ous pe the growl i the true significance of in¢ working class and the idea ease But he has failed to oer transforming the concept of Sone lass ne an exponent of classical notion of dem: ignored. th of self-conscious gro Nr mocracy. He sees the growth ofa id dustrial f proletarian dictatorship as_ threats to belt Ake ciate their impact which y,, If, However, his contribution a¢ he modern times cannot be I CONCEPT OF LIBERAL DEMOCRACY emocracy is an old concept; liberalism is a recent one. Today, liberalism js Peerty thought to be inseparable from democracy so much so that the term ‘democracy’ is applied to denote ‘liberal democracy’ unless otherwise specified. But as C.B, Macpherson in his Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval has observed: ‘Until the nineteenth century liberal theory, like the liberal state, was not at all democratic, much of it was specifically anti. democratic’ (p. 172). The classical liberal theory was committed to the individual’s right to unlimited acquisition of property and to the capitalist market economy which implies inequality not only in the economic sphere but in the political sphere also. Thus, classical liberalism of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries insisted on property qualification for the right-to- vote. This was contrary to the democratic principle which implies equal entitlement of each individual not only in the matter of choosing a ime but also to the other advantages accruing from organized social life. But a combination of the two antithetical principles—liberalism and democracy—became inevitable in a later phase because of historical reasons. rise to a large See industrialization and urbanization. This gave lve under sub-human conditions erste oe nse ities and forced t due course this class beca itions created by a cruel, competitive economy. In at the decision-makin, piece of its strength and insisted on a voice accommodate democratic principles my gut, Weeral_ state was forced 10 outcome of this combination ener say rae t9 save its own existence. The erged in the form of liberal democracy. It Tee-market economy with universal adult solve the conflicting claims of the capitalists ual concessions under the garb of a ‘welfare tempt to re: and the masses by making grad state’, Liberal dem ok system by certain ines is distinguished from other forms of political ‘ples and characteristics, that is, its institutional Scanned with CamScanner. Liber, angoments. Institutions are ‘al Theory ni « incipl i ees: jhout principles, the instituti eSSary for {} Sidi a must go together, Tons might be redueeg oa@ation of principles; (© a mere formality. The y. The pRINCIPLES OF LIBERAL DEMocRAcy of Democracy 291 ter H. Merkl, in his Potitical Continyi panciles of Hiberal democracy Oninuity and Change, has enumerated f . ’ rated four Government by Discussion Democracy is government by consent, R persul : , ational sion for which ai auonal consent asion for n_almosphere of free diseusiony ¢ where the consent of the peopl 'scussion is essential. Any 1om of expression of divergent opinio eee nie eae 8, does not qualify for being calle: g called ic Sfemocracy” even if it maintains certai not 2 demow of the highly technial nature, he tae governmental decisions, iis impractical to cons the peone oa ey dtl srevery policy. However, discussion of the broad ess is ifcposabl Discussion is usually held at two levels: (a) among the re resentatives of the sie in the legislative assemblies where members ofthe opposition have meer say; and (b) at the public level where thre is dzect communication between the leadership and the people. Democratic leadership is expected not to lose touch with popular sentiment on the major outlines of policy as the ord parties are bound to seek a fresh mandate of the people at regular intervals. in be obtained by Majority Rule In modern representative democracies, decisions are taken in several bodies-legislatures, committees, cabinets and executive or regulative bodies. Majority rule means that in all these decision-making bodies, from the electorate to the last committee, the issues are to be resolved by voting. Political equality is secured by the principle of ‘one man, one vote’, which implies that there will be no privileged sections claiming special weightage, nor any underprivileged sections whose voice is ignored, No discrimination allowed on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth, ownership o! property, and even educational qualifications. Any restriction o § supe should be based on sound reason, that is, wher® the Co aed od arational and responsible manner, such as, ne case o! 5 mental patients, and persons below & legally Lareect vis of the majorly. The principle of majority rule lis on the wisdom of bes By Minority opinion has the option to enlist the supP' 7 jiscussion. Persuasion in an atmosphere of free discu: Recognition of Minority Rights no means implies the suppression of The principle of majority Ge He, there may be several racial, religious, Minorities, In modern nation-S'2 Scanned with CamScanner292 An Introduction (0 Political Theory discrimination or the tyranny of the inorities who fear n s cultur minorities may take many forms Fanging from majority. Minority grievan Sreerimination if housing, education and over nocide. Legal safeguards ary psychological insults ara i secution a f guards are, Se mal hysiat rial for the realization of the democratic Principle nsidered essen! ole awareness of bot ori therefore, co ce helps to raise the level of awa oth majority because their presence Sourable climate for democratic politics, and minority and thus promote @ linguistic or cultural Constitutional Gover pyeans a government by laws rather than by men, oe eaey bid reams cely, complex. machinery of processes Dee anit infinite the majority will into action. It makes odwill and integrity of its citizens ang d procedure is sct aside, even for 4 lent that may be followed for Pursuing illegitimate purposes, and the flood-gates of corruption might be thrown wide open. It is, therefore, essential to have a well-established tradition of law and constitution for the stability ofa democratic government. | These four principles throw sufficient light on the requirements of a liberal democracy. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIBERAL DEMOCRACY enormous demands on the time, go" public servants. Once the P scribe mate purpose, it can set a preced Once certain principles of liberal democracy are accepted, the next problem is: what are the characteristics which distinguish a liberal-democratic system from other political systems, viz., totalitarian and autocratic systems. The champions of liberal democracy recognize certain institutions and procedures as essential characteristics of democracy. The presence or absence of these characteristics will determine whether a system is democratic or not. They firmly believe that a government can be conducted according to will of the people only by adherence to these institutions and procedures. Any other system may have many qualities but it will not qualify as a democracy without these characteristics. The main characteristics of liberal democracy may be enumerated as follows: ee ne Political Party Freely Competing for Political Power ideologies ated secks reconciliation between varying interests and reconciliation, Wh Setar There is no fixed method of securing this political parties for po cre is a free competition between more than one alterative policies, Peeee! the people get an opportunity to consider various According to this Al pehenes and personalities to exercise their choice. former Soviet Union and fee systems do not qualify as democracies. The treated as democracies eresemt People’s Republic of China cannot be respective Comniinist: Pee? conceded monopoly of power to their Liberal democracy re ciate inspite of a facade of periodic elections: quires open competition for power between different Scanned with CamScannerLiberat The a i ‘ory of Democracy 293 politcal parties on the bass of establisheg 4 and accepted form of procedure. Political Offices Not Confined to any Priyil ina liberal democracy a political atten ed lass through the support of the people, mat by ee ic one can be acquired only i ture of ae |, traditic Ps deytin odor fm ey many ae ‘acy alll citizens enj nt sti a e " 's Enjoy equal sien am fave acest peg ney al Bd as Ay Pe nited period whch na e°rKlition, Politeal office ean be! hell ol toa ceca ich must be relinquished on completion of one’s term or other exigency, sch as dissolution of the legslatee cee resignation, cle. Some qualifications, nee i such as, age, educati jay be prescribed for the candidates of a politcal office. bry nobody een be decid unfit for any office on grounds of caste, erced, sex, language, region, etc However, in order to secure due representation for all strata of the population, some seats in the decision-making bodies can be reserved for minorities or weaker sections. It is believed that such provision would strengthen democracy rather than weaken it, Periodic Elections Based on Universal Adult Franchise Since representative government is the only practicable method of establishing democracy in the present-day world, periodic elections become necessary for this purpose. Each citizen should have the right to vote on attaining the prescribed age (say, 18 years); nobody should be disqualified on grounds of caste, creed, sex, language, region, etc. Voting should be secret so that each citizen can exercise his or her right in this respect without fear or favour. It is true that the principle of universal adult franchise was introduced in modern democracies only gradually, but today it is regarded a necessary condition of democracy. Periodic clections require that the people’s representatives should be chosen for a limited period (say four or five years) so that the party that comes to power is able to implement its policy and programme, but it is obliged to renew the confidence of the people to eae Pet “ same time, the opposition should have an opportunity shortcomings of the ruling party to the notice of ie people, ue alternative policy and programme with a view to winning the next clection. Protection of Civil Liberties and expression, i of though pression, he protection of civil liberties, such as Ire bel ie Ceci iter feces Sn the one hand, thes freedoms nal he lies to ii ganz . ine eran ce el i pir the ress om blip and decision. Civil iberties, Scanned with CamScanner294 An Introduction to Political Theory . racy. therefore, constitute the core of democracy. Independence of the Judiciary Fy alike face of eadoeat ation fo tbe secured i tral Freedom of - ‘poopie a rah! Liberal democracy, therefore, ins a fhe separation of powers between different organs of ey 2 ile the cgi ht become inte ins ecutive and the legislature it aninmenterf government, the judiciary must be kept ae of both, Pant thes tevelture and the executive im a democracy are dominated by liticians, judges are appointed on merit and they cannot be removed from pence in cansequence of sudden changes in the political climate of the cece in conse fence of judiciary enables the judges to pronounce their verdict without fear or favour. This strengthens the faith of the people in the regime and ensures continuity and stability of the judicial procedure, Conclusion The above conditions must be fulfilled in a liberal democracy under the normal circumstances, However, some flexibility in these conditions may be conceded under special circumstances, such as emergency. However, the mere fulfilment of these conditions should not lead us to complacency. In a developing nation, like India, an apparent democratic structure may suffer from several inner distortions. For instance, the existence of more than one political party competing for political power may simply involve conflict and competition between certain dominant and vocal interests, such as large manufacturers, big businessmen, rich peasants and landlords, for acquiring a hold on political power rather than for serving the public interest more effectively. Similarly, vested interests may try to foster a feudal political culture among the people so as to reduce them to submissive voters rather than vehicles of social change. Again, there may be no formal restriction on Cntry to positions of political power, but in actual practice, these positions may remain the sole preserve of a tiny class. Then there may be complete freedom of the press, but the press might be owned exclusively by big ines ie who may use it for moulding public o} their vested interests, Also, the f i redundant bemeea of © freedom of expression might become ant beca ast illiteracy, mass ignorance, widespread ea abject Poverty and general apathy of the people. It is also lee Ta judiciary is independent of both the executive and the oe dienaten (he judges might uphold the values of a bourgeois society and thus dispense a distorted form of justice. Scanned with CamScannerNV, Conditions for Successful Working of Democracy cy form of government cannot function properly unless it j ena as Peas socio-economic and cultural factors. It is interesting ' recall that Alexis de Tocqueville, a famous French writer, in his notable work America (1835-40) tried to enumerate the principal Causes d to maintain the democratic structure in the United States. His list included not only the constitutional structure but also (a) the absence of a lar; ilitary establishment; (b) equality in social and economic conditions; (c) @ prosperous agricultural economy; and (d) the mores, customs and religious beliefs of Americans. For our purpose, this list should be treated only as illustrative and by no means comprehensive or authoritative, Conditions in America have thoroughly changed since de Tocqueville wrote about America. His list may now be modified as follows so as to reflect the contemporary conditions: (a) primacy of civil authority over military power; (b) larger equality in social and economic conditions; (c) a prosperous agricultural and industrial economy; and (d) a democratic culture or mode of thought. In the contemporary world, democracy has been adopted as a form of government in a large number of countries, It is not equally successful iid rang nd successful working of democracy depends upon masy Some of the important conditions may be described as follows. National Sentiment Some thinkers have . Pointed out th fs ‘ty ig essential condition for the su ‘at national homogeneity is " ceess of democracy. For instance, John Stuart Mill in bs Se —_ Scanned with CamScannerLiberat pepresemtative Government (1g61) Teor of Pemocracy 303 ential for the success of lemoc, BBested that am erged on the globe since J.s, Mill A large mu ost of these states include people i janguages and cultures, Democracy gates. What is therefore need the uniformity of the People as a nationality but the so" ration, inspired by the fecling of h the present and a common future ‘No-national state is mber of states have is Representative Government. belonging to ditters Y is work) Jed for the nfitS successfully j se moeracy is not the ‘ Of belong: it laving a A ging to a singl as ale MOM History, a common lie in 4 common centte of loyalty spit of Toleration True national sentiment cannot be created witho fact, a spirit of toleration is the keynote of democrai Keyno cy. In a oot demand conformity nor assimilation, but diferent yroops ee coexist in spite of their differences. We are free to win others by vation and discussion, not by force or blackmail The a cuss tOECS. minority is expected to respect the majority; the majority is expected to accommodate minority with fall dignity. Dut a spirit of toleration. In High Moral Character High moral character of the people as well as leaders is another condition for the success of democracy. If people are led by their narrow selfish interests, or leaders are led by mere opportunism, democracy is bound to give way to demagogy, that is, the practice of leaders playing with the emotions of the people instead of appealing to reason. On the contrary, a sense of morality and discipline will make the people active in solving social problems more effectively. Widespread Education An edveated electorate is an asset to democracy. Generally a people should be literate if not highly educated so that they are able wl ieee exercise their judgement in the matters of common conta ist To the media of mass communication is provided wih Te toe Structure itself, Only a literate, preferably a is condition, the state itself best use of this facility. For the fulfilment of @ should provide for universal education. Economic Security and Equality i .d to undermine the people’s Lack of aceon security in the masse* i ipa are bound to destroy fit in democracy. Similar, vst COT gta, democracy witout & the sense of equal dignity of int toa "easonable level of economic seeuriy and © C eae Jone is meant to serve the cause oe al Ofall forms of government, democrac) Scanned with CamScanner304 An Introduction to Political Theory the democratic process calls for a good deal of policy-making, but also at the level of policy. ¢ found to be very effective during the times of crises, It is therefore essential that the provision for a temporary suspension of the democratic process and suitable checks against arbitrary use of power should be made within a democratic constitution itself, the people directly. However, patience not only at the level of implementation. This may not b DEMOCRACY AS A WAY OF LIFE arded not only as a form of government, but asa way Today democracy is reg: of go of life. That is why there is demand for democratization at all levels, such as tas well as university administra- in political parties, industrial managemen| tion. It means that those effected by particular institutional decisions should have their say or representation at the decision-making level. Thus, the members of a political party should have effective say in drawing out policy and programme of their party; workers should have effective say in deciding production policy and management; similarly, teachers and students should have a say in deciding educational policy. Democracy as a way of life requires an end of authoritarianism at all levels, even at the school and family levels. This does not mean an end of guidance and supervision by the superiors, but only that the decisions should be taken in consultation with and with the consent of those affected by such decisions. Scanned with CamScannervi CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF DEMOCRACY The traditional theories of democracy were chiefly concerned with democracy as a form of government and they focused on an ethical justification of democracy. The contemporary theories, especially the elitist and pluralist theories, deal with the questions whether and in what form the democratic principle is capable of realization in the face of recent sociological findings, The Elitist Theories ;| aS, a society, a state, a religious institution, a oad * Preponderant influence within that ‘ Lge or the majority whi jected to the Beane of the elite, Villtedo Pareto (The Mind Ree and jaetano Mosca (The Ruling Class, 1939) pointed out that there may exist, in Scanned with CamScannerLiberal Theory of Democracy 305 | ociety> 2 minority of Population which takes the major decisions in 8) 5° the dominant minority may or may not hold political offices but its «ose are of such wide scope and affect all aspects of the society, that they aes termed political decisions. Mosca considered the capacity for ay tion as the outstanding quality of the elite while Pareto regarded me ce and talent as their chief assets. itliger Michels, another notable clite theorist, propounded his ‘iron law Robe chy’ which added a new dimension to this theory. According to of oligat tie ‘majority of human beings are apathetic, indolent and slavish and vicmanently incapable of self-government. Leaders take advantage of fe ‘uation to perpetuate themselves in power. They employ all kinds of is sil i i i i der to fool _-oratory, persuasion, and playing upon sentiments in order to foo ne whatever form of government is adopted, in practice it 1s bei bl reduced to oligarchy, that is, the rule of the chosen few. James ee theory of the ‘managerial revolution’ and C. Wright Mills’s theory {the ‘power elite’ are some other important versions of the elite theory. al Scanned with CamScanner