COPYRIGHT BY NC-ND SEVKET AKYILDIZ PUBLISHED LONDON JUNE 2021

Lundy Island, England & Wales

and
Ottoman and Barbary Corsairs:
A Temporary Base
for a Couple of Weeks Each Year
circa 1625 to 1635 CE

Author:

Sevket Hylton Akyildiz

Summer 2021

Introduction

‘Lundy was a favored island for pirates, smugglers, and merchants because it was
located directly in the shipping lanes leading in and out of the Bristol Channel.’1

‘… the Island was variously a base for marauders (including allegedly the Barbary
Pirates), a fortified outpost loyal to King Charles I, a retreat for disgraced nobility
and the centre of an ingenious smuggling operation.’2

‘Long a base for privateers and smugglers, Lundy was owned by the British crown
from 1150 until 1647, when it was sold to Lord Saye and Sele.’3

The North Devon-born artist Maggie Curtis says: ‘In 1625 in a Government report
evidence from Nicholas Cullen states three “Turkish pirates” seized Lundy for a
fortnight.’4

1
Patrick J. Boyle, 2016, The Archaeology of Lundy Pirates: A Case Study of Material Culture, MPhil Dissertation,
University of Bristol, p. 27.
2
Lundy, Landmark Trust. Available: https://www.landmarktrust.org.uk/lundyisland/discovering-lundy/history/
(accessed 23 June 2021).
3
Lundy, Encyclopaedia Britannica. Available: https://www.britannica.com/place/Lundy (accessed 15 June
2021).
4
Maggie Curtis blog website, Available: https://www.maggiecurtis.co.uk/trade-maps (accessed 15 June 2021).

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Lundy in the Bristol Channel, United Kingdom5

My short essay investigates Lundy Island (England) and its brief occupation by the
Barbary corsairs circa 1625 to 1632 CE. They are also known as the Turkish corsairs,
Turkish pirates, Ottoman corsairs, and North African corsairs. These agents of the
Ottoman Empire sailed from North African seaports to raid shipping and coastal
villages along the English Channel, the Bristol Channel, and the coasts of southern
Ireland (and Spain, France, and Holland). Focusing upon events on Lundy Island, my
two questions explore: Who were the Ottoman corsairs, and why did they venture into
South-West England? What do the scholars say about the Ottoman corsairs’ use of
Lundy as a temporary base – for a few weeks each occupation – in 1625 and 1627 to
1632(-1635)? The story of sailors of the Ottoman-Turkish sultan journeying to the
Bristol Channel, South-West England, is a lesser-known history that deserves
clarification and understanding.

In compiling this short essay, I use online and open-access English language sources
and public libraries: popular books and articles, academic studies, British newspaper
stories, websites, and blogs. My analysis is not a comprehensive study on the Ottoman-
Barbary corsairs and Lundy; instead, it is an introductory examination. I have selected
sources that objectively analyse the several Barbary corsair brief occupations of the
island. In particular, this paper is written to correct the sensationalist and speculative
narratives about the Barbary corsairs on Lundy. In particular, some of the authors

5
Source: Romany Reagan, Blackthorn and stone.com. Available:
https://blackthornandstone.com/2020/07/16/pirates-smugglers-treason-a-fake-king-the-scandalous-history-
of-lundy-island/ (accessed 26 June 2021).

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imply that the occupation of Lundy by the Barbary corsairs was continuous over five
years from 1627 to 1632 (see below Appendix I to VIII); the scholarly researchers I cite
in my essay refute this opinion.

Lundy Island: etymology and geography

Lundy Island’s name derives from the Old Norse lundi, meaning ‘puffin’ and ey
‘island’. The Puffin and other seabirds breed on the island. In Old Welsh, Lundy is
‘Caer Sidi’, the ‘fortress of faeries’.6

Lundy is a steep-sided island situated in the Bristol Channel; it is 11 miles (18 km) off
North Devon, South-West England—and 25 miles from South Wales. In size, Lundy is
about 3 miles (5 kilometres) long and 5⁄8th mile (1 km) wide;7 it reaches a summit of
466 feet (142 metres) and has an area of 1.5 square miles (4 square km).8 The nearest
towns on the English mainland are Bideford and Ilfracombe, North Devon.9

1). Who were the Ottoman corsairs, and why did they venture into South-West England?

A ‘corsair’ is an individual who sails in a boat or ship to attack, rob and loot other
seafaring people and coastal settlements. Corsair gangs operated in the Mediterranean
and off North-West European coasts. What distinguishes corsairs and privateers from
‘pirates’ is that during the 1600s and 1700s, they were permitted, in return for a tithe
or payment or share of goods, by their government(s) to roam and pillage, for example,
by the Ottoman Sultan, and Queen Elizabeth I. In the English language primary
sources, the label Turkish or Turk corsairs or pirates mean Barbary corsairs.10

Likewise, Noel Malcolm differentiates the corsair from those of the pirate. However,

6
Romany Reagan, Blackthorn and stone.com. Available: https://blackthornandstone.com/2020/07/16/pirates-
smugglers-treason-a-fake-king-the-scandalous-history-of-lundy-island/ (accessed 26 June 2021).
7
Lundy, Wikipedia. Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lundy#Piracy (accessed 15 June 2021).
8
Lundy, Encyclopaedia Britannica. Available: https://www.britannica.com/place/Lundy (accessed 15 June
2021).
9
It is reported that ‘Ships were forced to navigate close to Lundy because of the dangerous shingle banks in
the fast-flowing River Severn and Bristol Channel, with its tidal range of 27 feet (8.2 metres), one of the
greatest in the world’. Source: Lundy, Wikipedia. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lundy#Piracy
(accessed 15 June 2021).
10
Sevket Akyildiz, 2020, ‘Ottoman Corsairs and English Renegades 1600 – 1700 CE: Coastal Kent and Sussex
and Pirates,’ p. 6. Available:
https://www.academia.edu/43648462/Ottoman_Corsairs_and_English_Renegades_1600_to_1700_CE_Coasta
l_Kent_and_Sussex_and_Pirates (accessed 24 June 2021).

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Malcolm highlights that the corsair has both a contemporary and a sixteenth-century
interpretation. In the sixteenth-century vernacular, the terms (corsair and pirate) were
interchangeable, though each was a different type of armed seafarer -

‘In modern terminology there is a clear distinction between a pirate and a corsair. A
pirate will rob and raid indiscriminately, complying with no law and recognizing no
superior authority. A corsair acts with the authorization of his ruler, targets particular
enemies, follows a code of conduct… In the sixteenth-century Mediterranean, the word
‘corsair’… was widely employed in its various forms, the word ‘pirate’ … existed, but
was much less commonly used. In Ottoman Turkish, korsan … could mean either
type’.11

The Barbary corsairs were groups of ethnically diverse male pirates and privateers
based in the coastal city-states of Sale/Sallee (modern-day Morocco), Algiers
(modern-day Algeria), Tunis (modern-day Tunisia), and Tripoli (modern-day Libya).12
Morocco was more ‘independent’ of Istanbul than the others mentioned; the Barbary
corsairs were some of the best sailors in the Ottoman navy, though separate from the
Ottoman establishment and institutions.

In regards to the threat of the Ottoman or Turkish corsairs to Bristol’s ships, cargo,
and sailors, Isabella Hill says piracy:

‘… also threatened voyages of discovery and fishing voyages, particularly into the
Atlantic and around areas such as Newfoundland. In 1620 huge numbers of small ships
from London, Bristol, Plymouth and Weymouth fell victim to the Turks returning from
the Newfoundland fisheries.13 This was a particular problem for Bristol in the early
seventeenth century as reflected in the letter of the Corporation of Bristol to the
Government, begging for a ship of war to be sent to protect those returning from
Newfoundland from the Turkish corsairs plaguing the area.’14

Below, the scholars say that Lundy was used as a temporary base for raids in the Bristol
Channel region and further afield in the North Atlantic, as far as Iceland.

11
Noel Malcolm, 2016, Agents of Empire: Knights, Corsairs, Jesuits and Spies in the Sixteenth-Century
Mediterranean World (London: Penguin), p. 79, cited in Akyildiz, ‘Ottoman Corsairs and English Renegades
1600 – 1700 CE’, p. 9.
12
Ibid., p. 8.
13
Clive Senior, A Nation of Pirates; English Piracy in its Heyday (Devon, 1976), p. 109, cited in Isabella Hill,
2013, ‘Bristol and Piracy in the Late Sixteenth Century’, Undergraduate essay, University of Bristol, Department
of Historical Studies, p. 18.
14
John Latimer, The Annals of Bristol in the Seventeenth Century (Bristol, 1900), p. 91, cited in Isabella Hill,
2013, ‘Bristol and Piracy in the Late Sixteenth Century’, Undergraduate essay, University of Bristol, Department
of Historical Studies, p. 18.

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2). The Ottoman corsairs’ use of Lundy as a temporary base in 1625 and 1627 to 1632(-35):
remaining for a few weeks each visit.

Patrick J. Boyle’s The Archaeology of Lundy Pirates: A Case Study of Material

Culture (2016) M.Phil dissertation investigates primary sources to critically analyse
the physical evidence of Lundy and the occupations by the English, Spanish, French,
Dutch, and Ottoman corsairs and pirates. Reading the available primary evidence
(from CSPD, Calendar of State Papers-Domestic), and the scholarly texts by A.F.
Langham (1994) and C.G. Harfield (1996, 1997), Boyle summarises the Ottoman
corsair time on Lundy. He concludes that Lundy was a temporary base used to launch
attacks on shipping in the Bristol Channel and off the Devon and Cornwall coast
between 1625 and 1635 (pp. 24, 37).15

1625 CE:
The first historical account of an Ottoman corsair raid on Lundy was in the summer of
1625. On this occasion, the corsairs stayed ‘for only a couple of weeks’ and would leave
the island, taking all of their ships with them, to raid in the Bristol Channel region:

‘On August 18, 1625, it was announced by the Mayor of Bristol that three Turkish pirate
ships had taken over Lundy (CSPD 18.8.1625). Shortly after taking over the island, the
pirates abducted all of the inhabitants and they threatened to burn the nearby town of
Ilfracombe to the ground (CSPD 18.8.1625) … It seems that during this time the
Barbary pirates remained on Lundy for only a couple of weeks (CSPD 25.8.1625). One
particular primary document suggests that the pirates would leave the island at times
because a sailor that passed the island claimed that there were no Turkish ships around
Lundy (CSPD 25.8.1625).’16

The above quote is an example of the fine detail that the scholarly community retrieve
from historical documents. It shows that, in 1625, the Barbary corsair occupation was
for a relatively short duration –though catastrophic for the island’s inhabitants – and
that it functioned as a temporary base for corsair actions against ships, people, and
property in the region, which was their primary motivation and strategic aim.

15
The Barbary corsairs used Lundy Island as a temporary base in order to raid bigger prizes in the Bristol
Channel. It might be the case that the Dutch renegade Jan Janszoon had sailed to Lundy from Sale, Morocco, in
order to raid English shores, ships and settlements in 1625 and 1627; ‘… in 1625 it was reported that three
Turkish pirate ships had occupied Lundy, capturing its inhabitants, and were threatening to burn Ilfracombe.
This attack aroused widespread alarm, and a government inquiry was ordered.’ Source: ‘Lundy Part 2: About
piracy from Elizabethan times onwards and shipwrecks’, Devon Perspectives. Available:
https://www.devonperspectives.co.uk/lundy2.html (accessed 5 May 2020).
16
Patrick J. Boyle, 2016, ‘The Archaeology of Lundy Pirates: A Case Study of Material Culture’, M.Phil.
Dissertation, University of Bristol, p. 38.

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Furthermore, Philip Haywood and Susie Khamis say Angus Konstam’s findings
comment that the Barbary corsairs used Lundy as an ‘occasional base’ –

‘Konstam has identified that one captain from Salé, the Dutch adventurer Jan
Janszoon, led a party of corsairs to Lundy in 1625 and used it as an occasional base for
a series of raids around the Bristol Channel in the late 1620s’ (2008: 90-91).17
1627 to 1632(-35) CE:
The second occasion that the Ottoman corsairs used Lundy as a temporary base was
in 1627. (The historians do not mention the corsairs on Lundy territory during 1626.)
The corsair gang’s leader was the Dutch renegade and Ottoman corsair Jan Janszoon,
also known as Murat Rais the Younger.18 Captain Murat aimed to raid Iceland for
captives to ransom and sell in North Africa as slaves. The year 1627 was the start of a
possible five year on and off presence on Lundy by the Barbary corsairs. About Murat
during the period 1627 to 1632, ‘for the next five years he used the island as a base to
prey on coastal communities and shipping as far away as Iceland’, writes Konstam.19
Boyle says it is plausible that Murat Rais used Lundy as a base before sailing to Iceland
in the summer of 1627 (p.39). The Ottoman corsairs periodically returned to their
Lundy base to raid South-West England until 1635.

On the third documented corsair occupation, circa 1635, the duration of the corsair’s
stay is uncertain, but most likely, it was ‘for at least two weeks (CSPD 1635)’. One
contemporary source reads that the regional waters became ‘much infested by Turkish
pirates from Algiers, and especially from Sally in Barbary (CSPD 1636)’.20

Boyle’s remarks that the story of the Ottoman corsairs’ occupation of Lundy is unclear
because of insufficient primary sources and the vague content of what is available. He
reports: ‘Since the Barbary pirates were also known to only use the island
sporadically, the exact number of times the pirates used the island cannot be
determined from the primary documents’ (p. 41). The few defensive structures on the
island were seized by the corsairs, however, they appear to have built none. Is this a

17
A. Konstam, (2008) Piracy: The Complete History, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, pp. 90-91, cited in Philip
Haywood and Susie Khamis, ‘Fleeting and Partial Autonomy: A historical account of quasi micronational
initiatives on Lundy Island and their contemporary reconfiguration on MicroWiki’, Shima: The International
Journal of Research into Island Cultures, Vol. 9, No 1, 2015: 71. Available:
https://shimajournal.org/issues/v9n1/g.-Hayward-&-Khamis-Shima-v9n1-69-84.pdf (accessed 13 June 2021).
18
Ra’is: (Arabic, ‫ )رئیس‬A leader, chief, or captain of a boat or ship.
19
Angus Konstam, 2008, Piracy: The Complete History, Oxford, Osprey, p. 91, cited in Boyle, 2016, p. 38.
20
Boyle, 2016, pp. 39-40.

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sign that they had no intention of remaining on Lundy for the long term? Boyle reports,
‘it seems that they had no intention of holding it for long periods of time’ (p. 42).21

Boyle’s analysis is similar to other academic studies on the subject. C. Harfield states
that Lundy Island was a ‘temporary refuge’ for a variety of historical pirates:

‘... Lundy was thus part of a large network of isolated land-falls available to pirates…
Lundy did not, and could not provide a market or a proper base for pirates. Its utility
was as a temporary refuge’ (1993: 61-62).22

Haywood and Khamis report that Lundy Island was part of a ‘broader regional network
of anti-authoritarianism’ (p. 71).23 Joe Ann Esra’s ‘The Shaping of “West Barbary”: The
Re/construction of Identity and West Country Barbary Captivity’ (PhD. 2013), says

‘Lundy provided a haven for pirates, provoking anxieties for local and central
authority, nearby coastal inhabitants, and seafarers. Barnstaple in particular seems
to have suffered from the piratical depredations out of Lundy’ (2013, p. 59).24

Conclusion

In British collective consciousness, the Barbary corsair history of Lundy is limited or

non-existent. On the one hand, this is understandable; after all, a temporary base used
for a couple of weeks each year between 1627 and 1632 CE – a period when the English
navy was not strong enough to effectively deter piracy in English waters – was not the
most dramatic event in Britain’s long maritime history. Most authors speak of a five-
year time frame, starting in 1627, when the Barbary corsairs returned to the island. On
the other hand, Sam Willis’s theory attempts to clarify the lack of general knowledge
about the Barbary corsairs’ occupation of Lundy per se in today’s British society: ‘Their
raids became another forgotten chapter in our history. Why? Perhaps because the
memory of them harassing Britain’s coast at will didn’t exactly fit with the idea of

21
Even if the Ottoman corsairs, with limited lines of supply and manpower, wished to hold Lundy for a longer
duration – something more than a few weeks at a time -- they had serious competition, during the 1620s and
1630s, from other maritime groups operating in the region, like the French, Basque, English and Spanish
privateers, corsairs, and pirates.
22
Harfield, C (1993) ‘In the shadow of the black ensign: Lundy’s part in piracy’, Report of Lundy Field Society
n47, archived online at: www.lundy.org.uk/download/ar47/LFS_Annual_Report_Vol_47_Part_16.pdf
(accessed January 21st 2015), cited in Philip Haywood and Susie Khamis, ‘Fleeting and Partial Autonomy: A
historical account of quasi micronational initiatives on Lundy Island and their contemporary reconfiguration on
MicroWiki’, Shima: The International Journal of Research into Island Cultures, Vol. 9, No 1, 2015: 71. Available:
https://shimajournal.org/issues/v9n1/g.-Hayward-&-Khamis-Shima-v9n1-69-84.pdf (accessed 13 June 2021).
23
Haywood and Khamis, Fleeting and Partial Autonomy’, p. 71.
24
Joe Ann Esra, PhD thesis, 2013, ‘The Shaping of “West Barbary”: The Re/construction of Identity and West
Country Barbary Captivity’, University of Exeter, p. 59.

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Britannia ruling the waves’.25 This might be a plausible explanation that accounts for
this lost history. Nonetheless, it is important to try and get the historical account told
as accurately as possible. The academic researchers cited in my work have done a
commendable job with the limited primary resources available to them, and, thanks to
them, we have a more objective understanding of the events and circumstances
involving the Ottoman corsairs on Lundy.

Appendix (I to VIII)

Many writers give the impression that Lundy was continuously occupied for up to five
years by the Ottoman corsairs. However, my essay shows this perspective to be
factually incorrect because Lundy was used as a temporary base each year for a couple
of weeks at most. For instance –

(i) Alice Morrison, reports: ‘Moroccan pirates captured and held the island of
Lundy in the Bristol Channel for five years,’ p.133. Source: Alice Morrison,
2020, Adventures in Morocco: from the Souks to the Sahara (London:
Simon and Schuster);
(ii) Willis, Sam, BBC Four, ‘Invasion! with Sam Willis’, Episode 1&2, 48
mins:25 secs. https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x6cvrxd (accessed 26
June 2021): ‘For five years, this island in the middle of the Bristol Channel
[Lundy] became a Barbary Pirate HQ, a base for raids as far afield as
Iceland. The bogeyman-in-chief was the pirate Jan Janszoon. Originally
Dutch, in the parlance of the time he ‘turned Turk’. To better be able to
strike up and down the North European coast, he needed a base. So,
sleepy Lundy Island became part of the Barbary Pirate kingdom’, cited in
Romany Reagan, Blackthorn and stone.com. Available:
https://blackthornandstone.com/2020/07/16/pirates-smugglers-treason-
a-fake-king-the-scandalous-history-of-lundy-island/ (accessed 26 June
2021);

25
Sam Willis, BBC Four, ‘Invasion! with Sam Willis’, Episode 1&2, 48:25 mins.
https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x6cvrxd (accessed 26 June 2021), cited in Romany Reagan, Blackthorn
and stone.com. Available: https://blackthornandstone.com/2020/07/16/pirates-smugglers-treason-a-fake-
king-the-scandalous-history-of-lundy-island/ (accessed 26 June 2021).

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(iii) Geoffrey Heptonstall writes: ‘Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel -

occupied by Barbary pirates from 1628-1634’. Source: ‘Slavery and the
African empire - an unfamiliar history’, Open Democracy.net, 2013.
Available:
https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/opendemocracyuk/slavery-and-
african-empire-unfamiliar-history/ (accessed 14 June 2021);
(iv) The Wikipedia entry in June 2021 states: ‘In 1627 a group known as the
Salé Rovers, from the Republic of Salé (now Salé in Morocco) occupied
Lundy for five years. These Barbary Pirates, under the command of a
Dutch renegade named Jan Janszoon, flew an Ottoman flag over the
island.’ Source: Lundy. Wikipedia.org. Available:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lundy#Piracy (accessed 23 June 2021);
(v) The British writer and publisher Jane Johnson says the corsairs were
‘Driven by religious fervour, the corsairs plundered far and wide to the
extent that one corsair fleet was able to raise its skull and crossbones flag
over Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel in the early summer of 1625,
from which they launched innumerable raids on south-west shipping and
coastal towns.’; while her statement is understandable, a complex analysis
would need to include other motivating factors, such as economic, social,
political, and psychological ones. Indeed, explaining the corsairs’ actions
require a more detailed analysis than the religious factor alone. Source:
Available: https://www.janejohnsonbooks.com/books/the-tenth-
gift/historical-notes-source-material/ (accessed 23 June 2021);
(vi) The term corsair ‘base’ requires further clarification by some authors too.
What do some authors mean by the term ‘base’? Does the author refer to
an attempt at a permanent structure or a temporary base? On Lundy, in
1625, there was a small harbour, gun platform, and Henry III’s castle-like
structure—all built before the Ottoman corsairs arrived in 1625 CE. The
fiction writer D.J. Monroe notes ‘Murat Rais and his crew undertook a
number of infamous raids. In 1627 Janszoon captured the island of Lundy
in the Bristol Channel and held it for five years, using it as a base for
raiding expeditions.’ Source: Slave to Fortune. com website. Available:
http://www.slavetofortune.com/?p=271 (accessed 16 June 2021);
(vii) The is no physical evidence of an Ottoman base on Lundy, the corsairs
found and used the existing physical structures; so, the meaning of the
words (temporary) ‘base’ and ‘Ottoman naval base’ require defining in the
following comment on Nelson Lambert’s blog site: ‘In 1627 Lundy Island
in the Bristol channel was not only raided but became effectively an
Ottoman naval base for the next 5 years. The pirate commander was not
a Barbary at all - like many pirates (see below) he was a European
renegade, a Dutchman named Jan Janszoon van Haarlem, or Murad
Reis.’ Source: Nelson Lambert, Britain and the Corsair Raids, Friday, 28
September 2012, Acta Militaria Blog. Available:
http://nelsonlambert.blogspot.com/2012/09/britain-and-corsair-
raids.html (accessed 16 June 2021);
(viii) Giles Milton speaks of the Ottoman corsairs achieving a ‘spectacular and
disquieting coup’ in occupying Lundy circa 1625; and that the corsairs
used the island as a ‘fortified base’. In consideration of this, I ask, how
does Milton define a ‘fortified base’? Moreover, who was responsible for
the fortifications, the pre-1625 historical elites or the different corsair
groups? What does the physical evidence reveal? Milton asserts: ‘Far more

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alarming was the news—relayed by the mayor of Bristol—that a second

fleet of Barbary corsairs had been sighted in the choppy waters off the
north Cornish coast. Their crews had achieved a most spectacular and
disquieting coup: they had captured Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel
and raised the standard of Islam. It had now become their fortified base,
from which they attacked the unprotected villages of northern Cornwall.
They had "seized diverse people about Padstow" and were threatening to
sack and burn the town of Ilfracombe’ (p. 35). Furthermore, Milton
describes the Ottoman corsair presence on Lundy and their raids on ships,
cargo, and people on the British Channel in militarily strategic language.
However, are we looking at a raiding party organised in North Africa or a
more comprehensive military plan drawn up in Istanbul? It was probably
the former. Also, Milton highlights a significant issue for the coastal
community of South-West England, namely, they had become the victims
of the same type of piracy that for many years some Cornish and Devon
subjects had inflicted on other nations. He says: ‘These two-pronged
attacks caught the West Country completely unprepared. The duke of
Buckingham dispatched the veteran sea-dog Francis Stuart to Devon,
with orders to root out and destroy this menacing new enemy. But Stuart
was dismayed to discover that “they are better sailors than the English
ships” … The long coastline had few defenses to deter the North African
corsairs, who found they could pillage with impunity…’ (p. 35). Source:
Giles Milton, 2004, White Gold: The Extraordinary Story of Thomas
Pellow and Islam's One Million White Slaves (New York: Farrar, Straus
and Giroux), p. 35.

Select bibliography
Online:
___________Lundy, Landmark Trust. Available:
https://www.landmarktrust.org.uk/lundyisland/discovering-lundy/history/
(accessed 5 June 2021).
___________‘Lundy Part 2: About piracy from Elizabethan times onwards and
shipwrecks’, Devon Perspectives. Available:
https://www.devonperspectives.co.uk/lundy2.html (accessed 5 May 2020).
___________Lundy, Wikipedia. Available:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lundy#Piracy (accessed 14 June 2021).
Akyildiz, Sevket, 2020, ‘Ottoman Corsairs and English Renegades 1600 – 1700 CE:
Coastal Kent and Sussex and Pirates.’ Available:
https://www.academia.edu/43648462/Ottoman_Corsairs_and_English_Renegades
_1600_to_1700_CE_Coastal_Kent_and_Sussex_and_Pirates (accessed 24 June
2021).
Curtis, Maggie. Available: https://www.maggiecurtis.co.uk/trade-maps (accessed 5
June 2021).
Johnson, Jane. Available: https://www.janejohnsonbooks.com/books/the-tenth-
gift/historical-notes-source-material/ (accessed 5 June 2021).

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Haywood, Philip, and Susie Khamis, ‘Fleeting and Partial Autonomy: A historical
account of quasi micronational initiatives on Lundy Island and their contemporary
reconfiguration on MicroWiki’, Shima: The International Journal of Research into
Island Cultures, Vol. 9, No 1, 2015: 71. Available:
https://shimajournal.org/issues/v9n1/g.-Hayward-&-Khamis-Shima-v9n1-69-
84.pdf (accessed 13 June 2021).
Heptonstall, Geoffrey, ‘Slavery and the African empire - an unfamiliar history’, Open
Democracy, 2013. Available:
https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/opendemocracyuk/slavery-and-african-
empire-unfamiliar-history/ (accessed 14 June 2021).
Lambert, Nelson, ‘Britain and the Corsair Raids’, Friday, 28 September 2012, Acta
Militaria Blog. Available: http://nelsonlambert.blogspot.com/2012/09/britain-and-
corsair-raids.html (accessed 16 June 2021).
Monroe, D.J., Slave to Fortune .com website. Available:
http://www.slavetofortune.com/?p=271 (accessed 16 June 2021).
Reagan, Romany, Blackthorn and stone.com. Available:
https://blackthornandstone.com/2020/07/16/pirates-smugglers-treason-a-fake-
king-the-scandalous-history-of-lundy-island/ (accessed 26 June 2021).
Rosati, Simon, ‘Captain Ward on the Barbary Coast’, The Ryukoku Journal of
Humanities and Sciences, Vol. 40, No. 2, (Ryukoku Kiyo) (March 2019). Available:
https://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/barbary.htm (accessed 26 June 2021).
General books, travel literature, popular histories:
Milton, Giles, 2004, White Gold: The Extraordinary Story of Thomas Pellow and
Islam's One Million White Slaves (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux).
Morrison, Alice, Adventures in Morocco: from the Souks to the Sahara (London:
Simon and Schuster).
Scholarly dissertations:
Boyle, Patrick J., 2016, ‘The Archaeology of Lundy Pirates: A Case Study of Material
Culture’, MPhil Dissertation, University of Bristol.
Esra, Joe Ann, PhD thesis, 2013, ‘The Shaping of “West Barbary”: The
Re/construction of Identity and West Country Barbary Captivity’, University of
Exeter.
Hill, Isabella, 2013, ‘Bristol and Piracy in the Late Sixteenth Century’, Undergraduate
Essay, University of Bristol, Department of Historical Studies.

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