Transport of CO2 in the body occurs through several mechanisms, primarily as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)

in the blood. Here’s a brief explanation of the forms of transport and the chloride shift, along with the
CO2 dissociation curve:

1.Bicarbonate Ion Transport: The majority of CO2 is transported in the blood as bicarbonate ions. Carbon
dioxide (CO2) reacts with water (H2O) inside red blood cells to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic
acid then dissociates into bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and hydrogen ions (H+). Bicarbonate ions are
transported in the blood plasma.

2.Dissolved CO2: A small portion of CO2 is transported in the blood directly dissolved in plasma, in its
gaseous form.

3.Carbaminohemoglobin: A fraction of CO2 binds to hemoglobin (Hb) to form carbaminohemoglobin.

This primarily occurs in venous blood.

Chloride Shift:

The chloride shift, also known as the Hamburger shift, is a physiological process that helps to maintain
the balance of electrically charged ions in red blood cells. When CO2 is produced in metabolically active
tissues, it enters red blood cells. To prevent a buildup of negative charge inside the cell as bicarbonate
ions are produced, chloride ions (Cl-) are exchanged for bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) to maintain electrical
neutrality. This allows for efficient transport of bicarbonate ions in the blood, where they can be carried
to the lungs for elimination.

CO2 Dissociation Curve:

The CO2 dissociation curve is a graph that illustrates the relationship between the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide (PCO2) and the oxygen-carrying capacity of hemoglobin. It shows how changes in PCO2
affect the ability of hemoglobin to bind with oxygen. Typically, an increase in PCO2 (as seen in
metabolically active tissues) causes hemoglobin to release oxygen more readily due to the Bohr effect.
This curve helps us understand how blood pH, CO2 levels, and oxygen binding are interrelated in the
body, which is crucial for oxygen transport and gas exchange in the lungs and tissues.

A sarcomere is the basic structural and functional unit of a muscle. To provide a 5-mark answer about
sarcomeres, you can cover the following key points:

1. Definition (1 mark):

- Begin by defining a sarcomere as the fundamental contractile unit of a muscle fiber.

2. Structure (1 mark):

- Explain the basic components of a sarcomere, including the Z-lines (also known as Z-discs), thin
filaments (actin), and thick filaments (myosin).

3. Sliding Filament Theory (1 mark):

- Describe the sliding filament theory, which explains how sarcomeres contract. This theory involves
the sliding of thin filaments over thick filaments to generate muscle contractions.

4. Contraction Process (1 mark):

 - Discuss how sarcomeres contract through the interaction of actin and myosin filaments, including the
role of calcium ions and ATP in the process.

5. Importance (1 mark):

- Explain the significance of sarcomeres in muscle function, emphasizing that they allow muscles to
generate force and movement, making them crucial for activities ranging from simple gestures to
complex athletic movements.