Investigation title: Non-isochronous Pendulum and its time period.

Research Question: Till what angular displacement does a simple pendulum hold its isochronous nature?

Introduction
Pendulums are one of the most common instruments used today, they can be found almost everywhere and have
several uses. They are used for something as simple as entertaining kids to time keeping and for something as
complex as acting as evidence for rotation of earth. I was always taught that pendulum was a bob attached to a
string but what amused me the most was the variations in the pendulum. We had always studied that no matter
from where you launch the bob, the time period will always remain same provided that the length of the spring was
kept constant. But that’s not always the case! While I was studying Simple harmonic motions for my exams, I learnt
about Isochronous and non-isochronous pendulum from the additional information in the book. Upon further
investigating, I learnt that the amplitude of a pendulum has an impact on the time period which we were never
taught, however all the studies I found vaguely stated “Pendulum holds its isochronous nature at small amplitudes”
failing to define what small amplitude means so when I got the chance to conduct my own investigation, I decided I
wanted to study the extent to which a pendulum holds its isochronous nature.

Research Question: To what extent does a simple pendulum hold its isochronous nature?

Background Information:
Simple Pendulum:
The simple pendulum is an ideal mathematical model of a pendulum. It is
a weight connected to the end of a massless string and anchored to a
hinge. When given an initial push it moves to and fro under the effect of
gravity. It is a typical example of Simple Harmonic Motion which means
that when the weight is moved sideways from its equilibirium position a
restoring force act on it to bring it back to its equilibirium position (Figure
1). This force is always proportional to displacement and in the direction
of a fixed point where displacement=0. The time taken for one complete
oscillation i.e one left and one right is known as period. The period of a
pendulum depends on length of the string and also on the amplitude
(Which we will study in this investigation).

Isochronism: Figure 1:showing a simple pendulum (Chetvorno, n.d.)

We are taught that the time period of a simple pendulum is not dependent on its amplitude. This is known as
isochronism. Isochronism is a property, of an oscillator, of having a time period which is independent of its
amplitude. In 1602, Galileo started conducting experiments on pendulums to find it if their time period was actually
always constant, his hypothesis was based on his observations of chandeliers. After conducting several experiments
Galileo concluded that the period of a pendulum is always constant, and it doesn’t matter if the amplitude is 2
degrees or 20 degrees the period will remain constant (Rice University , n.d.).

A few years later a Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens took interest in pendulums and started studying them for his
business as he was also a famous clockmaker, and pendulums were used in clocks. His research was mainly
theoretical but he concluded that the pendulum was isochronous only for small values of theta but at larger values
the period is directly related to amplitude. However as stated above, there was not explicit benchmark in any of the
studies for when the pendulum will lose its isochronous nature, therefore the aim of the study is to deduce this
benchmark, when it loses its isochronous nature.
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Derivation of Formula:
I have tried my best to explain the derivation in as fewer steps as possible. Some of the steps have been omitted but
have been explained. The derivations were done with the help of the book “Pendulum, a
case study.” (Becker & Blackburn, 2005) First of all we begin with the undamped and
unforced equation of motion. We will directly be starting with the equations of motion
which has been derived by using the free body diagram of pendulum (Figure 2).
2
d θ g
2
− sinθ=0 (1)
dt l
Now for simple pendulums i.e the isochronous pendulum the condition is that ( Sinθ ≅ θ ¿
which is only possible when θ ≪ 1 but as we will be studying the non linear pendulum we
will not be working with this this assumption and also because we wish to explore
amplitudes greater than 1 radian. Figure 2: showing vectors of
weight in a simple
pendulum (vectors of
dθ
By multiplying (1) by (dθ) where dθ= dt and then integrating it we get. pendulum, n.d.)
dt

( )
2
dθ 2g
− cosθ=A (2)
dt l
A is a constant and to determine A we need to set some initial conditions.

Determining A by using initial conditions:

dθ
At T =0 , θ=θ0 and =0
dt
θ0 was introduced to show value of theta at initial point

Using these conditions, we get

−2 g
A= cos θ0
l
This gives us value of A.
Text Box 1

Going further, substituting value of A in (2) gives us our 3rd equation.

( )
2
dθ 2g
− (cosθ−cos θ0 )=0 (3)
dt l

Using the trigonometric identity cosθ=1−2sin

2
( θ2 ) in (3) and then taking square root on both sides we get,
dθ
dt
=2
√
(√ gl ) (sin ( θ2 )−sin ( θ2 ))
2 0 2
(4)

We will then rearrange the equation in terms of theta, which gives us:

d ( θ/2 )
=
√ g
dt

√(
l
sin
2
( ) ( ))
θ0
2
−sin
2 θ
2
 3

Then to make calculations simpler we will change a few variables such as

sin ( θ2 )→ k ∧;
0

θ→α
Putting these variables and then simplifying the equation will give us our 5 th equation, I chose to omit these steps
because of lack of space and the complexity however the reference used for derivation is cited in bibliography. The
eq we get is:
π

√
t0 2

∫ dt = gl ∫ 1−kdα
2
sin2 α
(5)
0 0

The limits for integration were found by setting initial and final conditions, for example by keeping the max angle as
π/2 and minimum as 0 and the time periods that correspond to them. The next step is integration however this
integral is known as the elliptic integral above and can never be completely integrated. However, solution can be
approximated by an infinite series, for which first 3 terms are given below.

T =2 π
√ L
g
¿

Hypothesis:
As the angular amplitude increases, the time period also lengthens because the restoring force - mgsinθ increases at
a slower rate than −mgθ .So as the restoring force is not strong enough i.e not equal to the driving force As the
amplitude of the pendulum increases, the angle between the pendulum's rest position and its maximum
displacement also increases. This means that the force acting on the pendulum due to gravity, which is proportional
to sinθ, increases as well. However, the increase in the restoring force is not enough to counteract the increase in
the component of gravity along the pendulum's path, which is proportional to θ. This results in a longer period for
larger amplitudes.. So as we increase the angular amplitude, the time period also increases.

Methodology:
Variables:
The independent variable in this investigation is the angular amplitude at which the pendulum is released and the
dependent variable will be the time taken. Quantities that will be kept constant are:

1. Length of the string, so that the effect of amplitude can independently be studied as length effects the time
period.
2. Mass of Pendulum, so that a consistency can be maintained throughout the procedure.
3. The Surrounding so that factors such as air resistance etc can be controlled.

Approach:
First, I will be using period calculator feature of online calculator Keisen Casio (Casio, n.d.) to find the time
period for pendulum at different angles starting from 10 ° and going up to 90° with an interval of 10° .
These values will be calculated using the formula derived above and will be theoretical in nature. I will also
be calculating the percentage change in time taken at each degree from the time taken at 10 ° . I will also be
calculating the percentage change in initial time period i.e time period at 10 ° which will help me determine
how the time period of a pendulum changes with increasing amplitude.
I will then be conducting the experiment myself, the experiment will follow a simple procedure as I only
need to note the time taken. I will be conducting the experiment with the same parameters. To reduce
 4

inaccuracies, I will be conducting the experiment 3 times for each angular amplitude and then use the
mean values as using only 1 data set will increase the chances of erroneous data.
To standardize the data, I will be writing all the values of time period, as well as change in percentage up to
3 decimal places.
In the end I will be comparing both the values, which will allow me to compare both practical and
theoretical values and assess the accuracy of calculated value. I will also be percentage error in
experimental value to check whether the percentage difference between experimental and calculated
values which will help in evaluating this methodology of this experiment

Material Required:
1) 1 meter String
2) Metal Bob
3) Rule
4) Stopwatch
5) Retort stand
6) Protractor

Procedure:
1) Set up the pendulum by tying a string to the weight and tying the other side of the string
to the clamp.
2) Keep the scale under the pendulum, position the center of scale exactly under the weight.
3) Stick the protractor upside down on top of the clamp.
4) Displace the weight 10° to the left and allow the weight to swing freely
5) Allow the weight to oscillate 10 times
6) Record the time for 10 oscillations and then divide it by 10, record this time in the table as
t1
7) Repeat the experiment with same angular displacement thrice and record the values as t 2
and t 3respectively.
8) Repeat steps 4 to7 for angular values starting from 20° to 90° with intervals of 10°
9) Record all these values in tables.

Data:
The following table consists of theoretical data based on calculation from the data below.
 5

Angle ߠ Period T Percentage Change from initial Time period

10° 2.010 0.000
20° 2.022 0.575
30° 2.041 1.547
40° 2.069 2.938
50° 2.106 4.778
60° 2.153 7.114
70° 2.211 10.005
80° 2.282 13.533
90° 2.368 17.809
Table 1: showing calculated time period at different angles and percentage change

To calculate the percentage change from initial time period, I found out the change in time between that
particular value and the time period at theta 10° and then calculated their percentage change using the
forluma show in text box 2.
Example Calculation showing percentage change from initial time period for θ=50

time at 50 ° −time at 10 °
% change ¿ initial time period= ∗100
time at 10 °
2.106−2.010
% change ¿ initial time period= ∗100=4.778
2.106

Text Box 2

The calculations were conducted using excel and then converted to 3 decimal places, therefore there may
be very small difference in these values compared to the real values, however they can be ignored as they
are very small in magnitude.

The following table consists of data from experiments:

Angle ߠ ‫ݐ‬ଵ ‫ݐ‬ଶ ‫ݐ‬ଷ ‫ݐ‬௚௩௚ (sec) οΨ from initial Time period ο‫(ݐ‬±) (sec)
10° 2.001 2.011 1.988 2.000 0.000 0.012
20° 2.040 2.020 2.010 2.023 1.167 0.015
30° 2.062 2.044 2.035 2.047 2.350 0.013
40° 2.090 2.061 2.065 2.072 3.600 0.015
50° 2.106 2.100 2.150 2.119 5.933 0.025
60° 2.134 2.200 2.167 2.167 8.350 0.033
70° 2.190 2.210 2.223 2.208 10.383 0.017
80° 2.300 2.199 2.285 2.261 13.067 0.051
90° 2.411 2.389 2.652 2.484 24.200 0.132
 6

Calculations
Mean Period
The mean value was calculated by adding the time period of 3 separate experiments and then dividing it by
3. The box below shows and example of calculating mean time period for θ=50°

A Sample Calculation for Average time period at 50°

t 1 +t 2 +t 3
t avg=
3

2.106+2.100+ 2.150
t avg= =2.119
3
Text Box 3

Uncertainty
The uncertainty value was calculated by dividing the difference between maximum and minimum value for each data
set by 2. An example calculation for uncertainty at 50° is shown in text box below

A Sample Calculation for uncertainty at 50°

t max−t min
∆ t=
2

2.150−2.100
∆ t= =0.025
2
Text Box 4
Now that I had both the theoretical and experimental values I plotted both the data sets on the same graph to
analyze them.
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Anaslysis and Discussion.

Time Period of a pendulum against angle

Theoretical Value Experimental Value Isochrnous Pendulum

2.500

2.400

2.300
Time Period (s)

2.200

2.100

2.000

1.900
10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°

Angle (degrees⁰)

Graph 1: showing calculated and experimental time period of pendulum against angle

The graph above shows how the time period varies for a pendulum with increasing amplitude. I have also the plotted

the time period that can be calculated using the famous formula of time period i.e t=2 π

(red line) as it suggests that time period is unaffected by amplitude of pendulum.

√ l which is a straight line
g

The graph shows that the time taken for the pendulum to complete one oscillation increases as the angle increases.
It is also observed that calculated values using the derived formula above and the experimental value follow a similar
trend which proves my hypothesis that an increase in amplitude will result in an increase in time period this is
because the restoring force acting on the pendulum is proportional to but in opposite direction to the displacement
from the equilibrium position, and as the amplitude increases, the displacement from the equilibrium position
increases as well. This results in a stronger restoring force, which slows down the motion of the pendulum as it acts
in opposite direction and increases the time period.

Moreover, the graph shows that the value of time period for angles up to 20 degrees are in the same range for all 3
parameters i.e theoretical, experimental and isochronous pendulum (as it can be seen all 3 values are within the
error bar). This suggests that the pendulum is isochronous for angles up to 20 degrees, but after that the change in
time period significantly increases.

It can also be seen that for time period up to 20° the percentage change in time period is within 1 or close to 1% for
both experimental and theoretical data however after that the change in time period almost doubles every 10 ° .
After 70° the change in time period is almost 10%

Thus, we can conclude that a pendulum is never completely isochronous as both our experimental and theoretical
values show that the value after every 10° is different however up to 20° this difference is within 1% which can be
ignored, however for values larger than 20, the difference can not be ignored and thus the pendulum can be said to
 8

have lost its isochronism. So for values up to 20° the pendulum can be said to be isochronous but not for larger
amplitudes.

Evaluation
The experiment was well-designed and conducted in a systematic manner with multiple trials to reduce errors. This
ensured that the results obtained are reliable and valid. Conducting multiple trials helps to reduce errors and
increase the accuracy of the results. This was also shown through the size of the error bars which were very small for
most of the values. A few large error bars, however, show some random errors, but random error can never be fully
eradicated.

The use of both theoretical and experimental data allowed for a thorough analysis of the pendulum's behavior. Using
both theoretical and experimental data allowed to cross-check the results obtained and validate the findings of the

experiment. The percentage error was calculated using the formula δ= |actual value−expected
expected value
value
|∗100 and

compared with percentage uncertainty in experimental value. The percentage error for all sets of data was within
the percentage uncertainty which means that the error can be attributed to small random errors or other factors
such as air resistance and the data obtained through the experiments was valid and reliable. The table below shows
both percentage error and percentage uncertainty in experimental value. The percentage uncertainty was calculated
by dividing the uncertainty for each set by its absolute value and then multiplying by 100.

Moreover, all the values of theoretical data fall within the error bars of experimental data of their corresponding
values shows that the results are valid and reliable.
Table 2: Showing percentage error in data
While the experiments were designed to ensure that the results obtained were as accurate as possible, it did have a
lot of limitations. First of all the experiments were conducted only using 1 type of pendulum and string of 1 length
which means the results can not be generalized for other types of pendulums.

Last but the most important was the unavailability of more sensitive apparatus. Now, even though the online
calculator could give value for Angle ߠ Percentage error Percentage Uncertainty time period up to 12 decimal
places, I had to convert it to 3 10 0.509 0.575 decimal places as part of the
standardization because the stop watch I used for the
20 0.076 0.124
experiment only gave time up to 3 decimal places, and to
compare them it was
30 0.277 0.318 necessary to have them both
in the same format. The few 40 0.131 0.700 decimal places may seem very
small but in this case they are 50 0.587 1.180 very important as we the
period difference between 60 0.639 1.523 values is very small. This
problem could be overcome by using Arduino based motion
70 0.167 0.747
sensors to account for very small time periods, this would
also help in reducing random
80 0.918 2.233 error and increasing the
accuracy of data. 90 4.888 5.294
 9

Extensions
This experiment can be extended to study the effect of amplitude on time period using several Arduino
based motion sensors to get more reliable and accurate data, moreover the effect of dampening on the
pendulum can also be studied by making a few improvements to the set up. Studying the effect of
dampening will allow us to measure time period in more realistic surrounding.
Moreover, this same experiment can be conducted at smaller intervals for example 1 ° rather than 10 ° to
study at what point exactly does the pendulum give up its isochronous nature.

Bibliography
Becker, G. L., & Blackburn, J. A. (2005). The Pendulum a case study in Physics. Oxford University Press.

Casio. (n.d.). Period of pendulum. Retrieved from keisan Calculator:

https://keisan.casio.com/exec/system/1224598524

Chetvorno. (n.d.). Pedulums. Retrieved from wikipedia: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?

curid=5276335

Rice University . (n.d.). Pendulum Clock. Retrieved from http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/instruments/pendulum.html

vectors of pendulum. (n.d.). Retrieved from Research gate: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Free-body-

diagram-of-pendulum-with-components-details-4_fig1_311314171