Physics HL slideshow!

(in the
works)
Elias
1. Measurements &
Uncertainties
IBO Physics Notes
1.1 Measurements

The SI unit system will be used for the rest of the course. Conversions can be found in the
2nd page of the physics data booklet.
The Fundamental units:
Meter (m): Length
Kilogram (kg): Mass
Second (s): Time
Ampere (A): Current. Shortened to “Amp”.
Kelvin (K): Temperature. Celsius can also be used.
Mole (mol): The amount of substance (atoms, molecules, ions, etc)
Angular Measure (Rad): Radians. Degrees is also used.
1.1 Measurements
1.1 Measurements

Significant Figures! A way to express the most significant digits of a number.

Rules:
Non-zeros are significant
Ex. 593 (3 digits) EXAM TIP: When operating
Zeros between digits are significant numbers in a question, give
Ex. 303 (3 digits) your answer according to the
Zeros to the left of a decimal place are insignificant smallest significant figures of a
Ex. 0.123 (3 digits)
number in the question.
Zeros to the right of a decimal are significant
Ex. 0.1230 (4 digits)
No decimal places? Zeros to the right are not significant
Ex. 320 (2 digits)
EXAM TIP EXAMPLE
1.1 Measurements

Scientific Notation! Method to simplify large/small values.

How to? 1. Arrange the decimal so the number is between 1 and 10.
82,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 = 8.2
2. Count the number of spaces the decimal moved
25 spots for 8.2
You’re done!
Therefore, 82,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 km = 8.2 x 10^25 km
1.1 Measurements

Orders of magnitude

(from my
teacher)
1.1 Measurements

Operating in scientific notation!

Adding -> make sure the exponents are equal.

Multiplying -> add the exponents.

Dividing -> subtract the exponents.

Raising an exponent to an exponent -> multiply them.

1.2 Uncertainties

Random Errors!
Random
Unpredictable
Imperfect measuring techniques
Environment
Ex. Surrounding environment would throw off the temperature measure of a calorimeter
1.2 Uncertainties

Systematic errors!
Whenever the error is caused by the equipment/method
Values may vary around the actual value
Example: incorrectly calibrated equipment
In order to reduce errors, conduct more trials and average them, and eliminate outliers.
1.2 Uncertainties

Uncertainties are denoted by: Value ± Uncertainty

With analog devices, you must take half of the smallest division as the uncertainty.
Ex. Reading off a ruler with a smallest division of 1cm, then the absolute uncertainty is ± 0.5 cm.

With digital devices, it is identical to the smallest division.

Digital thermometer with the smallest division of 0.1 °C, the absolute uncertainty is ± 0.1 °C.
1.2 Uncertainties
1.2 Uncertainties

Operations with uncertainties

Addition and Subtraction
We ALWAYS add the
uncertainties whenever we
add or subtract values with
uncertainties.
Ex. 7 ± 0.3 cm + 5 ± 0.2 cm
= 12 ± 0.5 cm
Ex. 7 ± 0.3 cm – 5 ± 0.2 cm
= 2 ± 0.1 cm
1.2 Uncertainties

Operations with uncertainties

Multiplying/Dividing
1. Multiply/Dividing the measurements
2. Calculate Percent Uncertainty for all values
3. Add the percent uncertainties
4. Find the summed percent uncertainty of the multiplied/divided measurement
EXAMPLE (MULTIPLYING)
1.2 UNCERTAINTIES

Operations with Uncertainties

Raising powers
1. Calculate measurements (raise the power on the measurements)
2. Find the percent uncertainty of the measurement without the exponent
3. Multiply the percent uncertainty by the exponent
4. Find the Absolute Value of that percent uncertainty
5. Find the percent uncertainty of the calculated measurement
EXAMPLE (EXPONENTS)
1.2 UNCERTAINTIES

Slopes
Positive correlation: increasing slope

Decreasing correlation: decreasing slope

No correlation: Neither increasing nor decreasing slope

1.2 UNCERTAINTIES

EXAM TIP: REMEMBER, IF

Drawing a line of best fit
THERE ARE ERROR BARS,
1) Plot all points DRAW THROUGH EVERY
2) Using a ruler, attempt to draw through all the points ERROR BAR.
3) Must have a balanced number of points on each side
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLE
1.2 UNCERTAINTIES
1.3 Vectors and Scalars

What is a Vector? It is a quantity with a direction and a magnitude (size).

Ex. Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force.
What is a Scalar? It is a quantity with just a magnitude.
Ex. Mass, Time, Length.
1.3 Vectors and Scalars

Net force: Overall combined force that is acting on an object.

Forces of the same direction: add magnitude

Forces of opposite direction: subtract magnitude

1.3 Vectors and Scalars

What if we have angled vectors? Then we add the x and y component vectors.
2. Mechanics
IBO Physics Notes
2.1 Motion
2.1 Motion

Velocity: change in displacement per unit time

Vector
V=s/t
Acceleration: change in velocity per unit time
Vector
A=v/t
2.1 Motion

SUVAT EQUATIONS EXAM TIP: When answering any word

problems, always remember to write
the givens (information) first, then the
possible formulas you would be utilizing,
then the math (the working) and box
your answer with units for optimum
marks. We can call this

Information
Formula
Math
Answer
2.1 Motion

Free Fall: when an object experiences a downwards movement due to the influence of
gravity and air resistance.
Air resistance: leads to a change in acceleration of an object during free fall
If this didn’t exist, all objects would fall at the same rate.
Don’t worry, 85% of the time air resistance is negligible.
2.1 Motion: Example

Free Fall:
Initially, Arraying falls slowly, at the start,
only one force is acting on him, which is gravity.
Arraying falls faster due to this force.

Gravity
2.1 Motion: Example

Air resistance

Free Fall: As Arraying falls faster, another

Force comes into play, Air resistance.
Gravitational force remains the same.
The gravitational force is greater than the force
Of air resistance, so Arraying continues to
Accelerate. However, as Arraying falls faster,
Air resistance increases to the point where it equals
Gravitational force, hence Arraying now falling at
Constant velocity, which is known as terminal velocity. Gravity
2.1 Motion

Graphs
2.1 Motion

Projectile Motion: An object may be travelling horizontally and vertically rather than just
vertically.
In order to solve projectile motion questions, you must
Draw a Diagram
Write your givens
List what is known in either axis
Determine what is needed
Determine the equation
Do the math, bam!

EXAM TIP: Motion equations apply

to X and Y independently.
2.1 Motion

More graphs!
2.1 Motion

When given a velocity versus time graph:

Acceleration is the slope at any point on the graph
Average acceleration is the slope of a segment (start and end point)
Displacement is the area under the curve
2.2 Forces

There are contact forces

Friction
Tension
Normal
Air Resistance (Fair)
Spring
Weight
And there are non-contact forces
Gravitational
Electrical
Magnetic
2.2 Forces

Newton’s 1st Law of Motion

Objects in motion stay in motion and objects at rest stay at rest unless acted on by an outside
force
Inertia is defined as an object’s tendency to resist change.
2.2 Forces

Normal Force: Upward force that balances the object’s weight on a surface.
Equals Object’s Weight
Thus net force = 0.

Dynamic Equilibrium: Equilibrium when

moving at constant speed in a straight line

Free Body Diagrams: show forces that act on an object

2.2 Forces

Newton’s second law of motion: Acceleration is directly proportional to force and inversely
proportional to mass
F=mxa
Friction: A force between two touching objects.
Opposite direction of applied force
Coefficient of Friction: Determines how much friction there is
Static Friction: Sliding stress with no movement
Dynamic Friction: Sliding stress with movement

Weight = m x g
2.2 Forces

Try this!
2.2 Forces

Newton’s 3rd Law, For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
2.2 Forces

How to Tension?
2.3 Work, Energy, Power

Work: Amount of energy transformed when a force moves an object a certain amount of
distance
Joules
A force is considered to have done work if and only if the force:
Causes a displacement
Is in direction of displacement
W = Fscos⏀
2.3 Work, Energy, Power

Force vs. Distance Graph: shows energy losses

Area under curve = how much work was done

Slope of Work vs. Time, the Rate of doing work

Amount of energy changed per second…
Measured in Watts…
Also known as Power
Power = F x v
2.3 Work, Energy, Power

Types of Energy
Potential
Stored energy, gravitational, elastic, electrical, etc.
Kinetic
Motion

Conservation of Energy:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be transferred.
2.3 Work, Energy, Power

Kinetic Energy: due to motion

M = mass
V = Velocity
G = Gravity
Gravitational Potential Energy: due to H = change
object’s height
in height
K = spring
constant
X=
displacement
Elastic Potential: due to a spring or (extension/
compression
material being deformed
of spring)
2.3 Work, Energy, Power

Efficiency is a measure of how much work or energy is conserved in a process. In many

processes, work or energy is lost, for example as waste heat or vibration.
Can be expressed as a percentage
2.4 Momentum and Impulse
2.4 Momentum and Impulse

Law of conservation of momentum: In a collision between two objects, momentum is

conserved (total momentum stays the same)

Elastic Collisions: objects collide and bounce back with no change KE

Inelastic Collisions: objects collide and stick together with some kinetic energy being
transferred to other forms
2.4 Momentum and Impulse

Impulse: force applied for a unit of time

In force vs time graphs, it is area under the curve

Kinetic Energy and Momentum

2.4 Momentum and Impulse

Derivation of previous formula

3. Thermodynamics
IBO Physics Notes
3.1 Thermal Concepts

Let’s start off with the basics of the basics…phase changes!

A phase change is when a substance changes from one state to another.
3.1 Thermal Concepts

Molecular Theory
Solids: The molecules are held together by strong forces which vibrate about their mean positions
Has a fixed volume
Fixed shape
Example:

Liquids: Still vibrates, But the molecules have enough KE to overcome the forces which allow them to
move
Fixed volume
Variable shape Example: and

Gases: Further apart compared to liquids and solids

Weak forces between
No fixed shape
No fixed volume Example:
Molecules within gases move at different speeds
3.1 Thermal Concepts

Temperature: a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a system

A scalar quantity
Can be measured through °C (celcius) and K (kelvin)
Celsius is based off when pure water freezes (0 °C) and boils (100 °C)
Kelvin is based off Celsius scale where the zero reset to absolute zero
Absolute zero is when molecular motion stops, which is -273 °C

Temperature (K) = temperature (°C) + 273

3.1 Thermal Concepts

Thermal Energy: energy transferred from hotter to colder areas due to to temperature
difference
Heat is not the energy inside the object, it’s actually…..
Internal Energy: total intermolecular potential and random kinetic energy in a substance.
3.1 Thermal Concepts
 3.1 Thermal Concepts

What is Thermal Equilibrium? It is when there is no net flow of thermal energy between two
or more areas/objects.
Thermal energy will travel from hotter to colder areas in order to balance the temperature.

Specific Heat Capacity: is the heat energy transferred to 1kg of the substance tleading to
an increase temperature to increase by 1 K.
Introducing the famous formula…
3.1 Thermal Concepts

Specific Latent Heat! The energy needed to go through a phase change.

 3.1 Thermal Concepts

So…when do I use each formula?

3.2 Modelling a Gas

Ideal Gas: A gas that obeys all gas laws

Volume is measured in meters cubed.
Pressure is measured in Pascals (Pa).
Temperature is measured in Kelvin for this subtopic.
Ooo, another formula!
3.2 Modelling a Gas

What is a mole? The amount of substance having the same number of particles as there
are neutral atoms in 12 grams of –carbon 12.
A mole equals 6.02 x 10^23 atoms or molecules, known better as Avogadro’s constant
More formulas!
3.2 Modelling a Gas

P = Pressure
Gas laws! V = Volume
T = Temperature
n = Moles
Boyle’s Law!

Charles’ Law!

Amonton’s Law!

Avogadro’s Law!
3.2 Modelling a Gas

Combining all the laws gives us the ideal gas law!

3.2 Modelling a Gas

The pointers of an ideal gas…

3.2 Modelling a Gas

We only have Kinetic Energy in a gas and remember temperature is a measure of average
kinetic energy, here’s our last formula for the topic.
3.2 Modelling a Gas

Microscopic interpretation of gases

Brownian motion: The unpredictable movement of particles in a gas due to the bombardment of
surrounding molecules
Diffusion: the spreading out of particles in the fluid due to the collisions of surrounding particles
As temperature increases, diffusion increases
3.2 Modelling a Gas

Maxwell Boltzmann curves

Probability distribution curve
Increased Temperature
Leads to increased speed
4. Waves
IBO Physics Notes
4.1 Oscillations

Oscillations are when an object moves forwards and backward about the same position.
The positions where it is on rest is called the Equilibrium Position
The force that pushes/pulls the object back to its equilibrium position is called a restoring force.
4.1 Oscillations

Maximum displacement
of the oscillation

One full Distance between

oscillation corresponding points of
two consecutive waves

Full Oscillation
4.1 Oscillations

A period is the time taken for 1 oscillation

The frequency is defined as the number of oscillations in a second
This is measured in Hertz (Hz)
1 Hz = 1 oscillation per second

Would be cool to see a formula with these two definitions…oh wait, there is!
4.1 Oscillations

Simple Harmonic Motion: A specific type of oscillation where the acceleration of an object
is proportional to its displacement and in the the opposite direction
There is a restoring force
Force and acceleration move towards a fixed-point
Acceleration and the force is proportional to the displacement from the fixed point

In Phase means the same frequency and same position between two waves
Phase difference means the same frequency but not in the same position between two
waves.
4.1 Oscillations

Graphing
4.1 Oscillations

Energy and waves