centralised air sytem, air is only required for ventilation. Consequently, the high volume of air necesary co cary the building's heating/cooling requirements is avoided. Local systems Local systems are not linked to any centralised plant and only provide cooling in the immediate space where they are located. They may or ‘may nos provide ventilation depending on their level of complexity. “The common type of local systems are Tocal systems D Splic units > Variable efi ant flow (VRE) “This guide is truesured to take the reader from an understanding central plan fis, (such achilles and heat pamps) then to the systems that are supported with mechanical cooling, ‘A contralzed alr ester showing ‘supply trom chiler and bolle ‘hroush VAV unisMinimising cooling loads Before deciding which systems to use i is important ta reduce the cooling load on the sytem. Some ofthe steps that can be tiken £9 minimise cooling loads areas follow, Solar shading In the absence of shading, solar gains into buildings will be wery high ‘Cooling loads can therefore be reduced by the introduction, oF improvement, of solar shading. The appropriate type, size and positioning of any shading device will depend on climate, building wse and the source ofthe light to be excluded (high or low angle direct, sunlight, dfs sky light o reflected lighd). A ange of shading options sce posible! > Overhangs incon ight shelves) and awnings, such a fixed finned extemal shading External blinds and brise soleil Glazing films and special low-energy glass Coated ghizing (oRen used where windows are being replaced) Mid-pane blinds Inernul blinds. These are more control devices and do not stop heat fram reaching inside the building, Interior shades protect occupants agains the immediate effects of direct sunlight and against glare. When infrared radiation penetrates the glazing most of it strapped in the room and mas be disipated. Mic-pane blinds ate offen a partial solution, and while more expensive do tend t0 require Jess maintenance and cleaning, Horizontal shading elements are effective in reducing peak summer solar gin where high solar attitudes are experienced, primatily on southern Fades. Vertical elements are effective for restricting solar gain at lower solar attitudes as the sun tracks round from the east to west during the day. Fixed external shading devices include permanent figade features such as overhangs and deep window reveals. Unlike external blinds, the shading ‘fect cannot be adjusted and the abstraction to daylight is permanent Different forms of shadin g will be appropriate for different points on the compass, Fagades chat receive sunlight ffom the west inthe afernoon will benef from shading that can reduce low angle solar gain. Plants and trees can be used to sercen the solar heat and glare in the summer and filter light in winter. Planting can sometimes solve the problem of reflected light from neighbouring sructures, water or ground finishes. “The ues of dosp overhangs for solar shading at tho Aivergreen headquarters In Durham. Table I: Minimising cooling Io Glazing orientation in relation to heat gain Building envelope as a climate modifier South facing North facing In cold woather In.warm weather > Beneficial gins in wincer > Good day lighting > Reduce heat les through > Minimise solr hea gain ‘without gains fabric Shading for hgh sun > Avoid overheating angles > No need for shading > Maximise benefits of rome tenets of Use window shading and > Locate spaces where a ‘thermal mass (0 attenuate ‘overheating is critical = heat ain > Reduce losses associated swith uncontrolled air fleraion Note: The building envelope should not be considered ara sole means of excluding external conditions.Zoning and space use BD Diikting areioftee divided ints a mmimber OC sores fe the’ purpose ok sem control The way in which building zoned depen on > Varying sola loads Ac corn ime ofthe day the sot side cabling ca have igh wl ai and este move cling yy than the north side > Varying internal conditions Zoning may be wed when 0 er mor intemal spaces require diferent conditions > Internal partitions Intemal work ar or fll height ‘An example of zoning with an ofes printer set up. partitioning can determine the boundaries for contral zones Heat-genorating office equipment should be located in groups, served by dedicated extract systems, oF if located in separate rooms, by local air conditioning unite, Control of ventilation rates Cooling loads can be reduced by effective conteol of ventilation air required to satisfy occupant comfort, Ie is normal practice for a ventilation sytem to be designed on the basis of either a known or anticipated level of occupancy. In conjunction with the requirements of Approved Dacumsent F ofthe Building Regulations this will determine a required design ventilation rate, I excesive amounts of ventilation are supplied during periods of low oceupaney, energy consumption seating to the ventilation system will he wunecenarily high, (One appresich to ventilation control i through the ase of demande contrlled ventilation. This involves the measurement of metabolic catbon dioxide. With this approach, inferring occupancy numbers based fon levels of carbon dionide enables the ventilation rae #0 be varied Lighting ‘The heat emitted from clecric lighting can impose a significant cooling load. Building designe shovld: D Make the mos efetve ase of maturaldylgh (poor desig, or ovecting on shading ca rece conf with coo Acaten ders onthe eae ane ga) ‘galwhen the tc eerste ale nes cgnt when Ce Yoo > Avoid unnocessaty level of high illuminance and/or daylight bale “a symmetry where the perceived creation of gloomy spots forces the use of electric lighting Incorporate the most efficent luminaires, control gear and lamps Include effective lighting controls Best practice for control of clecric lighting is manal on, and auto and mana off“The main mecting room in NG Bailey's Solas House. Aerylicbased phase-change materials have Ibsen Incorporated into tha glace reinforced plastic ») waverform calling, sandwich fof conventional gp. This provides around 2 iW of thermal storage before the chilled bears are required. ‘SGhammaie of the Tormodack sytem which ombines ventilation and heat recovery withthe building's structure. Thermal storage Cooking Joadk tht there would be met by active enolng tems ean be rexlaced or even eliminated by thermal storage techniques. Thermal storage lescrbes the use ofthe building’ exposed mas (whether frame, clings or ‘wall to absorb heat energy. Concrete isa commonly used material, rammed-earth a newer innovation (fa very traditional, indeed historic) ‘material. Night ventilation can enable the sructure to reject the heat gained during the dy. “There are various ways tose thermal mass. The simplest is to expose the building's structure to the occupied spaces, rather than clad itor hide ic Iichind the finishes. A fat sla can provide a cooling capacity of approximately 65 W/m’ while a profiled sb can provide 80 W/m! Even lightweight timber buildings can have mounted or fie standing, heavyweight elements that perform the same function, In ir cladding muterals, sch as pawtic-based bord, can incomporite phase-change material that perform the same function A proprictary Swedish originated system called Termodeck effectively combines ventilation and heat recovery with the building’ structure. ‘The Termodeck system comprises precast, holloweore concrete slabs swhere the hollowcores are used as routes for mechanical ventilation Ventilation aris passed through the cones 3¢ low velocities allowing prolonged contact between the air slabs for good heat transfer, ‘Termodeck can provide a cooling capacity of around 40 W/m! without recoue to mechunical cooling Cooling capacity can be increased with water cooling via polyburylen pipework embedded in the stricture, The use of water rather than ar to ‘00 the slabs enables higher cooling capacities to be achieved. The water {is erculated at approsimately 14-20"C depending on the required room air temperature, Elevated flow temperatures alow the use of water from boreholes rather than from reffigerant circuits Improved airtightness Uncontrolled ai infiltration through leaks in the building’ fbi will cause heat loss in winter and heat gain in summer, Inthe summer, the hheat gained from hot air leaking into the building will increase the cooling load on the building's cooling system. "There are four main leakage paths cha result in ar inflation: iy amndsmponenty icy windows > Gapsbetween one clement and anther, such at walt eaves josie } Gaps around pipes and cables passing through the building fabric > Permeable billing materia, such as blockwork. A wide range of sealing materials can be used, including: > Ganappi sents (cate and elatomer ype), incladng thatic poyurcthanc and scone seas Expan » i ft nls > Gakets for movement joins, inchuding solid and foam-strip ope > Droogheseipping > Sealing fire > Membranes or ims For information on ground and water cooling systoms (se section on Renewable Cooling Technologies, page 3).CENTRAL SYSTEMS Warm i exhsted Ar the heart of many cooling systems isa pioce of tw xesphere refiigeration equipment called a chiller. This typically produces chilled water, The way in whieh the chilled water is used depends on the type of air is ‘A sondtorng conditioning sytem served hy the chiller For roaeke cxample, ina centralised aisystem chilled water cera nro a an (inches eng will be pamped around one of more cooling coils Eon located in central air-handling units. Ina partial plage a rearn centralised air/water system (For example a fan coil fooled ier ‘nsallation), twill be sipped to both a central ai schematic ofan arcooted chiller handling sini and the individual fin coil located around the building. Inthe process of chilling the trots the chiller pete eat whieh en be Warned Waist Uhrectl air cook or water cooled wing an —— ce evaporative cools ‘opposite and mor tower dry cooler (se pictures ‘detail on page 18) xcerally towed e ary cooler Some compact syst to. cooling coil in an air-handling consequently avoid the need for chilled water cirenit (these ae known a5 Dircet Expansion or DX systems). The refrigeration plants known as 2 ‘condensing nit and ai-handling vit in a DX ns provide refiigerant directly it, and system and can be purchased as an integrated uni / rn eng ; = (Any suchas on Vapour compression Exeraty Cite locced” Warm water Sol child cans ‘The vast majority of central plants ae bssed on 3 conte Inpleroom rear ‘vapour compression cycle. The eype of compressor coiug comer we usually defines the type of chiller, The fou main types of compressor used are: reciprocating soe baulbied outing — ‘Rchomatc ofa water-cooled cir Table 2: Overview of vapour compression chillers. Semb-hermetle Reciprocating 2.469,10 812 20-1000 Allrypes (25°C to +10) Cylinder, unloaded cplodess) Single screw 200-2000 HEC and HEC Moving pace Twin serew 200-3000 HCFC and HEC Slider system Hermetic Twin screw 200-600 HCC and HFC ‘Slider system, variable speed Serol 5.250 HFC and HEC Reciprocating (single-stage) 2.400 Alltypes (25°C xo +100) 100% Reciprocating (two-stage) 2-150 All ypes (25°C wo +10°C) ——_S0/100% apeed control ‘Centrifugal (mule-stags) 300-15000, HFC Inlet guide vanes (all cases) ‘Variable speed (en some cases) Openeype reciprocating 100.1000 HEC and ammonia Cylinder unloading (246.8.10 and 12 finders) Open-type sre 200.300 LEC and amenonia ‘Slider system, variable speed Sour CBs Gus 4Reciprocating compressors are positive dislacsment-ype piston inachins, sshere the refrigerant i compresed by pistons mowing in their respective bores (ina similar manner to an internal combustion car engine). This type of compresor can operate over a wide range of conditions and i availble na wide range of sizes and number of cylinders. Capacity control is normally provided by cylinder unloading in steps, of by switching muliple compresors and rffigerant circuits. Speed regulition and a technique called hot gas bypass can also be used to provide control aver refrigeration capacity ‘Screw compressors are high speed, positive displacement machines ‘with compresion produced by rotating helical screws. They ean operate lover a wider pressire rato range than reciprocating compresiors and ean be used with a wide range of refrigerants. Serew compresors are avaihble as open hermetic or somi-hermetic machines. They have the advantages of litle vibration and low noise levels. 3Scroll compressors are hermeccilly sealed and based on the compression effect obtained by one fixed and one orbiting scroll hat progresively compresses the refrigerant. Scroll compressors can have iciencies than reciprocating compresors, along with lower higher poise and vibration levels Centrifugal compressors can mest a wide range of cooling dies (300 KW to 15 MW) and can be cither hermetic or open hermetic, Advantages ofthis type of compressor clade: > Sovingofipace compared with acre and eiprocting chines Low vibration 18 oF reciprocating parts » D Reduced maintenance due to no wea » Efficient part-load operation (down ta 10 per cent).Absorption chillers Ina conventional vipour-compression chiller an electric motor is ured to live a compressor. In an absorption chiller a heat source drives the cooling proces. Absorption chillers ae a very small proportion of the ‘market (la 2009 in the UK, the volume of sles of absorption chillers was 81 units, valued at (2 million, about 3% of the market by volume), but are covered in detal here as they are a product with a growing market share. Heat sources can incitde: hot water, steam, hot air or hot prodicts| ‘of combustion (exhaust gases) from the burning of fel Absomption cooling can be considered as an alternative to traction chillers ifone of the following factors is applicable: D Ancsiing combined heat and power (CHE) untispesat and atleast some of the waste hese genre canbe wed to power the absorption eye > Anew CHP insalton i being considered > Waste heats availabe from a proces Renewable fel sources can be used, such as nll gs. [Absorption chiles havea number of advantages D They can use spare het ) “Thereigernes wed db not damage the tmempiere and have 10 global warming pote (nberen yee ofigeonts rel ix capourcompreaion ches have very high global warning petal) > The equipment does not requite lubricants > Absorption machines are quit and vibation-ie Ina conventional mechanical vapour compresion chiller the refiigerant ‘evaporates ata low presure and produces a cooking effec. A compressor is then used to compres the vapour to higher pressure where it condenses and releses heat. In an absorption chiller the compresor is replaced by a chemical absorber, generator and pump. The pump consumes much less electricity than a comparable compressor {approximately nine per cent of that for a vapour compression plan). ‘The majority ofthe energy required to drive the cooling proces x provided by the external supply of heat Absorption eycles use two fic, the refrigerant and the absorbent, The ‘mest common fluids are water for dhe refrigerant and Iihium bromide or amnmonia/water for the absorbent, These fluids are separated and re- ‘combined in the absomption cycle. "The low pressure reffigerant vapour i abuorbed into the absorbent, releasing heat. The liquid reftigerunt/ absorbent solution is pumped to a generator with a high operating pressute. Heat is chen added atthe high- prestre generator which causes the reffigerant co desorb from the absorbent and vapourise. The vapours fow to a condenser, where its ‘condensed to a high-presure liquid and the heats rejected. The liquid is then throctiod through an expansion valve co the lower pressure in the evaporator where it evaporates by absorbing heat (this absorbing of heat is used to provide a usfil cooling cffec). The remaining liquid absorbent in the gencratnr pases through a valve where is pressure is rece and the absorbent is then re-combined with the lov-presure rffigerant vapours returning from the evaporator. The cycle is then repeated (ee schematic on page 1).“The Basle workings ofan abrorptionc Absorption chillers can be categorised by the type of heat source, the ‘numberof effects and the chemical used in the absorption proces. Indircctfired absorption chillers we waste or heat rejected from another proces to drive the absorption cyele. Typical heat sources inchide scam, hot water or hor gus, Discct-fired chillers include an integral burne cstally operating on natural gos In a single-effeceabsosption cle, the heat released during the chemical process of absorbing reffigerant vapour into the liquid stream is rejected as waste heat, In a double-elfec absorption chiller, some ofthis energy is ‘sed to gencrite high-pressure refrigerant vapour, Using this heat of absorption reduces the demand for heat and boosts the efficiency of the chiller sytem, Double-effect chillers use ewo generators paired with a single condenses absorber and evaporator. Although they operate with a greater efficiency, they require a higher temperature heat input compared witha single clot chiller. The minimum heat source temperature for a double effect chiller 140°C. Double-effet chillers are more expensive than single fect chillers. Triple-effect chillers are under development. Ina lchium bromide/water mixture, the lithium beonnide (a ak) is the absorbent and the water is che refrigerant, Lithium bromide systems are the most commonly used absorption system, especially for commercial cooling. In an ammonia system, the water isthe absorbent and the ammonia is the reftigerant. Ammonia systems are «ypically used when low temperature cooling or freezing is required. Av ammonia is toxic, the plant room will nced to be well veniate. Lithium bromide water systems are widely available as packaged ons, with refrigeration capacity ranging from 100 kW to several thousands of EW. A practical limitation asociated with this type of system is that the ‘minimam chilled water temperature produced is approximately 5° “Ammonia wacer systems ate available in small (30-100 KYW), mediv (100-1000 kW) and large (greater than 1000 kW) sizes. Cooling, temperatures down to -60'C are ponsible“The operating eficieney of chillers can be expresed in tm ofthe coefficient of performance (COP), which isthe cooling effect by the cnorgy input of the sjitom. A conventional vapour compression chiller can have a COP of four oF above (for evoking its expressed as energy cficiency ratio (EER) which compares to a EER. of around 07 Fora single-effectabsooption chillers and around 12 fora double-cffoct absorption chiller Absorption chillers and CHP systems ‘The poor system efficiency associated with absorpeion chiller is mitigated when they are used in conjunction with whar would otherwise be waste heat. For direct-fired chillers this is not applicable. However, ‘when comparing tual carbon dioxide (CO, emisions bewween absorption chillers and conventional chillers, account must be taken of | the CO, emissions attributable to the generstion and transmission of clectieal power. Gas turbine combined heat and power (CHP) "The exhaust gas from the gas turbine is used to tase steam in a waste heat boiler. The high-pressure stan available i suitable for supplying. slouble-effct absorption unit. The overall efficiency of the CHP can be cenhanced if second stage heat recovery using the exhaust gases is used to heat wator for domestic hot water noeds and/or space heating anes From a reciprocating engine CHP [Reciprocating engine CHP units rypcally provide hot water at 85-90°C, This can be used fora single-efect absorption chiller, although the performance of the chiller will have to be down-rated (single-effece absorption chillers normally work on a heat source at 12°C and abows). Some CHP engines can produce water at higher temperatures, in which ‘ese the performance of the absorption chiller will be improved. (Other waste heat Waste heat from other sources sich as incntral processes can ao be sed to drive absorption chillers. Low-pressire steam and water can be used with single-effectabuorption chillers while higher- pressure steam (7- ‘ bar) can be used to drive double-effect chillers Hot water/steam from existing boilers In instances where boilers provide space heating and are required to sopply-a small load in summer, or where a large ring-main i osed t supply a few users, the efficiency of the boiler system can he improved by. tuising the heated water/steam to drive an absomption chiller. In practice itmay he more efficient ro reconsider the heating strategy and install a number of small local boilers 7Heat rejection techniques In order fora chiller to cool the water used ina cooling sytem, it must first extrict heat from the water and then discharge it to an available cooling medium. This proces isthe sime asthe operation of a domestic fridge, which takes heat from the food inside and then eejecs it at the back ofthe unit via the black serpentine coil which warms the serounding tr. Inthe same way, a commercial chiller mst reject the het it picks op. Heat rejection cat be achieved in several ways. The simplest approach is to combine the heat rejection system and chiller into a single wnt called 3 packaged chiller. This i located outside and incorporates one or more fans which draw fesh air though the unit to cary away the heat. Large chillers offer have a separate heat rejection sytem linked by pipework, enabling the chiller to be located in plant oom, A heat rejection systeun can take several forms. The most efficient isthe An example of dry cooler. evaporative cooling tower which uses the cooling effect of evaporating ‘water t boost the cooling provided by fesh ait. This approach has become les popular during the lst 10 to 15 years 353 result ofthe rsk of | Legionnaires’ disease associated with poor maintenance. However, for some building applications, properly maintained cooling towers remain the favoured method of heat rejection due to their high efficiency (which also enables a smal foorpring. A more widely used system for providing separate heat ejection isthe dy cooler. This consis of 2 low profile unit containing one or more fan that drive fresh sir across serpentine coil. The coil contains hot ‘water from the chiller which is cooled and pumped back to the chiller Altematvely, che coil can eontain hoe reigerantdieectly from che sefiigeration process, which is cooled in the same way and then travels buck to the chiller. ‘Table 2: The main types of heat rejection equipment commonly used in buildings. | Syst |Description Heat rejection system Notes Aircooled Fans induce ir ow = Convenine and common for chiles up to a ew condenser over fed ubrgin ;— TOO KW. Free of hygiene rks and does not require watr piping. Can be adapted to provide which refrigerant condenses ese ee (ase eae See eas oes Sa See Santas par ani See ee ay Sos aa ele ats plane area than other options. Adibatie sprays can be added to improve their performance. Cooling tower Water is sprayed over a + More efcient than air-cooled condenser oF dry- air cooler because less ai is required and water is Cooled co 3 few degrees above dhe wer bulb temperature: May cool water suficenty to avoid the need to operate a refrigeration plant known, 15 free cooling, High maintenance requirement. Evaporative Water ie sprayed over “The most efcient method of rejecting heat from a : conn || meee a pe cetaeei vps apace ieee coins: ‘Cpe coc te: Canis iter ered a ‘ug eaprtes some = Site wr ang he f— om niacin a > aHumidifiers ‘An important variable that affects occupant comufor isthe level of ‘moisture in the air. Air that is too dry can cause respiratory probl skin and hair dryness, and eye irritation. Hamicifers can be used t0 actively control the level of humidity in the occupied spaces of a building. A wide range of humidifiers i available and they can be categorised depending on whether they use adiabatic o iothermal Process Adiabatic processes ‘An adiabatic proces: is one in which no heat ie added oF taken out of a closed chermodynamie system. There are three basic types of adiabatic Inumiditier: woter spray, water atomising, and wetted media, Water spray "These were tiditionally used in large air-handling systems for commercial and industrial buildings. Their populasity bas dropped since the risk of micro-biological contamination, especially Legionnaires! lisease have become apparent Acspray huunidier has a grid of noaeles arrayed in a chamber with a ‘waterproof tank or reservoir within the air passage. Water is purmped from the reservoir to the nozzles and sprayed to form a curtain of water slroples through which the ventilation air must pas. Dalles are aranged inside the dact to ensure that che air onto the spray washer is uniformly cisbuced. A variant of the spray humidifier is the weetedl-celleype. In these, water is aprayed over a number of cells packed with a Bbrovs material. As air passes through them, the evaporation from the wetted surfaces enhanees the humidification effec, such tha the quantity of water required is approximately half ofthat required fora similse performance in s basic spray unit. Another type involves spraying water onto cooling coils Tocated imsmediately downstream, the extended surface ofthe col providing an increased contact arca between the water and the air. Isothermal processes In this context, the term isothermal means a process occurring ata ‘constant temperature. thermal hunidifers ean be grouped into two sategorics steam humidifier and spor humidifiers. Steam bumicifcrs include systems that deliver steam prodhiced remotely to the ar scam ‘Vapour generators convert the heat energy to water vapour within the appari tel Steam humidifiers take scum generated by a boiler and apply i either by an injection system to a ducted ventilation system or by dircet release into the occupied space to be humidified. The boiler is usually a clectrode or electrical resistance boiler. Humidifiers designed for direct applications are called ‘area type’ while those intended for duce applications are called “injection type’ ‘Vapour generators include devices such asthe heat pan and infrared evaporator. The heated-pan humidifier is constructed from a copper or stainles-steel pan containing water. Water vapour is produced in the pan by providing the necessry energy for evaporation using electric heating «elements, steam or hot water tubes. lffared evaporators use infrared lamps to evaporite water contained in reservoirs ot pans, Parabolic reflectors are used to reflect and focus the infrared radiation downward onto the water Farther information on humidification i given inthe BSRIA guide AG 10/94.1 Eins Humsidifiaion in Buldings.Water atomising “Thire aie three bic types of ater atomizer! atomisng now, mechanical atorsing, and wltraxonic stomisition. Atomising nozzles may be bated on water presure or air presure. Hoth types use presure nozzles that produce a fine mist of water portiles. A finer mist is produced by the sir atomisng system Mechanical atomisation systems normally take the form of spinning disks fr drums onto which water droplets impinge. A fine mist is proxkaced and carried into the ar stream, Ultrasonic humidification relics on the principe of ultssonic rnebalisation brought about by 3 ripidly oscillating crystal submerged water. The crystal, a piezo-electric tinsducer, converts the electrical ffequency into a mechanical oscillation. During the rapid oscillations a cavity i formed between the crystal and the water, erating 2 partial vaca, Af this nseant the water i able to boi, eating lowpressare 28. This is then followed by a postive oscillation eating a high- presure wave which i able to expel the pocket of gas through to the surfice of the water, Condensation accurs, bu the net result is the release ‘of finely aomised water that is ready able ro evaporite Wetted media ‘This ype is distinct from the wetto-cll type outlined above, in that it does not rely on the generation of water droplets by spraying, Instead, water is cither trickled over fibrous media or, more unusually. the media is wotted by capillary action from water ina rexrvoir in which the media ‘is partially submerged. Air passing through the media gains moisture by evaporation fiom the wetted surtices. “Theso three images show a "etSpray air and water atomising humiiir. The JetSpray nozzles combine ccomprereed nit and water achieve total atomisation within ‘minimum distance Sure Haren,Heat recovery Heat recovery isnot in itself cooling technology, more a means of reducing loads. This is because a heat recovery unit is equally capuble of recovering coolth as well. Where ventilation is provided by an r= handling unit, hea recovery can be used to uansfer enceyy from the extract ai t the supply aie Inthe summer when the internal air temperature is below the exterior temperature, the extract air ean be weed t0 cool the supply air. The ment common types are > Plate heat-exchanger > Thermal wheel > Ran-around col sytem D> Heat pipes. Plate heat-exchanger Phie heatexchangers are relive simple devices with no maving part. ‘They consist ofa framework supporting a nuimber of thin plates spaced apart with si pasages in-between, The plates are normally of metal but «ean be made from other materials and the plates may have flat, ‘corrugated or finned surfaces. A typical plate spacing is between 2-and 12 mu, An advantage of this type of exchanger is that a wide range of combinations of plate surface types and finishes and of plte spacings is available to suit many applications. Most manufacturers offer their heat ‘exchangers in modal fori so chat the appropriate number of modes ‘may be selected to suit the airflow rates to be handled Ga Timnpancfenar. Mivintige of pits heat-exchanger ince D No moving par, except for controlling the mate of hat recavery cor de-os through by-pas dampers where ited > Lite or no posbiiny of cross contamination of wr seams i propetlyconsrcted > Plate material (ncang protcivesnfice coating) and plate igor cin be sclocted to mit a wide cing of applicatns > En cleaned ifthe exchanger canbe quickly within from the duct. Disadvantages of plate heat-exchangers include: » atic presure differences between fresh air and exhata aie streams i limited, depending on construction D Aty-pas may be needed to avoid overheating fresh arin stunner and wo reduce fan power‘Thermal whee! A thermal wheel (also known a a rotary regenerator) consists of 3 matrix in the shape of a whee! rotating slowly between achiacent fresh sie and exhaust air ducts. The wheel rotates at between i to 15 rev min, Asi does so the matrix material in the airstream absosbs heat asthe warmer air roam, and release the heat again on re-entering the cooler air ‘which flows through the whee in the opposite ditection “The rotation of the wheel allows for a continuous transfer of heat from cone sir stream to the other duc tothe heat storage capacity of the matrix ‘medium, ‘Advantages of thermal wheels incude > Archive high heat-sraner ficiency compared to ober types of airte a hast recovery devies The energy consumption of the electric motor used to rotate the ‘wal ber low ope wih hea ong sage > Mtr material and density can suit a wide range of applications Some types of thermal whe can trans latent het a wel a semble heat > Now-mstllic mts nny use a dticcancoting (a mail thas ely abort sd der oo) ache ene trai, which pica improves thee etre beat one Disadvantages of rotary regenerator include the following: > Regubrairfilter maintenance/replcement is esntial as he air thea wee fon vo com, expectly i gee > Static presen he i ae sream mast be higher than that in saccesfil operation of a purge anit (whore fitted) DAthrmal whe wil occupy a tlatvey lage space in the plane D The ge rio ofsurfice ara to volume of matix materi shakes hs ype of heat cnclange parla soncepable to ‘corosion(depeing onthe neil used) The themal capacity of the marx and its esitanceto owe may cress tnkeney wo dog Schematic of| thermal wheel.Run-around coll system AA ran-arouind coil system consist of one oF more coils located in the ceshaunt air duct connected to one oF more evil in the fresh air intake ‘when heating is required. Ie can work in both heating and cooling modes. ‘A hat eansfr fluid is pumped between the two sets of coils to provi ‘continuous transfer of heat from the exhaust to fresh air during the heating season, Only sensible heat is transferred by the Mid, akhoagh latent heat ean be transfered from the warmer airstream to the heat ttansfer fluid ifthe coil temperature fil below the air dew-point yerature ia which ease condensation (and heat tansfes) will occur. ‘A nun-around coil system can be as items of equipment. Altematively, some manufactur assembled init comprising coil, 2 circulating pump set, a thermal expansion vewel, a condensate collection tray below the exhaust coil, 3 ‘mixing valve for the control bypass circuit of heat transfer uid, and control sensors and actuators. Advantages of run-around coils inclade: > Suitable for an exiting dactwork tem as the technology does noe reir adjacent sh airand exhaust ducts Relatively low capital cost compared to other het recovery > Coils are sandard items of equipment similar to cooling coi aed re dhereine well proves compontnes > No possibility of cross-contamination of air streams > ‘The number of rows an fn spacing can be selected ost the required heat transfer rate, and the permisible ai pressure-drop and level of exhaust air contaminants. Disadvantages of run-atound cols includ > semible het ander only (except wien condenstion ect on deen > Relatively low heat want ficiency rh reading pp nd kil in ec (Fi sr Be ie hear ng com)Heat pipes ‘A heat pipe isa passive device that, in effet, has an wnusally high ability to transfer heat. A eat pipe heat-exchanger used in a ventilation system consists oF a bundle of externally-finned heat pipes contained in a frame and arringed in staggered rows, typically herween four and eight, in the tion of flow. A central partition plate at right angles to the heat pipes separates the heat exchanger into two halves. “The heat exchanger is installed with one half in the warm waste air stream, fom which heat isto be recovered, and the other inthe adjacent fresh air steam. The waste ai and fesh ar steams normally lar in ‘opposite directions. The heat pipe itelf sa hollow tube, sealed at both ‘nds, containing an easly vapourised fluid and wick, In se, the liquid boils at che warn end of the be and condenses atthe coil end, where the condensate is wicked hack to the liquid reservoir. There isa very high heat transfer rate with a small temperature difference, A heat pipe ‘operating with the evaporator (hot end) below the condenser (cold end) is capable of transferring typically ten times as much heat as one having, the evaporator above the condenser. This x hecause gravity assists the return of condensate in the former case and hinders it in the later In ventilation and air conditioning systems, the heat pipes are nonially installed a slight angle t the horizontal so thatthe lower end i in the ‘warmer sintream, Heat pipes can ako be installed werially, with the warn ai duct below the cold ai duct, ta maximise heat transfer. ln this cate the direction of heat transfer cannot be reversed, Condensation =_ —_= supe Fresh =? = Exeact hase Evaporation 2 schematic fa vertical heat pipe Advantages of heat pipes include > Robust contruction, No moving pans exespt tit mechanism (where feed) > A rlavey igh-prenureiference between tsa ix posible, limited by the bfle/separting plate > Lite or no posiblty of cros-contaminaton of sntreans when the sytem is properly comstucted D Arwlavely high heat snnsfr race > May be designed or easy removal and cleaning ofthe heat exchanges ‘The number of heat pipe row can be woe wo i he required heat transfer rte ‘A schematic ofa heatpipaDisadvantages of heat pipes include che following: > Relatively high capital ost > Senile heat transfer only (except when condensation occur on heat pipe sures inthe warmer air seam and is removed as tigi) > Aby-pass duct may be needed in summer to avoid overheating the incoming Fes air (nv ape without air cooling). Con by tke mechanism may be too expensive to july ese excep in lags inllation. Cost ‘The potential effects on capital and operating costs asociated with the installation of any air-to-air heat recovery system are listed in Table 4. ‘of heat recovery systems ee een (peecee covery eaioaee eee ace oe ee sae aaah ae , pet gmercieed exchanger and filter(s) ‘energy required to heat or ‘Sigs gnsce : aan > Muga coneofhenng SPM cndtoning tems bine ‘ a ‘the total heat removed > Muga cnt ofl,” Mpeeion maance em fea treat ‘cols (in airconditioning aise ccxchanger reduces the: psy ey lever Dy tia recent ee eee equipment, such as pipes mesSW31SAS Direct heat recovery Heat recovery direct fom cooling systems i ake possible, Air conditioning and comfort cooling ely on the rejection of heat removed from areas within a building that are cooled, This removed heat can be used to provide heating in other areas of a building. ‘The most direct form of heat recovery is withthe use of variable refijgerant low (VRE) comfort cooling systema (ce page 53). These systems are based on heat pump technology and ssally eomprise an cexterally-mounted nit and a number of ternal unit that serve individual rooms or zones. The external and internal units ae linked via 4 network of pipes that tramfer refrigerant between them. ‘An advantage ofsimultancous VIFF systems is ther ability to allow the simultaneous operation of indoor units in either cooling or heating, mode, This allows for direct heat recovery to he performed, Where diferent indoor units are in cooling and heating mode, heat removed from those operating in cooling mode can be used to supply heat to those in heating mode. Heat ccovery using VRF technology ean be further enhanced where the Jndoor units are combined with a ducted air supply exhaust la this situation air-to-air heat recovery can be used. Raatshid he pig Gas pipe 8) petals Be afi co-room heat recovery, sch a only the balancing loads need to be served by cooing pls (ee page 31). Heat can also be recovered from conventional chill ased cooling. systems where the chiller is capuble of producing « relatively high condenser water temperature. Where ths isthe cae, the recovered heat can be used to pre-heat domestic hot water ot provide heated water for space heating requirements. One possible approach isto use vo chillers, tone of which is dedicated to producing the desired amount of hot water and part ofthe cooling load, and the other used co meet the required cooling load. ‘The combination ofa dedicated heat recovery chiller operating at aa clevated condenser water temperature, and a main, high-efficeney chiller ‘operating at the most efficient condenser water temperature, allows for ‘optimum loading of the heat recovery chiller t» provide the heating load. ‘The more efficient main chiller is set up to meet the bulk ofthe cooling, load Hexe ——Towstor estar ‘exchanger and system Creating me, Hex recovery Domestic panos eae ao . ‘Schematic of heat recovery froma cooling system.Free cooling Free cooling isa term wsed to describe the operation of a conventional system where matimum use is made of ambient conditions before cnorgiing chillers In other words iii cold, ear the chiller off. Fice cooling takes advantage of favourable weather conditions to enable the chiller plane to run without refrigeration. With the right control software, chillers cat he shut down for periods, The incorporation of | fice cooling capability toa cooling sytem can significantly reduce the annual energy requirement for rtrgeration. ‘Two kinds office cooling exis diect and indirect. Indirect free-cooling. Indirect fice cooling is generally used in water chillers: water is cooled exploiting the external sir daring the period of low external ambient temperature. This allows a drastic reduction of che compresior operating hours with a consequent energy saving from 30 up 10 60% Direct free-cooling. Cold extemal ambient air, after being appropriately filtered, is injected inthe locas to cool, yeneelly data ‘centers. The external aris drawn directly from the unit, This is done ting dumper controlled by the microprocessor. ‘The viability of free cooling is increased if > Thee ia significant cooling lod daring winter months typically greater than 20 per cent of che fll design cooling load ‘There ie continous 24-hour demand for cooling. culated at higher temperatures without » } Chilled water can be compeomising comfort » “The building has a high performance envelope ‘The fallowing outlines some of the most common solutions for achieving free cooling (note that many of the options could, depending fom the circumstances, be a low-centrerbishiient fest). Recirculation air systems Ina system where air is condisioned at a central air-handling unit and sistibuced via a constant volume ductwork syste, itis ikely thatthe total volume of air required to cool the space is grater than the amount ncoded to provide frcth aie for occupants, This means that a proportion ‘of the extracted air ean be re-circulated hack into the occupied space. To achieve free cooling, modulating dampers can be used to increase the ‘tio of fresh air to re-citculated air when the outside air temperature i Jess than the required internal space temperature Full fresh-air systems In systems where the re-circultion of extracted ar s not required or not posible (for example diac to smoke or fame), iti possible to install some form of heat ecovery device to transfer heat fiom extracted ai 10 incoming air during winter, ar from incoming air to extracted air during. summer, Typical heat recovery devices include run-around coils, thermal ‘whee, and plate heat-exchanger,‘Systems with cooling towers A-common cooling wlution i to circulate chilled water to room terminal nits sich as fan coil units oF chilled beams. Free cooling is achievable where heat rejection fiom the chillers is via cooking towers Free cooling works by rejecting heat from the rotaning chilled water straight into the atmosphere, by-pasing the chiller completely Free cooling can he achieved during periods when the outside wet bulb temperature is less than the required chilled water temperature. For particular, where chilled water temperatures of °C ate acceptable, free cooling is available for a significant proportion of the yeu. Chile water flow and return ‘Buuc coniguraion ofa direct cowar-based ao cooling ester Open-cieie Pe eatextangerDesiccant cooling systems “The five cooling capacity ofa fll re air system can be farther ‘improved by the addition of desiccant cooling, Desiceant material is commonly 2 coating on the matrix ofa eat recovery wheel that readily absorbs and desorhs moistare. Although the process of cooling avoids the nnced for refigeration plant, energy is still consumed de to the need to dlr and re-generate the desicant material, Where possible, this heat ‘could be provided by waste heat from some other processor solar cnorgy. Neverthcles, even with electric power regeneration, cooling costs can he up to 30 per cent les than for mechanical chiller plant Systems with evaporative coolers Water-side systems with evaporative cooler are able to take advantage of the same fre cooling method as for systems with cooling towers. Foran evaporative cooler, condensor water is circusted through a finned coil ‘cross which air is drawn eo catry aay the heat. To impeove heat teansfer, the coils are kept wet by water spray nozzles. Evaporative ‘coolers have an advantage over cooling towers in that there isno need tora collection sump, and less water is in contact with the air ‘Simultaneous air and water free-cooling Where fresh ar is supplied by a central ai-handling unit, chilled beam or fan-col stem can take advantage of simultaneous sir-side heat recovery and water-side free cooling. During periods when the outside sir temperature isles than the required chilled water temperature, chiller can be shut down so that reauning chilled water is cielated through the cooling col on the air-hanling wnt Under this condition, instead of providing cooling to the entering fresh air, the entering fresh air cools the chilled water and i lightly heated asa result An evaporative humidifier could he used eo frther increase the time when fre cooling is available by lowering the dry bull temperature of the entering ai bef ie reaches the cooling col ‘Thermosyphon systems “Thermosyphon systems ean offer a packaged solution for water-side free cooling by incorporating fre cooling within the chiller operation itself, ‘When external conditions permit, the diference in temperatures inside the condenser and evaporator can encourage natural circulation of seffigerant around a circuit without the need to run a compressor. In this mode, refigerant by-passes the compressor and enters the condenses where itis cooled, The resulting condensate then passcs straight back to the evaporator, by-passing the expansion valve Farther information on free eaoling is given in the BSRIA publication BG 8/2004 Free Cooking SystemsVariable speed pumping ‘The advent of variable speed motors and drives has enabled the wWilespread use of variable speed drives for pumps. These are systems where pump spsed is varied in rexpomse toa changing evoking demand. ‘The outputs from terminals (ach as fncoil unis) are normally varied by the throttling action of two-port control valves. Pump speed is then controlled to match the chilled water flaw requirement a closely as pomible to the cooking needs, ‘The use of variable speed pumping for chilled water circuits can result i the following benefit: > Redaced pumping eney > Pump datis can be matched to sytem requirements without the er rare Pullen need to adust main regulsting valves or impeller There isan opportunity to make allowance for divenity of cooling loads around a building, and therefore reduce mains Now pescred pets D -Taeierane paces capital eevings on pamngue chetdey ean ke devel en a number of pop el tendo expciy minimised fo reflect che anicipated lad diversity Ther is potent to leave out lw-reguating devices in pars of| > Chilled water temperature lifferentals wl tend to remain roughly constant, terehy providing a contant od for the chillers and increased The heat gain from chilled water pumps wl be reduced, so that les heat gos into the water > Primary plant and vermimals can be ade othe sytem more iieney Forth guide AG nformation on variable speed-pumping is given in the BSRIA, 3 14/1999 Variable Speed. Pumping in Heating and Cooling CinaRefrigerants ‘A wide range ofreffigerants are wed in central and local cools as indicated in Table 5 ‘The Ozone Depleting Substances Regulation came into force in 2000 and thas realted in the prohibition of ezone-depleting HCFC reffigerants such as R22 in new systems, R22 i a common refrigerant in existing cooling systems, The Regulation will an the use of R22 38a topmup ‘between 2010 (for vig Raid) and 2015 (For nd may be brought forward to recive will need to consider seffigerant for maintenan recycled duid the date i under 10 2012). Users of R22 and other HCFC. alernativereffigerants or the installation of new cooling equipment by the duc dates (ce Table 6) igerants used in mechanical cooling systems. Refrigerant Ozone Fegas_ Comments somes Pure ids: 822, R123, ¥ x 22 is very common in ar cendivoning plant and food RIDA, RIAIB, RIA2D factories HCEC blend wih Blends: RAOBA.RAO3B, ‘ HCFC blends were introduced inthe mid-1990s to HEC. 408A, RAB halp with CFC phase out. Most HCFC blends aso contain HFCs, so these refrigerants are affected by the regulations HCFC blends with no RAO6A, RAOBA,RAOSB x ‘These uncommon HCFC blends do not contain any HEC components, so are only subject tothe Ozo08 Regulavon Pure fhids RI34a, R32, x ‘ HECS have been usd sine 1995 as alkernacives for RIS FCs and HCFCs Blends: RAOAA.RAOTC, x v HEC blends are used because the properties of pure RAIA, ECS do not sual refrigeration aplitions Anwmonia (R7I7),CO, x x ‘Ammonia is quite common inthe food industry and is not affected by the regulations for the phase-out of R22 and other HCFC refrigerants. Advantages "Disadvantages New plant can be designed to have the best The most expensive option in terms oft energy eficieney cont > New plant can meet curencand future cooing >The longestimplementation ime requirements and ute the test eechnology > New plant wil have 20 co 30 years life span > An alternative refrigerant can be used, such as ammonia, hydrocarbons or CO, Modify ple to.usea > ily quick implementation > Eficioncy might got worse ew refrigeranc| Probably much lower capital cost than plant » Cooting capacity might fail replacement > Not applicable toll plant designs > Some risks of reliably problems > Plant life no extended > Easy, zeroapital cost option > ficiency not being improved > This option only delays response ~ citer of the fist ew options must be adopted by the ced of 2014 > The 2014 date could be changed to an cartier phase-cur date > Thore is no guaranto of recycled HCFCs bing avaiable ac reasonable cost 1“The choice of che best refrigerant for a specific application is complex and involves the evaluation of a number of competing characteristic (ce table 8, opposite). An ideal effigerant would: D Have excellent glob environmental characteristics, suc a no ozone depletion potential (ODP) and zero or very low global svaring potential (CWP) ~ see table 7 Be non-toxic and non-flammable Have excellent thermodynamic properties forthe given pplication, This means that the efficiency of the refrigeration ‘ele should be as high as possible > Bea practical fluid wo incorporate in the phi design. This inclades fictors sch ae materiale compatibility (i is help if the refrigerant is compatible with a wide range of metals and other material such a seals and gaskets), lubricating eil compatibility, and operating pressure level (evaporating presure mast not he too low and condensing pressure must not be too high) De tow con, widely avaible an amir to ds ‘Table 7: Examples of refrigerant ozone depletion potential (ODP), and global warming potential (GWP).. crc 12 100 Banned in the EU since 2000 HFC 22 1500005, Being phased out inthe FU, 2010 02015, HFC 1340 1000 \Various HFCs used since = a ‘mid 1990s a alternatives HFCAIOA 1725 and HCFCs ina wide New 0 ° |New refrigerane, Very nace Fas Woman Ses RAC 7 Aenaeof refrigerant characteristics. os ws w w v w w xs v w w we * w * gi ¥ ¥ a ga 7 ¥ * wi a 7 e 7 a “ v w w w we w 7 ¥ a a w gi a * * Poor * Good Very good ¥¥ te RAC 7 shet,*% agsinse tonicity for Ammonia means high toxicity and ¥~ against Cos for Ammonia means low cost. [Note that al rfrgerants have been characterised as ‘Good’ in terms of ficiency. All these refrigerant rypes have the potential to have "Very good! ficiency ifthe system design is carefully optimised, However, poor design could lead to Poor’ or even ‘Very poor’ efficiency. "The EU F-gas Regulation imposes obligations on operators and contractor relating to the wse of fluorinated greenhouse gaehused seffigerants (ce section on Maintenance and Upkeep, page 58)RENEWABLE COOLING TECHNOLOGIES Innovative and ground-coupled cooling Groond-coupled ar systems, ako referred to a cath-coupled systems, are primary used foe pre-conitioning incoming spy arn mime Grownd-couped sr ystems typically comprise length of piping placed underground. The network of piping i connected to an oto sie Jntake an to the building vention system atthe other end Dering the incoming air, while during the winter the colder outside air is warmed by het transfer from the grown. Ar depths greater than two metres ground temperature is constant a¢ 12-13°C all year round. The tempering effect provided by the thermal mass ofthe ground can significantly seduce (or even remove) the need for mechanical cooling. Ground coupled cooling systems cin ako be ran 3¢ night to purge buildings of daytime heat mer, heat transfer to the surrounding grown cook the While a ground-coupled aie system may be capable of completely, removing the need for mechanical cooling, close temperate control within che building will nt be possible. This pute greater emphasis on insulation and airighenes. Sround-coupled systems can bein the form of earth pipes or labyrinths Earth pipes ar ducts are typically conseructed from a range of materials including concrete drain sections, or corrugated galvanised ductwork, ‘The best materials are those with good thermal transfer properties. ‘The effectiveness of a ground-coupled system is dependant on a ringe of cor: including the following: > Soil tempersture Soil ype thermal conductivity D> silt es we aii sl ie bags tere oF then] pepo D The number of bends in the duct un (iost of the thermal, wwansfer occurs at bends) Incoming air temperature Mass flow rate of air, and air velocity Degree of air turbulence atthe inside surice of the pipe or dct. Air sompertures 3 veer ec "arch dict minimum 70 length, 600 mm dareter ‘A schematic showing a ground-coupled system designed for an office project.