MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY

KIGALI RWANDA COMPUS

DEPARTEMENT OF EDUCATION SCIENCES

BCH 1103:PRINCIPLE OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

PRESENTED BY:
ROSE MBABAZI
 INTRODUCTION

❖Inorganic chemistry: is the study of the chemistry of materials from non-

biological origins. Typically, this refers to materials not containing carbon-
hydrogen bonds.

❖Subdivisions of inorganic chemistry are:

➢ organometallic chemistry,
➢cluster chemistry and
➢bioinorganic chemistry.

❖organometallic compounds are considered to contain the M-C-H group.

Eg: CH3Li = methyllithium, CH3CH2MgCH2CH3=Diethylmagnesium,
Fe(C5H5)2 = Ferrocene.

❖cluster chemistry is an ensemble of bound atoms or molecules that is

intermediate in size between a molecule and a bulk solid. Eg 4Fe-4S, B10H14
❖bioinorganic chemistry : These compounds occur in nature. Eg Hemoglobin
 CHAPTER I: ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
❖Atomic Theory
The word atom comes from the Greek word atomos, which means “indivisible.”
These thinkers held that, in addition to being too small to be seen,
unchangeable, and indestructible, atoms were also completely solid, with no
internal structure, and came in an infinite variety of shapes and sizes, which
accounted for the different kinds of matter.

❖Modern Development

Modern atomic theory is generally said to begin with John Dalton

Dalton's theory of atoms rested on four basic ideas:

✓ chemical elements were composed of atoms;

✓the atoms of an element were identical in weight;

✓the atoms of different elements had different weights;

✓and atoms combined only in small whole-number ratios, such as 1:1, 1:2, 2:1,
2:3, to form compounds.
 CONT…

➢Dalton's particular contribution, which distinguished his work from what

had been done before, was his method for actually determining atomic
weight. In an essay published in 1805, Dalton had included a list of atomic
weights for 21 elements.

➢Dalton was also the first to propose standard symbols for the elements.

➢Dalton's work was mainly about the chemistry of atoms: how they
combined to form new compounds, rather than the physical, internal
structure of atoms, although he never denied the possibility of atoms' having
a substructure.

➢ Modern theories about the physical structure of atoms did not begin until
1897, with J. J. Thomson's discovery of the electron.
 CONT…

❖Thomson's model of atomic structure ( J. J. Thomson's raisin bread model) or

plum pudding model

➢J. J. Thomson considered that the structure of an atom is something like a

raisin bread, so that his atomic model is sometimes called the raisin bread
model

➢Since atoms were known to be electrically

neutral, Thomson proposed (1904) a model
in which the atom was a positively charged
sphere studded with negatively charged
electrons.

➢This model was called the “plum-pudding”

model, since the electrons in the atom
resembled the raisins in a plum pudding.
 CONT…

❖Rutherford’s model of atomic structure or The planetary model

➢Rutherford invented the very language to describe the theoretical concepts of

the atom and the phenomenon of radioactivity.

➢In 1911, Ernest Rutherford's experiments with alpha rays led him to describe
the atom as a small, heavy nucleus with electrons in orbit around it.

➢Today we know that heavy nuclei are unstable and `decay', meaning that they
spontaneously split into smaller nuclei and emit stray particles. This is called
radioactivity.

➢Radioactivity Definition: Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation

in the form of particles or high energy photons resulting from a nuclear
reaction.

➢These elements were typically very heavy (i.e. their atom nuclei were massive)
such as uranium and radium.
CONT…
 CONT…

❖Bohr Model

➢The Bohr Model is a planetary model in which the negatively-charged

electrons orbit a small, positively-charged nucleus similar to the planets
orbiting the Sun (except that the orbits are not planar).

➢The main points of Bohr Model are:

✓Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that have a

set size and energy.

✓The energy of the orbit is related to its size.

✓The lowest energy is found in the smallest orbit.

✓Radiation is absorbed or emitted when an

electron moves from one orbit to another
 CONT…

➢Bohr postulated that the angular momentum of the electron, mvr (the mass
and angular velocity of the electron and in an orbit of radius r) is restricted to
values that are integral multiples of h/2π.

➢The larger the value of n, the larger the radius of the electron orbit, and the
greater the potential energy of the electron.
➢The atom absorbs energy and the electron gets
promoted to higher quantum levels.

➢These higher excited states of the atom are

unstable, so after a very short time (around 10—9
sec) the electron falls into lower orbits and finally
into the innermost one, which corresponds to the
atom's ground state.

➢The energy lost on each jump is given off as a

photon, and the frequency of this light provides a
direct experimental measurement of the difference
in the energies of the two states, according to the
Planck-Einstein relationship: E= hν or
 CONT…

➢As a result, when an electron jumps down between two orbits, it emits light of
a definite frequency that is characteristic of exactly that jump.

➢The two opposite processes are summarized in the following figure:

Absorption of energy by
Atom

Energy emission by an
atom
 CONT…
❖Niels Bohr proposed a model for the hydrogen atom that explained the
spectrum of the hydrogen atom.

➢This model was based on the following assumptions:

✓The electron in a hydrogen atom travels around the nucleus in a circular orbit.

✓The energy of the electron in an orbit is proportional to its distance from the
nucleus. The further the electron is from the nucleus, the more energy it has.

✓Only a limited number of orbits with certain energies are allowed. In other
words, the orbits are quantized.

✓The only orbits that are allowed are those for which the angular momentum of
the electron is an integral multiple of Planck's constant divided by 2 .

✓Light is absorbed when an electron jumps to a higher energy orbit and emitted
when an electron falls into a lower energy orbit.

✓The energy of the light emitted or absorbed is exactly equal to the difference
between the energies of the orbits.
 CONT…
 Remember that Planck's
equation states that the
energy of a photon is
proportional to its
frequency
E = hv Or E = hc/λ
because c = λ ν
 Where ν is the frequency or
number of complete cycles
per sec.,
 λ is the wavelength or
distance from one crest to
the next in the wave.
 Bohr then used classical physics to
show that the energy of an electron
in any one of these orbits is
inversely proportional to the square
of the integer n.
E= RH/n2
 The difference between the energies
of any two orbits is therefore given
by the following equation.
 In this equation, n1 and n2 are both
integers and RH is the
proportionality constant known as
the Rydberg constant
 CONT…

Exercises

1. Radio 5live in the UK broadcasts at 909kHz. What

wavelength does this correspond to?

2. What is the frequency of red light with a wavelength of

680nm?
 CONT…

• Exercises

• What is the energy of a mole of radio wave

photons with a frequency of 909kHz?

• What is the energy of a mole of red light

photons with wavelength of 680nm?
 CONT…

 Substituting the relationship between the frequency,

wavelength, and the speed of light into this equation
suggests that the energy of a photon is inversely
proportional to its wavelength.

 By properly defining the units of the constant, RH, Bohr

was able to show that the wavelengths of the light given
off or absorbed by a hydrogen atom should be given by
the following equation.

 R is the Rydberg constant = 1.096776 x 107 m-1 for the

visible series (Balmer series), n1 = 2 and n2 = 3, 4, 5, ...
 CONT…
For the Hydrogen atom, three Series of Spectral Lines are shown in the
following figure:
 CONT…

Colour Wavelength range/nm

Red 740-625

Orange 625-590

Yellow 590-565

Green 565-490

Blue 490-440

Violet 440-390
 CONT…

Exercise

 Calculate the wavelength of the light given off by

a hydrogen atom when an electron falls from the
n = 4 to the n = 2 orbit in the Bohr model. And
give a conclusion.
 CONT…

➢Atomic Spectra and the Bohr atom

 CONT…

series Region of the

electromagnetic spectrum

Lyman Ultraviolet 1 2, 3, 4 ...

Balmer Visible 2 3, 4, 5 ...

Paschen Infrared 3 4, 5, 6 ...

Brachett Infrared 4 5, 6, 7...

Pfund Infrared 5 6, 7, 8...

 CONT…

R is the Rydberg constant = 1.096776 x 107 m-1

 CONT…

Exercises

1. For the Paschen series of spectral lines, n1=3

and the series lies in the infrared part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. What are the
frequencies of the first three lines in this series?

2. What are the frequencies for the first three lines

of the Brachett series, for which n1=4?
 CONT…

❖Ionisation energies from atomic spectra

➢The ionization energy of hydrogen is the minimum energy required to

remove an electron completely from atom.

➢EXERCISES

1.What is the ionisation energy of hydrogen in Kj/mol? Use the Rydberg

equation to work out the frequency of the line corresponding to the
transition from n1= 1 to n2=

2. What is the ionisation energy for hydrogen when the electron has
already been promoted to the n=2 level?
 CONT…

 Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics uses the philosophical

problem of wave/particle duality to provide an
elegant explanation to quantized orbits around the
atom.

 In 1900 the German physicist Max Planck proposed

that electromagnetic radiation could only be
emitted or absorbed in packets or quanta of
radiation which were later called photons;.
 E = hv
 CONT…

 The photoelectric effect

 The photoelectric effect is a process where electrons
are ejected from a surface by the action of light
(energy).

 Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect

using a quantum approach.

 He reasoned that electrons can only be ejected from a

surface if incoming photons transfer a minimum value
of energy to atom on the metal surface.
 CONT…

 If a photon does not have enough energy, an electron

will not be ejected regardless of the intensity of the
radiation.

 The excess energy of the photon is converted into

kinetic energy of the ejected electron.

 Where Ø is the minimum energy required to remove the

electron or known as the work function and
is kinetic energy of the ejected electron.
 CONT…

Exercises
 When sodium is bombarded with ultraviolet radiation of
wavelength 475nm, electrons with kinetic energy of
30kJ/mol are ejected. What is the work function of
sodium (in J).

 Calculate the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons in

kJ/mol if ultraviolet radiation of wavelength 450nm and
its work function is .
 CONT…

❖Wave-Particle Duality:

➢ Louis de Broglie suggested that all matter has wave properties associated
with it, and that the wavelength is inversely proportional to the mass (m) and
velocity (v) of the matter.
 CONT…

Exercises
1. What is the wavelength associated with an
electron travelling at one-tenth of the speed of
light? Mass of an electron is.

2.What is the wavelength of a neutron travelling at

a tenth of the speed of light? The mass of neutron
is
 CONT…

❖Heisenberg’s Uncertainity Principle

➢This principle states that “It is impossible to specify at any given

moment both the position and momentum of an electron.”
 CONT…

1.The velocity of a rifle of mass of exactly 5g is

known to within 1X10-6 m s-1. Calculate the
uncertainty in its position.

2. Calculate the uncertainty in the position of an

electron whose velocity is known to within 1X10-6
m s-1. mass of electron is
 CONT…

Wave Functions and atomic Orbitals

 The Schrödinger model assumes that the electron is a

wave and tries to describe the regions in space, or
orbitals, where electrons are most likely to be found.

 The Schrödinger model describes the probability that an

electron can be found in a given region of space at a
given time.

 The square of the wave function, ψ2, at a given point in

space represents the probability that the electron will be
found at that location. For this reason, is called either the
probability density or the electron density.
 CONT…

• An atomic orbital is specified by the fourth quantum

number represent the spin of electron.

✓ n the principal quantum number: a positive integer

✓ l the angular momentum quantum number: an

integer from 0 to n-1

✓ ml the magnetic moment quantum number - an

integer from -l to +l

✓ ms the spin quantum number, + 1/2 or - 1/2

 CONT…

Quantum numbers
➢The principal quantum number: n

It relates to the size of the atomic orbital and can have any positive integer
value from 1 to 7.

The energy level and the size of atom, depend to the number of n,

➢The angular momentum quantum number: l

This quantum number can have any integer value from 0 to3 and
distinguishes orbitals of a given n value which have different states. It gives
also the shape of the orbitals ( s, p, d and f).

➢Magnetic quantum number: M

This quantum number deals with the orientation of an orbital in a magnetic
field.
 CONT…

❖The spin quantum number: Ms

➢The fourth quantum number denoted by ms. indicates the orientation of the
intrinsic angular momentum of an electron in an atom.

➢The only possible values of a spin quantum number are +½ or -½ (sometimes

referred to as 'spin up' and 'spin down').

Relationship between Quantum Numbers

Orbital Values Number of
Values for m

s 1
p 3
d 5
f 7
 CONT…

Name, Symbol
(Property) Allowed Values Quantum Numbers

Principal, n Positive integer

1 2 3
(size, energy) (1, 2, 3, ...)

Angular
momentum, l 0 to n-1 0 0 1 0 1 2
(shape)
sublevel names
l = 0, called “s” l = 1, “p”
l = 2, “d” l = 3, “f” 0
0 -1 0 +1
Magnetic, ml -l,…,0,…,+l
(orientation)
-2 -1 0 +1 +2
➢Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
Pauli's principle states that “No two electrons in an atom
can have the same set of four quantum numbers”.

In other words “An orbital can have a maximum two

electrons and these must have opposite signs”.

Box = orbital
Arrow = electron
 CONT…

Principles in chemistry

Aufbau Principle

This principle states that “Orbital of lowest energy is filled

first, before the filling of orbitals having higher energy
starts”.

So, the order of relative energies is: 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s <
3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d and so
 CONT…
❖

Exceptions of Aufbau Principle

The electronic configurations having half – filled or
completely filled orbitals are more stable.

➢(n + l) Rule
Lower the value of (n + l) for an orbital, the lower is its
energy. If two orbitals have same (n + l) value, the orbital
with lower value of n has lower energy and hence is filled
 CONT…

➢Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

Electron pairing in any orbital (s, p, d, f) cannot take place

until each orbital of the same sublevel contains one electron
Ex. Nitrogen:
•1s2 2s2 2p3

1s2 2s2 2p3

NOT

1s2 2s2 2p3

 CONT…

➢In order to determine the electron configuration for an

atom, the following steps are necessary:

1) Find the number of electrons for the element.

2) Fill the electrons in order of the Aufbau Principle and n+l

rule .

3) Use Hund’s Rule and the Pauli Exclusion Principle for

orbital diagrams.
 CONT…

Noble Gas Configuration

➢The Noble Gases are:

He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn

➢Notice that each noble gas finishes a row, or energy level.

Noble gas configurations take advantage of this by
condensing what you have to write:

Ex. He : 1s2
Ex. C : 1s2 2s2 2p2
Noble Gas Configuration for C: [He] 2s2 2p2
 CONT…

 The normal configuration for As-(Arsenic)

◦ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p3

 Notice, the part in red is the same as Argon’s

configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

 The noble gas configuration will start with the gas

in the row before it.
◦ [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p3

 It cuts down on a lot of writing, and that’s a good

thing.
 CONT…

 Every element has both core electrons and valence

electrons, e.g. Magnesium: Mg Z=12 → 12
electrons:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
core electrons valence electrons
 Core electrons are electrons in fully filled shells
 Valence electrons are electrons in the outermost
shell that is not fully filled with the exception of
the noble gases that all have fully filled shells
He: 1s2, Ne: {He} 2s2 2p6,
Ar: {Ne} 3s2 3p6, Kr: {Ar} 4s2 3d10 4p6,
Xe: {Kr} 5s2 4d10 5p6. Rn: {Xe} 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6
.
1. Write a set of quantum numbers for a 4f orbital.

2. Give the electronic configuration of the following atoms:

▪ Os (Atomic number 76):
▪ Bi (Atomic number 83):
Germanium Ge
Tin Sn
Lead Pb , Cr, Co, Cu

2. Give the electronic configuration of the following ions:

Fe3+, Cl-,
4.Give the noble gas configuration of the following atoms:

Bi (Atomic number 83):

Ge (atomic number 32)
Sn (atomic number 50)
 CHAPTER II: PERIODIC TABLE

❖ Periodic table
 Mendeleev and Meyer organized the elements in
order based on atomic weight and identified
families of elements with similar properties.

❖ The Elements
❖ An element is a pure substance made up of
only one type of atom.

❖ There are currently 118 known elements

represented on the periodic table; some are
found in nature and others are created in
laboratories.
 CONT…

 Groups
❖ A group or family is a vertical column in the
periodic table

❖ Groups are considered the most important

method of classifying the elements.

❖ The groups are numbered numerically 1 through

18 from the left most column (the alkali metals)
to the right most column (the noble gases).
 CONT…

❖ Periods
 A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table.

 There are some regions of the periodic table where the

horizontal trends and similarities in properties are more
significant than vertical group trends.

 The block of elements in groups 3 - 12 contains the

transition metals.

 Then we come to the lanthanides (elements 58 - 71) and

actinides (elements 90 - 103).
 CONT…

 Some of these groups have been given trivial

(unsystematic) names, such as the alkali metals, alkaline
earth metals, halogens, pnictogens (group 15),
chalcogens (group 16), and noble gases.

 Excluding hydrogen, all of the elements in Group 1 on

the very left-hand side of the periodic table are called
alkali metals

 Alkali metals are soft and silvery and react violently with
water to form an alkaline (or basic) solution.

 Alkaline earth metals are found in Group 2 and are shiny

and silvery white in color
 CONT…

 in Group 17 you will find the halogens

 Halogens are all very reactive and poisonous

 Group 18, are called the noble gases. Noble gases are all
colorless, odorless, and extremely un-reactive. Their
inability to react easily makes them a prime candidate for
gases in light bulbs.

 Modern quantum mechanical theories of atomic structure

explain group trends by proposing that elements within
the same group generally have the same electron
configurations in their valence shell,
 CONT…

 Elements in the same group show patterns in atomic

radius, ionization energy, and electronegativity.

 From top to bottom in a group, the atomic radii of

the elements increase. Since there are more filled
energy levels, valence electrons are found farther
from the nucleus.

 From the top, each successive element has lower

ionization energy because it is easier to remove an
electron since the atoms are less tightly bound.
Similarly, a group has a top to bottom decrease in
electronegativity due to an increasing distance
between valence electrons and the nucleus.
 CONT…

 Metals
 Metals are found on the left side of this line and
they all have very similar properties: they are
shiny, good conductors of both heat and
electricity, malleable,….

 All metals are solids at room temperature except

mercury (melting point = -39°C), which is a
liquid at room temperature.

 Metals tend to have low ionization energies and

therefore tend to form cations relatively easily.
 CONT…

 Nonmetals are brittle in their solid form, dull; they can

be solid, liquid, or gas.

 They are not lustrous and generally are poor conductors

of heat and electricity, which is why many of them are
gases at room temperature.

 Under ordinary conditions, seven nonmetals exist as

diatomic molecules. Five of these are gases (H2,N2,O2,F2,
and Cl2), one is a liquid (Br2), and one is a volatile solid
(I2).

 Excluding the noble gases, the remaining nonmetals are

solids that can be either hard, such as diamond, or soft,
such as sulfur.
 CONT…

 nonmetals tend to gain electrons when they react with

metals. For example, the reaction of aluminum with
bromine produces the ionic compound aluminum
bromide:

2Al (s) + 3 Br2 (l) → 2 AlBr3 (s)

o Compounds composed entirely of nonmetals are typically
molecular substances that tend to be gases, liquids, or
low-melting solids at room temperature

o Eg: hydrocarbons we use for fuel (methane, CH4;

propane, C3H8; octane, C8H18) and the gases HCl, NH3,
and H2S.
 CONT…

❖ Metalloids
 Metalloids are the elements that have the properties of
metals and nonmetals.

 Elements that are most commonly referred to as

metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic,
antimony, and tellurium.

 Several metalloids, most notably silicon, are electrical

semiconductors.
 CONT…

❖ Effective nuclear charge and Shielding

 The shielding effect describes the decrease in attraction

between an electron and the nucleus in any atom with
more than one electron shell.

 The effective nuclear charge is the net positive charge

experienced by an electron in a multi-electron atom. The
term "effective" is used because the shielding effect of
negatively charged electrons prevents higher orbital
electrons from experiencing the full nuclear charge by
the repelling effect of inner-layer electrons.
 CONT…

 Where Z is the number of protons in the nucleus and is

the average number of electrons between the nucleus
and the electron in question

 can be found by using quantum chemistry and the

Schrödinger equation, or by using "Slater's rules" (named
after John C. Slater).

 Slater formulated a set of simple rules that serve as a

rough guide to this effect.

 He defined the effective nuclear charge Z* as a measure

of the nuclear attraction for an electron.
 CONT…

 Z* can be calculated from Z*(ZEff) = Z – S( )

 Z is the number of protons in the nucleus (atomic

number), and S is the average number of electrons
between the nucleus and the electron in question.

 The rules for determining S for a specific electron are as

follows:
 CONT…

1. Determine and group electronic structure of the atom.

2. Electrons in higher groups (to the right in the electronic

configuration list ) do not shield those in lower groups.

3. For ns or np valence electrons:

a. Electrons in the same ns, np group contribute 0.35 S
b. Electrons in the n - 1 group contribute 0.85.
c. Electrons in the n - 2 and lower groups contribute 1.00.

 4. For nd and nf valence electrons:

 a. Electrons in the same nd or nf group contribute 0.35.
 b. Electrons in groups to the left contribute 1.00.
 CONT…

Now what impact do these observations have on the six

trends in periodicity. It follows what out trends will look like
as we move across and down the periodic table. In fact, this
is exactly what the atomic radius trend looks like
 CONT…

 What are the effective nuclear charges for the

following elements?
i)Chlorine(Z=17)
ii)Bromine(Z=35)
iii) Fluorine (Z=9)

What are the effective nuclear charges for the Ni

(Z=28) For a 3d, 4S
 CONT…

❖ Trends in periodic table

❖ Valence Electrons

 The location and quantity of electrons are important factors in

determining how an atom will react.

 The most important information about the electrons have to

do with the outermost electrons, or the valence electrons.

 The inner electrons in an atom are usually tightly held by the

nucleus, and they aren't usually going to participate in very
many reactions.

 The outer electrons are the key players in all chemical

reactions.
 CONT…

Sizes of atoms and ions

 The atomic radius of an element is defined as half of the

distance between the nuclei of neighbouring atoms in
the pure element.

 If the element is a metal, this distance is also known as

the metallic radius.

 If the element is a nonmetal, the distance is known as

the covalent radius.
 CONT…

 The effective nuclear charge increase across the periods

and decrease down the groups.

 Down the groups, the atomic radii increase and decrease

across the periods.

 As a group is descended, the outermost electron lies in a

large orbital, for which the maximum in the radial
distribution function lies further from nucleus.
CONT…
 CONT…

 Ionization Energy Trends

➢ is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from a neutral
atom in its gaseous phase.

 The lower this energy is, the more readily the atom becomes a cation.

 Therefore, the higher this energy is, the more unlikely the atom becomes
a cation.

 The first ionization energy, I1, is the energy needed to remove the first
electron from a neutral atom.
Na(g) → Na+(g) + e-

➢ The second ionization energy, I2, is the energy needed to remove the
second electron, and so forth, for successive removals of additional
electrons.
Na+(g) → Na2+(g) + e-

➢ Notice in that ionization energies for a given element increase as

successive electrons are removed: I1 < I2 < I3, and so forth.
CONT…
 CONT…

 The ionization energy of the elements within a

period generally increases from left to right. This is
due to valence shell stability.

 The ionization energy of the elements within a

group generally decreases from top to bottom.
This is due to electron shielding.

 The noble gases possess very high ionization

energies because of their full valence shell as
indicated in the graph. Note that Helium has the
highest ionization energy of all the elements.
CONT…
 CONT…

❖ Electron affinities
 Like the name suggests, electron affinity describes the
ability of an atom to accept an electron.

 Electron affinity is a quantitative measure that measures

the energy change that occurs when an electron is added
to a neutral gas atom.
Ar (g) + e- → Ar ¯(g) ΔE > 0

F(g) + e- —> F ¯ (g) EA = -328 kJ/mol

CONT…
 CONT…

❖ Electronegativity Trends

 Electronegativity is defined as the tendency of an atom in a molecule

to attract electrons to itself.

 Electronegativity can be understood as chemical property describing

an atom's ability to attract and bind to electrons.

 As you move to the right across a period of elements,

electronegativity increases.

 When the valence shell of an atom is less than half full, it requires
less energy to lose an electron than gain one. and thus, it is easier to
lose an electron.

 Conversely, when the valence shell is more than half full, it is easier
to pull an electron into the valence shell than to donate one.
CONT…
 CONT…

 As you move down a group, electronegativity decreases. This

is because the atomic number increases down a group.

 Important exceptions of the above rules include the noble

gases, lanthanides, and actinides.

 The noble gases possess a complete valence shell and do not

usually attract electrons.

 The lanthanides and actinides possess a more complicated

chemistry that does not generally follow any trends.

 Therefore, noble gases, lanthanides, and actinides do not have

electronegativity values.
 CONT…

 Metallic Character Trends

 The metallic character of an element can be defined as
how readily an atom can lose an electron.

 Metallic characteristics decrease from left to right across

a period. This is caused by the decrease in
radius of the atom which allows the outer electrons to
ionize

 Metallic characteristics increase down a group.

 Metallic character relates to the ability to lose electrons,

and nonmetallic character relates to the ability to gain
electrons.
CONT…
 CONT…

1.) Basing on the periodic trends for ionization energy,

which do you expect to have the highest ionization
energy?
a) Fluorine (F)
b) Nitrogen (N)
c)Helium (He)

2.) Nitrogen has a larger atomic radius than Oxygen.

A.) True
B.) False

3)Which element do you expect to be more electronegative,

sulfur (S) or selenium (Se)?
 CONT…

4) Arrange these atoms in accordance to decreasing

effective nuclear charge by the valence electrons: Si, Al,
Mg, S
5) Why is the electronegativity value of most noble gases
equal to zero?
6) Which do you expect to have more metallic character,
Lead (Pb) or Tin (Sn)?
7) An atom with an atomic radius smaller than that of
Sulfur (S) is __________.
A.) Oxygen (O)
B.) Chlorine (Cl)
C.) Calcium (Ca)
D.) Lithium (Li)
E.) None of the above
 CONT…

 Elements in the periodic table

 The hydrogen square sits atop Family Al, but it is not a

member of that family. Hydrogen is in a class of its own.

 It’s a gas at room temperature with one proton and one

electron in it one and only energy level.

 Hydrogen molecules are very light and can escape from the
earth’s gravity into space.

 Most hydrogen on earth occurs bonded to oxygen in the form

of water or bonded to carbon in the form of hydrobarbons.
 CONT…

 Properties of hydrogen
 Hydrogen gas, is colourless and odourless.

 It has a melting point of -259°C(14K) and a boiling point

of -253°C (20K). These are both very low because of the
weak intermolecular forces.

 Hydrogen is generally unreactive at room temperature in

the absence of a catalyst, largely because of the high H-H
bond dissociation enthalpy (436kJ/mol).
 CONT…

➢Elements in the same group have the same number of valence

electrons and related electron configurations; hence have similar
chemical properties.

➢The periodic table can be divided into blocks; s, p, d and f

according to their valence shell electronic configuration

➢The elements of s-block have their valence electron in s-

sub shell.

➢Form 13th group, again valence electrons are again filled

in p-sub shell, therefore these elements are known as p-
block elements. p-block elements are placed from 13th to
18th group of the periodic table.
CONT…

s-Block elements:
• Consists of Group IA and
Group IIA elements

• Outermost electron shell:

ns1 ns2

• Highly reactive metals

• Good reducing agents

• Fixed oxidation states

+1 for Group I elements
+2 for Group II elements
 CONT…

Group I elements:
• Silvery in colour, tarnish rapidly in air

∴ keep immersed under paraffin oil or in vacuum sealed

tubes

• Soft, low boiling and melting points

∵ weak metallic bond due to only 1 e– is contributed to

form bonds

• Low density
body-centred cubic structure -- have more spaces
 CONT…

Group II elements:

• silvery in colour

• harder and higher boiling and melting points than Group

I counterparts

∵ stronger metallic bond due to 2e– are contributed to

form bond and smaller atomic sizes

• show different crystal structures

 CONT…

Question:

➢The atomic and ionic radii increase down the Groups, why?

➢Atomic and ionic radii decrease when going from Group I

to II in each period, why?

➢Ionic radius of any Group I or II element is smaller than

the atomic radius, why?
 CONT…
Observations:
• melting point decreases as going down Groups I and II
Reason:
• the ionic size of the elements increases
→ attraction between ions and electrons becomes weaker
→ metallic bond is weaker
Observations:
• melting points of Group II elements are much higher than those of Group I
elements
Reason:
• no. of valence electrons per mole contributed to the delocalized electron sea
is greater.
• Group II elements have higher ionic charge
→ the attractive force between ions and electrons are stronger
→ metallic bond is stronger
 CONT…

The boron family includes boron (B), aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In),
and thallium (Tl).
Physical properties of the boron family include:
• Silver
• Good conductors of heat
• Good conductors of electricity
• Boron is a metalloid, the others are metals.
• Very abundant in the Earth’s crust
• Low density, light weight
• Have 3 valence electrons
 CONT…

Reactions and uses of the boron family:

▪ Aluminum is everywhere in your life…foil, cans, your bike, cars, etc.
▪ Resists rusting (corrosion).
▪ Used in long electric cables to conduct electricity over great distances.
▪ Gallium will melt in your hand.
 CONT…

The carbon family includes carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin
(Sn), and lead (Pb). Carbon is a nonmetal, silicon and germanium are
metalloids, and tin and lead are metals.
Physical properties of the carbon family Silicon
include:
• Have 4 valence electrons
• Can react with almost anything
• Will share, rather than lose or gain electrons
• Very abundant on Earth
• Tend to be dark in color
Reactions and uses of the carbon family:
▪ Silicon is found in sand and isCONT…
used to make glass, computer chips,
breast implants, and sealants.
▪ Silicon glass does not break when heated (this is what Pyrex glass is
made from in the lab).
▪ Tin is used as a protective coating for steel to prevent rust.
▪ Lead is used in batteries.
▪ Lead is poisonous, particularly to growing children and teens. It
causes brain damage. It is often found in paint and water.
 CONT…

The nitrogen family includes nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), arsenic (As),
antimony (Sb), and bismuth (Bi). Nitrogen and phosphorous are
nonmetals, arsenic and antimony are metalloids, and bismuth is a
metal.

Physical properties of the nitrogen family include:

• Have 5 valence electrons
• Useful in proteins and DNA
• Only bismuth is a good conductor of electricity
• Nitrogen is a gas, the others are solid
Reactions and uses for the nitrogen family:
▪ Nitrogen makes up 79% of theCONT…
Earth’s atmosphere.
▪ Nitrogen is necessary for life.
▪ Red phosphorus is used to make matches.
▪ Gallium Arsenide is a good semiconductor used in computers.
▪ Ammonia (containing nitrogen) is used in everything from fertilizers to
household cleaners. It is secreted in your urine.
 CONT…

The oxygen family includes oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium
(Te), and polonium (Po). Polonium is a metalloid, all the others are
nonmetals.

Properties of the oxygen family include:

• Have 6 valence electrons
• Oxygen is a gas, the others are all solid
• Abundant on the Earth
• Variety of colors
Reactions and uses of the oxygen family:
CONT…
▪ Reacts with metals and nonmetals covalently.
▪ Some compounds can be unstable, like ozone.
▪ Oxygen is in hydrogen peroxide, used as a cleaner.
▪ You cannot live without breathing oxygen.
▪ Sulfuric acid is very important as a strong acid in batteries, fertilizers,
and detergents.
▪ Selenium reacts to light and changes shape.
 CONT…

Halogens include fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and
astatine (At).
Physical properties of halogens include:
• nonmetal
• Don’t exist free in nature. They are always bound.
• Form salts with alkali metals.
• Have 7 valence electrons.
Reactions and uses of the halogens:
CONT…
▪ Used in everything from household cleaners to table salt.
▪ Fluoride prevents tooth decay.
▪ Chlorine and bromine kill bacteria and is used in pools and drinking
water.
▪ Iodine works as an antibiotic.
▪ All are poisonous to humans in their natural form.
▪ Silver bromide is used on film.
 CONT…

Noble gases include helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon
(Xe), and radon (Ra).

Physical properties of the noble gasses include:

• All nonmetal
• All gasses
• Nonreactive
• 8 valence electrons
• Produce light when heated
 CONT…
Reactions and uses of noble gasses:
▪ Helium is lighter than air and rises, so it is used in balloons.
▪ Neon and several other noble gasses glow different colors when
electricity is passed through them, so they are used inlights.
 CONT…

A. Definitions:
❖Transition elements: The IUPAC definition of transition
element is one whose atom has partially filled d-orbitals, or
that can give rise to cations with partially filled d-orbitals.

➢This definition excludes the elements in group 12- zinc,

cadmium, and mercury which only form ions with a d10
configuration.

➢These elements are therefore considered to be d-block

metals but not transition metals.

➢The elements in the Periodic Table which correspond to

the d sublevels filling are called d block elements.
 CONT…

B. General properties of transition elements

• Shiny, Strong
• High melting and boiling COMPARED WITH
• main group metals – due to strength of metallic bonding.
• They also have:
• variable oxidation state (oxidation number)
• complex ion formation
• coloured ions
• catalytic activity
 CONT…

 Heavy metals
 A heavy metal is a member of a loosely-defined subset of
elements that exhibit metallic properties and are heavier
than nickel.

 It mainly includes the transition metals, some metalloids,

lanthanides, and actinides.

 Many different definitions have been proposed, some

based on density, some on atomic number or atomic
weight, and some on chemical properties or toxicity.
 CONT…

 Light metals
 Light metals are metals of low atomic weight.

 Lithium, sodium, magnesium and aluminium are almost

always included.

 Additional metals up to nickel are often included as well.

 Light metals are generally less toxic than heavy metals.

Beryllium is toxic, but it is rarely found in large
concentrations.
 CONT…

 Oxidation state
 Determine the oxidation state of the atom shown in red
in the following molecules and ions:
 CHAPTER IV: CHEMICAL REACTIONS

 Types of Chemical Reactions

 Acid-base reactions: involve the transfer of a proton (H+)

 Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons

 Precipitation reactions involve the formation of a solid

product when two solutions are mixed

 Complexation reactions involve the formation of a

complex ion (or uncharged complex) in which a central
metal ion is surrounded by electron donating ligands.
 CONT…

Isotopes: Although the number of protons is fixed

for an element, the number of neutrons can vary.

An atom of the same element with different

numbers of neutrons in their nuclei are known as
Isotopes.

The mass number of an Isotope is the total number

of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
 CONT…

 Isotopes are represented by atomic symbols in which the

atomic number is given as a subscript, and the mass
number as a superscript, both written before the
chemical symbol for the element.

Exercise:
Element X has the atomic symbol
What is the name of the element and how many neutrons
are there in the nucleus?
 CONT…

❖ Relative atomic mass and moles of atoms

1.Naturally occurring bromine contains (abundance

50.69%) and (abundance 49.31%).
Calculate the relative atomic mass of naturally occurring
bromine.

2. Naturally occurring magnesium contains (

abundance 78.99%), (abundance 10%) and
(abundance of 11.01%)
Calculate the relative atomic mass of naturally occurring
Magnesium.
 CONT…

❖ Relative Formula mass

 Relative formula mass is used to compare the formula
mass of coumpounds
 The relative formula mass is called the relative molecular
mass.

 Amount of susbtance and molar mass

 CONT…

 Exercises
1.How many moles of molecules contained in 25.4g of
glucose ?

2.What mass of sodium chloride contains 5.82 mol of

NaCl?

3. What mass of AgNO3 (169.9g/mol) is needed to convert

2.33g of Na2CO3 (106.0g/mol) to Ag2CO3?

ii) What mass of Ag2CO3 (275.7g/mol) will be formed

4. How many grams of Na+ (22.99g/mol) are contained in

25g of Na2SO4 (142g/mol)?
 CONT…

❖ Chemical formulae
 The empirical formula of a substance tells you the ratio
of the number of different types of atom in the
substance.

 A molecular formula tells you the actual number of

different types of atom in a molecule.

 A structural formula shows how the atoms in a molecule

are bonded together.
 CONT…

 1) an orgnanic compound contains 52.2%carbon, 13.1%

hydrogen and 34.7% oxygen by mass
A) Work out its empirical formula.
B) Mass spectrometry shows the compound has a relative
molecular mass of 46. What is its molecular formula?

2. A compound was found to contain 1.18%hydrogen,

42%Chloride and 56.82%oxygen by mass. What is its
empirical formula?

2. 0.202g of a substance gave on combustion 0.361g of CO2

and 0.147g of H2O.
What are the empirical formulae of the compound? (O=16;
C=12; H=1)
Draw the structural formula and give the IUPAC name in (i)
above.
Write an equation for the compound above when it reacts with
methanol in the presence of an acid and identify the product
 CONT…

❖ Chemical equetions
 Chemical equations summarize what happens in chemical
reaction. They tell you:
 What subtances react,

 What products are formed

 The relative amounts of the substances involved

❖ Balancing Equation
Ethanol burns in air or oxygen to form carbon dioxide and
water.

Balance that equation

 CONT…

❖Exercises:

1.Use the balanced equation for the combustion of ethanol

to work out the mass of carbon dioxide produced when 25g
of ethanol are burned in a plentiful supply of air.

b. What mass of oxygen is needed to react exactly with 25g

of ethanol?

❖Percentage yield
 CONT…

 Exercises

1.Suppose you prepare a sample of asprin by heating 10g

of 2-Hydroxybenzoic acid with an excess of ethanoic acid
anhybride. You obtain 6.2g of pur asprin. What is the
percentage yield of the reaction?
 CONT…

Balancing Redox Equations

1) Assign oxidation numbers to each atom in the equation.

2) Determine what is oxidized and what is reduced.

3) Split the skeleton equation into two half reactions label appropriately
as oxidation or reduction reactions.

4) Complete and balance each half reaction

a) Balance atoms (except O and H) starting with the atom that changes
oxidation state.
 CONT…

b) Include electrons as products in the oxidation reaction and reactants in the

reduction reaction

c) If the solution is acidic: balance electric charges by adding H+1ions, balance

the O’s by adding H2O, verify all atoms balance

d) If the solution is basic: balance electric charges by adding OH-1 ions, add
H2O to balance the O and H atoms, verify all atoms balance.

❖Balance the following Redox reactions in acidic:

CrO42-(aq) + Cl-(aq) → Cr3+ (aq) + ClO2- (aq)

 CONT…

Ionisation of water
Equation:
Ionization of Water→ H2O + H2O H3O+ + OH-
Or

2H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)

 In neutral water [H3O+] = [OH-]

 In acidic solutions [H3O+] > [OH-]
 In basic solutions [OH-] > [H3O+]

Ionization constant for water:

Kw = [H3O+] [OH-]

At 25oC (only) Kw = 1.00 x 10-14

 CONT…

[H3O+] & [OH-] in Neutral Water

 At 25o

 [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.00 x 10-14

 and [H3O+] = [OH-] if water is neutral

 (substitute. [H3O+] for [OH-])

 [H3O+] [H3O+] = 1.00 x 10-14

 [H3O+]2 = 1.00 x 10-14


[H3O+] = = 1.00 x 10-7 M

 Also [OH-] = [H3O+] = 1.00 x 10-7 M

 CONT…

Kw and pKw

 The relationship between Kw and pKw is exactly the same as that between Ka and
pKa, or [H+] and pH.

pKw = -log10 Kw

pKw =14
 CONT…

So since
Definition of pH
[H3O+] [OH-] = Kw
pH= -log10 [H3O+] log[H3O+] + log[OH-] =
log (Kw)
H3O+] = antilog (-pH)
or make everything
negative
at 250C:
-log[H3O+ ] + -log [OH-
pOH = -log [OH-] ] = -log Kw
pH + pOH =
[OH-] = antilog (-pOH) pKw
pH + pOH = 14.00
 CONT…

A strong acid is one which is virtually 100% ionized

in solution

A strong base is something like sodium hydroxide or

potassium hydroxide which is fully ionic.
 CONT…

BUFFER SOLUTIONS
 A buffer is an aqueous solution consisting of a mixture of a weak acid and
its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid

 Acidic buffer solutions:

An acidic buffer solution is simply one which has a pH less than 7. Acidic buffer
solutions are commonly made from a weak acid and one of its salts
A common example would be a mixture of ethanoic acid and sodium ethanoate in
solution.
Alkaline buffer solutions:
An alkaline buffer solution has a pH greater than 7. Alkaline buffer solutions are
commonly made from a weak base and one of its salts.
Example: mixture of ammonia solution and ammonium chloride solution.
 CONT…

Calculations involving buffer

solutions
Acidic buffer solutions

The lower the value for pKa, the

higher Ka → stronger acid stronger the acid.
lower Ka → weaker acid The higher the value for pKa, the
weaker the acid.
 CONT…

 Alkaline buffer solutions

NH3(aq) + H2O(l)  NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Kb expression: Kb = [NH4+] [OH-]

As Kb gets bigger, pKb gets smaller. The lower the

value of pKb, the stronger the base.
 CONT…

1.Calculate the pH of 0.105M ethanoic acid

(CH3CO2H) at 298K. Ka for ethanoic acid is 1.7X10-5
at 298K. [CH3COO-]=[H3O+]

b)A solution of ethanoic acid in water has a pH of 3.2.

calculate the [ ] of the solution.

2. What is the pH of a solution that is 0.4M in formic

acid ([HCOOH]) and 1M in sodium formate ([HCOO-
])? Ka= 1.8 X 10-4 and after that determine pOH.

3.Calculate the pH and pOH of solution that is 0.2M in

NH3 and 0.3M in NH4Cl. Acid dissociation constant
Ka for NH4 is
 CHAPTER V: CHEMICAL BONDS

❖Hybridization

➢Hybridization happens when atomic orbitals mix to form new atomic

orbitals.

➢Types of Hybridization:

-sp3 hybridization results from the combination of the s orbital and all
three p orbitals in the second energy level of carbon.

-sp2 hybridization is a kind of hybridization uses the s orbital and two

of the p orbitals from the second energy level of carbon to form three
hybrid orbitals.

- SP hybridization results from the combination of the s orbital and one

of the p orbitals from carbon's second energy level.
 CONT…
❖Exemples of sp3
➢Methane (CH4),
 CONT…

➢Ethane (C2H6), Ammonia (NH3)

➢Water molecule (H2O)

 CONT…

❖Exemples of sp2 hybridization

➢Boron trichloride (BCl3)

❖Ethylene (C2H4)
 CONT…
❖SP hybridization ➢BeCl2 is linear in shape with the
bond angle of 180o.
➢Beryllium Chloride (BeCl2)

➢ C2H2 is linear in shape with the

Acetylene (C2H2) bond angle of 180o.
CONT…
 CONT…

❖Bonding is the joining of two atoms in a stable arrangement.

➢Through bonding, atoms attain a complete outer shell of valence electrons

and they attain a stable noble gas configuration.

➢Only electrons in the outermost orbital take part in bond formation

➢Atoms are "most stable" when their outermost orbitals are filled.

❖Types of chemicals bonds

Three different types of bonds are formed depending on the electropositive or

electronegative character of atoms involved.

a. Electropositive element + electronegative element = Ionic Bond

b. Electropositive element + Electropositive element = Metallic bond

c. Electronegative element + electronegative element = Covalent bond.

CONT…
 CONT…

❖Ionic Bonds:

➢Ionic bonds are bonds formed by gaining or losing electrons, in which the ions
formed are held together by electrostatic force of attraction.

➢Atoms which have gained or lost electrons are called ions. Ions are charged,
atoms or molecules. Anions carry a negative charge eg. (Cl-) while cations carry
a positive charge (Na+).

➢The strong attraction between positive and negative ions gives rise to an ionic
bond.
 CONT…

❖Covalent bonds

➢Bond formed between a pair of atoms by sharing one or more electrons in the
outermost shell.

❖Double Covalent Bonds

➢The kinds of bonds in methane (CH4) are "single bonds", meaning only one
pair of electrons is shared between two atoms. But two atoms can share two or
three pairs of electrons forming "double or triple" bonds. Carbon atoms often
form double bonds.

❖Polar Covalent Bonds

There is an "unequal" sharing of the electrons, the electrons send more time
orbiting one nucleus than the other. Such bonds are called "Polar Bonds". Polar
Bond is bond between elements with electronegativity difference. Example: HCl,
HF, H2O. In a polar bond between say oxygen and hydrogen the electrons are
"closer" to the oxygen atom than to the hydrogen atom.
CONT…
 CONT…

❖Non-polar Bond:

➢Bond between similar atoms (no electronegativity difference). example: H2,

Cl2, Br2, etc.

❖Coordinative bonds

➢A dipolar bond, also known as dative covalent bond or coordinate bond is a

bond formed when one atom provides both electrons in a shared pair.

➢Typically, a dipolar bond is formed when a Lewis base donates a pair of

electrons to a Lewis acid.

➢Ammonium ions, NH4+, are formed by the transfer of a hydrogen ion from the
hydrogen chloride to the lone pair of electrons on the ammonia molecule.
CONT…
 CONT…

❖Representing co-ordinate bonds

➢In simple diagrams, a co-ordinate bond is shown by an arrow. The arrow

points from the atom donating the lone pair to the atom accepting it.

❖ Dissolving hydrogen chloride in water to make hydrochloric acid

➢Something similar happens. A hydrogen ion (H+) is transferred from the

chlorine to one of the lone pairs on the oxygen atom.
 CONT…

❖The reaction between ammonia and boron trifluoride, BF3

➢BF3 is described as being electron deficient.

➢The lone pair on the nitrogen of an ammonia molecule can be used to

overcome that deficiency, and a compound is formed involving a co-ordinate
bond.

➢Using lines to represent the bonds, this could be drawn more simply as:
 CONT…

❖The structure of aluminium chloride

➢AlCl3, like BF3, is electron deficient. There is likely to be a similarity, because

aluminium and boron are in the same group of the Periodic Table, as are
fluorine and chlorine.

➢Measurements of the relative formula mass of aluminium chloride show that

its formula in the vapour at the sublimation temperature is not AlCl3, but Al2Cl6.
 CONT…

END