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LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School

1960

The World of Malgudi: a Study of the Novels of R.

K. Narayan.
Nirmal Mukerji
Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College

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Recommended Citation
Mukerji, Nirmal, "The World of Malgudi: a Study of the Novels of R. K. Narayan." (1960). LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses. 633.
https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_disstheses/633

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exactly as received Mic 60—5923

M U K E R JI, N ir m a l. T H E W ORLD O F MALGUDI:

A STUDY O F T H E NO V ELS O F R . K. NARAYAN.

L o u is ia n a S ta te U n iv e rs ity , P h .D ., 1960
L an g u a g e and L i t e r a t u r e , m o d e rn

University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan

THE WORLD OF MALGUDI: A STUDY OF THE NOVELS OF R. K. NARAYAN

A D iss e rta tio n

Subm itted to the G raduate F a c u lty o f the

L ouisiana S ta te U n iv e rsity and
A gricultural an d M e c h a n ic a l C o lle g e
in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t o f the
requirem ents for the d e g re e of
D octor o f P h ilo so p h y

in

The D epartm ent o f E nglish

by
Nlrmal M ukerjl
B. A ., A llahabad U n iv e rsity , 1951
M . A ., Agra U n iv e rsity , 1953
A ugust, 1960
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I w is h to e x p re s s my thanlcs to P ro fesso r John H . W ildm an,

under w h o se g u id a n c e th is work w as d o n e, and to P ro fesso r John E.
Uhler and P ro fe s s o r Thomas A. Kirby, who read It and gave many
v alu ab le s u g g e s tio n s for Its im provem ent.

11
 TABLE OP CONTENTS

PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..........................................................................................11

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS...................................................................................J v

ABSTRACT............................................................................................................... ..

INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................lx

CHAPTER

I. SETTING.................................................................................................... 1

II. PEOPLE.................................................................................................... 39

III. STRUCTURE.......................................................................................... 117

IV . ATTITUDES............................................................................................151

APPENDIX . A GLOSSARY OF INDIAN TERMS...........................................20 9

BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................................... 212

VITA......................................................................................................................... 222

ill
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

PLATE 1. PHOTOGRAPH OF R. K. NARAYAN........................................... v iii

FIGURE 1. SKETCH OF MALGUDI................................................................ xv

iv
 AB8TRACT

The o b je c t o f th e p re s e n t stu d y is to a n a ly s e and e v a lu a te the

a c h iev e m e n t of R. K. N arayan a s a n o v e lis t. A contem porary Indian

w rite r, he h a s c re a te d th e South In d ian sm all tow n of M algudi a s the

lo c a le for h is fic tio n . This d is s e rta tio n a n a ly s e s and in te rp re ts the

lif e p o rtray ed in th is tow n, d is tin g u is h e s the a u th o r's approach to

In d ian life from th a t of som e prom inent W estern w rite rs w hose works

c e n te r on th e sam e th em e, and e v a lu a te s the s ig n ific a n c e of N a ray a n 's

c o n trib u tio n .

C h a p te r I d e a ls w ith th e s e ttin g of N a ra y a n 's fic tio n a l w orld.

The town o f M algudi is s m a ll, o ld , sh a b b y , and ex trem ely un assu m in g ,

b u t it is r e a l— it is In d ia a s s e e n by one who b elo n g s to i t . It is

e n tire ly d iffe re n t from the ro m an tic ize d v ersio n of In d ia w ith w hich a

W estern re a d e r is u s u a lly fa m ilia r. N aray an as s e ttin g is appropriate

an d a u th e n tic , an d i t c o n trib u te s to w ard a b e tte r and d e e p e r u n d e rstan d ­

in g of th e life of h is p e o p le . This strong s e n s e of p lac e w ith w hich th e

M algudi n o v e ls a re im bued h e lp s in e s ta b lis h in g a fee lin g of so lid ity ,

r e a lity , and in tim a c y .

In th e s e n o v e ls N arayan p re s e n ts a c r o s s - s e c tio n of Hindu

m iddle c la s s s o c ie ty . An a ttem p t i s m ade in C h a p te r II to stu d y th e s e

p eo p le a s th ey are p ic tu re d by th e a u th o r. The m ost strik in g c h a ra c te r-

i s t lc ab o u t N a ra y a n 's p ao p le is th a t th ey a re stro n g ly tie d dow n to

d e e p ly ro o ted tra d itio n s , but the im pact of W estern id e a s on them i s no

l e s s d e c is iv e . Iro n ic a lly enough, th ey c a n n e ith e r w illin g ly a c c e p t n o r

c o m p lete ly r e je c t th e new p a tte rn s of lif e , and th is a ttitu d e p la c e s them

in re c u rre n t s ta te s of in d e c is io n and c o n fu sio n . W ithin th e g en eral

fram ew ork of th e a g e -o ld trad itio n s N arayan stu d ie s the liv e s of su c h

p e o p le .

The th ird c h a p te r tra c e s th e developm ent of N a ra y a n 's a rt w ith

p a rtic u la r re fe re n c e to su c h problem s a s stru c tu ra l o rg a n iz a tio n , p o in t

of v iew , and tim e -s e q u e n c e . A study of h is no v els arranged chrono­

lo g ic a lly h a s re v e a le d h is lite ra ry developm ent from the c h ro n ic le -ty p e

of p lo t stru c tu re of Swami and Friends to the w e ll-in te g ra te d , d ram a tic ,

and o rg an ic stru c tu re of The G u id e. H is p lo ts u su a lly rely h e a v ily on

c e n tra l c h a ra c te rs . Although E nglish is not N a ray an 's m other to n g u e,

he w rite s in i t w ith an e a s e w hich is am azin g . H is prose s ty le is

sim p le , c le a r , m oving, and fo rce fu l.

C h a p te r IV s tu d ie s the a ttitu d e s of the n o v e list a s re v e a le d in

h is n o v e ls . The q u e stio n of the freedom of the in d iv id u al is c o n s id e re d

in the lig h t of su c h b a s ic and fundam ental c o n c e p ts of Hindu thought an d

w ays of life a s P h arm a, Karma, and V arna. It is found th a t h is g e n eral

a ttitu d e tow ard s o c ia l and relig io u s in s titu tio n s is th a t of tr u s t tem pered

by c ritic is m . He c o n c e iv e s of life in th e sp irit of com edy, bu t it is n o t

th e h ila rio u s and b o iste ro u s type of comedy; it has undertones of s a d n e s s .

vi
H is • • t i r e is d ire c te d more a g a in s t in d iv id u a l* th a n in s t it u t io n s . On th e

w hole, i t is very g e n tle . H is iro n y w h ich is h is m ost se rv ic e a b le w eapon

h a s a flav o r a ll h is ow n. He know s w ell th e v a lu e of r e tic e n c e . Now here

do we find o v e r-e x p lic it an d pronounced m oral ju d g m e n ts. He does no

harm to the illu s io n of th e life he c r e a t e s . His m oral v a lu e s a re im p lied

ra th e r th a n s ta te d .

The c re a to r of th e w orld o f M algudi is a n o v e lis t w ith a growing

re p u ta tio n . N arayan is rig h tly c o n s id e re d to be th e m ost sig n ific a n t

contem porary n o v e list of Indo-A nglian l it e r a t u r e . For a faith fu l and i n ti­

m ate p o rtray al of Indian sm all tow n life a n d for c re a tin g a w orld w hich is

very much a liv e , he d e se rv e s a w ider re c o g n itio n .

vii
 Marilyn Silyerstone-
Gamma
R. K. N1RAZ1N
author of
THE GUIDE
(Viking)

PLATE 1

viU
 INTRODUCTION

The W estern In te re s t In In d ia Is a s old as th e beginnings of

th e w ritten h isto ry of E urope. W ith the in c re a sin g p a ce of the

European o v e rs e a s e x p a n sio n and th e founding of th e E nglish colo n y

in In d ia , th ere w as a qu ick en in g in th e d e sire to d isc o v e r no t only

i ts s p ic e s , h e rb s , and p rec io u s sto n e s bu t a ls o its c u ltu ra l r ic h n e s s .

In 1784,tw e n ty -s e v e n y e a rs a fte r th e h is to ric b a ttle of P la u s s e y ,

w hich d e c id e d the fa te of th e v a s t su b c o n tin e n t in favor of the

E n g lish , Sir W illiam Jones founded the A sia tic S ociety of B engal.

In d eed i t w as a g re a t s te p tow ard opening th e door to u n d e rsta n d in g .

For th e lite ra ry h is to ria n , how ever, far more im portant th an

th e founding of th is le a rn e d s o c ie ty is th e sudden and w id e sp rea d u se

of In d ian them es in E nglish fic tio n . Bhupal Singh a lo n e re fe rs to more

th an four hundred su c h title s in h is survey of A nglo-Indian fic tio n . *

The mere num ber in i ts e l f , how ever, is not very im p o rtan t. W hat is

re a lly s ig n ific a n t is th e fa c t th a t th e a re a of c ro s s -c u ltu ra l c o n ta c ts

*A Survey of Anglo- In d ian F iction (London: Oxford U n iv ersity

P r e s s , 1934).

ix
h a s bean very e x te n s iv e . It is tru e th a t w ith a n in te lle c tu a l

background and a sy stem of v a lu e s e n tire ly d iffe re n t from and

o ften d ia m e tric a lly o p p o sed to th o se w hich form ed the b a s is of

In d ian s o c ie ty , the o b se rv er from th e W est rem ain ed c o n te n te d

w ith the outw ard a p p e a ra n c e s . He w as o fte n d a z z le d , p u z z le d , and

m y stifie d . Perhaps he h ad n e ith e r th e d e sire nor th e c a p a b ility to

a n a ly z e and u n d e rstan d the la n d and the p eo p le h e had re c e n tly

c o n q u ered . N atu ra lly , th e so u l of In d ia rem ain ed u n d isc o v e re d .

The intro d u ctio n of E nglish a s the med. um of hig h er e d u c a tio n

w as to a g re a t e x te n t a m atter of p o litic a l n e c e s s ity . M a c a u la y 's

fam ous "M inute" of 1835 re s u lte d in e s ta b lis h in g E nglish in th e p la c e

th e governm ent had d e sig n e d for i t . Such a s itu a tio n w as bound to

h av e many fa r-re a c h in g e f f e c t s . The in tro d u c tio n of English g av e to

the e d u c a te d Indian an e ffe c tiv e medium of e x p re s s io n through w hich

he co u ld reach h is fello w countrym en who sp o k e d ifferen t la n g u a g e s .

M oreover, it w as through E nglish th a t he co u ld m ake b e tte r c o n ta c ts

w ith the W estern world and show th a t India w as som ething more than

a la n d of e le p h a n ts and c o b ra s , sn a k e charm ers and rope d a n c e rs , and

stra n g e custom s and r i t u a l s . The In c re a sin g and e x te n siv e u se of

E nglish a s the medium of e x p re ss io n re s u lte d in a pro lific production

2
of w hat is u su a lly term ed the "Indo-A ngllan" lite ra tu r e . It is true

2w ho f ir s t co in ed th is term is not know n. K. R. S rinivas

x
th a t m ost of th o so lite ra ry effort* a re of m inor h is to ric a l in te r e s t o n ly .

A few lik e T agore, Aurbindo G h o sh , S aro jln l N ald u , a n d M alk Raj

Anand h av e m ade s ig n ific a n t c o n trib u tio n to Indo-A ngllan lite r a tu r e .

The p roduction of su c h lite ra tu r e , both good an d b a d , c o n tin u e s

u n a b a te d . Very few w o rk s, h o w ev er, h a v e g a in e d n a tio n a l and

in te rn a tio n a l re c o g n itio n . Among th e s e , p e rh a p s th e m ost s ig n ific a n t

Is th e c o n trib u tio n o f R. K. N arayan who h a s b e en w id ely re c o g n iz e d

a s th e topm ost Indo-A ngllan n o v e lis t of to d a y .

3
R asipuram K rlshnasw am l N arayan, or R. K. N arayan a s h e Is

p o p u larly know n, w as bom on O cto b er 10, 1906, in M a d ras, In d ia .

It is th e re th a t he co m p leted th e e a rly y e a rs of h is e d u c a tio n . L ater,

he sh ifte d to M ysore w here h is fa th e r w as th e h e a d m a ste r of a high

s c h o o l. N arayan re c e iv e d h is c o lle g e e d u c a tio n In M ah araja C o lle g e ,

M y so re, and g ra d u a te d from i t in 1930. Four y e a rs la te r , In 1934, he

w as m arried. The d e a th of h is w ife In 1939 w as a g re a t sh o ck for young

Iy en g ar in h is stu d y , The In d ian C o n trib u tio n to E ng lish L iteratu re

(Bombay: K am atak P u b lish in g H o u se, 1945), re fe rs to a book e n title d
Indo- A ngllan L ite ra tu re , w hich c o n ta in e d "sp ecim en c o m p o sitio n s
from n a tiv e s tu d e n ts " an d w hich w as p u b lish e d in C a lc u tta In 1883.
D uring th e l a s t few d e c a d e s th e term h a s a c q u ire d c o n sid e ra b le c u rre n c y .

^R asipuram Is th e nam e of N a ra y a n 's v illa g e ; K rlshnasw am l is

h is f a th e r 's nam e; N arayan Is h is " firs t" n am e. In South In d ia th e nam es
of the v illa g e and th e fa th e r p rec ed e th e in d iv id u a l's own n am e.

xl
V

N a ra y a n . Tha upbringing o f h is only d au g h ter Ham a, who w as Ju s t

tw o y a a rs o ld whan h e r m other d ied , h a s g iv en N arayan a purpose in

l if e . M ysore is h is perm anent hom e. He liv e s th ere w ith h is m other

an d b r o th e rs , His re c re a tio n s are m usic an d long w a lk s .

N a ra y a n 's f ir s t book Swami an d Friends w as p u b lish ed in 1935,

an d th e l a t e s t , The G u id e , cam e o u t In 1958. B esides n o v e ls , he h a s

w ritte n s e v e ra l hundred sh o rt s to rie s and s k e tc h e s w hich have been

a p p ea rin g in th e Sunday is s u e of th e Hindu of M adras for the l a s t

th irty y e a r s .

All of N a ra y a n 's n o v e ls and m ost of h is short s to rie s , to o , h av e

an Im aginary sm all tow n o f M algudi for th e ir lo c a le . It is an o ld ,

sh a b b y and p e a c e fu l tow n, and is a p p aren tly unruffled by p o litic s .

The p e o p le who in h a b it It a re sim p le , s in c e re , a b su rd , and schem ing,

a ll in o n e . They h a v e m uch In common: th e ir s o c ia l s ta tu s , th e ir pride

of c a s t e , and th e ir p e tty q u a rre ls . They are re a l, real a s men and

women in a c tu a l life a re . On th e one h an d , they have th e ir custom s

and tra d itio n s w hich th ey d a re not d isre g ard ; on th e o th e r, the c o n ta c t

w ith th e a lie n oiem ents h a s brought such id e a s a s do not fit into the

tra d itio n a l p a tte rn of s o c ia l stru c tu re , and h en ce the c o n fu sio n . It is

q u ite a n uncom fortable s itu a tio n In w hich h is Sam paths and M argayyas

find th e m s e lv e s .

N arayan 1« no m odernist; nor does he ad v o cate th e turning b ack

x il
o f th e w hools of tim e . He b e lie v e s In th e v a lu e of a liv in g tra d itio n ,

an d h e re fu s e s to be blown o ff h is fe e t by th e o u tsid e w in d s . U nlike

som e o th er contem porary n o v e lis ts (for ex am p le, M ulk Raj Anand),

N arayan does not belong to any p a rtic u la r lite ra ry or p h ilo s o p h ic a l

c liq u e , nor h a s h e Intro d u ced any ism s in to h is n o v e ls . They a re

e n tire ly free from p o litic a l p ro p ag a n d a. This l a s t o b se rv a tio n becom es

very s ig n ific a n t w hen one s tu d ie s h is n o v els In th e c o n te x t of th e

condem natory tone w hich is one of th e m ost prom inent c h a r a c te r is tic s

of a g re a t num ber of no v els w ritten during th e p erio d w hen th e Swaraj

M ovem ent w as a t i t s h e ig h t.

In s p ite of th e fac t th a t a ll of N a ra y a n 's n o v els a re w ritte n in

E nglish and p u b lish e d in E ngland and America and many are ev en

tra n s la te d in to s e v e ra l European la n g u a g e s , no c ritic a l work h a s been

done to e v a lu a te h is c o n trib u tio n both to E ng lish lite ra tu re and to the

W estern u n d erstan d in g of In d ia . N a ra y a n 's c a s e is no ex ce p tio n ;

o th er im portant In d ian w riters of E nglish hav e b e en e q u a lly Ig nored.

This fa c t brought home to th e w riter th e fe e lin g th a t a s e rio u s ,

fu ll-le n g th stu d y of N arayan w as bad ly n e e d e d . The co m plete a b se n c e

of any c ritic a l judgm ents on N arayan or Indo-A nglian fic tio n In g e n eral

is a g re e t h a n d icap and, a t th e sam e tim e , e v id e n c e of th e n e ed for

su ch an in v e s tig a tio n . U nder the c irc u m s ta n c e s the w hole p ro je c t

w as not le s s th a n a c h a lle n g e . As a f ir s t stu d y in th is p a rtic u la r

x iil
f ie ld , the p re s e n t work w ill hav e i ts lim ita tio n s , but i t is hoped

th a t som eday it may h elp th o se trea d in g a sim ila r p a th .

x lv
FIGURE 1

XV
 CHAPTER I

SETTING

M algudi, a n im aginary sm all tow n in South In d ia , is the c e n te r

o f a n ex trem ely en g ag in g w orld c re a te d by R. K. N arayan. It is a world

in w h ich , in s p ite of th e new id e a s e n cro ach in g upon it s te a d ily , life

g o e s on le is u re ly an d p e a c e fu lly , e x a c tly in th e sam e way a s it h a s

b een going on for c e n tu r ie s . "1 m ight be in th e tw e n tieth cen tu ry B .C .

for a ll i t m a tte rs, or 4000 B . C . , m1 s a y s S rin iv as, the ed ito r of The

B anner and th e s c rip t-w rite r of th e film "The Burning of K am a." And y et

th e A lbert M iss io n C o lle g e h e a d e d by p rin c ip a l Brown, the C en tral

C o -o p e ra tiv e Land M ortgage Bank w ith its im posing s tru c tu re , the

new ly b u ilt bungalow s in the Law ley E xtension (named a fte r Sir

F red erick L aw ley, who w as once th e S uperintending E ngineer for M algudi

C irc le ), the E ngladla Banking C orp o ratio n m anaged by Edward S c h illin g ,

"a com pound of b e e f and w h isk y , " 2 a ll th is is enough to s h a tte r the

1 R. K. N aray an , The P rin ter of M algudi (East Lansing: M ichigan

S ta te U n iv e rsity P r e s s , 1957), p . 258. The o c c a sio n is a stra n g e c e re ­
mony in w hich the e x o rc is t w ith th e h elp of a c a n e sm eared w ith saffron
and verm ilion is tr y in g to d is p o s s e s s th e In sa n e Ravi of the " sp irit"
w h ich , th ey th in k , h a s p o s s e s s e d th e poor boy.

2I b l d . , p. 17.

1
 2

Illu s io n of tlm e le s s n e s s in M algudi. The w orld h a s m oved on and h a s

le f t a d e fin ite / although a t tim es im p e rce p tib le/ Im p ressio n on th is

fa s c in a tin g sm all tow n.

W ith th e a n c ie n t riv e r SarayU/ w hose birth is a s c rib e d to the

3
sc ra tc h in g of a lin e on th e sa n d w ith an arrow by Sri Ram C handrc th e

in c a rn a tio n of God Vishnu (for so the p eo p le of M algudi b e lie v e ), on

one e n d , and the w e s te rn is e d Law ley E x ten sio n a re a on the o th er,

M algudi seem s to be a c u rio u s m ixture of the tra d itio n a lis t E ast and the

e v e r-c h a n g in g W e s t. Like the r e s t of In d ia i t is in a s ta te of slow

tr a n s itio n . It is c h an g in g , no doubt, b u t, u n w illin g ly . It can n e ith e r

re je c t nor a c c e p t th e m odem id e a s . It can n o t re a d ily break \ ith the

a g e -o ld tr a d itio n s . M arriages a re s till arran g ed by th e p a re n ts of the

girl and the boy. H oroscopes are com pared, and u n le s s th e se agree

p e rfe c tly (the p la n e ts are very trick y I), no further ste p can Le tak en in

th e n e g o tia tio n s . But w hen boys lik e C h an d ran , the product of Albert

^Sri Ram C handra is the hero of th e a n c ie n t e p ic Ram ayana— the

sa c re d book of th e H in d u s. Ram w as bom in A yodhya, a big c ity on
th e b an k s of riv er S arayu, in U ttar P ra d e sh . On the day when he w as
going to be the crow ned k ing of h is la n d , he w as o rdered by h is s te p ­
m other, K akal,to go in e x ile for fou rteen y e a rs . A ccom panied by his
w ife S ita and b ro th er Lakshm an h e tra v e le d a ll over th e c o u n try . One
day in h is a b s e n c e S ita w a s kidnaped by the demon king Ravan of
Lanxa (C e y lo n ). Ram o rg an iz ed a big arm y, b u ilt a bridge over the
s e a b etw een the tw o c o u n trie s , d e fe a te d Ravan, and brought S ita back
hom e; L egends a s s o c ia tin g Ram's name w ith innum erable p la c e s ,
c i t i e s , riv e rs , ju n g le s and h ills have grown u p . The leg e n d of
M a lg u d i's Sarayu is one of th e s e .
 3

M issio n C ollege, i n s i s t on marrying th e g irls of th e ir own c h o ic e , th e ir

p a re n ts th re a te n to disow n them . To p u sh aw ay a tum bler of m ilk is to

In su lt L akshm l, th e g o d d e ss of w e a lth . In o rd er to fix an a u s p ic io u s

moment for th e opening cerem ony of The S u n rise P ic tu re s a re g u la r

c o n feren ce of the lo c a l p rie s ts is c a lle d . In th is cerem ony (w hich is

a s e la b o ra te a s a H indu m arriage cerem ony) th e c am era, w hich had

c o s t the p roducers of the film com pany forty th o u sa n d ru p e e s , is

d e co rate d by Jasm ine flow ers and a big dot of sa c re d san d alw o o d p a s te .

"It is Ju st a s w e ll, " rem arks S rin iv a s, "they a re in itia tin g a new

re lig io n and th a t cam era decked w ith flow ers is th eir new God who

m ust be p ro p itia te d . "4

It is th is M algudi, the M algudi of Sam path an d M argayya,

Swaml and Raj a n , C handran and K rishna, w hich is a t th e c e n te r of the

fic tio n a l w orld c re a te d by N aray an . It is som ething more th a n a m ere

b ackground. It is a liv e , real, and w arm . The s tre e ts and la n e s a p p e a r

to be very fam ilia r, a s fam iliar a s o n e 's own hom etow n. This s e n s e of

Intim acy h e lp s in c re a tin g a d eep er and b e tte r u n d erstan d in g of Its

p e o p le , and e s ta b lis h e s a stran g e fe llo w sh ip . This is w hat M ahatm a

G andhi (W aiting for the M ahatma) h a s to say: "Your tow n is very

b e a u tif u l.. ►. God is everyw here, an d if you w ant to fe e l h is p re s e n c e

you w ill s e e him in a p la c e lik e th is w ith a b e au tifu l riv er flow ing, the

4Narayan, o£ . c i t . , p. 164.
 4

su n rise w ith a il its c o lo rs , an d the a ir so fre s h . "5

But th is is no t the co m p lete p ic tu re of M alg u d i. U nfo rtu n ately ,

th ere is an o th er sid e to it, a very d ark s id e . One h a s o nly to go to the

area beyond N allappa G rove, the p la c e w here th e u n to u c h a b le s liv e :

It w as probably th e w orst a re a in th e town; it w as an

ex ag g eratio n to c a ll them h u ts; th ey w ere ju s t h o v e ls ,
p u t to g eth er w ith r a g s , t i n - s h e e t s , and c o c o n u t-m a ttin g ,
a ll crow ded in anyhow , w ith s c ra tc h y fowl c ra c k in g ab o u t,
an d ch ild ren growing in th e s tre e t dust; the m u nicipal
se rv ic e s w ere n e ith e r e x te n d e d h e re nor m isse d although
th e people living in the h o v e ls w ere em ployed by the
m unicipality for sc a v e n g in g work in the to w n . ®

This a re a , how ever, is beyond the s o - c a lle d c ity lim its . In th is

re s p e c t th ere is nothing p e c u lia r about M alg u d i. It is th e tra d itio n a l

se ttlem e n t p attern of an av erag e In d ian tow n. Belonging to the c la s s

c a lle d "U n to u ch ab les, " the only p la c e w here th e s e p eo p le c an p o ss ib ly

liv e h a s to be some se c lu d e d sp o t aw ay from the tow n so th a t th ere may

not be any danger of th eir p o llu tin g th e re s t of the to w n sfo lk .

The m ost d istin g u ish in g fe a tu re of th e la n d s c a p e of M algudi is

the riv er Sarayu i ts e l f . It i s , as a m atter of fa c t, the pride of M algudi.

It is only te n m inutes walk from Ellam an S tre e t, th e l a s t s tre e t of the

tow n, c h ie fly o ccu p ied by the o ilm o n g e rs. Every morning and evening

its sa n d -b a n k s are crow ded w ith a ll kinds of p e o p le . On s p e c ia l

Sr . K. N arayan, W aiting for the M ahatm a (East L ansing:

M ichigan S ta te U niversity P r e s s , 1955), p . 61.

6I b l d . , p . 3 2.
 5

o c c a s io n s , w hether It is a re lig io u s f e s tiv a l or som e o th er a u sp ic io u s

d a y , i t is alm o st an o th er s ig h t. W alking upto th e riv e r to ta k e a bath

and th en perform th e puia is a p a rt of the d a lly ro u tin e of many

M a lg u d la n s. When a d istin g u is h e d p e rso n v is its the c ity , com m ents

N arayan, th e M unicipal P re sid e n t u s u a lly ta k e s him to th e top of the

Town H all and proudly p o in ts to him S arayu in m o o n -lig h t, g lis te n in g

lik e a s ilv e r b e lt a c ro s s th e n o rth .

It is in te re s tin g to n o te th e sig n ific a n c e of the riv er in the

c u ltu ra l life of the tow n. For the e ld e rly c itiz e n s of M algudi th ere is

nothing more gratify in g than a b ath in th e riv er before su n rise follow ed

by offering w ater to Surya D evtS (Sun G o d ), the sym bol of A gnl, the

s u s ta in e r of lif e . The younger g e n e ra tio n , the g e n e ra tio n of Krishna

and C h andran, does not seem to be very much in te r e s te d in any su ch

a c tiv ity . A le is u re ly stro ll in th e com pany of "gay" friends d is c u s s in g

the new s of th e C o lle g e , th e d is c u s s io n o ften in te rru p te d by th e s id e -

g la n c e s thrown at som e b e au tifu l g irl w ith ja sm in e flow ers in the h a ir

and a tim id e x p re ss io n on th e fac e p a s s in g is th e ir id e a of S a ray u . It

is h e re on the bank of Sarayu th a t M anl, th e big bully (Swaml and F rien d s),

w a its for Rajam and p la n s to bundle him up and throw him in to th e riv e r.

It is h ere on the bank of Sarayu th a t C h an d ran s te a ls a g la n c e of h is

b elo v ed M alathl who alm ost d riv es him m ad (The B achelor of A rts) . It

is h ere th at Sam path co n fid e s in S rin lv as th e s e n s a tio n a l sto ry of h is

 6

flig h t w ith S hantl to M em pi H ills (The P rin ter of M a la u d l).

Another s ig n ific a n t fea tu re of the s e ttle m e n t p a tte rn of th e town

Is the M arket Road. It Is th e lif e - lin e of M algudi, . .b u t i t h ad a

ten d e n cy to ta k e abrupt tu rn s an d d isru p t its e l f Into s l d e - s t r e e t s , w hich

w ove a netw ork of c ra z y la n e s behind th e fac ad e of b u ild in g s on th e m ain

r o a d . I t is only a man lik e M argayya (The F in a n cial Expert) w ith a

sh rew d s e n s e of b u s in e s s who c a n a p p re c ia te th e "b ea u ty " of th e

M arket Road. K rishna (G rateful to Life and Death) w ould have fe lt

su ffo c a te d by su c h an o p p re s siv e atm osphere; but M argayya Is made

o f an o th er stuffy

The M algudi g u tte r ran below h is shop w ith a m ild rum ble,
and no t so m ild a sm e ll. But M argayya e ith e r did n o t n o tice
i t , or did not m ind, being u se d to It in h is own hom e.
M a rg a y y a 's blood w as c o m p letely the c ity m a n 's and
re v e lle d In c ro w d s, n o ise and b u stle ; th e moment he looked
and sa w th e stream of p eo p le and traffic flow ing up and
down th e ro ad , he fe lt th a t he w as In th e rig h t p la c e . A
p o e t w ould p erh a p s hav e f e lt e x a s p e ra te d by th e continuous
d in , but to M argayya It w as lik e a background m usic to his
own th o u g h ts .&

M argayya is sim ply e n ch a n te d by the p ro sp e c t of se c u rin g a shop on

su c h a s tra te g ic sp o t in the M arket Road. N ext to h is shop are in s u r­

a n c e a g e n c ie s , h a lr-c u ttln g s a lo o n s , som e film d is trib u to rs , a la w y e r's

cham ber and a hardw are sh o p — and hundreds of p eo p le going th ere

e v e ry d a y . This is a ll th a t M argayya n e ed s for the kind of b u s in e s s he

7 N arayan, The P rin ter of M algudi, p . 3.

G
The F in a n c ia l Expert (London: M ethuen and C o . , 1952), p . 133.
 7

I t going to s ta r t.

L eaving M argayya in h is M arket Road shop we c o u ld v is it the

r e s id e n tia l a re a of th e c ity . Away from th e M arket Road, on one end

of the town is th e Law ley E xtension and the New E x te n sio n . The e lite

of th e c ity , the governm ent o ffic ia ls , p ro fe s s o rs , d o c to rs , law y e rs,

a ll liv e th ere in s ty lis h h o u se s w ith law n s and g a rd e n s, g a ra g e s and

o u th o u s e s . Raj a m 's fa th e r (Swaml and F riends) , who is th e Superin­

te n d e n t of P olice; C h a n d ra n 's fath e r (The Bachelor of Arts) , who is an

a d v o cate; N atesh (W aiting for th e M ahatm a) , who is the M unicipal

C o m m issioner— a ll liv e in th is a ris to c ra tic Lawley E x ten sio n . N a te s h 's

p a la tia l h o u se "N eel Bagh" h a s c o s t him more th an two la k h s and

tw e n ty -fiv e th o u sa n d ru p e e s . H is a n x iety to e n te rta in M ahatm a and

h is party in h is h o u se and th u s, "make an im p ressio n " on M algudi is

n a tu ra l. Yet th is is not th e w hole s to ry . Sam path, the p rin ter of

M alg u d i, and th e v e rs a tile g e n iu s , Dr. P a l, the " Jo u rn a list, c o r-

9
resp o n d en t and a u th o r, " a ls o liv e in th e Lawley E xtension but only

in the o u th o u s e s .

The Sarayu S tre et a re a is new but very m odest in d im e n sio n s.

The h o u se s are n e a t, co m fo rtab le, but not lik e th o se in th e Lawley

E x te n sio n . K rishna, the hero of G rateful to Life an d D eath, w ith h is

9 Ib id., p. 63.
 8

p re tty w ife S u sh ila and dau g h ter L eela liv e in th is Sarayu S tre e t.

The seco n d re s id e n tia l a re a is in the v ery h e a rt of th e c ity , in

th a t c ra zy n et-w o rk of la n e s and b y -la n e s w hich merge m y ste rio u sly

in to the M arket Road. Kabir S treet is one s u c h . The Truth P rin tin g

W orks ow ned by Sam path is in th is very s tr e e t. A nderson L an e, w here

e d ito r S rln iv as l i v e s , and the Vinayak M udall S tre e t w ith th e big

g u tte r flow ing c lo s e by (into w hich Balu had throw n th e red a c c o u n t

book of h is father) a ls o belong to the sam e neig h b o rh o o d . This is the

h e a rt of M algudi; h o u se s dingy and dark, w ith a sm all pyol w hich

se rv e s many p u rp o se s— a liv in g room in the daytim e and a bed room

on th e sum m er n ig h ts .

It i s , how ever, not ju s t the s tr e e ts , th e la n e s , and the riv e r,

but the p e o p le , p eo p le lik e M argayya, Sam path, Ja g d lsh , a n d Somu

who make th is little world of M algudi ex trem ely in te re s tin g and l i f e - l i k e .

W hen we think of M algudi, i ts topography, i t s s tr e e ts , its h a ir-c u ttin g

s a lo o n s , i ts Anand Bhawan R estau ran t, we a re , as a m atter of f a c t,

thinking of its p e o p le . The s k ill w ith which N arayan b len d s the

p h y sic a l se ttin g w ith the human facto r is a d m irab le. O utw ardly, it

seem s to be som ething very sim p le . It la sim p le , but it re q u ire s a

d is c ip lin e d a rtis t lik e N arayan to a c h ie v e th is e ffe c t of s im p lic ity .

The to ta l im p re ssio n of such an Im perceptible blending is of a s e n s e

of w h o le n e ss w hich g iv es m eaning to the very id e a of e x is te n c e .

 9

Anthony W e s t's follow ing comm ent on the role of th e background of

M algudi Is sig n ific a n t: "The s e ttin g Is th e p rin cip al c h a ra c te r, an d the

sm e lls , s ig h ts , so u n d s, and ev en the flav o rs th a t are a ll p a rt of th e

ex p e rie n c e of being In M algudi are conveyed w ith an e v e r e x tra -

10
ordinary v i v id n e s s ." W hat he sa y s about G rateful to Life and D eath

is e q u a lly true of alm o st a ll th e oth er M algudi n o v e ls .

The p eo p le who in h ab it th is im aginary tow nship a re sim p le ,

n aiv e and true to l if e . The p a ttern of th e ir life i ts e lf m akes a s ig n if i­

c a n t co n trib u tio n to the to ta l background. M algudi w ithout Its fin a n c ia l

ex p ert M argayya, Its p rin ter Sam path, Its e d ito r S rln iv a s, Its holy man

Raju, Its Jo u rn a list— author— so c io lo g is t Dr. P al, and i ts dandy Sriram

co u ld h ard ly be the M algudi of N arayan, the p la c e we know so w e ll.

There is M arg ay y a,w ith a grey d isc o lo re d tin box under the

sh ad e of the big banyan tre e , ex p lain in g to the ign o ran t v illa g e rs how

to tak e more and more lo an s from the C en tra l C o -o p e ra tiv e Land M ortgage

Bank and from e ac h o th er, to o . There is Dr. P a l, the au th o r of th e m anu­

s c rip t firs t c a lle d Bed Life or The S cience of M arital H a p p in ess but

a fte rw ard s, through the cau tio n of the p rin te r, c h an g ed to D om estic

H arm ony, alw ay s busy w ith a new sc h em e . There is S rln iv a s , the e d ito r

of The B anner, w aging w ar a g a in s t the e x istin g e v ils of M a lg u d i. And,

1 0 The New Y orker. O c t. 31, 1953. p p . 126-27.

 10

dom inating a ll ia th a fa s c in a tin g fig u re of S am path, who is p rin te r,

d ire c to r, producer, and a c to r— a ll in o n e . In a d ire c t c o n tra s t to the

schem ing w orld of th e a d u lts , we h a v e a n o th e r w orld, th e w orld of

in n o c e n c e , of childhood: 8um atl an d Kamla sn u b b ed by th e ir d is c ip li­

n a ria n fath er (The Dark Room) . Sw am lnathan o p p re s se d by th e e a r n e s t­

n e ss w ith w hich everyone is trying to m ake him a s c h o la r. In th e c e n te r

of th is c o n fu sed w orld sta n d s th e A lbert M issio n C o lle g e , a pow erful

sym bol of th e W estern im p act, b reath in g a d iffe re n t a ir . It is h ere

th at C h an d ran , the hero of The B achelor of A rts , g ra d u a te s , and K rishna,

the p rin c ip a l c h a ra c te r in G rateful to Life and D e a th , d e liv e rs n o te s on

M ilton and C a rly le , Hardy and S h a k e sp e a re .

Another fac to r w hich m akes M aigudl w hat it i s , a slow -m oving

p eac efu l town unruffled by the o u tsid e w orld, i s th e ex trem ely unassum in g

and e a s y p a tte rn of the life of its p e o p le . Life in M aigudl, by a ll m ean s,

Is e a s y . Sw am i's fath er and many lik e him , a fte r th e ir morning m eal of

rice and sam b h ar, chew b e te l le a v e s , go to th e ir o ffic e s le is u re ly , e ith e r

w alking or in o ld -fa sh io n e d Jutkas (h o rse -d riv e n c a r r ia g e s ) . Women g e t

up e a rly in th e m orning, tak e th e ir b a th , do p u j l for a w h ile , and then

cook very sp ic y curry and r i c e . W hen th e ir h u sb a n d s and c h ild re n le a v e

the h o u se a t about te n , they c le a n th e h o u s e , fee d the l it t le o n e s , and

then go to th e ir neighbors for a " l i t t l e Mc h it- c h a t w hich in e v ita b ly turns

out to be only a pream ble for " h ig h -le v e l d is c u s s io n s . " This goes on
 11

u n in terru p ted till about th ree w hen It is tim e to hurry b a ck and cook

aom e thing for th e h u sb an d s and c h ild ren com ing from o ffic e s and

s c h o o ls . Som etim es th e y may rea d a few p a g e s of a sh o rt sto ry or a

n ovel (S rln iv a s's w ife often did th a t), or kn it sw e a te rs for th e ir h u sb an d s

w hich th ey u s u a lly do:not g e t to f in is h . This fem inine w orld is ex trem e­

ly lim ite d . It h a s very little co n cern for w hat h ap p en s o u ts id e . M a rria g e s,

th e dowry th at a p a rtic u la r bride b rin g s, th e d re s s e s and jew e lry th a t th e ir

m others once h a d , and sim llh r is s u e s are in fin ite so u rc e s of e n d le s s

ta lk in g . The p a re n ta l control of ch ild ren is ra th e r s tr ic t.

This is th e background of th e life w hich is p ic tu re d in the n o v els

of M aigudl. It h a s a stra n g e e v e n n e ss of its ow n— p e rh a p s, to an o u t­

s id e r , it looks ra th e r too even; but w hen sc ru tin iz e d c lo s e ly , th e b ack ­

ground becom es more m eaningful, th e d is tin c tio n s more prom inent, and

th e fig u res moving in th e foreground throbbing w ith l if e . There is no

m ystery hanging o ver th e ir l iv e s . They are common p eo p le w ith not very

uncommon problem s. M ost of them , w ith a few e x c e p tio n s lik e N a te sh ,

the M unicipal C om m issioner, and Somu Sundram , the producer of the

film com pany, belong to a c la s s u s u a lly term ed the m iddle c l a s s . It is

obvious th a t the b o u n d aries of th is c la s s a re , p a rtic u la rly in a country

lik e In d ia, extrem ely d iffic u lt to e s ta b lis h . The s o c ia l p o sitio n of a

p erso n very often d epends on fac to rs o th er th an m oney. For exam ple,

th e fac to r of the c a s te of a fam ily d eterm in es the s o c ia l p o sitio n of the

 12

in d iv id u a l to a very la rg e e x te n t. R esp ect for th e o ld er v a lu e s , though

th is life in g e n eral h a s not b een e n tire ly untouched by the new p a tte r n s ,

i s a m arked c h a ra c te ris tic of the M algudlan w ay of l if e . N arayan i s very

s u c c e s s fu l in show ing th is c o n tra s t b etw een the fram ework of old tra d itio n s

an d the new w ays of thought and life brought in by the W e s t.

T his c h a n g e , although slo w , h a s e x e rte d trem endous in flu e n ce

on the s o c ia l stru c tu re of th e life a s p o rtray ed in th e s e n o v e ls . The

In s titu tio n of jo in t-fa m ily sy ste m Is a good ex am p le. It is th e m ost

s ig n ific a n t fea tu re of the tra d itio n a l H indu fam ily s e t- u p . Although a

ch an g e in th e econom y of the country h a s alm o st uprooted th is a g e -o ld

in s titu tio n , i t h as not e n tire ly d ied o u t. It s till su rv iv e s in m illions of

Indian v illa g e s . In the to w n s, p a rtic u la rly among p ro fe ssio n a l p e o p le ,

i t is a d iffe re n t s to ry . Taya Z in k in 's com m ent on th is situ a tio n is

s ig n ific a n t:

M uch of In d ia is too poor for the jo in t fam ily to survive; for

if th ere is nothing to s h a re , there is no bond. L an d less
la b o re rs who often move from p la c e to p lac e have no jo in t
fam ily . The p e a s a n t w ith a couple of a c re s soon finds th a t
h is son e ith e r m oves into an o th er hut or s e ts up h is own
k itc h en in a c o m e r of th e c o m p o u n d .. . . N o n e th e le s s, the
jo in t fam ily h as strong roots among Brahm ins, m erch an ts,
and the ric h e r p e a s a n ts . ^

In th e c o n sid e ra tio n of the M algudi n o v els th is phenom enon of

Taya Z inkin, India C hanges I (New York: Oxford U niversity

P re s s , 1958), p . 59.
 13

th e g radual b re a k -u p of the jo in t fam ily sy stem h a s g rea t s ig n ific a n c e

b e c a u s e of the ch an g e th a t It h as c a u s e d in the g e n eral background of

lif e , p a rtic u la rly in c re a tin g a sh ift in the s o c ia l and c u ltu ra l v a lu e s .

How d ifferen t w ould h av e b een the sto ry of the fin a n c ia l ex p ert h a d h is

fa th e r b een a liv e and the w hole fam ily had co n tin u ed liv in g In th e way

th ey h ad b een doing before I M arg ay y a's fath er o n ce had a big h o u se ,

and he w as c o n sid e re d fairly w e ll- to - d o . But when the sto ry b e g in s ,

we are p re s e n te d w ith an o th er p ic tu re . The fa th e r h as d ied , and the

fam ily is broken:

After the d eath of the old man the b rothers fell o u t, th e ir

w ives fe ll o u t, and th e ir c h ild re n fe ll o u t. They c o u ld not
to le ra te the id e a of even b reath in g the sam e a ir or being
e n c lo se d by the sam e w a l ls . They got involved in litig a tio n
and p a rtitio n e d every th in g th a t th eir fa th e r had l e f t . Every­
thing th a t co u ld b e c u t in two w ith an ax e or s c is s o r s or a
knife w as d iv id ed b etw een them , and th e other th in g s w ere
c a ta lo g u e d , num bered an d th en sh a red o u t. ^

O ne th in g , how ever, w hich they co u ld n e ith e r c u t nor number w as the

w ell of the h o u s e . It rem ained common— a very co n v en ien t p la c e to

p a s s rem arks or to se e w hat is happening in the o th er house I

The c a s e of S rin lv a s 's fam ily is e n tire ly d iffe re n t. His e ld e r

b rother had been supporting the e n tire fam ily, in clu d in g S r i n l v a s 's ,

w ithout any d is tin c tio n sin c e the d eath of th e ir fa th e r. Theirs w as a

^ The F in an cial E xpert, pp. 9 -1 0 .

 14

ric h fam ily; th e ir fath er had been an ad v o ca te an d had h ad a grand

p r a c tic e . He had a ls o acq u ired e x te n siv e property in th e neighborhood.

"Their fam ily tra d itio n , N sa y s N arayan, "w as th a t th ey sh o u ld graduate

a t M aigudl in the Albert M issio n C o lle g e , sp en d two y e a rs in M adras

for h ig h er stu d ie s in law and then return e a c h to h is own room in th e ir

13
a n c ie n t spraw ling h o u s e ." And they did return to th e ir room s and

stu d ie d U panishads 1 It is only w hen S rlnivas is th irty - s e v e n th a t he

s ta r ts for M aigudl to make an In dependent liv in g .

Such is the background out of w hich N arayan c re a te s h is

Sam paths and C h a n d ran s, Sriram s and K rlsh n as. He d e a ls w ith life a s

it is liv e d in M aigudl, w hether in M arket Road or A nderson L ane. His

n o v els a re , how ever, by no m eans mere s o c io lo g ic a l s tu d ie s . He d e a ls

w ith the s o c ia l problem s w hich h is c h a ra c te rs w ould and c o u ld p o ssib ly

fa c e. There are problem s of c a s te , arranged m a rriag e s, fam ily re la tio n ­

s h ip s , a d ju stm en t of the individual to h is environm ent. W hat is rem ark­

a b le about N arayan is the fa c t th a t he d e a ls w ith th e s e problem s w ithout

m aking us aw are th at he is doing s o . We do not sto p read in g the story

and s ta rt thinking of the problem s and th e w ays to so lv e th e s e . We do

fee l so w hen we re a d , for exam ple, The Big H e a r t or The Sword and

th e S ick le of M ulk &*J Anand, another m ajor contem porary Indo-A nglian

13The P rinter of M aigudl, p . 10.

 15

n o v e lis t. The g e n eral background of th e ir n o v els Is not very d issim ila r

from e a c h o th e r. Anand w rites about the life of the poor or th e low

m iddle c la s s people of P anjab and th e W estern F rontier P ro v in ce. But

th ere Is a w orld of d ifferen c e betw een the p o in t of view of th e two

n o v e lis ts an d the u se they m ake of th e ir s e t ti n g s . N arayan Is not a

s o c ia l p a th o lo g ist. He Is not m aking any th e o re tic a l sy stem out of the

hum an m aterial a v a ila b le to him . H is Sam paths and M argayyas In te re s t

him not for being sym bols of s o c ia l e x p lo ita tio n but b e c a u se th ey are

in te re s tin g , la u g h a b le , rea l human b e in g s . This approach to c h a ra c te ri­

z a tio n d e fin ite ly in flu e n c e s th e se ttin g of h is fic tio n a l w orld.

N arayan is , f irs t and l a s t, an a r tis t who Is en g ag ed in portraying

d elig h tfu lly tru e p ic tu re s of life in In d ia . The Joys and so rro w s, the

warmth of hum an r e la tio n s h ip s , the h y p o c risy and s e lf is h n e s s of human

b e in g s — a ll th e s e go to make the M aigudl w orld a re a l p la c e . N arayan is

not in te re s te d In p ilin g up d e ta ils for th e ir own s a k e , nor d o es he su ffer

from the p a s s io n of bein g alw ay s p re c ise and a c c u ra te . His n o v els are

not to p o g rap h ical g u id e s . He does not s ta rt from one end of the town

giv in g a c c u ra te d e sc rip tio n of each lo c a lity , road and b u ild in g , and

th en end w ith the o th er s id e . It is through lit t le offhand d e ta ils thrown

^ The Big H eart d e a ls w ith the life of the cop p ersm ith com m unity
of A m ritsar, P an jab . The Sword and th e S ic k le show s the d isin te g ra tio n
of a v illa g e . The p rin c ip a l c h a ra c te r i s a Sllth p e a s a n t who had fought
<n W orld W ar I in F ran ce.
 16

in h e re and th e re th a t he c re a te s the Illu s io n of the re a lity of h is s e t ti n g .

We fe e l It; we s e e It; and we know It to be tr u e . The follow ing lit t le

p a s s a g e h a s not m uch sig n ific a n c e In its e lf t

In th e ill- v e n tila te d dark p a s s a g e betw een th e front h a ll and

th e d in ing-room , S w am in ath an 's grandm other liv e d w ith a ll
h e r b e lo n g in g s, w hich c o n s is te d of an e la b o ra te b e d m ade of
fiv e c a r p e ts , th ree bed s h e e t s , and five p illo w s , a sq u a re
box m ade of ju te fib re , and a sm all w ooden box c o n ta in in g
c o p p er c o in s , cardam om s, c lo v e s an d a r e c a - n u ts . 15

In th is sin g le se n te n c e enum erating th e p e rso n al belongings of the old

g ran n y , N arayan d o es much more than i t may ap p aren tly seem to b e . He

c r e a te s se ttin g : th e front h a ll c o n n e c te d w ith the dining-room by a dark

passage. He c re a te s the atm osphere of a ty p ic a l South In d ia n , m iddle

c la s s hom e. This atm osphere ev en sm e lls of cardam om s and c lo v e s .

And above a ll , N arayan c re a te s granny In her e la b o ra te s e ttin g . We

c a n s e e her in an o ld -fa s h io n e d , faded Banglore s a r e e , stro k in g Sw am l's

h a ir an d te llin g him a ll the m a k e -b e lie v e s to rie s about h is g ran d fa th er,

an d th en e v e n tu a lly ram bling on to the story of the tru th -s p e a k in g

H a rlsh c h a n d ra , a leg en d ary figure w hose memory is s till c h e ris h e d In

ev ery In d ian hom e.

*^ Swaml an d F rie n d s, p . 2 1 .-

^ Swaml and F rie n d s, p . 23. H arlshchandra w as an a n c ie n t

Hindu king who h ad n ev er spoken a lie In all h is lif e . His fam e had
sp re a d ev en In th e d arb ar (court) of the god In d ira, in H eav en . Shani
(Saturn), h ow ever, did not lik e i t . He to ld the gods th a t he w anted to
try H a rlsh ch a n d ra and s e e If he re a lly w as true to h is w o rd s. One day
 17

The way th a t N arayan p re s e n ts the w hole sc e n e se em s to be

d e c e p tiv e ly a r t l e s s . Before we r e a lis e th e te c h n ic a l d e v ic e s by m eans

of w hich he Is a b le to evoke a p a rtic u la r s e ttin g or a tm o sp h e re, we find

o u rse lv e s p a rtic ip a tin g In the very dram a of hum an em otions I t s e lf . There

a re , how ever, s itu a tio n s w hich we n e ith e r a c c e p t nor r e je c t. For exam p le,

we do not w illin g ly approve or disapprove of th e c irc u m s ta n c e s under

w hich M argayya r i s e s , but we do fe e l a stra n g e s e n s e of com m union.

W hen the su p e r-stru c tu re of w ealth th a t he h ad re c e n tly ra is e d c ru m b les,

17
we "feel an alm ost p erso n al s e n s e of d i s t r e s s . "

This n e a rn e ss to c h a ra c te rs , the s e n s e of sh a rin g th e ir Joys and

so rro w s, dream s and a m b itio n s, brings us c lo s e r to the p h y sic a l world

th ey In h a b it. The Vinayaka M udall S treet no more rem ain s a dirty old

s tre e t; It becom es the c e n te r of the life th a t the hero fin d s h im self in .

Every morning we lea v e N o. 14 D Vinayaka M udall S tre e t w ith M argayya

who c a rrie s a g rey , d isc o lo re d , tin box, w hich h a s e v ery th in g he n eed s

Shanl cam e to the kingdom of H arlshchandra in th e d is g u is e of a brahm in.

He a s k e d the king to prom ise to give him one th in g . W hen the king had
made h is prom ise, Shanl a sk e d for th e w hole of th e kingdom , in clu d in g
th e ro y al tr e a s u r e . H arlshchandra accom panied by h is w ife and c h ild w as
fo rced to le a v e h is kingdom and go som ew here e ls e to s e e k a liv in g . He
trie d very hard to g e t a jo b , and the only Job he c o u ld g e t w as th a t o f an
a s s i s t a n t to a c h a n d a l. the p erso n in ch arg e of a crem atio n ground. Shanl
w as s till not a p p e a s e d . A few days la te r , h e becam e a sn a k e and b it
H a rlsh c h a n d ra 's c h ild , who d ied in s ta n tly . The m other took th e d ead
body of th e c h ild to the crem ation ground. As sh e did not have any c lo th
to wrap the body, sh e to re h a lf of h e r sa re e to w rap it in . W hen she
a s k e d H arlshchandra to le t h e r crem ate i t , sh e w as re fu s e d b e c a u se sh e
did not have the money to pay the dues of th e ch& ndal. The g o d s,
 18

for h is "o ffic e , " under h is arm , an d sp e n d th e day under th e sh a d e of th e

big banyan tre e w hile th e fin a n a c ia l w izard a d v is e s (rather p e rsu a d e s)

M ollana of Koppal and Kanda and many o th ers how to se c u re more and

more lo a n s from the C o -o p e ra tiv e Bank e s ta b lis h e d for en co u rag in g

18
th rift. Every evening when "the su n h its him on th e nape of h is n eck "

and he p u lls down the lid of h is box, th u s , " c lo sin g h is o ffic e " for th e

d ay , we come b ack to th e dingy, dark V inayaka S tre e t, and alm o st h e a r

19
M a rg ay y a 's son sh o u tin g "Appa" 1

Som etim es N arayan c re a te s a d e lib e ra te c o n tra s t betw een d ifferen t

s e ttin g s involving the sam e c h a ra c te r. Such a c o n tra s t o ften h e lp s in

u n d erstan d in g different fa c e ts of the p e rs o n a lity of the c h a ra c te r or

c h a ra c te rs c o n c e rn e d . The trag ic irony in h e re n t in su c h a situ a tio n

c re a te s a stra n g e s e n s e of lo n e lin e s s . The P rin ter of M aigudl o ffers a

very good illu s tra tio n of such a c o n tra s t.

Sam path in h is o ffic e , a sm all room p a rtitio n e d by a p rin te d

c u rta in w ith a purple lio n a tta c k in g a sp o tte d d e e r on i t, talk in g to

Somu Sundram is d ifferen t from Sam path w ith h is fiv e sic k ly c h ild ren

in clu d in g S hani, w ere so moved by th is sc e n e th a t th ey gave him

ev ery th in g b a c k , h is kingdom , h is tre a s u re , and h is c h ild .

17The New Y orker, April 25, 1953, p . 129.

1^The F in an cial E xpert, p . 8.

Appa in Tamil m eans " p a p a ."

 19

liv in g in an ou th o u se (o rig in ally b u ilt for m enial se rv a n ts) of Lawley

E x te n sio n . In h is o ffice among h is s ta ff (whose e x a c t num ber w as a

top se c re t; a lib e ra l g u e s s w ould be ju s t one p e rso n — the "b o y "), he

is the m a ste r, a dom inating figure knowing p e rfe c tly w ell how to deal

w ith h is c u sto m e rs. "You w ill g e t th e proofs p o s itiv e ly th is e v en in g ,

and tom orrow you may com e for th e fin is h e d c o p ie s . Sorry for th e d e la y .

My s ta ff is som ew hat overw orked a t the m om ent. They hav e the

20
in stru c tio n to giv e you the maximum c o o p e ra tio n . " T hese words

are ty p ic a l of the u su a l rem arks th a t he re p e a ts many tim es a d a y . At

the a p p o in ted hour, of c o u rs e , nobody c an find him . This p ictu re of

Sam path, a man of g re a t ta c t, c o n fid e n c e , p rid e , in d e p e n d e n c e , firm­

n e s s , and a m ia b ility , d o es not fit in to the o th er o n e, Sam path at

hom e. This is how N arayan d e s c rib e s the hum ble surroundings of the

la tte r Sam path:

H e£Sam path7ied h im /S rin iv asJ along a sid e w alk to

the b a c k -y a rd . On th e edge of the com pound th ere w as
an o u th o u se w ith a g a b le d fro n t, a v eran d a sc re e n e d w ith
b a m b o o -tre llis , and two room s. It w as the p rin te r's
h o u s e . S rin iv as fe lt ra th e r d isa p p o in te d a t se e in g him in
h is se ttin g now , having a lw ay s Im agined th a t he liv e d in
g re a t s ty le . The p rin te r h u rried ly c le a re d the v eran d a for
h is v isito r; he ro lle d up a m at in g re a t h a s te , k ick e d a roll
of bedding ou t of s ig h t, to ld som e c h ild re n p lay in g there:
'G et in I G et in 11 and dragged a c h a ir h ith e r an d th ith e r
for S rin iv as an d a sto o l for h im se lf. S rinivas no ted a

^ T h e P rin ter of M a ig u d l, p . 21.

 20

sm all ta b le a t th e further end litte r e d w ith c h ild re n 's books

a n d s la te s ; a la rg e p o rtra it hung on th e w all of a man w ith
s id e w h isk e rs, w earing a ta tte re d fe lt h a t, w ith a long pipe
stic k in g out of a c o m er o f h is m outh. 2*

O r, a g a in , w hen S rin iv as Is e n te rta in e d by a d an ce perform ance given

by th e c h ild re n under th e d ire c tio n of Sam path:

S rin iv as w as som ehow a l it t le sa d d en e d by th e perform ance;

th e re w a s som ething p a th e tic in the attem p t to do anything
in th is d rab , 111-fitting back g ro u n d . He f e lt te a rs very
n e a rly com ing to h is e y e s . . . .S rin iv a s fe lt an o p p re ssio n
in h is c h e s t, an d began to w ish th a t th e perform ance w ould
stop; th e p rin te r pumping the harm onium on h is la p , th e
b u n d les of unw ashed c lo th e s p u sh e d in to a c o m e r, a n d the
c h ild re n th e m se lv e s c la d uniform ly in som e c h ea p grey
s k irt and s h irts and looking none too b rig h t— It a ll seem ed
to o sa d for w o rd s . 22

And i t is tru e , it i£ too s a d for w o rd s.

From S am path1s Truth Printing W orks of Kablr Lane to the

s p a c io u s and airy b u ild in g s of the A lbert M issio n C o lle g e — the e n tire

p ic tu re is c h a n g e d . We no more h e a r the groans of th e tre a d le of the

p rin tin g p re s s ow ned by S am path. In s te a d , the o c c a s io n a l sh rie k s of

the c o lle g e b e ll sig n a l GaJ apathy to make an honorable re tre a t to the

s ta f f room! It is an a lto g e th e r d ifferen t w orld— d e b a te s , le c tu re s ,

c l a s s e s a tte n d e d , c la s s e s m isse d , c ritic ism of te a c h e r s , P rincipal

B row n's acc o u n t of h is O xford d a y s, and th en a t th e end of the y e a r

21I b i d . . p . 103.

22I b l d . , p . 107.
 21

fin al e x a m in a tio n s.

One th in g th a t s trik e s th e re a d e rs m ost is the e a s e w ith w hich

the n o v e lis t c re a te s th e w orld of Brown and G a ja p a th y , K rishna and

C h an d ran . Three of h is n o v e ls an d s e v e ra l sh o rt s to rie s u se th is

common s e ttin g . One often fe e ls a s if N arayan is draw ing upon

h is own e x p e rie n c e s of l if e . This may be true to som e e x te n t. After

g rad u ating from M ah araja C o lle g e, M ysore, in 1930, N arayan taught

(like K rishna of G ratefu l to Life a n d Death) in a c o lle g e for se v era l

y e a r s . In a d d itio n to th is he h ad many oth er c o n ta c ts w ith the

p ro fe ssio n of te a c h in g . H is fa th e r w as h e ad m aste r of a high school

in M ysore for s e v e ra l y e a r s . It is q u ite p o s s ib le th a t in th is trilogy

(Swaml and F rie n d s, The B achelor of A rts, and G ratefu l to Life and

Death) he is w riting about the p eo p le and the s itu a tio n s th a t h e knew

in h is rea l l i f e . H ow ever, i t w ould be wrong to in te rp re t th e s e n ovels

a s a u to b io g ra p h ic a l. The u se of th e fe lt and e x p e rie n c e d re a lity in

c re a tin g th is im aginary w orld g iv e s it a stra n g e s e n s e of so lid ity and

in tim a c y . The only novel w hich c o u ld be term ed "au to b io g rap h ical"

23
(and th en only in part) is G ratefu l to Life and D e a th .

The la c k of in te r e s t in th e in s titu tio n s for th e e d u c a tio n of

g irls in the M aigudl n o v els is not very su rp risin g . The only m ention

O 'i
P erso n al le tte r , d a te d D e c. 16, 1959, to th e w riter.
 22

m ade i t of th e tc h o o l in w hich the granddaughter of S rin iv a s 's lan d lo rd

s tu d ie s . It is Ju st a c a s u a l rem ark. Since th e old man is not on

sp e a k in g term s w ith h is d au g h ter and s o n -in -la w but lo v e s h is grand­

c h ild and w an ts to s e e h e r, th e only p o s s ib le m eeting p lac e is the

s c h o o l. All th a t we know about i t is th a t i t is a M eth o d ist sc h o o l.

W e s e e i t only from the o u tsid e ; we do not go in .

The a ttitu d e of g e n eral in d iffe ren c e tow ard w om en's ed u catio n

n e ed s very lit t le e x p la n a tio n ittien one rem em bers th a t the n o v e list is

w riting about a so c ie ty in w hich g irls are m arried a t fo u rtee n . An

unm arried girl above th is age is su p p o sed to be a d isg ra c e for the

fam ily c o n c e rn e d . In The B achelor of Arts when C h a n d ra n 's m other is

to ld th a t the girl h is son w an ts to marry is g e ttin g on tow ard s ix te e n ,

sh e 3cream s "S ix teen I They c a n 't be a ll rig h t if th ey have kept the

g irl unm arried till s ix te e n . She m ust have a tta in e d puberty a g e s ago.
24
They c a n 't be a ll rig h t. We have a fac e to keep in th is tow n. " The

only two e x c e p tio n s are Rosie (The Guide) an d Shanti (The P rinter of

M a ig u d l). Rosie is a d e v a d fisl, a lo w -c a s te p ro fessio n al tem ple

d a n c e r. S hanti is a budding film s ta r . Both of th e s e women, how ever,

do not belong to M aig u d l. They are o u tsid e rs and do not fit in to the

background of M aig u d l. They th ru st th e m se lv e s in only to d estro y the

2*The B achelor of Arts (East L ansing: The M ichigan S tate

C o lle g e P re s s , 1954), p . 69.
 23

p e a c e of th e tow n.

The g e n eral p a tte rn of life a s liv e d in M aigudl g iv e s a stra n g e

o ld -tim e a ir to th e background of th is fic tio n a l w orld. It seem s

a lm o st u ntouched by th e new id e a s and v a lu e s . C o n se q u e n tly , th e

s lig h te s t d ep artu re from the s o c ia lly a c c e p te d custom s and p ra c tic e s

is too c o n sp ic u o u s for M aig u d l. Young boys go to Albert M issio n

School and th en to th e c o lle g e , marry the g irls th e ir p a re n ts s e le c t

fo r them , tak e up a jo b in M algudi, and s e ttle down w ith th e ir p a re n ts .

N othing very s e n s a tio n a l h a p p e n s . It is th is d aily routine of life

i ts e l f th a t m a tte rs. The little d e ta ils , w hether about K rishna's w ife

S u sh ila or S riram 's old granny, are nev er u n in te re s tin g .

Almost a ll the n o v e ls e x c e p t the l a s t part of W aiting for th e

M ah atm a, w hen the w hole sc e n e is sh ifte d to New D elhi, are s e t in

M alg u d i. It is in te re s tin g how N a ray a n 's people fee l about th eir

l it t le town and how d ifferen t th ey ap p ear when they tem porarily move

to a bigger w orld, s a y , M adras or D elh i. There is nothing very

stra n g e about the fee lin g of pride th a t th ey have for th eir sm all tow n.

It is very n a tu ra l. P eople a ll over the w orld feel the sam e w ay. Their

tow n is the b e st; there is nothing to m atch it on the face of the e a rth .

The w orld of M algudi is very sm a ll. Here everybody knows

a lm o st everybody e l s e . Life is sim p le, e a s y -g o in g . But when th ey move

o u t of tills sm all and in tim ate w orld, they alm ost g e t lo s t. This Is how

C h an d ran fe e ls when he is in M a d ras. He w ish e s:

 24

. . . the people of M adras w ere more human; th ey w ere so

m ech an ical and im personal; the p o rter a t th e s ta tio n had
b e h av ed a s If h e w ere b lin d , d e a f, and mute; now th is
h o te l man w ould no t e v en look a t h is g u e st; th e s e fello w s
sim ply did not c a re w hat hap p en ed to you a fte r th ey had
re c e iv e d your m o n e y .. . .C h an d ran had a fee lin g of being
n e g le c te d . ^5

S im ilarly , w hen Sriram g o e s to New D elhi to jo in B haratl (W aiting for

th e M ahatm a), he fe e ls very much out of p la c e . It is alm ost a new

la n d for him . People sp e a k d ifferen t la n g u a g e s , d re s s d ifferen tly and

e a t d iffe re n tly . Sriram of M algudi is com pletely b ew ildered in New

D elhi w ith i ts "stran g e su rro u n d in g s, the stra n g e a v en u e s and

26
b u ild in g s, th e too broad ro a d s , the e x o tic men and w o m e n .. . . "

But the proxim ity of Bharati g iv es him a s e n s e of h o m e lin e ss , and

he f e e ls a s if he w ere back in M algudi. It is not Ju st th e q u e stio n of

stra n g e su rro u n d in g s, the very way of life is d iffe re n t. In New D elhi

Sriram of M algudi cannot g e t the food to w hich he is a c c u sto m e d .

B h a rati's a d v ic e "to le a m to e a t c h a p p a ttl, and v e g e ta b le and cu rd and

27
fru it and not a s k for rice or shm bhar" is of very lit t le help to Sriram .

He s till lo n g s for pungent South Indian food. It is very n atu ral for one

to fe e l lik e th a t when p la c e d in an a lie n atm o sp h e re. Even b ack in

25I b i d . , p . 95.

W aiting for the M ahatm a, p . 225.

27I b i d ., p . 228.
 25

M algudi th ere sta n d s a w all b etw een th o se who are o f M algudi and th o se who

com e from the N orth. In The F in an cial E xpert M argayya h e s ita te s before

he a c c e p ts the h o sp ita lity of M adan L ai, th e owner o f the Gordon

P rln tery . W hen in v ite d for lu n c h , he fe e ls w orried: MThls man from

the N orth— God knew w hat he a te a t home: p erh ap s b e e f and pork

28
and stra n g e s p ic e s . How c o u ld he go and s i t w ith h im " ? And, th a t

is a big q u estio n !

M ost of N a ray an 's n o v els are s e t In p re -in d e p e n d e n c e In d ia.

Although N arayan d o es not seem to be p a rtic u la rly I n te r e s te d in the

big is s u e s of the day (at le a s t , he d o es not m ake th e s e the m ajor

problem s of h is n o v e ls), life in M algudi, in g e n e ra l, is not com pletely

free from p o litic a l p re s s u re . W hat h ap p en s in the r e s t of th e country

is su re to have some in flu e n ce on th is sm all co m e r o f the w o rld . In

Swaml and Friends we are to ld th a t on A ugust 15, 1930, two th o u san d

c itiz e n s of M algudi asse m b ed on the rig h t b ank of S arayu to p ro te st

a g a in s t the a rre st of G aurl Shankar, a prom inent p o litic a l w orker of

Bombay. The m eeting ended in a big p ro c e s s io n w hich went around the

town and c re a te d a g rea t s tir . There i s , h ow ever, nothing very p e c u lia r

about th is p ro te st m eeting. It w as the p a rt of the p a tte rn w hich w as

re p e a te d every now and then a ll over the c o u n try . The p eople w anted

^8The F inancial E xpert, p . 96.

 26

in d e p e n d en c e, and th e y fought w ith th e w eapons of S atyaoraha

(n o n -co o p e ratio n ). The S w ad esh i M ovem ent, w hich w as s ta rte d to

ban foreign goods an d e n co u rag e In d ian in d u s tr ie s , w as an e s s e n tia l

p a rt of the la rg e r program for in d e p e n d e n c e . Bonfires of foreign

c lo th e s w ere not very uncom m on. One su c h is m entioned in Swami

and F rie n d s. It c o s t poor Swaml the only c ap he h a d . His

"w h o le -h e a rte d c o -o p e ra tio n " in breaking the window p an es of h is

sch o o l brought him h is d is m is s a l.

This w as In d ia in the th ir tie s . In W aiting for the M ahatm a

we g e t an o th er a s p e c t of the p o litic a l s e ttin g . The story s ta rts

som ew here around 1940 and e n d s w ith the a s s a s s in a tio n of M ahatm a

G andhi on January 30, 1948. The h ig h lig h ts of th is period are the

"Q uit India M ovem ent" of 1942 and th e a ch iev em en t of p o litic a l

In d ep en dence in 1947. The s itu a tio n becom es more te n s e b e c a u se of

In d ia 's p a rtic ip a tio n in the Second W orld W ar. The form ation of the

In d ian N atio n al Army under th e le a d e rs h ip of Subhash C handra Bose

in Japan m akes the p o litic a l s itu a tio n s till more com plex. Ja g d ish ,

th e photographer in W aiting for the M ah atm a, and Sriram too for some

tim e , are the follow ers of S ubhash C h an d ra B o se . They burn railw ay

s ta tio n s , c u t telep h o n e lin e s , and m ake bom bs. In S riram 's lif e ,

how ever, th is proves to be a tra n s ito ry p h a s e . W ith the re le a s e of

Bharatl from j a i l , he a g a in becom es a follow er of M ahatm a G andhi.

 It is ju s t not enough to sa y th a t in some of h is n o v els N arayan

b rin g s in c u rre n t p o litic a l problem s and th e ir im p lic a tio n s . W hat is

s t i l l more s ig n ific a n t is th e u se th a t he m akes of th e s e is s u e s in h is

fic tio n a l w o rld . W hen one com pares th e se ttin g and the atm osphere

of h u n d red s of n o v e ls and sh o rt s to rie s w ritte n betw een 1920 and 1945,

in a ll the Indian la n g u a g e s a s w ell a s in E n g lish , condem ning the

B ritish raj w ith th e atm osphere and the han d lin g of the sam e them e,

one is g re a tly stru c k by th e d iffe re n c e . M ost of th e s e s o - c a lle d

" p o litic a l" n o v els co uld b e tte r be c a lle d " t r a c t s . " To a stu d e n t of

th e s o c ia l and p o litic a l h isto ry of In d ia of th a t period th e s e may be

of g re a t in te r e s t. As w orks of a rt, only a few ris e above the le v e l

of m ed io crity . A strong note of condem nation, w hich is common to

a lm o st a ll of th e s e " p o litic a l" n o v e ls , s p o ils the a r tis tic b a la n c e .

M oreover, m ost of th e s e are highly to p ic a l, they sta n d the ris k of

b ein g "o u td a te d . " The n o v e ls lik e lu s t F le sh . There Lay the C ity ,

an d We N ever Die of D. F. K araka, w hich w ere g reat h its of the

fo r tie s , a re a lm o st o u td ated to d a y . Even K. L. G a u b a 's Uncle Sham

(a rep ly to C a th e rin e M a y o 's M other In d ia) , w hich had c re a te d a

g re a t s e n s a tio n in its tim e, is an h a lf-fo rg o tte n book to d ay .

N arayan is strik in g ly d ifferen t from m ost of th e s e w rite rs.

He is ex trem ely urbane in h is treatm en t of p o litic a l th em es. Even

w hen we know on w hich sid e h is sy m p ath ies a re , we do not feel as

 28

if we h av e b een le d to one p a rtic u la r poin t of v iew . N arayan is

too su b tle an a r tis t to u se the tone of o u t-rig h t c o n d em n atio n . He

h a s th a t d is c ip lin e w hich is th e firs t requirem ent of ev ery g re a t

a rtis t. W hen he brings cu rre n t p o litic s in to h is n o v e ls , he d o es not

do so for defending one sy ste m or the o th e r. He does so sim ply

b e c a u se he can n o t e lim in a te the trem endous in flu e n ce th a t th e s e

p o litic a l e v e n ts e x ert on the liv e s of h is people in M algudi. For

ex am p le , the d e ta ils about the p ro te st m eeting and the g e n e ra l strik e

in Swaml and Friends are th e re .b e c a u s e they le a d to S w am i's d is m is s a l

from A lbert M issio n High School. C o n se q u e n tly , it a ls o le a d s to the

break in g up of the little c irc le of Sw am i's school frie n d s. O nce the

In c id e n t is o v er, v/e never h e a r any more of th o se public m e e tin g s.

Swaml and Raj am, to o , g et b u sy in p ra c tisin g for the com ing c ric k e t

m atch . Even in W aiting for the M ahatm a w hich is d ifferen t from the

r e s t of h is n o v els in many r e s p e c ts , w hat in te re s ts him m ost (and the

re a d e rs too) is not firs t-h a n d and a c c u ra te inform ation about the

a c tiv itie s of the C o n g ress P a rty . It is the p e o p le , p eople lik e B haratl,

the sym bol of the new women of India who w ould not lag beh in d men

in the stru g g le for freedom , Sriram , w avering betw een two w o rld s, and

M ahatm a G andhi, who is too big to fit in to th is triv ia l lo v e sto ry , th a t

he is re a lly in te re s te d in . It is true th at a t tim es one fe e ls a s if

N aravan h a s lo s t h is c h a ra c te rs som ew here and h a s s ta rte d w riting

 29

the p o litic a l h isto ry of the In d ia of f o r tie s . But e v en then he is not

to ta lly Irre le v a n t. After a ll, B haratl an d Sriram are p arty w o rk e rs,

and th e ir liv e s are d ire c tly determ ined by th e program of th e ir p a rty .

As fa r a s th e p h y sic a l s e ttin g is c o n c e rn e d , W aitin g for the

M ahatm a d iffers from the r e s t of th e M algudi n o v e ls . In th e l a s t p art

o f the book the hero le a v e s for N ew D e lh i. The m issio n of th is

adventure i s m eeting the g irl he lo v e s and th en a sk in g for th e

M ah atm a's p e rm issio n to marry h e r. Sriram in New D elhi is a lm o st

lik e A lice in W onderland.

P art Four of th e book is e x c lu s iv e ly d e v o te d to S riram 's life

in the C e n tra l J a il. There is nothing M a lg u d i-lik e about i t . As a

m atter of f a c t, we h ard ly rem em ber th a t th is C e n tra l Jail is s itu a te d

rig h t in the h e a rt of M algudi. It is only through th e v is it lik e th a t

of the Fund O ffice M anager th a t one c a n s e n s e th a t it is som ew here

n ear M algudi. In P art Three the sc e n e s h ifts from a ru in ed tem ple

on the o u ts k irts of the c ity , the h e a d q u a rte rs of a ll th e rev o lu tio n ary

a c tiv itie s of Sriram and Ja g d lsh , to g ra n n y 's d e a th -b e d , and then to

the d e se rte d h o u se o u tsid e the c ity lim its w here granny is c o n v a le s c in g

a fte r It is d isc o v e re d (on th e crem ation grounds) th a t she is not re a lly

dead. In P art Two th e s e ttin g of the novel s h if ts . Sriram le a v e s

M algudi and v is its a ll the v illa g e s around Mempi H ills and p a in ts

"Q uit In d ia" on the w a lls . It is only the firs t p a rt of the book w hich
 30

Is s e t in the to o -fa m llia r s tre e ts and ro ad s of M alg u d i, and it is th e

b e st p a rt. The M algudi flav o r is d is tin c tly th e re .

W est com es to M algudi through P rin c ip a l Brown of Albert M iss io n

C o lle g e and D em ello of H o lly w o o d , the brain behind th e Sunrise

P ic tu re s . The re s u lt i s , more or l e s s , c h a o s . The E a st and the W est

might h av e m et anyw here e ls e but not in th is M alg u d i.

In s e le c tin g an im aginary town for h is s e ttin g N arayan h a s some

d e fin ite a d v a n ta g e s . O bviously i t g iv e s him g re a te r freedom in

h an d lin g h is s e ttin g . The ten d en cy to s e e k for the re a l co u n te rp arts

of the fic tio n a l c h a ra c te rs and th e n to id en tify them a b so lu te ly is by

no m eans a pro d u ct of the tw e n tieth c e n tu ry . It is an o ld ghost w hich

h as n e v e r b een re a lly d e a d . For c ritic s i t may be an engaging p a stim e ,

though not a lw a y s an in n o cen t o n e . For w riters it h as alw ay s b een a

terrib le n ig h tm are. It w as so for Ben Jo n so n . The follow ing e x ce rp t

from th e agreem ent betw een the d ram a tist and th e s p e c ta to rs

(Bartholmew F air) is a s v a lid in th e world of m odem lite ra ry c ritic ism

as it e v e r w as:

. . .f in a lly a g re e d , by th e a fo re sa id h e a re rs an d sp e c ta to rs
th a t they n e ith e r in th e m se lv e s c o n c e a l, nor su ffer by them
to be c o n c e a le d , any s ta te -d e c y p h e re r or p o litic p ick lo ck
of th e s c e n e , so solem nly rid ic u lo u s a s to s e a rc h out who
w as m eant by th e g in g e r-b re a d wom an, who by the hobby­
h o rse m an, who by th e c o sta rd -m o n g e r, nay who by th e ir
w a r e s . Or th a t w ill p rete n d to affirm on h is own in sp ire d
Ig n o ran ce w hat M irrors of M a g istra te s is m eant by the
J u s tic e , w hat g re a t la d y by the pig wom an, w hat c o n c e a le d
s ta te s m a n by th e s e lle r of m ouse tr a p s , and so of the r e s t
 31

F o rtu n a te ly enough, N arayan e s c a p e s h is " s ta te -d e c y p h e re rs "

a n d 'p o l i ti c p ic k lo c k s . " M aigudl Is h is and It Is e n tire ly h i s . Right

from th e sh ab b y h o u se s of Kablr Lane to th e n e w -fa sh io n e d bungalow s

o f L aw ley E x te n sio n , he ow ns a ll of I t. And In th is fa s c in a tin g town

liv e p eo p le lik e Sam path an d M argayya who are not l e s s fa s c in a tin g .

The M aigudl of N aray an Is d ifferen t from th e Ranchlpur of Louis

B rom fleld, the Bhowanl Junction of John M a s te rs , the C a lc u tta of

B habanl B h attach ary a, an d the New D elhi of Parw ar Jh ab h w ala. It Is

In d ia , In d ia of th e common m an. N arayan does not ro m an tic ise the

s e ttin g . Nor d o e s he ta lk of the g u tte r of the c ity a ll the tim e . It is

s o lid , r e a l, so re a l th a t i t becom es hard to b e lie v e th a t it is a fte r a ll

j u s t an im aginary tow n.

N a ra y a n 's g e n eral approach to the w orld he sp in s around

M algudi d o e s In flu en c e the a tm o sp h ere, the flavor to som e e x te n t.

He is a " s a tir is t" w ithout any b itte rn e s s or reform ing z e a l, a com edian

w ith o u t any o u tb u rsts of la u g h te r. H is m ost e ffe c tiv e w eapons are

g e n tle irony and a s e n s e of n a tiv e hum or. The com edy of life i s ,

h o w ev er, to u ch e d by th e u n d erto n es of s a d n e s s . The end of Raju

30
(The G u id e ), a " re lu c ta n t holy m a n ," is p a th e tic . M a rg ay y a 's

^ T h e W orks of Ben Jonson, e d . F rancis Cunningham , II (London:

C h a tto & W in d u s, 1904), p p . 1 4 7 -4 8 .

^ T h e N ew York Tim es Book Review . M arch 23, 1958, p . 5.

 32

d o w n fall, though In e v ita b le , is not le s s tra g ic . K rish n a 's p e rso n a l

trag ed y i s sh a re d by h is c re a to r. S am p ath 's m y sterio u s d isa p p e a ra n c e

seem s to sp e a k o u t , " th ere are more th in g s on h e av e n an d e a rth th an

31
are dream t of in your p h ilo s o p h y ."

N arayan la c k s th a t o b je c tiv ity w hich a s a t ir i s t h a s to h a v e .

S atire im p lies th ree th in g s: a norm of s o c ia l and e th ic a l b eh av io r of

the in d iv id u a l in re la tio n to th e in s titu tio n s of s o c ity , an o b je c tiv ity

w hich le t s the author se e the o d d itie s and a b s u rd itie s from a d is ta n c e ,

and a fo u r-sq u a re d w orld around him w here people are v ic tim s of

h y p o c risy , s e lf is h n e s s , p o s s e s s iv e n e s s , alw ay s d e v ia tin g from th e

norm . A s a tir is t never fe e ls s a tis f ie d w ith the w orld around him .

There is a lw ay s som ething d ra s tic to be done or j u s t p o in te d o u t.

H ow ever, th is is not true of N arayan. He h im self is a p a rt, an

e s s e n tia l p a rt of the world he h a s c re a te d for h is Swaml a n d C h an d ran ,

S av ltri and S u s h lla . We feel a s if he a c tu a lly b elo n g s to M a lg u d i. The

dingy old s tru c tu re s , narrow , d u sty and crow ded ro a d s , a n d the g u tte r

w ith an aw ful s te n c h — nothing sh o ck s him . It is a ll w ith in the p a tte rn

o f a to o -fa m ilia r la n d s c a p e . And he n e e d s no R ansom es32 to

in te rp re t th is p a tte rn for him . Ransomes c a n adm ire i t , h a te i t , lo v e it,

31 H am let, e d . J. R. C raw ford (New H aven: Yale U n iv ersity

P r e s s , 1920), p . 34(1. v . 166-67).

32Ransome is the h ero , the "c e n tral o b s e r v e r ," in L ouis B rom field's
The Rains C a m e .
 33

b u t can n o t u n d e rstan d i t . There is bound to rem ain som ething stra n g e

an d b a fflin g . We h av e s e e n M a ig u d i's s u n r is e —hu n d red s of p eo p le

going to the riv er Sarayu to tak e a b a th . We hav e a ls o s e e n M a ig u d i's

s u n s e t— th e time for S u sh ila to lig h t a lam p in her sm all te m p le . H ere

is a d ifferen t kind of s u n s e t— R anch ip u r's s u n s e t a s se e n by R ansom e,

th e hero of The Rains Came:

It w a s the hour of th e day th a t Ransome lo v e d b e s t and

h e s a t on the verandah now , drinking brandy an d w atching
the golden lig h t flood a ll th e ban y an tre e s and the y e llo w -
grey h o u se and th e s c a rle t c re e p e r for one b rillia n t moment
before th e su n , w ith a su d d e n p lu n g e , dropped below the
horizon an d le ft th e w hole c o u n try sid e in d a rk n e s s . It w as
a m agical b u s in e s s w hich for h is northern blood, a ccu sto m ed
to long s t i ll blue tw ilig h ts of N orthern E ngland, n e v er lo s t
its s tra n g e n e s s — a s if su d d en ly th e w hole w orld sto o d s till
for a se c o n d and then s lip p e d sw iftly in to an a b y ss of
d a rk n e s s . For Ransome th e re w as a lw OO
*
ay s a shadow of
prim itive terror in the In d ian s u n s e t. °

It may be in te re s tin g to com pare M a ig u d i's view a s c re a te d by

N arayan w ith an o th er fic tio n a l tow n, C h an d rap o re, the s e ttin g of

F o rs te r's A P a ss a g e to In d ia :

Edged ra th e r than w a sh e d by th e riv er G a n g e s, it

{ c h a n d ra p o re ^ tra ils for a co u p le of m iles along th e bank,
s c a rc e ly d istin g u is h a b le from th e ru b b ish i t d e p o s its so
fre e ly . There a re no b a th in g -s te p s on th e riv e r fro n t, a s
th e G anges h appens not to be h oly here; in d ee d th ere is
no riv er front, an d b a z a a rs sh u t o u t the w ide and sh iftin g
panoram a of the stre a m . The s tr e e ts are m ean, th e tem p les
in e ffe c tiv e , and though a few fine h o u se s e x is t, th ey are

^ L o u is Brom fleld, The Rains Cam e York: G ro s s e t and

D unlap, 1937), p . 1.
 34

hidden away in gardens or down alleys whose filth deters

all but the invited guest. Chandrapore was never large
or beautiful.. . .There is no painting and scarcely any
carving in the bazaars. The very wood seems made of
mud, the inhabitants of mud moving. So abased, so
monotonous is everything that meets the eye, that when
the Ganges comes down it might be expected to wash
the excrescence back into the soil. Houses do fall,
people are drowned and left rotting, but the general
outline of the town persists, swelling here, shrinking
there, like some low but indestructable form of life. ^
This is C h an d rap o re—o ld , d irty , m onotonous, b a re , and

d ifferen t from th e adjo in in g c iv il s ta tio n w here the Turtons and the

C allen d ars keep th e m se lv e s b u sy by th e ir p e tty q u a rre ls. The old

town is of no in te r e s t to F o rste r, sin c e everybody of any im portance

liv e s in the c iv il s ta tio n . Who co u ld be in te re s te d in the "mean

s tr e e ts " and "In effe ctiv e te m p le s " , a n d the G anges w hich " c e a s e s to

be h o ly " in th is odd little tow n?

The s tr e e ts of M algudi are no l e s s "m ean" and the b a z a a rs no

le s s d irty . S till, it fa s c in a te s u s . Y es, M algudi of M argayya, of

K rishna, of Sam path does fa s c in a te u s . There is som ething in the very

h e a rt of th is lit t le town w hich a p p e a ls to u s . The s m e lls , sig h ts and

so u n d s, a ll are an e s s e n tia l p a rt of th e human world c re a te d by N arayan.

N arayan h a s often been com pared to G ogol, the g re a t R ussian

w rite r. 35 To som e e x te n t, th is com parison is a p t. Both N arayan and

34e . M . F o rste r, A P a ss a g e to In d ia (New York: G ro sse t and

D unlap, 1924), p . 1.
35New York H erald Tribune Book R eview , N ov. 29, 1953, p . 7;
The New Yorker, April 25, 1953, p . 129.
 35

G ogol d eal w ith life In a lo c a l re g io n . The atm osphere of th e ir fic tio n a l

w orlds h a s a d is tin c t flav o r a ll th e ir ow n. Another point w hich is of

g re a t in te r e s t in th is c o n n e c tio n is th a t both th e s e w riters d e p ic t th e

tra d itio n a l v a lu e s and b e lie fs a g a in s t the background of a time of

c h a n g e . The old order of so c ie ty is fac ed w ith the c h alle n g e of new

i d e a s . In th is stru g g le i t h a s e ith e r to mould its e lf to th e new tu n e s or

b reak down under the w eight of the p re s s u re .

G ogol p ortrays life of a so c ie ty w hich is more or le s s feu d al

in i ts stru c tu re but w hich is p a s s in g , though unw illingly, through a

p erio d of tra n s itio n . H is main In te re s t is c e n te re d in sm all to w n s, and

the p eople who in h a b it them are m ostly the country g e n try . They h av e

u s u a lly very big farm s and a larg e number of s e r f s . The monotony of

co u n try life is broken by freq u en t v is its to S t. P e tersb u rg . "Their drab

c o lo rs , th e ir s m e lls , th e ir co n fu sio n and filth and diso rd er are e s s e n tia l

in g re d ie n ts in G o g o l's s c e n e , and have much in common w ith th e

36
c h a ra c te rs who p lay th e ir p a rts a g a in st them a s a b a c k g ro u n d ."

N a ra y a n 's M algudl, how ever, is d ifferen t from G o g o l's sm all

tow ns in se v e ra l r e s p e c t s . M algudl h as no zam idars (big la n d o w n e rs),

no feu d al c h ie fs , and no m a h a ra ja h s. The p eople we m eet in th is

N ik o lai G ogol, D ead S o u ls, tra n s . George Reavey (London:

O xford U n iv ersity P re s s , 1957), p . v i.
 36

South In d ian sm all tow n a re of th e m iddle c l a s s . The p a tte rn of th e ir

liv e s Is p a rtly determ ined by the a g e -o ld d is tin c tio n s of c a s te and

q o tr a . T rust In th e tra d itio n a l p ra c tic e s is th e k ey n o te of th is

u n assu m ing p ictu re of l if e . But the u n d ercu rren ts of s o c ia l, p o litic a l

an d econom ic c h a n g e s, though im p e rce p tib le a t tim e s , c a n h ard ly be

ig n o red . W hat Taya Zlnkin sa y s of the chan g in g p a tte rn of In d ian

life In g e n eral may w ell apply to M algudl to som e e x te n t:

Under the w inds of c h an g e a la n d in h a b ite d by 380

m illion p e o p le , one six th of hum anity, i s w aking up,
stre tc h in g lim bs stiffe n e d w ith th e slum ber of c e n tu r ie s .
In one sw eep In d ia Is undergoing a ll th e re v o lu tio n s w hich
h av e ta k e n two c e n tu rie s in th e r e s t of th e w o rld . E quality
an d p o litic a l rig h ts; In d u s tria liz a tio n a n d u rb an izatio n ;
a g ra rian reform s and a g ric u ltu ra l im provem ents; s c ie n c e
and technology; s o c ia l an d p e rso n a l e m a n cip atio n are
com bining to transform a c o n te n te d , s t a t i c , ru ra l,
ritu a lis tic s o c ie ty Into a new a n d dynam ic one w here
p riv ile g e is no lo n g er in h e rite d , w here women a re m en 's
e q u a l, and w here H arijan s (unto u ch ab les) are a s im portant
a s B rahm ins.37

To try to in te rp re t Indian life through the p ic tu re p re s e n te d in

th e M algudl n o v els may ap p ear to be ra th e r an o v e r-e n th u s ia s tic

a p p ro a ch . M algudl h a s c h an g ed , no d oubt, but i t h a s b e en an

ex trem ely slo w an d c a u tio u s a ffa ir. By an d la rg e , it h a s n o t, to use

M rs. Z in k in 's words in M alg u d l's c a s e , " y e t done more th an sh ak e

th e s ta b ility " w hich com es from th e s e n s e of b elonging to a fam ily,

37Taya Z inkln, India C h an g es I p . x l.

 37

a c la n , a c a s t e , an d a s a c t .

To com a b ack to G ogol an d N aray an , although th ere la much

in common aa fa r aa th e atm oaphere and a e ttln g of the two fic tio n a l

w orlds a re c o n c e rn e d , y e t th e w ay In w hich th e tw o n o v e lla ta uae

th e a e a re d iffe re n t. T heir very a ta rtin g p o in ts are d iffe re n t. N arayan

d iffera from G ogol not o nly In hla b a a ic a ttitu d e tow ards life but a ls o

in h is t a s t e , h is s ty le , e v en h is la u g h te r. N a ra y a n 's M algudl h a s a

w e ll-in te g ra te d p a tte rn of life in to w hich h is c h a ra c te rs fit som ehow

or o th e r. There is e v id e n t a stra n g e s e n s e of conten tm en t w hich is

more o ften a r e s u lt of a p e c u lia r m ental h a b it th an an In d icato r of

a c tu a l p ro g re s s . G ogol, on the c o n tra ry , is o b s e s s e d w ith the

fru s tra tio n , pov erty an d sq u a lo r of th e so c ie ty he h a s se e n and

known in tim a te ly . It is tru e , i t la hard to make su c h sw eeping

g e n e ra liz a tio n s about h la c re a tiv ity . The Gogol of the e a rly short

s to rie s (as in NIv an Fyodorovitch Shoponka and h is Aunt") is differen t

from th e G ogol of D ead S o u ls . The ? a d re of "The N o se, Ma "biting

e x p o su re of th e sn o b b e ry , se lf-c o m p la c e n c y and stu p id ity of the

R u ssian upper c l a s s , -3P . too strong for any of N a ra y a n 's s a tiric a l

p o r tr a its . G o g o l's la u g h te r, p a rtic u la rly in h is la te r w orks, "v ib rates

3® N ik o lai G ogol, T ales of G ood and E v il, tra ils . D avid

M arg arsh ack (G arden C ity , New York: D oubleday and C om pany, 1957),
p . 7.
 38

w ith h id d en ran co u r and * a t i r e ." A nd, q u ite often he in d u lg e s in

g o rg eous s p la s h e s of c o lo r. N a ra y a n 's e ffe c ts a re , on th e o th e r h a n d ,

ra th e r p la y e d -d o w n . Very rarely d o e s he u s e s e ttin g for j u s t s a tir e .

Som etim es he u s e s i t for th e sake o f s o c ia l c o n tra s t. But th e irony

im p lied is g e n tle , though c e rta in ly no t l e s s e ffe c tiv e .

The w orld of M algudl is s m a ll, but It is e x a c tly h e re w here l ie s

th e g re a tn e s s of th is In d ian n o v e lis t. Through a s e n s e of in tim acy an d

fa m ilia rity it m akes a d ire c t appeal to our h e a rt. Small an d u n assu m in g

a s i t i s , i t s e rv e s a s the m ost apt background for th e sim ple and

ord in ary liv e s of h is M argayyas and C h a n d ran s, S rin lv a se s and

S a m p a th s.

39janko L avrin, N ikolai G ogol (London: Sylvan P re s s , 1951),

p . 15.
 C H A PT ER II

PEOPLE

D epend upon i t , you w ould g a in u n sp e a k a b ly if you

w ould le a rn w ith me to s e e som e of th e poetry and th e
p a t h o s .. .ly in g in th e e x p e rie n c e of th e hum an so u l th a t
lo o k s ou t through d u ll grey e y e s , an d th a t sp e a k s in a
v o ice of q u ite o rd in ary to n e .

It is th is poetry and p a th o s of ev ery d ay life th a t N arayan is

trying to d isc o v e r in the M algudl n o v e ls . The background of th e sm all

town w ith its drab and c o lo rle s s s t r e e ts , its unim posing b u ild in g s,

an d its seem in g ly in s ig n ific a n t landm arks is fu se d w ith life by the

p eo p le who w alk in th e s e s t r e e t s , liv e in th e s e h o u s e s , and g a ze

w ith a ffe ctio n a t th e s e la n d m a rk s. There e x is ts a stra n g e s e n s e of

comm union b etw een the c h a ra c te rs and th e b ack g ro u n d . They grow

ou t of i t , liv e in i t , and belong to i t . But th e y do not e x is t for i t .

W hile H a rd y 's c h a ra c te rs are a p t to g e t lo s t on Egdon H eath , N a ra y a n 's

go on u n d istu rb e d . Sarayu S tre e t or Kablr Lane d o e s not grow on them .

They are th ere b e c a u se th ey c a n n o t h e lp being anyw here e l s e . The

^George E lio t, 8 c e n e s of C le ric a l Life (Boston and New York:

H oughton M ifflin and C om pany, 1907), p . 6 2 .

39
 40

su b je c tiv e e lem en t Is a lm o st e lim in a te d . The s tr e e ts and th e sq u a res

giv e an Illu s io n of being w onderfully a liv e , but w hen i t com es to the

q u e stio n of th e ir re la tio n to the Inner life of th e c h a ra c te rs , th ey ap p ear

to be su rp risin g ly unto u ch ed by hum an e m o tio n s. Sarayu flow s on a s

e v e r w hen th e d ead body of S u sh ila is being c a rrie d to th e crem ation

ground n e a rb y . The tre e s In N alla p p a G rove do not sh e d t e a r s , and

th e s ta r s above do not hang th e ir h e a d s In sh a m e . D ickens su re ly

w ould hav e made much more of su c h a background by developing its

sym bolism in re la tio n to i ts p e o p le . N arayan is s a tis f ie d w ith it a s

It i s . H is c h ie f in te r e s t l ie s in p e o p le , p eo p le in a c tio n — not as

sim p le m e ta p h y sic a l u n i ts . W hat Is s a id about T rollope is eq u ally

tru e of N a ray a n . "H is p e c u lia r g ift la y in the d e lin e a tio n of human

b e in g s: p e o p le in th e ir s e ttin g s , doing th in g s , th a t w as how he saw

lif e ." 2

W riting about the range of h e r c h a ra c te rs G eorge E liot sa id :

There are few p ro p h ets in th e world; few su blim ely b eau tifu l
women; few h e ro e s . I c a n 't afford to giv e a ll my lo v e and
rev e ren c e to su c h r a ritie s : I w ant a g re a t d e a l of th o se
fe e lin g s for my e v ery d ay fello w -m e n , e s p e c ia lly for the few
in th e foreground of th e g re a t m ultitude w hose fa c e s I k n o w .. . .
And I w ould n o t, e v en if I h a d th e c h o ic e , be the c le v e r
n o v e lis t who co u ld c re a te a w orld so much b e tte r th an th is ,
in w hich we g e t up in the m orning to do our d aily work, th a t
you w ould be lik e ly to turn a h a rd e r, c o ld e r ey e on the d u sty

^The T rollope R eader, e d . E. C . Dunn and M arion E. Dodd

(New York: O xford U n iv ersity P re s s , 1947), p p . x v lii-x ix .
 41

s tr e e ts an d th a common graen f i e l d s , on th a rea l b reath in g

men an d w o m e n .. . . 3

Like G eorge E liot N arayan p refers to c re a te "the re a l b rea th in g

men and wom en" ra th e r th a n m eddle w ith glam orous Illu s io n s o f life

tin g e d w ith fan c ifu l Im ag in atio n . H is Sam paths and C h an d ran s do not

p lay th e ir p a rts , but l i v e , move In and o u t, ta lk and lau g h , an d then

d isa p p e a r only to a p p ea r a g ain and again in the fam iliar s i g h t s . U nlike

D ic k e n s, N arayan is not s o much in te re s te d in the o d d itie s an d

in c o n g ru itie s of hum an beh av io r a s in th e ev en ten o r, the rhythm and

harm ony of l i f e . In h is p o rtray al of th e s e ap p aren tly in s ig n ific a n t

p e o p le th e re is a te n d e rn e s s w hich is very a p p ea lin g and to u c h in g . It

is w hat M argaret Parton m eans w hen she sa y s in h e r review of G rateful

to Life and D e a th , " No b e tte r way to u n d e rstan d w hat M r. N ehru m eans

by 'th e te n d e r hum anity of In d ia ' than to re a d one of M r. N a ra y a n 's

4
n o v e ls ." N a ra y a n 's te n d e rn e s s should n o t, h ow ever, be m is in te r­

p re te d . It is by no m eans s e n tim e n ta lity . He h a s enough of u rb an ity ,

d etach m en t and o b je c tiv ity to sa v e him from the danger of running in to

se n tim e n ta lity .

W hen we com pare the range of c h a ra c te rs who ap p ear in the

M algudl n o v e ls w ith th a t of, s a y , S c o tt's , we find th a t it is ex trem ely

3Adam Bede (New York and Boston: H . M . C aldw ell C om pany,

n . d . ) , p . 185.

^New York H erald / rlbune Book Review, Nov. 29, 1963, p . 7.

 42

lim ite d . M ost of N a ra y a n 's p eo p le belong to a lm o st th e sam e c la s s of

s o c ie ty . Of c o u rs e , w ithin th e sam e c la s s th ere a re o b v io u s and

Irrec o n cilab le d iffe re n c e s , and N arayan is very much aw are of t h e s e .

U nlike th e u su a l type of novel w ritte n about In d ia by to u r ls t-a u th o rs ,

M algudl can n o t b o a s t of having high d ig n ita r ie s . There a re no

m ah arajahs w earing turbans w orked w ith g o ld an d d iam o n d s, no

m aharanls rep re se n tin g o rie n ta l sp le n d o r— no t ev en a n ab ab bahadur

going for sh ik a r in Mempi H ills of M algudl I In N a ra y a n 's M algudl

th ere co u ld hardly be a p la c e for th e m . They w ould a p p ea r to be too

co n sp icu o u s and aw kw ard for i t .

In s p ite of R aju's d e sc rip tio n of M a lg u d i's su rro u n d in g s— its

b eau tifu l tem ples of g re a t a n tiq u ity , p e re n n ia l sp rin g s and other

b eau ty s p o ts , and more s o , its big e le p h a n t-h u n ts o rg an iz ed by the

F o rest D epartm ent^—we do n ot come a c ro s s any fo reig n e rs touring th is

p a rt of the co u n try . There are no Ransom es^ trying to bridge the gulf
7
betw een the m ystic E ast and th e p ra c tic a l W e st, no M iss Q u e ste d s
O
out to s e e the re a l In d ia , not e v en a b ew ild ered M iss Sm ith. It is

^N arayan, The G uide (New York: The Viking P r e s s , 1958).

6Louis Brom fleld, The Rains C a m e .

?E. M . F o rster, A P a s s a g e to I n d ia .

^ C h ristin e W esto n , The W orld is a Bridge (New York: S c rib n e r's

Sons, 1950).
 43

• a id th a t In h is n e x t n o v e l, The M atchm aker of

by The Viking P re ss In th e n e a r fu tu re , N arayan Is p lan n in g to in tro d u ce

a young Am erican s c h o la r w ho co m es to In d ia to stu d y i ts c u s to m s .^ It

w ould be in te re s tin g to im agine h is re a c tio n s to M algudl and Its p e o p le .

Even w ithout R ansom es a n d Q u e ste d s M algudl rem ain s extrem ely

In te re stin g and a liv e . Its Sam paths and M argayyas a re ju s t th e p e rso n s

one co uld find o nly in su c h a b ack g ro u n d . N arayan w rite s ab o u t the

p eo p le he knows b e s t and p la c e s them in a reg io n he know s m ost

in tim a te ly . This c o n sc io u s lim ita tio n of h is su b je c t m atter becom es

h is stre n g th . Like Jane A usten he know s the w isdom o f w riting w ithin

o n e 's ra n g e . The obvious r e s u lt is th a t h e d o es not g iv e us a b lu rred ,

form less panoram a, b u t a ^ e s^ , p e rfe c tly com posed, sh a rp ly fo c u s s e d ,

an d a sto n ish in g ly re a l p ic tu re of a South In d ian sm all tow n.

The p eo p le whom w e m eet in N a ray a n 's M algudl are g e n u in ely

M alg u dlan. Broadly s p e a k in g , th e y a ll belong to the m iddle c l a s s .

There are hardly any from th e upper c la s s p lay in g a ro le of any

s ig n ific a n c e . In f a c t, w h en ev er th e y a p p ea r, i t is more b e c a u se they

ju s t slip in rath er than w a it o u ts id e . N a ra y a n 's b e st s a tire is found

in th e s e o c c a sio n s of "slip p in g in . " Soma Sundram , th e D istric t

Board P resid en t (The P rin ter of M algudl) is the b e s t e x am p le . He is

9The New York Tim es Book R eview , January 18, 1959, p . 8.

 44

illite r a te (as m ost of th e D is tric t Board P re sid e n ts are I), but L akshm l,

th e g o d d e ss of w e a lth , h a s b e sto w ed h e r b le s s in g s on him p ro fu se ly .

The f ir s t tim e we s e e him , he i s a t th e door of th e Truth P rinting P r e s s .

He i s w earing a c lo s e - n e c k c o a t and a tu rb a n . H is fa c e a p p e a rs to be

ra th e r rig id , and w ith a fin g e r h e Is flic k in g h is m o u stac h e. The

p u rp o se of th is "solem n" v is it is to adm onish Sam path for d e la y in

th e p rin tin g o f the s p e e c h (se v e ra l h an d s h a d w ritte n i t , the au th o r

sm ilin gly inform s us) w hich he is to d e liv e r a t th e cerem ony of opening

a bridge on S aray u .

The w ay in w hich Sam path ta k e s c a re of Somu Sundram show s

N a ray a n 's s k ill in u tilis in g sim p le fa rc ic a l s itu a tio n s for c re a tin g

liv in g c h a ra c te rs . Somu Sundram is ju s t rid ic u lo u s , and he is m eant

to be s o . W ith g re a t d isa p p o in tm en t we le a rn th a t the D is tric t Board

P re sid e n t c a n n o t u s e th e bridge opening sp e e c h b e c a u se the cerem ony

n ev er com es o ff. Sundram h a s to re lin q u is h the o ffice a ls o b e c a u se

"it is too h ard a life for a c o n s c ie n tio u s m an. Who co u ld be more

c o n sc ie n tio u s th an th e hon o rab le p r e s id e n t! Perhaps it is a g a in the

p ricking of h is c o n s c ie n c e and a very stro n g d e sire to serv e h is country

(according to h is v ersio n ) w hich urge him to s ta r t a new film com pany.

He th inks h im se lf to be a very "d isc rim in a tin g " c ritic of su c h is s u e s

1 0The P rin te r of M a lg u d l, p . 111.

 45

a s p lo t, a c tin g , d a n c e s an d so o n . C om m enting on a p a rtic u la r sto ry

for th e film th e S u n rise P ic tu re s w an ts to m ake,he s a y s : "The a d v an tag e

in th is is th a t th ere is any am ount of lo v e in th e s to ry , and p eo p le w ill

lik e i t . P e rso n a lly , a ls o , I n e v e r lik e to rea d any sto ry if i t h a s no

lo v e in i t . “ **When th e sto ry w ith "any am ount of lo v e in it" h a s been

w ritte n , Somu Sundram , th e p ro d u cer of S unrise P ic tu re s , fin d s i t la c k in g

in som a o th e r re s p e c t: “One th in g , M is te r, I w ant you to rem em ber. You

m ust not fa ll to in tro d u ce a com ic in te rlu d e . “ A s lig h t frown cam e on

S rin lv a s 's fa c e :

I d o n 't s e e how any com ic in te rlu d e c a n be pu t in to th is .

P le a s e try . It w ould m ake the p ictu re very p o p u lar.
P eople w ould com e a g a in and a g ain to la u g h . P e rso n a lly ,
do you know I alw ay s lik e som ething w hich m akes me la u g h . 12

By th e end of the novel we com e to know a ll ab o u t th e “p e rso n a l “

lik in g s and a v e rsio n s of th e E x -P re s id e n t. M r. N a te sh , an o th e r D is tric t

Board P re sid e n t (s u c c e s s o r to Somu Sundram ?) whom we m eet in W aiting

fo r th e M ahatm a, is a c h a ra c te r who com es very n e ar to being a

c a ric a tu re . He w an ts to be the h o s t of M ahatm a G andhi during the

l a t t e r 's s ta y in M algudl b e c a u se :

I have sp e n t two la k h s on th e b u ild in g , my garden and law ns

a lo n e have c o s t me tw e n ty -fiv e thousand ru p ees so fa r. W hat

11I b l d ., p p . 1 2 5 -2 6 .

12I b l d . , p . 150.
 46

do you think I have done it fo r? I am a sim ple m an, s ir , my

n e e d s are very sim p le . I d o n 't n eed any lu x u ry . I c a n liv e
In a h u t, but th e re a so n why I have b u ilt It on th is s c a le Is
th a t I should be ab le for a t l e a s t once In my life tim e , to
re c e iv e a g re a t so u l lik e M a h a tm a jl.1^

The lo g ic seem s to be u n a s s a ila b le . But how much o f It Is r e a lly true

is open to q u e stio n .

In ad d itio n to th e c h a in of p re s id e n ts , we h av e R ajem 's fa th e r,

who is D eputy S uperintendent of P o lic e . Through him we g e t a g lim p se

of the o ffice r c l a s s . The sto ry being th a t of Swaml an d h is frie n d s , we

n e v er go beyond the four w a lls of Raj a m 's room . There Is no attem p t to

d e sc rib e the furniture or the p lan of the h o u se . We n e v er m eet R ajam 's

m other. The only tim e sh e is m entioned is when Rajam v is its S w am i's

h o u se and te lls granny th at h is m other had a b lack trunk fille d w ith

je w e ls and a green one co n ta in in g gold and s ilv e r v e s s e l s . W hat ty p e

of d re s s sh e w ears and w hat kind of m eals sh e c o o k s— nothing is know n.

R ajam 's fa th e r, to o , a p p ea rs only once in the n o v e l. As a se n io r

p o lic e o ffice r he is re s p o n sib le for m aintaining law and order in the c ity .

W hen a p ro c e ss io n is org an ized by the C o n g re ss P arty w o rk ers, R ajam 's

fa th e r, c o n sid erin g th e p e a c e of the c ity to be in d an g er, o rders a la th i

c h a rg e . H ere, to o , he is not show n a s an individual but only a s an

in stru m en t of th e ruling c l a s s — a c u sto d ia n of B ritish p re s tig e .

1 ^W aiting for the M ahatm a, p . 33.

 47

P rin cip al Brown of A lbert M issio n C o lle g e , who g e ts a th o u sa n d

ru p ees p er m onth, is s u re ly , a t l e a s t by M algudl s ta n d a rd s , a ric h m an.

But a c c u ra te ly sp e a k in g , he does not seem to belong to the s o c ia l

stru ctu re of M alg u d l. He is an o u ts id e r, an d he p refers to rem ain s o .

He h as s p e n t more th a n th irty y e a rs in In d ia , but h is s ta y in th is country

h a s not s u c c e e d e d in m aking any Im pact on h is a ttitu d e s . He s till

rem ains a b e lie v e r in th e w h ite m a n 's b u rd en . A long s ta y in In d ia

h a s rath e r stre n g th e n e d th is b e lie f. 'W e a re not out here for the purpose

of behaving p le a s a n tly I" sh o u ts Ronny to h is m other w hen he is to ld

about A d e la's co m plaint th a t A nglo-Indians b eh av e very rudely in In d ia .

"We are out h ere to do ju s tic e and keep th e p e a c e . T hem 's my

14
s e n tim e n ts . In d ia i s n 't a draw ing r o o m ." The se n tim e n ts of Ronny

H e aslo p , th e d is tr ic t judge in F o rs te r's A P a s s a g e to In d la ^are the

sen tim en ts sh a re d by alm o st ev ery A n g lo -In d ian . Brown is no ex ce p tio n

to t h i s . The d ifferen ce betw een him and Ronny is not th a t of kind but

of d e g re e. If in s te a d of being the p rin c ip a l of a m issio n c o lle g e he

h ad been a d is tric t ju d g e , he w ould p erh ap s have s a id th e sam e th in g .

In M algudl N arayan does not giv e any im portant ro le to him . He is

rath e r a background fig u re . O ther c h a ra c te rs refer to him in d ire c tly .

The refe re n c e s are both p le a s a n t an d u n p le a s a n t. Ke is very s tr ic t a s

14
A P a ss a g e to In d ia , p p . 4 9 -5 0 .
 48

far a s th e p re s tig e of B ritish im p erialism is c o n c e rn e d . A c o lle g e

stu d e n t dropping u. in "honour" is a m atter of grave c o n c e rn for him ,

and the E ng lish D epartm ent of h is c o lle g e is very prom ptly made aw are

of the g rav ity of th e s itu a tio n . And y e t, Brown h im se lf c an n o t s p e a k

e v en su c h a sim ple se n te n c e as "The c a t c h a s e s th e ra t" in any o f

th e two hundred In d ian lan g u a g e s (according to K rishna). The only

th in g he h a s le a rn t is the c u ltiv a tio n o fe x tre m e c a u tio n in approaching

th e o v e r-s p ic e d South Indian food I Brown h a s , h o w ev er, a very good

s e n s e of humor (which he m ostly u s e s when d e liv e rin g p re s id e n tia l

a d d re ss e s ) and a good s to c k of sh o rt and s p ic y a n e c d o te s of his

Oxford d a y s . W hatever p o p u larity he h a s , i t is b a s e d on th e s e tw o

th in g s .

Before c o n sid erin g the stratu m of the p eo p le p o rtray e d in

M alg u d l, th ere a re some p o in ts w hich need a lit t le c la r if ic a tio n . F irstly ,

th e term "m iddle c la s s " is very am biguous. It may n o t a lw ay s.m e an the

sam e th in g . A s lig h t v a ria tio n in th e co n tex t may m ake a ch an g e in the

m eaning. M iddle c la s s in M algudl is not the sam e a s m iddle c l a s s in

Bombay or D elh i. W hile th e broader d is tin c tio n s h o ld tru e , the in te rn a l

b o u n d aries are h ig h ly v a ria b le . C h a n d ran 's fa th e r o b v io u sly b elongs to

th e upper m iddle c l a s s , but if put anyw here e l s e — s a y , in New D e lh i— he

w ould ra th e r be c o n sid e re d a s an av erag e m iddle m id d le -c la s s p e rs o n .

Even w ithin M algudl it is h ard to la b e l a p erso n w ith a s p e c ific ,

c u t-a n d -d rie d d is tin c tio n . D ifferent sh a d e s w ith in a p a rtic u la r s o c ia l

 49

c l a s s d efy any a ttem p t a t a c c u ra te la b e llin g .

S econdly, th e s o c ia l stru c tu re of H indu s o c ie ty Is very p e c u lia r

In the s e n s e th a t th e s o c ia l p o sitio n of a p a rtic u la r in d iv id u a l is

d eterm ined not so much by h is m ateria l p ro sp e rity a s by th e c a s te In

w hich he Is b o m . A p e rso n belonging to a lo w er c a s te may e a rn money

a n d be fin a n c ia lly in a b e tte r p o sitio n th a n a Brahmin, bu t w hen it com es

to the q u estio n of s o c ia l p re s tig e and r e s p e c t, h e c a n n o t s ta n d on eq u al

term s w ith a f r » h m in . A Shudra c a n n o t be a Brahm in. * ^ It Is u s e le s s for

him to think along th o se lin e s b e c a u se he know s th a t he c an n e v er

becom e o n e . C o n v e rse ly , a Brahmin may bring d isg ra c e to h is c a s te

an d c la n by h is bad c o n d u ct, but he s t i ll rem ains a Brahmin. S ince it

Is not p o ss ib le for an in d iv id u al to r is e or fa ll beyond th e range of h is

im m ediate s o c ie ty , there is p ra c tic a lly no sc o p e for c h o ic e and

in itia tiv e .

^ O r ig in a lly H indu s o c ie ty w as d iv id ed in to four g ro u p s. U nlike

P harm a an d Karma, th e c a s te sy ste m (Varna) h ad no re lig io u s s a n c tio n s .
I t w as prim arily a s o c ia l developm ent w hich h e lp e d in s ta b lls in g
(ev e n tu ally sta g n a tin g also) th e H indu s o c ia l s e t - u p . The four c a s te
d iv is io n s In the order of d e c re a sin g s ta tu s are a s fo llo w s: A Brahmin
b elo n g s to the h ig h e s t g ro u p . The very word "Brahmin" m eans "of
B rah m a." It is b e lie v e d th a t h e w as o rig in a lly bom out of th e mukh
(mouth) of Brahma (the C re ato r G od). A Brahmin is e x p e c te d to be
w e ll-v e rs e d In h oly s c rip tu r e s . He h a s n o t only to p o s s e s s th is
k n o w ledge, he is su p p o se d to Im part i t to h is d is c ip le s to o . T hus,
h e i s a sc h o la r a s w ell a s a te a c h e r. W ith the p ro fe s sio n of le a rn in g
he com bines the p rie s tly d u t ie s . He a lo n e c a n perform th e re lig io u s
c e re m o n ie s . He w ears th e sa c re d th re a d — th e sym bol of being
 so

T his Is th e tra d itio n a l p a tte rn of H indu s o c ie ty . It m eans

s ta b ility , co n ten tm en t bu t s ta g n a tio n a ls o . The w inds of c h a n g e ,

h o w ev er, h a v e blow n very h a rd . This c h an g e is both from w ith in and

w ith o u t. I t is slo w ly bringing a rev o lu tio n in th e a g e -o ld s tra tifie d

s o c ie ty . The c la s s d is tin c tio n s a re becom ing l e s s and l e s s rig id .

They are lo sin g m uch of th e ir se lf-im p o s e d pow er. The im p act of

d em o cratic p rin c ip le s , e d u c a tio n , and u rb a n iz a tio n h a s b een trem endous

in th is d ire c tio n .

In a stu d y o f N a ra y a n 's c h a ra c te rs it is n e c e s s a ry to find out

the e x te n t to w hich h is p eo p le a re in flu e n c e d and determ ined by c a s te

d is tin c tio n s . N a ra y a n 's M algudl is not c a s t e l e s s , nor is he trying to

"tw ice b o m ." Being tw ice bom sim ply m eans th a t one h a s b een
form ally in itia te d in to o n e 's re lig io u s fo ld . N ext in the o rder are
K sh atry as— w a rrio rs, k in g s . The id e a ls to w hich th ey a re d ev o ted are
b rav ery , co u rag e and d u ty . The th ird group is V a ish y as, th e b u s in e s s
com m unity. The lo w e st in th e rung are Shudras an d H a rlja n s , more
o ften known a s U n to u c h a b le s. The f ir s t th re e c a s t e s c a n w ear the
sa c re d th re a d w hile th e S hudras c a n n o t.
E ach c a s te h a s its own tab o o s an d r e g u la tio n s . M arriage
betw een d ifferen t c a s te s (or ev en th e s u b - c a s te s ) is not a llo w e d .
Today th e c a s te sy s te m i s undergoing re v o lu tio n a ry c h a n g e s . The
tra d itio n a l b a rrie rs a re b reak ing dow n. As a r e s u lt, th ere h a s been
more interm ixing b etw een d ifferen t c a s te s and s u b - c a s te s th an co u ld
ev er be Im agined e v en fifty y e a rs a g o . There is now more freedom in
the c h o ic e of o n e 's p ro fe s sio n , and th e h o ld of c a s te is g e ttin g lo o s e r.
Of c o u rs e , a Brahmin w ould no t do th e Job of a sw e e p e r, but he c an be
a b u s in e s s man or jo in th e p o lic e if he so d e s ir e s .
 51

m ake It o n e . As m em bers of a tra d itio n a lly s tra tifie d s o c ie ty , h is

p e o p le know th e ir sa n c tio n e d p l a c e s , d u tie s and r e s p o n s ib ilitie s .

T heir a ttitu d e Is th a t o f c o n fo rm ists. They dare not ta k e any ste p

w h ich w ould throw them o u tsid e th e c irc le of th e ir own k in .

W hat Is s till more s ig n ific a n t Is th e fa c t th a t In th e M algudl

n o v e ls th e com plex s o c ia l s tra tific a tio n rem ains ju s t a background,

an e s s e n tia l b ackground. N arayan d o es not sp e c ify h is p eople in

term s of c a s te s and s u b - c a s t e s . Of c o u rs e , he does not to ta lly

e lim in a te su c h d is tin c tio n s , but a t the sam e tim e h e does no t make

them h is m ajor I s s u e s . N eith er h is them es nor h is p lo ts are determ ined

by su c h c o n s id e ra tio n s .

This d is tin c tio n c a n be b e tte r un d ersto o d if N a ra y a n 's n o v els are

16
c o n s id e re d a g a in s t th e background of su c h n o v els a s U ntouchable or
17
He W ho Rides a T iger. The dom inant them e of both th e s e n ovels is th e

sam e: th e rig id s tra tific a tio n of H indu s o c ie ty , its s o c ia l and

p sy c h o lo g ic a l Im p lic a tio n s, and th e in e v ita b le in te r - c a s te c o n flic ts

an d c l a s h e s .

B habanl B h a tta c h a ry a 's He Who Rides a Tiger h a s for its h e ro ,

Kalo— a C ham ar (cobbler) by b irth . S u lek h a, h is d a u g h t e r s a b rillia n t

l&Mulk Raj A nand, U ntouchable (London: H utchinson

In te rn a tio n a l A uthors, 1947).

1 ^Bhabanl B h attach ary a, He Who Rides a T iger (New York:

Crown P u b lis h e r s , 1954).
 52

s tu d e n t, but sh e h a s to su ffer g re a t h u m ilia tio n ,b e c a u se sh e is a

C ham ar g i r l . D uring the Bengal Fam ine w hen Kalo and h is fam ily hav e

no th in g to e a t in th e v illa g e , th e y go to C a lc u tta . T hings a re not m uch

b e tte r th e re . W hen h e fa ils to m ake a liv in g , he d e v is e s a p lan w hich

w orks out very w e ll. He c h a n g e s h is nam e, p reten d s th a t he is a

Brahm in, an d im m ediately becom es the h e a d p rie s t of a tem ple w hich

th e c ity fa th e rs h a v e to build b e c a u s e Kalo h a s s e e n a m ira c le — th e

a p p e a ra n c e of God Shiva on th a t s p o t. This arrangem ent goes on sm oothly

for so m etim e. W hen th e truth is o u t, the Brahmins becom e furious and

a re ab out to k ill him , but Kalo h a s the co u rag e to “drive th e s te e l deep

in to th e tig e r" — th e tig e r he had b een rid in g . F in ally , h e retu rn s to

h is own p e o p le . It is e v id e n t th a t th e m ain a c tio n , th e m o tivation and

th e c h a ra c te rs — a ll are d eterm ined by the fa c t th a t Kalo i s a C ham ar and

not a Brahm in.

Like He Who Rides a T iger M ulk Raj A nand's U ntouchable is

b a se d on the c a s te sy stem and i ts s o c ia l im p lic a tio n s . It d e sc rib e s a

day in the life of a sw ee p er, Bakha, very r e a lis tic a lly . The g re a t

c a ta s tro p h e (when a c c id e n ta lly a high c a s te Hindu is to u ch e d by him)

o c c u rs in th e m orning and it m akes Bakha m iserab le throughout the

day. The book c lo s e s w ith th ree s o lu tio n s . The firs t one by H u tc h in so n ,

a S a lv a tio n is t m issio n ary , is to be a C h ris tia n . The se c o n d is G a n d h i's —

a ll In d ian s are e q u a l, and even a Brahmin sh o u ld have no sham e in doing

 53

sc a v e n g in g w ork. The th ird so lu tio n Is of a m o d ern ist. He a d v o c a te s

th e u se of th e flu sh sy s te m . B akha's "Indian day Is over and th e nex t

d ay w ill be lik e i t , but on the su rface of th e earth If not In the d ep th s

18
of th e sk y , a ch an g e is a t h a n d .*

N arayan is aw are of su c h a change on the su rface of the e a rth ,

bu t h e is e q u a lly aw are of the roots th a t lie too deep for the w inds of

c h an g e to d istu rb them . C h a n d ra n 's m other can n o t even th in k of

h av in g C handran marry o u tsid e h is c a s t e . M argayya c o n s u lts h is

p r le s t- a d v ls e r before making any p lan s for future p ro sp e rity . Life

g o e s on e a s ily and le is u r e ly . T otal conform ity to so c ia lly a c c e p te d

p a tte rn s is the keynote of th is lif e . The little c o m p licatio n s w hich a

C h an d ran m ight c re a te bring a tem porary w ave of d isc o n te n t, bu t the

stru c tu re rem ains in ta c t. D istin c tio n s of c a s te and c la n are so im p lic it

an d a ll-p e rv a s iv e th a t N arayan does not have to point them out and th e n

m ake them h is b a ttle s lo g a n s . His people b e liev e in s u p e rs titio n s and

th e y are very slow in reco g n izin g the n eed for a change in the tra d itio n a l

a ttitu d e s . But the n o v e list a c c e p ts them a s they a re . He does not ta k e

them to ta s k for th e ir b e lie fs and t a s t e s . It is here th at he d iffers from

n o v e lis ts lik e Anand.

N ext to the c a s te d istin c tio n the oth er m ajor fac to r w hich

18U n to u ch ab le, p . 7.
 54

d eterm ines th e p ictu re of life in M algudl ia o b v io u sly w e a lth . M algudl

d o es not a p p ea r to be a town of g re a t e x tre m e s . At l e a s t th e p e o p le

we m eet in th e s e n o v els belong to a lm o st th e sam e c l a s s of s o c ie ty .

Of c o u rs e , w ith in th e broad range of th is c la s s th e re are obvious

d iffe re n c e s . At one en d of th e s c a le may be put C h a n d ra n 's fa th e r.

W ith two s e rv a n ts , one cook an d one g a rd e n e r, h is fam ily is c e rta in ly

not ric h , but a t the b e s t, upper m iddle c l a s s . Keeping o th e r fa c to rs

in v iew , we c o u ld sa y th a t th e ir sc a le of liv in g is q u ite m o d e st.

M argayya, the sa d am bitious absurd fin a n c ia l e x p e rt, to u ch e s the

low er lim its of th is c l a s s . There w as a tim e , the sto ry t e l l s , w hen

h is fa th e r w as c o n sid e re d a w e ll-to -d o c itiz e n . But th a t is a thing of

the p a s t. W ith the big house divided and very l it t le good fe e lin g le ft

b etw een the two b ro th e rs , M argayya h a s to fa c e a lif e of b itte r s tr u g g le .

The c a s e of Srlram is slig h tly d iffe re n t. The m ain ten an ce p e n sio n

of tw enty y e ars h a s accum ulated and on h is tw e n tie th birth d ay h e h a s

more th an th irty -eig h t th o u san d ru p e e s . But he i rj n e v e r se e n sp en d in g

much of h is m oney. Nor is he very c o n sc io u s of h is p o s s e s s io n s . The

only im m ediate v isib le e ffe c t of the m aterial p ro sp e rity is s e e n in the

c a n v a s e a s y c h a ir th at he buys the very day th a t m oney com es in to h is

h an d s.

"M e d io c rity ," sa y s Kiran in The W orld is a B ridge, "is the

k ey sto n e of m iddle c la s s Indian s o c ie ty — a drab im ita tio n of drab

 55

European id a a a , tha su rren d er of a ll th a t i s v ita l a n d c h a ra c te ris tic In

19
favor of e x p e d ie n c e . " To som e e x te n t K lran's rem arks (with som e

q u a lific a tio n s) may e q u a lly be true o f th e m iddle c l a s s p io n e e re d by

N aray an. There are a ll kinds of p eo p le in th is c la s s : la w y e rs,

te a c h e rs , c le r k s , p e tty b u sin e ssm e n , n ew sp a p er a g e n ts , an d e d ito r s .

It is tru e , no doubt, th a t m ost of them b e lie v e in tra d itio n s and are

very su s p ic io u s about any kind of c h a n g e . They a re very c o n se rv a tiv e

In th e ir food, d re ss an d s o c ia l c u s to m s . But it is a stra n g e paradox

th a t u n derneath a ll th is c o n se rv a tism th ere flow s th e undercurrent of

a d e sire to im itate Ndrab E uropean i d e a s . " This is more th a n e v id e n t

In the fie ld o f e d u c a tio n .

M algudl is b le s s e d w ith a very fine c o lle g e , A lbert M issio n

C o lle g e . Boys lik e C handran and N a te sa n sp en d ab o u t four y e a rs in

it. W hat are they tau g h t th e r e ? G reek dram a, S h a k e sp e a re , M ilto n ,

the h isto ry of the E n g lish la n g u a g e , m odem European h isto ry , lo g ic ,

p o litic a l s c ie n c e and so o n . S u b jects lik e a n c ie n t Indian h isto ry and

c u ltu re do not seem to have a p la c e in th is W e ste rn is e d cu rricu lu m .

Nor are they taught any of the In d ian lan g u a g e s or lite ra tu r e s . They

c an quote W ordsw orth, S h a k e sp ea re and S h elley w ith g re a t e a s e , but

^ C h r is tin e W esto n , The W orld is a B ridge. p . 33.

 56

20 21
a re sh o ck in g ly in d iffe re n t to K alid asa an d B an ab h att. M ost

probably th ey are c o m p letely unaw are of th em . They stu d y P la to

a n d A risto tle , but th ey n e g le c t K au tiliy a. The stu d y of Kant is

c o n sid e re d to be n e c e s s a ry , bu t S h an k rach ary a and h is V edanta c a n

be le ft a lo n e .

W hat kind of men do in s titu tio n s lik e A lbert M issio n C o lle g e

p ro d u ce ? M ediocre, Im ita tiv e , co m p lac en t— a t b e s t, good B ab u s.

It se rv ed the purpose of the ru le rs a ll rig h t. But in the h e a rt of the

country a big gap w as le ft som ew here, and i t h a s nev er b een f ille d .

The im pact of the W estern w inds h a s c re a te d a su p e rfic ia l and

fo s s iliz e d c u ltu re . The re s u lt is a m u d d le -h ea d ed c o n fu sio n . In

th is co nfusion people lik e C handran n a tu ra lly fee l l o s t . They Join

A lbert M issio n C o lle g e w ith big dream s w hich th ey can n e v er r e a lis e

an d co nfidence w hich proves to be o n ly a tem porary p h a s e . After

y e a rs of stru g g le w ith E uropean h isto ry and G reek dram a w hen they

com e out of i t — of c o u rs e , w ith the la b e l of a d e g re e —it is a d ifferen t

w orld, the w orld of r e a lity , th a t they have to f a c e . "You liv e d in the

c o lle g e , thinking th a t you w ere the f ir s t an d the l a s t the c o lle g e

2®W hat S h ak esp eare Is to E n g lish l it e r a t u r e , K alid asa i s to

S a n sk rit. He liv e d in th e tim e o f th e G upta Kings (around 400 A .D .) .
Some of h is b e s t known p ie c e s are M e g h d u ta , Kum arsam bhava and
R aghuvansha.
21
Bana liv e d in the tim e of H arsh av ard h an (around 620 A .D .) .
 57

22
w ould e v er to e ,a n d you en d ed a s a group p h o t o .. . . 11 th in k s C h an d ran .

A group photo c an d e c o ra te C h a n d ra n 1s liv in g room , but It c a n n o t fill

the g ap le ft In h is life by h is tra in in g — th e gap b e tw een Illu s io n and

r e a lity . K rishna, th e hero of G ratefu l to Life an d D e ath , may ap p ea r

to be o v e r-c ritic a l in h is e stim a te of th e e d u c a tio n system ; bu t he is

b a s ic a lly rig h t and h a s the h o n e sty to te ll w hat he th in k s is rig h t. He

d e c id e s to re sig n h is Job in th e c o lle g e , b e c a u se he f e e ls th a t he is

not doing w hat he sh o u ld d o . "I w as going to a tta c k a w hole c en tu ry

of f a ls e e d u c a tio n , H he e x p la in s . " . . .1 c o u ld no lo n g er stu ff

S h ak esp eare and E liza b e th a n m etre and Romantic poetry for the

hundredth tim e in to young m inds and fee d them on the d ead m utton

of lite ra ry a n a ly s is , th e o rie s and h is to r ie s , w hile w hat they n e ed e d

w as le s s o n s In the fu lle s t u se of the m ind. This e d u c a tio n h a d red u ced

us to a n ation of morons; we w ere stra n g e rs to our own c u ltu re and

23
cam p fo llow ers of an o th er c u ltu re , feed in g on le a v in g s and g a rb a g e . H

The q u e stio n of e n te rta in m e n t, though In i ts e lf not very

Im portant, a c q u ire s sig n ific a n c e w hen tre a te d In the c o n te x t of

Some of h is more w ell-know n works are H a ra s h c h a ritra , Kadam brl,

and V a sa v d atta.

22Tha B achelor of A rts, p . 144.

^ G r a te f u l t » Life a n d D e a th , p . 205.
 58

s e e s a w betw een S eat an d W est th a t M algudl w itn e s s e s . It is q u ite

n a tu ra l for boys lik e Swaml and Rajam who go to th e W e ste rn is e d

A lbert M issio n High School to p lay c ric k e t in s te a d of an Indian g am e.

The m onotony of lif e In M algudl is re lie v e d by o c c a sio n a l v is its to

th e S e le c t P ictu re H o u se . Iro n ic a lly enough, th e p ic tu re s show n in

th is 8 e le c t P icture H ouse are hardly s e l e c t. At th e ir b e s t they

r e fle c t th e s p irit of m ediocrity and im itatio n in w hich th e Indian

film -m ak ers e x c e l. In The B achelor of Arts a fte r the Union d e b a te

is o v er, C handran and Ramu go to s e e "L lghtguns of Lauro" w ith

Vivian T rollet and G eorgle Lomb In i t . The p ictu re h a s "an enorm ous
24
q u a n tity of lo v e , v a lo u r, v illa in y , in trig u e , b a tt l e ." The p ictu re

th a t th e S unrise Film Com pany of Sam path m akes is no b e tte r th an the

Im ported s tu ff. The background m usic in "The Burning o f Kama"

(su p p o sed to be an In d ian m ythological story) is South A m erican. Shiva

25
an d P arv atl dancing to a South Am erican tune I N othing c a n be more

rid ic u lo u s th an t h i s .

I t w ill be m islead in g to judge the p eople of M algudl by c ric k e t,

"L ightguns of Lauro, " and "The Burning of K am a." At th e b e s t a ll

th e s e th in g s show th a t M algudl, though a sle e p y old tow n, h a s not

24The B achelor o f A rts, p . 15.

25
P arvatl is the sp o u se of S hiva, the d e stro y er G od.
 59

e n tire ly e s c a p e d th e In flu en ce of th e w inds from th e W e s t. The b a sic

p a tte rn of life rem ains the s a m e . It is in th is p a tte rn th a t N arayan is

m ost in te r e s te d . H is p ictu re of fam ily life is a u th e n tic , warm, and

In tim a te . Through ty p ic a l s c e n e s of d om estic life (such a s the

follow ing) he c re a te s an atm osphere w hich adds to the v e risim ilitu d e

o f the to ta l p ictu re:

My m other cam e down and w elcom ed her a t th e g a te .

She had d e c o ra te d the th re sh o ld w ith a fe sto o n of green
m ango le a v e s and the floor and doorw ay w ith w hite flo u r
d e s ig n s . She w as sta n d in g a t the doorway an d a s soon
a s we got down c rie d : 'L et S u sh lla and the c h ild s ta y w here
th e y a re . ' She h ad a pan of verm illion so lu tio n rea d y at
h a n d and c irc le d i t before the young mother a n d c h ild ,
before allow ing them to g e t down from th e c a r ria g e . After
flHft ah e h e ld out h e r arm , and th e baby v a n ish e d in her
emfcamcs. 26

D e ta ils such a s th e s e are fa s c in a tin g . One c a n alm ost se e an

In d ian m o th e r-in -la w w elcom ing her s o n 's w ife and c h ild . There is no

a ffe c ta tio n in i t . It is im portant to note th a t N arayan does not b eliev e

in fid e lity to th e a c c u ra c y of d e ta ils for th e ir own s a k e . He g iv e s

d e ta ils , not b e c a u se he w ants to s a y , "LookI H ere is an Indian

m o th e r-in -la w . D on't m iss th e mango le a v e s , verm illion in the pan,

an d th e a u sp ic io u s flo ral d e s ig n s , " but b e c a u se it re fle c ts an im portant

a s p e c t of the c h a ra c te r of K rishna's m other.

The tw e n tieth b irthday of Sriram is a sp e c ia l o c c a s io n . This

^ G rateful to Life and D e a th , p . 35.

 60

is th s w ay Granny c a lib r a te s it:

G ranny h ad som ew here se c u re d a y a rd -lo n g su g a r can e

for th e o e le b ra tio n , although i t w as not the s e a s o n . She
sa id : “ No b irthday is tru ly c e le b ra te d u n le s s and u n til a
su g a r c a n e is se e n in th e h o u s e . I t 's a u s p i c i o u s .1 She
strung mango le a v e s a c ro s s th e doorw ay, d e c o ra te d th e
th re sh o ld w ith co lo re d ric e pow der. A neighbor p a s s in g
down th e road sto p p e d to ask :
'W h a t's th e c e le b ra tio n ? Shall we blow ou t the ovens
in our h o u se an d come for th e f e a s t in yours ? '
•Yes, by a ll m e a n s. M ost w e lc o m e ,' s a id the old
lad y c o u rte o u sly , and ad d ed a s if to n e u tra liz e the
in v ita tio n , 'You are alw ay s w e lc o m e .' She f e lt sorry a t
not bein g ab le to c a ll in th e n e ig h b o rs, but th a t re c lu s e
grandson of h e rs had forbidden h er to in v ite a n y o n e .

In l e s s th an a hundred words N arayan not only c re a te s th e

atm o sp here but a ls o portrays the c h a ra c te r of the old la d y in d ire c tly .

She is s u p e rs titio u s . Sugar c an e h as to be procured on a b irth d ay ,

b e c a u se i t is a u s p ic io u s . She is of a se c re tiv e n a tu re , sin c e nobody

e ls e know s th at it is a birthday c e le b ra tio n . M oreover, sh e is highly

d iplom atic and sh re w d . "You are alw ays w elcom e " m eans th a t the

neighbor sh o u ld not think th a t sh e h a s been in v ite d for th is o c c a s io n .

She is extrem ely a tta c h e d to h er g ran d so n , who is highly u n so c ia l and

p refers to be le ft a lo n e .

Almost a ll the c h a ra c te rs in M algudl n o v els are H in d u s. There

is rare ly a p erso n belonging to an o th er fa ith . It is s o , not b e c a u se

N arayan h a s any p referen ce for a c e rta in relig io n and antag o n ism for

^7W aiting for the M ahatm a, p . 8.

 61

a n o th e r, bu t b e c a u se th e tow n he Is c re a tin g is predom inantly H indu.

M oreover, he knows the life of a H indu fam ily more in tim a te ly , and

lik e any o th er s e n s ib le w riter he d e a ls w ith th e life he knows b e s t .

P rin cip al Brown, D em ello of H ollyw ood, an d M r. g b e n z a r are

C h r is tia n s . G affur, th e ta x i driver In The G u id e , and A ziz, P rin c ip a l

Brown’s p eo n , are M u slim s. N arayan, how ever, does no t m ake

an y th in g out of th is re lig io u s d is tin c tio n .

This point becom es c le a re r If N a ray a n 's n o v els a re re - r e a d

in th e lig h t of su c h a novel a s The W orld is a Bridge by C h ristin e

W e sto n . M iss W eston s e ts h er novel in the troubled tim es of 1 9 4 6 -4 7 .

The in te rre la tio n betw een th e two re lig io u s g ro u p s, H indus and M u s lim s,

the o u tsid e p ressu re a ffe c tin g th is re la tio n sh ip , and fin a lly th e

com m unal rio ts are a t the c e n te r of the b o o k . O ther c o m p lic a tio n s ,

p e rso n a l an d p o litic a l, grow out of it and are g re a tly In flu en c ed by the

c e n tra l i s s u e . Some1of N a ray a n 's n o v els cover alm ost th e sam e p e rio d ,

but h is p e rs p e c tiv e being d iffe re n t, such problem s are not to u c h e d .

N a ra y a n 's W aiting for the M ahatm a co v ers the sp a n of about

ten y e a rs , 1938-48. The f ir s t four p a rts of th e book are s e t in

p re -in d e p e n d e n c e In d ia . The l a s t p a rt d e a ls w ith the very c ru c ia l

tim e of Indian h isto ry — India d iv id ed into two p a r ts , communal r i o t s ,

and th e uprooting of m illions of p e o p le . This is e x a c tly the b a c k ­

ground of C h ristin e W e sto n 's n o v e l. The q u e stio n a ris e s : how much

 62

d o e s N a ra y a n 's W aiting for th a M ahatm a convey th e s e n s e of th is

te rrib le su ffe rin g ? P ra c tic a lly n o th in g . There a re h a rd ly th ree or

four in d ire c t r e f e re n c e s . In tw o sh o rt p ara g rap h s l h a r a ti r e la te s

h e r e x p e rie n c e s w hen sh e w as accom panying M ahatm a G andhi in h is

N oakhll to u r. In an o th e r c o n te x t sh e re fe rs to h e r re s p o n s ib ility of

lo o k in g a fte r the refugee c h ild re n w hose p a re n ts h av e b e e n k ille d or

lo s t in th e communal r io ts . H ow ever, th e n o v e lis t sh o u ld not be

blam ed for w hat he le a v e s o u t. In th is p a rtic u la r c a s e i t is Im portant

th a t th e p e rs p e c tiv e of the n o v e lis t be ta k e n in to c o n sid e ra tio n - f i r s t ly ,

W aitin g for th e M ahatm a is not a s o c ia l o r p o litic a l h is to ry . It i s a

work of fic tio n . The n o v e lis t is free to c h o o se w h atev er an g le he

lik e s . S econdly, N a ra y a n 's em p h asis is on portraying Sriram , B haratl,

M ahatm a G andhi, and th e ir in te rre la tio n s h ip s . W hat is s ig n ific a n t is

th e fa c t th a t th e sto ry ten d s to move on a p e rso n a l le v e l of c h a ra c te riz a ­

tio n . In the l a s t a n a ly s is i t tu rn s out to be a n e a t little love sto ry

co m p lica te d by th e p o litic a l s itu a tio n of th e c o u n try .

In A P a ss a g e to In d ia E. M . P o rster ta lk s about "the s p irit of

28
th e In d ian e a rth w hich trie s to keep men in c o m p a rtm e n ts." N arayan

is o b v io u sly not co n cern ed w ith th is "com partm entlng s p i r i t " to w hich

P o rste r re fe rs . He d e a ls w ith w hat is common in th e p eo p le around

28
A P a ss a g e to In d ia , p . 12'/.
 63

him: lo v e , su ffe rin g , h a p p in e s s , g rie f, la u g h te r, k in d n e s s , a n d

h y p o c risy .

In th e m ind of a n av erag e W e ste rn re a d e r In d ia Is thought of a s

being "a land of m ystery and m y stic ism , th e b irth p lac e of many o c c u lt

s c ie n c e s and p r a c tic e s , of cu rio u s r i te s , c erem o n ies and s u p e r s t i t i o n s .. .

of u n to ld w ealth and p ric e le s s je w e ls , e ith e r ly in g burled In th e ground

29
or c o n c e a le d In stra n g e w ays and p l a c e s . " Such a re a d e r Is su re to

g e t a p le a s a n t su rp rise on reading the M algudl n o v e ls . There a re no

d la m o n d -h u n ts, no yoga p r a c tic e s , no m y ste rie s of the z e n a n a

re v e a le d . Nor Is th ere any attem pt m ade to so lv e the m e ta p h y sic a l

problem s of so u l, the u ltim ate re a lity , a n d re in c a rn a tio n . It is M algud l,

th e M algudl of S rlnlvas and Sam path p reo c c u p ie d w ith Its d a lly liv in g ,

th a t N arayan h a s to o ffer.

F o rster d iv id e s c h a ra c te rs Into tw o c a te g o rie s , f la t and ro u n d .

W hen th is tw o -fo ld d iv isio n Is a p p lie d to N a ra y a n 's c h a ra c te rs , it

does n ot work o u t. His c h a ra c te rs are n e ith e r th e "I n e v er w ill d e s e rt

M r. M lcaw ber" type nor are they p e rfe c tly ro u n d ed . They belong ra th e r

to the Interm ediate sh a d e s betw een (ta t a n d round. For ex am p le, th ere

Is Srlram , the hero of W aiting for the M ahatm a; i t is hard to d ecid e

w hether he Is f la t or ro u n d . If he is round a t a ll , h is rotundity is not

^ B h u p a l Singh, A Survey of A nglo-Indian F iction (London:

Oxford U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1934), p . 268.
 64

enough to make him a ta n d on the sam e le v e l aa S rln lv aa , Sam path,

and K rishna d o . Som ewhere he la la c k in g , som ething e a a e n tia l.

C o n se q u e n tly , a t the e n d o f th e novel he rem alna th e aam e aa he

w as in th e b e g in n in g . The o nly d ifferen c e w hich la p e rc e p tib le la

th a t he h a a won b e a u tifu l B h aratl. In o th e r r e s p e c ts h e rem alna th e

sam e: a rom antic booby, lrre a p o n a ib le , h e a d a tro n g , an d b a ah fu l.

Sriram h a a very little In dependence of th o u g h t. Even hia

c o n ta c t w ith s u c h a p e rs o n a lity a s M ahatm a G andhi hard ly m akes any

d iffe re n c e in h is approach to l i f e . He is so fick le-m in d ed th a t the

moment Bharatl i s in p riso n h e is le d aw ay by Ja g d ish , a member of

a s e c r e t te rro ris t o rg a n iz a tio n . After se v e ra l y e a rs when he is

r e le a s e d from th e p ris o n , he does n o t Indulge in any kind of s e lf-re p ro a c h .

He is a little s a d , not b e c a u se he h ad b een unfaithful to the p rin c ip le s

o f tru th and n o n -v io le n c e for w hich M ahatm a liv e d and d ied , but b e c a u se

he h as m isse d a c h a n c e to be near Bharatl * The dom inant p a ssio n of

h is life i s his lo v e for th is g ir l. It is love a t f ir s t s ig h t, and h as

e n v e lo p e d his w hole e x is te n c e . All th e tim e he th in k s of h er and dream s

of h e r. I t is q u ite a n o th er th in g th a t he d o e s not p o s s e s s any w ill

pow er to g e t to doing a n y th in g about i t . There is som ething abnorm al

in the e n tire m ak e-u p o f his p e rs o n a lity . The e arly d eath of h is p a re n ts ,

a se v e re upbringing by the o ld granny, and the feelin g th a t nobody

th in k s o f him a s a grow n-up p erso n lie behind th is abnorm ality. There

 65

is som ething p a th e tic In h is n eed to love so m e o n e . W hen we th in k

of th e c h a n c e s th a t he h a s m isse d , the love an d se c u rity of fam ily

life th a t he n ev er h ad , we do not think of him a s e n tire ly a b su rd .

He d e s e rv e s more pity and sym pathy than la u g h te r. T his is how he

f e e ls w hen he h appens to se e Bharatl for th e f irs t tim e:

As he ap p ro ach ed the M arket Fountain a p retty g irl

cam e up and sto p p ed him . "Your c o n trib u tio n ? ? sh e
a s k e d , sh ak in g a s e a le d tin c o lle c tio n box. g riram 's
th ro at w ent dry and no sound c a m e . He had n e v er b een
spoken to by any girl before; sh e w a s sle n d e r and young,
w ith e y e s th a t sp a rk led w ith h a p p in e s s . He w anted to
a s k , "How old are y o u ? W hat c a s te are y o u ? W here is
your h o ro sc o p e? Are you free to marry m e ? * ^

T his is Srlram a t tw e n ty -fo u r. At the end of th e novel (Book V)

he is s t i ll p ra c tic a lly th e sa m e. More than s ix y ears hav e p a s s e d . The

co u n try is p a s s in g through the m ost c ru c ial tim es of i ts e x is te n c e .

Srlram h a s se rv e d h is term of Im prisonm ent. H as th ere re a lly com e a

c h an g e in him ? H as he becom e a b it w ise r and more so b e r? P erhaps

n o t.

The follow ing e x tra c t w hich d e sc rib e s a triv ia l in c id e n t th a t

h ap p en ed on the day before M ahatm a's a s s a s s in a tio n d o e s in d ic a te

th a t he h a s not grown;

He saw one of h e r s a ris hanging up, a w hite one w ith

y ello w s p o t s . It w as of c o u rse m ade of k h a d l, hand spun;
th e rope san k under its w e ig h t. He p ulled i t down to take
it in h is hands and gauge its w eig h t, re fle c tin g , "She ought

30W aiting for the M ahatm a, p . 19.

 66

to w ear fin ery / poor g irl. I w ill g iv e h e r e v e ry th in g . " He

took i t in h is hand and w eighed i t . "It se em s to w eigh
tw enty p o u n d s ." He s tre tc h e d i t and h e ld it b efo re h is e y e s ,
" I t's lik e a m etal s h e e t. She m ust fe e l stu ffy under i t . I
c a n 't se e any lig h t through i t . " He ro lle d i t up and p re s s e d
i t to h is b r e a s t. It had a fa in t arom a of sandalw ood w hich
p le a s e d him . "It h a s th e frag ra n ce of h e r own body, " he
re fle c te d c lo sin g h is e y e s .
As h e s a t th ere the door o p en ed an d B haratl sto o d
before him . "W hat are you doing w ith my s a r i ? " sh e a s k e d
in s u rp ris e . "One w ould th in k th a t you w ere try in g to w ear
i t , " sh e s a id w ith a la u g h . Srlram red d en ed and put i t h a s tily
aw ay .
"It d o e s not try to w ard me o ff/ " he s a id , "when I ta k e
it to my h e a r t. "
"H u sh I" sh e c rie d . "D o n 't try to be s illy . We are a ll
very se rio u s people h e re , rem em ber. "31

A little la te r when sh e c a rrie s h is dirty c lo th e s to g iv e them to the

w asherm an, he re fle c ts :

She is alm ost my w ife, sh e is doing w hat a wife sh o u ld

do, good girl I God b le s s h e r. If I tie a th a lj32 around h er
n eck som ehow , when she is a s le e p , th in g s w ill be a ll r i g h t . 33

This is Srlram a t th irty .

W ith Srlram a s the c e n tra l c h a ra c te r th e sc o p e of the novel

becom es extrem ely lim ite d . One fe e ls th a t th e au th o r h as stu ffed it

3 1 lb id ., pp. 227-28.

3 2a th a ll is a s p e c ia l kind of n e c k la c e worn by m arried women

in South In d ia . Putting a th a ll around th e b r id e 's n e ck is a part of the
m arriage cerem ony.

33w a ltln g for the M ahatm a, p p . 2 2 7 -2 8 .

 67

w ith too many oth er th in g s: the d e ta ils about th e 1942 m ovem ent,

ja il lif e , life in M ahatm a G a n d h i's cam p. All th is a d d itio n a l know ledge

h ard ly h e lp s us much in knowing Srlram more in tim a te ly . On th e oth er

h an d , if the aim of th e n o v e list is to give a c lo s e p ictu re of M ahatm a's

life or ab o u t the p o litic a l u p h e av a ls in the co u n try , he h a s not very

much su c c e e d e d in doing s o . E ither it is a love sto ry of Srlram and

B haratl, or it is a sto ry of the M ahatm a, or perhaps it is b o th . In

e ith e r way it c re a te s an im p ressio n of in e v ita b le m uddle. The review er

is ju s tifie d w hen he s a y s , "N a ray a n 's refre sh in g ly orig in al ta le n t show s

a t its b e s t in h is d e sc rip tio n s of Srlram by h im self and of S rlram 's old

life at h om e. Party w orkers an d the m aneuvers and developm ents of

34
the party re c e iv e a treatm en t th a t i s , to sa y the m ost of i t, b o r e d ."

The p o rtrait of M ahatm a Gandhi is a ls o not very s u c c e s s f u l.

He a p p ears to be too big for the role he is su p p o sed to play in the

n o v e l. N arayan trie s to make us se e the M ahatm a from a very c lo s e

a n g le . He u s e s the point of view of Bharatl and Sflram for th is p u rp o se.

P erhaps he su c c e e d s in it to a very sm all e x te n t. But he can n o t to ta lly

e lim in a te the d ista n c e w hich is in e v ita b le when a g rea t contem porary

35
p u b lic figure Is fo s s iliz e d into a fictio n a l c h a ra c te r. H ow ever, the

3^The New Y orker, D ec. 10, 1955, p . 220.

3^In th is co n n ectio n D ouglas H e w it's comment in th e M an ch ester

G uardian (August 30, 1955, p . 4.) is in te re s tin g . Reviewing the book
 66

p re s e n c e of M ahatm a G andhi In th e novel se rv e s a v ery Im portant

fu n ctio n al p u rp o se . On one h a n d , It Is a good background for the

u n c o n v en tio n al lo v e a ffa ir of B haratl and 8rlram . On th e o th er, sin c e

B haratl Is so In tim ately r e la te d to him and w ill n o t ta k e any d e c isio n

u n le s s "Bapu" g iv e s h is p e rm issio n , th is very a c t of "w aiting" k eep s

th e sto ry m oving.

The b e s t done p o rtra it In W aiting for th e M ahatm a Is th a t of

th e old gran d m o th er. Granny a p p e a rs only In th e firs t few p a g e s .

After It Srlram (and N arayan, too) se em s to have forgotten her c o m p lete ly .

The in c id e n t about her "d eath " and th en th e m iraculous re v iv a l, though

n o t u tte rly im p o s sib le , s till h a s the a ir of c o n triv a n c e . Since her

re -e n try in to the town is c o n sid e re d by the lo c a l p rie s t a s in a u s p ic io u s ,

sh e is a llo w e d to s ta y in a d e s e rte d h o u se o u tsid e the c ity lim its . As

36
sh e can n o t s ta y th ere fo rev er, sh e is pack ed off for Benares in tim e .

O nce sh e h a s le ft M algudl, sh e h a s le ft W aiting for th e M ahatm a.

H ow ever sm all a p a rt th e old granny may hav e to play in the

h e s a y s , "The p o rtrait of the M ahatm a is no t a lto g e th e r s u c c e s s fu l,

b u t it is w orth w ondering w h eth er any liv in g n o v e list co u ld s a t i s ­
fa c to rily portray a s a in t. "

3^B enares is a holy c ity , s itu a te d on the banks of the riv er

G a n g e s . It is commonly b e lie v e d th a t one who d ie s in Benares goes
to h e a v e n . W ith a d e s ire to go to h eav en many old p eople go th ere
to sp en d th e l a s t d ay s of th e ir l i v e s .
 69

n o v e l, sh e tu rn s out to be more a liv e th a n a ll th e r e s t of the c h a ra c te rs

p u t to g e th e r. The w ay th a t N arayan a c h ie v e s th e d e sire d e ffe c t by so

few stro k e s is a d m ira b le . There are hard ly any lon g -w in d ed d e s c rip ­

tio n s of th e o ld la d y . It is only once th a t a refe ren c e is made to

h e r s t a t u r e . ^ W e know very little about the d re s s sh e w ears and

th e food sh e m a k e s, b u t s till before the end of Part O n e , we know her

a s In tim ate ly a s we w ould know on e of our own n ear r e la tio n s .

O ne of the guiding p rin c ip le s of old granny is to keep a s e c re t

to o n e s e lf. "W hat h a p p e n s behind o n e 's door, " she e x p la in s to her

38
g ra n d so n , "m ust be known only to the folk c o n ce rn e d . " She is sorry

th a t h er h u sb a n d w as not lik e th a t. She thinks th at he ruined h im self

by ta lk in g . "Anything th a t h appened to him , good or b a d , w as bound

to be known to ev ery o n e in the tow n w ithin te n m inutes; o th erw ise h is

39
so u l fe lt r e s t l e s s . Like an old w ise grandm other sh e w ants to guard

young Srlram a g a in s t i t .

O ld granny h a s her own id e a s about c e rta in th in g s and sh e is not

37w a itin g for th e M ahatm a, p . 8 . "She seem ed to shrink in

s ta tu re under a n open sk y — she w ho dom inated the la n d s c a p e under the
ro o f of Number 14—lo s t h e r sta tu re com pletely In the o p e n ."

3®lbld_., p . 9 .

39I b ld ., p . 10.
 70

one to c h a n g e . For e x am p le , ordinary c a n v a s , sh e th in k s , m ust be

som e kind of le a th e r (m ost probably of co w ). T herefore, It w ould

d e fin ite ly p o llu te h e r if sh e cam e In c o n ta c t w ith i t . H er view s on

G andhi and h is te a c h in g s are h e r ow n. "For h e r the M ahatm a w as one

who p rea ch e d d a n g e ro u sly , who trie d to bring u n to u ch a b le s in to the

40
te m p le s, an d who Involved peo p le In d iffic u ltie s w ith th e p o l i c e . "

She Is Ig norant, s u p e rs titio u s , s e c re tiv e , but a t the sam e time she is

a ffe c tio n a te and d e v o te d . To som e e x ten t she resem b les Aunt Phoebe

of The Rains C a m e . It is m ostly through her th a t even in a p o o rly -u n ified

novel N a ra y a n 's g ift for c h a ra c te riz a tio n com es through trium phantly.

Com pared w ith Srlram , Sam path is far more com plex and rounded.

In the words of D onald Barr, 'Sam path is a m asterly flrs t-im p re s s lo n ls t In

w hose sp a c io u s g e s tu re s and ric h e v a siv e words a creaky p re s s and one

e x h a u ste d boy som ehow becom e a big e sta b lis h m e n t and who m oves among

the im ag in atio n of h is frien d s lik e some minor d e ity . The moment he

e n te rs the n o v e l, he not only ta k e s charge of th e p u b lic atio n of the

w eek ly , The B anner, but a ls o ta k e s the novel i ts e lf from th e h an d s of

S rln lv a s. It no lo n g er rem ains th e story of an editor; it becom es his

sto ry , the sto ry of th e p rin te r of M algudl.

40I b l d . , p . 55.

4 *The New York Times Book Review, May 9, 1957, p . 14.

 71

The p rin te r of M algudl h a s h is own m ethod of h a n d lin g h is

b u s in e s s . It d o e s not re a lly m atter w hat kind of w ork he p ro d u c e s.

It is alw ay s th e Mb e s t N— ev en th e w orst specim en of h is p rin tin g ,

thin tra n sp a re n t paper w ith in k coming through i t . One of h is p e t

p h ra s e s is "You cannot g e t th is fin ish in th e w hole of South In d ia . 11

The tone i s a lw ay s so p e rs u a s iv e th at the c u sto m er is le ft w ith no

a lte rn a tiv e but to b e lie v e th a t it is so .

The p rin te r of M algudl h a s , how ever, n o t a lw ay s b e en a

p rin te r. There w as a tim e (before our novel sta rts ) w hen he w as a

th e a te r a c to r. The larg e p o rtrait of a m an, who is no one e ls e but

Sam path, "w ith sid e w h isk e rs, w earing a ta tte re d fe lt h a t, w ith a
42
long pipe stic k in g out of a c o m e r of h is m outh, " hung on th e w all

of h is room sp e a k s elo q u en tly of th at sid e of h is c h a ra c te r. As a

m atter of fa c t, he h a s , he proudly Informs S rin iv a s, alw ay s been

In te re ste d in m ake-up, c o stu m e s, and the s ta g e . We have to q u ietly

a c c e p t th is claim afte r we re a d the la s t few s e c tio n s of the book.

W hen a ll of a sudden due to "an u n ex p ec te d strik e of the

sta ff" the b u s in e s s of th e Truth Printing W orks f a ils , its im m ediate

e ffe c t is on The Banner; the p u b licatio n of th e w eekly c e a s e s .

N atu rally i t p u ts Editor S rinivas in a very em b a rrassin g s itu a tio n .

4 ^The P rinter of M alquol, p . 103.

 72

But Sam path is a lread y on h is w ay to a n o th e r ad v en tu re:

"A frien d of m ine is s ta rtin g a film com pany and I'm

jo in in g him , " q u ie tly he Inform s S rin iv a s . I t is nothing
l e s s th an a sh o ck for th e l a t t e r . Sam path h a s a lre ad y
a n tic ip a te d th e r e a c tio n .
"D o n 't look so stu n n e d : w e s h a ll be w e ll on our w ay
to the rotary w hen my f ir s t film i s c o m p le te d ."
"Film ? F U m ^ S rin iv as g a s p e d . "I n e v e r knew th a t
you w ere c o n n e c te d w ith any film — ."
"I'v e alw ay s b e en in te r e s te d In film s. I s n 't it the
fifth la rg e s t in d u stry In our c o u n try ? How c a n I or anyone
be in d ifferen t to i t ? "43

S rinivas h a s nothing more to s a y . He h im self c an no lo n g er

rem ain in d ifferen t to i t . S am p ath 's th e a tric a l e x p e rie n c e of h is e a rly

days sta n d s him in good s te a d . E xperience or no e x p e rie n c e , he finds

h im self com petent enough to h a n d le any s itu a tio n , to p lay any ro le —

from d irec to r to a c to r and d a n c e r. This film -p ro d u cin g ad v en tu re,

how ever, h a s co m p licatio n s of its ow n. S am p ath 's love for S h an ti,

the b eau tifu l heroine of "The Burning of K a m a ," fu rth er c o m p lica te s

the w hole s itu a tio n . On the l a s t pag e of th e novel the E x -F rin te r-

D irector-A ctor is le ft w ith no a lte rn a tiv e but to becom e In v isib le lik e

Kama— the god of love in the m ovie th ey h ad been trying to m ake.

"O th erw ise, " he is a fra id , "Sohan Lai and Somu hav e enough re a so n
44
to p u t me in p riso n .

4 3 |b i d ., p . 109.

4 4 lb ld ., p . 275.
 73

W hether Sohen Lai and Somu re a lly put him Into p riso n , we do

not know . But th is m uch Is c e rta in th a t Sam path tu rn s o u t to be one of

the m o st fa s c in a tin g c h a ra c te rs th a t N arayan h a s e v e r c re a te d . This

fa s c in a tio n com es p a rtly from th e com plexity of h is c h a ra c te r. He Is

far from being a pure com edy c h a ra c te r . H is "tric k s" are la u g h a b le ,

but th e Irony u nderlying th e s itu a tio n s tin g e s th e la p g h ter With s a d n e s s .

45
He p ro fe s s e s to be a n o p tim ist, and Is very lik e ly s u c h . But when

th is a p p a re n t optim ism is s tu d ie d a g a in s t the d rab , ill- f ittin g b a c k ­

ground of h is fam ily lif e — th e o u th o u se w ith a g a b le d front and two

sm all room s, sic k ly c h ild re n , th e b u n d les of unw ashed c lo th e s p u sh ed

in to a c o m e r—h is w hole p e rs o n a lity g a in s an in e x p re s s ib le d e p th . Then,

one c a n u n d erstan d w hy he n e v er le ts anyone peep in to th e o th er sid e

o f the purple c u rta in of h is e s ta b lis h m e n t. There is som ething p a th e tic

In h is attem p ts to c re a te a w orld of illu s io n . Yet the to ta l im p ressio n

th a t one g e ts is not of p a th o s . Sam path i s , no d o ubt, a c le v e r but

b a s ic a lly a good man who is a lw ay s b u sy in a ll kinds of m a n ip u la tio n s.

H is lo v e for th e film s ta r S hanti is m elodram atic, and h is p lan s for

m arrying h er are lu d ic ro u s . W hen he w alk s out of The P rin ter of

M a lg u d l, we do not know w h eth er to b e lie v e or d is b e lie v e h is

ad v en tu res of Mempl H ills R est H o u se. One thing is c ertain ; h is

45lfc id .. p . 6 8 .
 74

dream s o f hav in g a "rotary" and re -p u h lls h ln g The Banner have not

b een f u lfille d .

K rishna, th e h ero of G ratefu l to I d l e and D e a th , is an o th er of

N a ra y a n 's th re e -d im e n sio n a l c h a ra c te rs . He is young, im a g in ativ e ,

w e ll-e d u c a te d , and s in c e re . But h e is p la c e d in a job w hich he does

no t lik e very m uch. He is c ritic a l of the re s tra in t an d th e monotony

o f su c h a l if e . C o n se q u e n tly , he stro n g ly fe e ls th a t he is m issing

so m eth in g , som e new e x p e rie n c e s o f l if e . A nalysing the c a u s e s of

th is d is s a tis f a c tio n , he sa y s:

P erhaps su c h re p o se w as not in my n a tu re , b e c a u se I w as
a p o e t, and I w as c o n s ta n tly nagged by the fee lin g th a t
I w as doing the wrong w ork. T his was re s p o n sib le for a
p e rp e tu al s e lf -c ritic is m and a ll kinds o f things ag g rav ated
it.«

T his q u a lity of s e lf - c r itic is m is common to alm o st a ll the main

c h a ra c te rs of th e M algudl n o v e ls . The d ifferen ce betw een C h an d ran ,

S rin iv a s, and K rishna is only th a t of d e g re e . K rishna su ffers more

b e c a u se h e th in k s more and fe e ls m ore. H ow ever, in com pensation

he re c e iv e s a very happy life a t hom e. The little , seem ingly

In sig n ific a n t d e ta ils of th e ir home life not only add to the atm osphere

and the c o lo r of the n o v e l, th ey a ls o help in rev ealin g various a s p e c ts

of the grow th of K rish n a's c h a ra c te r. The death of h is w ife le a v e s a

^ G ratefu l to Life and D e a th , p . 1.

 75

big blank in his Ufa. Thara la nothing aora poignant and touching than

tha following axtraot from hla diary. The funaral oaramony la over, and

Wa are on our homaward march, a allant and banumbad gang.

Aa wa croaa Nallappa'a Qrova onoa again, I cannot raaiat tha
impulaa to turn and look back. Flames appaar ovar tha w a ll.. . .
It laavaa a ourloualy dull pain at haart. Thara are no aora
ahocka and aurprlaaa In Ufa, ao that I watch tha flaaaa with­
out agitation. For me tha greateat reality la thla and nothing
alaa. . . . Nothing else will worry or intereat me In life here­
after.* 7

Something doea intereat him; it ia hla three-year-old daughter

whoaa upbringing becomea more than a aacrad duty to him. The communion

with the aplrit of hla dead wife, reaignlng the Job in the college, and

intereat in a children's nursery school provide ample repose to hla

troubled mind. Aa a result, he finds "the moments of rare Immutable joy—

moments for which one feels grateful to life and death."48

Swaml and Friends I s a very Innocent and delightful picture of

a young boy baffled by a half-Westernized school system. Constant

reprimands by his father at home and the liberal use of the long cane by

the headmaster at school make life unbearable. The company of his

friends, the walks to Sarayu with Manl and Raj am, and talking to

granny on all possible subjects give him some relief. Through small

but vivid details an intimate picture of tha two aspects of the young

*7Ibid.. p. 107.

* 8 i b ld ., p . 213.
 n

boy's Ills Is given. Tbs adult Control on this world of childhood is

vary rigid, but young Swami has davisad his own ways. It is his

fathar's dafinlta ordar that ha is not to roam about in tha aftamoons

but has to stay at home and do his school work. Thasa orders are

obeyed to tha last word but only in tha presence of his father. As
soon as his father crosses the street comer, Swami ean afford to take

every risk. With great ease and confidence he can start on his after­

noon tours. What can the mother do ? She can be easily convinced

that the drawing master wants to see him immediately.

Sometimes, young Swami has to face very peculiar problems

such as,how to entertain Rajam, the son of a police officer. He does

not have a room of his own. His "room" consists of an old table in

one of the comers of his father's dressing room. There too everything

is in hopeless disorder, and there is a friend to be entertained.

Borrowing his father's study room for a while may solve the problem,

but how is he going to tell granny that she is not to call him or try to

talk to him in the presence of his friend? Granny Is old and, in the

opinion of Swami, not very presentable. If only she could sleep at the

right time, everything could be made all right. After all, he thinks, it

is infinitely safer to show a sleeping gttany to one's friends. But to

Swami's horror, Granny is not only awake, she even asks Rajam to come

near her and explains that being old and blind she can see very little
 77

from a distance. For poor Swami this is nothing short of a big

catastrophe. What would Rajam, the son of a big police officer,

think of it? After all it is not very decent to have an old and blind

grandmother 1

8uch incidents add to our understanding of this fascinating

little world of which Swami, Rajam, and Manl are the principal actors.

Swami is mediocre and timid but has the privilege of having some very

distinguished boys as his friends. Rajam is the one who has everything

and knows everything. Naturally, he rules over this little kingdom like

a deity. Mani, the big bully who is the leader of the gang, is a perfect

rogue. Wearing his cap at an angle and a Tamil novel under his arm he

has been coming to school ever since the old school peon can remember.

His pair of heavy wooden clubs can really create wonders—nobody dare

oppose him. Samuel the Pea is like a tail of this groi^p. There is

nothing outstanding about him except his size which is as short as a pea.

He and Swami have one thing in common; it is their laughter.

Into this world of Swami and Company are introduced the jarring

notes of adult control. The grown-ups are over-imposing and often

forget that once they too were children. Swami's father appears to be

a little oppressive, although whatever he does is for the good of the

child.

Chandran, the hero of The Bachelor of Arts, is young Swami

 78

grown up. The basic nature of tha problems of tha two oharactara

remains tha sama. Hare again thara Is tha quastlon of tha rigid

parental control. Compared with Swami, Chandran anjoy a more freadom

In hla dally routina of Ufa. It is natural and undaratandabla. Chandran,

aftar all, la a collaga student. Onca in a while, though against tha

wishes of his father, ha can go to a lata movie show. But when it

cornea to tha question of big decisions of life, marriage, for instance,

ha is supposed to conform to the traditional pattern, to marry the

girl his parents select for him. Chandran has, however, his own plans.

He Is attracted by a girl whom he cannot marry because their horoscopes

are not auspicious. This upsets him so much that he leaves his house

and becomes a sanyasl. But this proves to be another illusion. He comes

back to normal, marries a beautiful girl selected by his mother, and leads

a happy life .

Chandran does not grow in the sense that Krishna of Grateful to

Life and Death does. In fact, he does not have enough scope to grow.

He is limited by his own nature, his indecisions. In the novel there

are several occasions which demand a decision from him. First of all,

there is the question of his career. After obtaining a Bachelor of Arts

degree, he cannot decide what he wants to do. When he is pestered

enough with enquiries and suggestions from his various relatives and

friends, he feels a vague desire to go to England * do something there.

 79

What ha la going to do thara ha doaa not know.

Next, thara arlaaa tha quastlon of his manrlaga. Ha wants to

marry a girl ha thinks ha lovas. His mothar, however, has har own plans

for his marrying Into a rich and cultured family, a family with a "status."

Chandran has brokan almost halfway from the traditions of his society.

But ha does not have tha courage to break away completely and marry

tha girl ha is in love with. His decision to become a sanvBsl is

dictated by his need to escape from everything that reminds him of his

once-loved-and-lost girl. It takes him some time to realise that he

has definitely left his house:

Now what did it matter where he lived ? He was like

a sa n y lil. Why "like"? He was a sanyasl; the simplest
solution. Shave the head, dye the clothes in ochre, and
you were dead for aught the world cared. The only thing
possible; short of committing suicide, there was no other
way out. He had done with the gamble of life. He was
beaten. He could not go on living, probably for sixty
years more, with people and friends and parents, with
Malathl married and gone. *9

This is how he becomes a sanylsl—drifted by the currents,

uprooted by the storm, left neither with the will to live nor the will

to die. He Is afraid of both of these possibilities:

Others may renounce with a spiritual motive or purpose.

Renunciation may be to them a means to attain peace or may
be peace itself. They are perhaps dead in time, but they do
live in eternity. But Chandran’s renunciation was not of that

49yhe B achelor of A rts, p . 102.

 80

kind. It was an alternative to aulclda. Suicide he would

have ooauaitted but for lta aoolal stigma. Perhaps he
lacked the barest physical courage that was necessary for
i t . . . . His renunciation was a revenge on society,
circumstances, and perhaps, too, on destiny . 50

A few months of a sanylsl's life are enough to bring Chandran

back to his senses again. After a great deal of remorse and reflection

he realises that his "love" for Malathl had been a "silly infatuation."

So, why should one be a deserter and a counterfeit? Once he is back

in Malgudl, everything is bound to be all right. The happy ending with

which the story of the Bachelor of Arts ends is, after all, quite in line

with his character.

As far as complexity and development are concerned, Margayya

and Raju are the most complex characters. In them Narayan has been

able to give full-length character studies. Margayya, as his very

name suggests, shows the way out to those in financial troubles.

His emergence is "an unexpected and incalculable offshoot of a

co-operator's zeal ."5,1 His office is under the banyan tree. "His tin

box, a grey, discolored, knobby affair, "52 small enough to be carried

under the arms, contains practically his entire equipment. For the

5 °Ibld., p. 108.

51The Financial Expert, p. 1.

5 2 ibld.. p. 2.
 81

villagers ha is a wizard who can halp than In drawing unlimited loans

from the Co-operative Bank. Tha Financial Expert Is tha story of tha

rise and fall of Margayya's fortune. Tha plot of tha novel tends to be

a little farcical, but tha all-absorbing character of tha hero gives It

vitality. It depicts "a delicate and an acuta psychological study of

Margayya's Inner confusion, the tragedy of his relationship with his

beloved and badly spoiled only son and his life-long quarrel with his

brother.

It Is not possible to reduce Margayya's character to a formula.

He Is too complex for that. He is cautious, shrewd, evasive,

superstitious, ambitious, and self-confident. He can be eloquent

whenever he likes. One subject which Inspires him tremendously is

money. Money is the thing In life, he knows it well. This realization

has come to him through suffering and humiliation:

Money Is the greatest factor in life and the most ill-used.

People don't know how to tend it, how to manure it, how to
water it, how to make it grow, and when to pluck its flowers
and when to pluck its fruits. What most people now do is to
try and eat the plant itself. 54

This statement sums up practically the whole of the philosophy of the

financial wizard. This is his most strongly asserted conviction which

53The New Yorker, April 25, 1953, p. 129.

5*The Financial Expert, p. 132.

 82

carries the weight of his personal experiences.

One thing which creates confusion in the mind of Margayya

(as well as of the readers) Is his two-fold loyalty to Lakshml, the

goddess of wealth, and the Idea that man makes his own destiny.

He starts (rather, re-starts) his calmer with a forty-day worship of

Lakshml. This Is done in the proper manner after consulting the priest

who makes elaborate calculations about the horoscope. Money comes

to him In the form of a manuscript,"Bed Life" written by Dr. Pal.

Whether this Is the result of the propitiation of the goddess Lakshml

or a friendly gesture of Dr. Pal is an open question. A great deal can

be said on both sides. But what use can it be for Margayya to indulge

himself in useless speculations? He is a practical man with a hundred

per cent business sense. What is important for him is how to cultivate

the money, "how to tend it, to manure it, to water it, and to make it

grow."

But at the end of Book IV we nervously find the financial wizard

striding on a new line of thought. Although he himself is not very sure

of the line of thought he is pursuing, he no longer believes that man is

a victim of circumstances or fate. Man can make his own future and

present, he feels, provided he works hard and remains watchful:

The gold bars in the safe at home and the cash bundles
and the bank pass-book are not sent down from heaven—they
are a result of my own application. I need not have stayed
at my desk for ten hours at a stretch and talked myself hoarse
 83

to all thoaa ollanta of mine and taken all that risk on

half-secured loans I. . . I could Just have sat back and
lost myself In contemplation— "55

But immediately he realises that it is not always safe to think so and

adds, "Of course Goddess Lakshml or another will have to be propitiated

from time to time.

This seems to be a very confusing philosophy. But it is so. This

is exactly what the reviewer means by the "inner confusion" of Margayya.

Next to money the other thought which weighs heavy on his mind

is that of his completely spoiled son Balu. All his life Margayya has

nourished big dreams about Balu's future—dreams which never come true.

Balu grows before us from a little boy who insists every day on buying

an elephant to Balu, the grown-up man, the father of a son. The whole

book is as much a study of Balu's growth as of Margayya's mind perceiving

this growth. Margayya himself is to a very large extent responsible for

what Balu turns out to be. The study of this father-son relationship is

Interesting and illuminating.

The strange irony of Margayya's destiny is that his own darling

Balu becomes the immediate cause of his ruin. It is quite amazing how

Margayya survives this terrible crash. At the end of the novel we see

him advising his son to make a start again:

55Ibld., pp. 185-86.

56Ibld.. p. 186.
 84

"You s e e that box tk a i* . I have m anaged to g a t It out

a g a in ." Ha pointed to a earner where hla old knobby trunk
waa k ep t. NXta con ten ts are in ta ct aa I le ft them yeara
ago— a pen and an ink battle. You aaked for my property.
There It la , tak e ltr have an early m eal tomorrow and go
to the banyan tree In front o f the C o-o p erativ e Bank. I
hope the tree la a t ill th ere. Go th ere, that la a ll I can aay:
and anything may happen th ereafter. W e ll, w h a t do you aay?
I am ahowlng you a w a y . W ill you fo llo w it? *
The boy atood rum inating. He waa look in g crushed: "How
can I go and a lt there? What w ill p eo p le think?"
"Very w e ll th en , i f you are not g o in g , I am goin g on w ith
it a s aoon aa I am a b le to le a v e th is b ed , " sa id M argayya.
"Now g e t the youngster h ere. I w ill p lay w ith him . Life has
been too dull w ithout him in th is h o u se . "57

This is Margayya, more trulmphant than crushed.

In some ways Raju is even more complex than Margayya. "He

has the propensity to bland dishonesty and the credulity which often goes

with craftiness leading to eventual victimization which characterized The

Financial V m m rt and ifc. Sampath. "58 He plays the role which he has

assumed, or rather which people like Velan have given him, very skilfully.

Once out of prison he has nowhere to go. To make a living out of hard

work is not possible for him, for he had never done that before. Moreover,

in the new role of a holy man he is getting food without begging. The only

thing he has to do is to cultivate caution. He is expected to advise the

villagers on every problem—not a hard Job. After all, he had been a

57Ibld., p. 218.

58The Times Literary Supplement. May 9, 1958, p. 264.

 85

tourlat one*. The old storloa of gods and goddesses which his mothar

usad to tall him whan ha was a llttla boy, tha storlas which ha can

ramambar only In fragaants, help him a graat daal. It doas not mattar

whethar tha storlas art complata or not; ona thing thay must have is a
moral—an obvious moral. Tha following excerpt Illustrates his "method":

Ha began narrating tha story of Davaka, a man of ancient

times who bagged for alms at tha temple gate every day and
would not use any of his collections without first putting them
at tha feet of tha god. Halfway through tha story ha realized
that ha could not ramambar either Its course or its purport. He
lapsed Into silence. Velan patiently waited for tha continua­
tion. Ha was of tha stuff disciples are made of; an unfinished
story or an Incomplete moral never bothered him; it was all In
the scheme of life . 59

Raju's "scheme of life" is disturbed by the severe drought that

the villages are facing. He has to undertake a twelve-day fast (which

is Imposed upon him because of some misinterpretation) so that the

rains may come. The attempt costs him his life; he dies a martyred-salnt.

Such is the story of the "reluctant holy man." The past of this

"dreaming scamp" is revealed through flashbacks. In these flashbacks

he Is his own narrator. In the words of the reviewer Donald Barr, It is

"a curiously braided time sequence. The time sequence is managed

very well, and it helps In bringing several aspects of Raju's life to light.

59The Guide, p. 15.

SOThe New York Times Book Review, March 23, 1958, p. 5.

 86

The development of hla character from a railroad-station food vendor to

a holy man la well-marked. Hla lntereat in guiding the tourlata cauaea

him to become Involved in the affaira of Rosie, of whom later on he

becomea a lover aa well aa an "impresario. " Raju lacka the tendemeaa

of Margayya, the alncerlty of Sampath, and the honeaty of 8rlniva8 . He

61
is "the prototype of Mr. Narayan'a conception of human fallibility."

In Ramanl, the haughty and autocratic huaband of The Dark Room. 62

Narayan la at hla poorest. Ramanl is always in bad temper (except when

he Is making love to Shanta Bal, his secretary) . He is not only a harsh

husband but an extremely inconsiderate, rather cruel father. He lacks

63
"the humanities of heart." The scene, when Savitrl, his wife, is

leaving the house for Sarayu in the dead of night because her life has

become unbearable and Ramanl shuts the door on her, is cruel and

heart-breaking. His love-affair with Shanta Bai is ridiculous, though

not impossible. Shanta Bai herself is Narayan's own idea of creating

a character out of vacuum and then using it either to tie the knots of
the plot or to open them. Even with all her stories about her past, she

is hardly believable. At best the major characters of The Dark Room

6 lThe Times Literary Supplement. May 9, 1958, p. 264.

S^rhe Dark Room,(London: MacMillan and Co., 1938).

6 3 B a n Jonson, ed. C. H. Herford and Percy Simpson, II (Oxford:

Clarendon Press, 1925), p. 27.
 0

87

are ■ticks, almost ona-dlmonslonal. Tho minor charaoters fara much

battar. Tha sarvants running from the kitchen to tha garage door,

Savltrl's two most intimate friends who are not even on speaking terms

with each other are not bad; at least one can laugh at them.

Some of Narayan's minor characters are no more than mere

caricatures. They are perfectly flat, conceived in the spirit of "I shall
never desert Mr. Micawber." Veeraswami (The Bachelor of Arts) , Marco

(The Guide), and Mr. Ebenzar (Swami and Friends) are some of the flat

characters. Veeraswami, a "dark, stocky person" is all for

anti-imperialism. When Chandran is the secretary of the Historical

Association of his college, Veeraswami reads a fiery paper, "The Aids

to British Expansion in India." It creates unnecessary trouble for the

secretary. A "note" from Principal Brown is received asking Chandran

to send each paper to his office before it is read in the meeting of the

Association. Veeraswami has another paper entitled "The 8ubtletles of

Imperialism, " which through Chandran's caution is never read. In his

werds, "Veeraswami bristled with prejudices and violence. Imperialism

was his favorite demon. He believed in smuggling arms into the country,

and, on a given day, shooting all the Englishmen. "***

A year later when Chandran tells him that he is going to England,

6 *The B achelor of A rts, p . 46.

 88

Veeraswami Immediately flares up. For this shoot-all-the-Engllshmen

typo of patriot thara Is nothing mora shamaful than this proposal of

Chandran. Veeraswami Is a man of plans. Ha has plans for solving

tha food problam of tha country, plans of natura-cura to fight the

British drug manufacturars, and even plans for shooting tha Britishers.

Ha starts a movement called the Resurrection Brigade. This Brigade Is

"only an attempt to prepare the country for a revolution. Although

he has plans for securing a membership of fifty thousand In South India

alone, the actual membership of the Brigade, unfortunately, never goes

beyond twenty-five.

Marco, the research scholar In The Guide. Is another character

who Is constructed around a single Idea. He is writing a book on the

ancient culture of South India. He has his own Interpretations about

the sculpture of the temples of the twelfth century. In connection with

his field work he visits the Iswara temple in the Malgudl district. Marco

has married Rosie, who belongs to the DavpdBsl caste.66 8he Is beautiful

and educated, and the dominant passion of her life is dancing. Maroo

hates dancing; for him It is "street acrobatics." They are extremely

ill-fit for each other. Marco has obviously made a bad choice In

Rosie:

65ib id ., p. 63.
®®The term Devldaal literally means "girls who serve gods." In
Its historical context, it refers to the dancing girls associated with
 89

Marco was Just Unpractical, an absolutely halplass

awn. All that ha could do was to copy andant things and
writs about than. His mind was completely in it. All
practical affairs of Ufa saaawd impossibls to him; such a
simple awttar as finding food or shelter or buying a railway
ticket saaawd to him a monumental Job. Perhaps ha married
out of a desire to have someone care for his practical life,
but unfortunately his choice was wrong—this girl herself
was a dreaawr if aver there was one.

Raju enters their life and complicates the matters still more.

Neglected by her husband, Rosie is attracted towards Raju. Marco

gets suspicious of their relation. He tortures her and then abandons

her.

This is Just a framework for the rise of Rosie as a dancer and

her accepting life with Raju. The impression that one gets of Marco's

character is that he is heartless, inhuman, selfish, completely devoid

of any sympathy and good feelings. The way he treats his wife in Mempl

temples. The custom came into vogue about 3rd century A .D ., for
KRlldSsa refers to dancing girls present in MahBkKla temple of UJJayinl
in Meghaduta. By 6th century A.D. this practice had become very
popular. It had the general support of kings and aristocracy. Since it
tended to lower the moral and spiritual atmosphere of temples, the
puritanical section of Brahmanas and the Ascetics vehemently opposed
it. This practice has been legally prohibited throughout India since it
signed the International Convention for the Suppression of Immoral Traffic
in 1921. Socially the status of devadasls has always been vary inferior.
They cannot marry, since they are for all their lives married to the gods.
For historical details see, A. 8 . Altekar, The Position of Women in Hindu
Civilisation (Benares: Motllal Benarsldas, 1I55K

®7The G u id e , p . 9 9 .
w
a‘
90

Peak House and subsequently at Malgudl Railway 8tatlon can hardly

be justified. There appears to be something sinister about his

character. This quality, however, is not consistent. The result is

that It Is hard to feel convinced of the reality of all his actions. His

character suffers from lack of dimensions. There is practically no

scope given to it to develop. He can be termed a "functional"

character. He exists mainly for the sake of the plot, which is

rather too neatly contrived. There, too, his character has another

limitation. The technique of the novel Is such that he is directly

controlled by Raju, the narrator of the story. The facts are likely to

be distorted In such a narration. It is very possible that Raju is

bringing out only those facts which are favorable to him and concealing

others. Raju's point of view, the only one that we have, is not very

reliable.
Ebenexar, the scripture teacher in 8waml and Friends, is a

pure and simple caricature. He is a typical fanatical religious

preacher. But in Narayan's presentation of Ebenexar there is very

little of bitterness. After one has seen his performance of smashing

Bhaqavad Gita, one does not think him anything but theatrical and

funny.

The headmaster of the Board High School (Swami and Friends)

is another attempt at caricature. There can be perhaps nothing more

funny than tha following pletura of this fonaldabla haadmaatar In his

offioa:
Tha Haad Master was sleeping with his haad bstwaan
his hands and his albows lasting on tha tabla. It was a
small stuffy room with only ona window opaning on tha
weather-beaten side-wall of a shop; it was oluttarsd with
dust-laden rails of maps globas, and gaoswtrioal squaras.
Tha Haad Master's whlta oana lay on the tabla across two
Ink-bottles and soma pads. Tha sun came in a hot dusty
baam and fall on tha Haad Mastar's nosa and tha tabla. Ha
was gantly snoring. This was a possibility that Rajam had
not thought of.
"What shall wa do?" Swamlnathan asked in a rasping
whisper.
"Walt," Rajam ordered.
they waited for tan minutes and than began to make gentle
noises with their feat. Tha Haad Mastar opened his ayes and
without taking his head from his hands, kept staring at them
vacantly, without showing any sign of recognition. He nibbed
his eyas, raised his eyebrows three times, yawned, and asked
In a voice thick with sleep, "Have you fellows no class?" He
fumbled for his spectacles and put them on. Now the picture
was coaplete—wlsened face and dingy spectacles calculated
to strike terror Into the hearts of Swaminathans.

This portrait Is almost Dickensian.

Of all the minor characters, the old landlord of Srlnlvas is the

most Interesting one. He is almost like a background, a kind of chorus

to the life of Anderson Lane. Through him Narayan can voice the regret

of the older generation for the days past when one could buy twenty

towels of Malayalam variety for a rupee. Through him Narayan very

ably satirises the Institution of faked sanyBsls. Most of the time he

6^8warn! a n d F rie n d s, p p . 13 3 -3 4 .
 92

can be identified with his own formula, "Don't drive naila into my

w alla." But in hla make-up there ia aone thing more than that. He

la shrewd, hypocritical, cunning, selfish, and adaerly. He la

extremely fond of talking but haa few people to talk to. He can quote

Scripturea even for trivial things with great ease. His children do not

care for him, nor does he care for them. He Uvea quite a lonely Ufe.

The only attachment that the old sum feels la for his grand­

daughter with whose parents he is not even on speaking terms. He

wishes to see her well married. It is for her that he has set apart

five thousand rupees as a dowry to be given in her marriage.

He cl elms that he is a sanydsl—detached from every worldly

Interest. It is only when he visits Srinivas's house, rather too

frequently, that we know what kind of a aanylsi he is . Once Srlnlvas

invites him to have coffee and tiffin with him, he is simply overjoyed:

He nearly became Incoherent with joy. He was tom

between the attraction of the offer and shyness. For the
first time Srlnlvas observed that the man could be moved
by shyness. "No, no, I never eat anywhere. Oh, don't
trouble yourself about i t . . . . No, n o ..." he said, but all
the same got up and followed Srlnlvas into the kitchen.. . .
She then served a couple of cakes on each leaf, and
the old man rubbed his hands with the joy of anticipation.
At a signal from Srlnlvas he feU to; and Srlnlvas wondered
how long it was since the other had any food. "What do
you eat at nights ? " he asked testlngly. The old man tore
off a piece of cake and stuffed It in his mouth and swaUowed
it before he answered, shaking his head.. . .
"I'm a Sanvlsl. my dear young man—and no true Sanyas!
should eat more than once a day.

6>The Printer of Maloudl, pp. 66-67.

 93

Tha end of this m w l i l la unexpected and ayatorloua. It sooas

Narayan cannot daclda what to do with hla, ao ha davlaaa thla kind

of daath for hla.

Daaallo of Hollywood la another very delightful minor character.

He la the brain behind the atudlo organization of Sunrlae Pictures. He

calls hlaself C. E. , and labela all the others with a variety of big

naaies. Everybody feels overawed by his technical knowledge. In

addition to the technical knowhow Demello possesses other vivid ear­

marks of the successful caricature. An entirely new phraseology Is 3

one of them. "Conference" is the most popular of these terms. "No

two persons met nowadays except in a conference. No talk was

possible unless It were a discussion. There were story conferences

and allied discussions. Lesser persons would probably call them by

simpler names, but it seemed clear that in the world of films an

esoteric Idiom of its own was indispensable for Its dignity and

development."70 Narayan is slightly ironical in his approach towards

this representative of the West.

The women characters in the Malgudi novels probably need a

separate consideration. In general they do not play very important

roles. Rosie (The Guide). Sushlla (Grateful to Life and Death). and

7 0I h i d . , pp. 11 5-16.
 94

Bharati (Waiting for tha Mahatma) are exceptions. They ail play vary

Important roles. Thay ara indispensable for thair plots. They could

navar possibly ba oonfusad wifch aaoh othar. Tha lmprasslon that they

leave on tha mind of tha reader is not blurred. All tha rest of tha woman

characters—Raju's mother, Sampath's wife, Swaml's mother, SrlnlVas's

wife—play vary minor rolas. Thay could ba easily replaced by each

othar. For example, It hardly makes any difference if Swaml's mother

is put in the place of Chandran's mother. Margayya's wife and Raju's

mother can scarcely be distinguished from each other. Narayan does

not give them even a name. They are either somebody's mother or wife,

and as such they are known throughout. They all belong to a type—that

of the good housewife. They are drawn, no doubt, with utmost sympathy,

but their scope Is so limited that nothing more can be done with them.

The portrayal of the two grandmothers—Raju's and Swaml's—Is excellent.

In them Narayan has been able to achieve maximum effect with minimum

effort.

When compared with Sushlla and Bharati, Rosie appears to be

pale and shadowy. One reason for this Is that she gets lost In the

exigencies of the plot. 8he does not possess enough Individuality

to rise above the formal framework. She Is tender, beautiful, and

artistic, but still she hardly comes to life. At times she gives the

impression that she is an abstraction, merely an instrument for alluring

 95

Raju. 81m has a vary unconvantional background. She was bom into

a Davadial family. Despite tha lowness of her rank, her mother sent

her to college to get a higher education. After securing a Master's

degree in Economics, she marries an academician who loves his books

more than his wife. When the rift between them becomes wider, she

leaves him (rather she is left by him) and starts living with Raju without

ever marrying him. Raju had earlier promised to provide her the opportunity

of developing her art. This promise leads her to disregard all the

traditions and conventions of her society.

Raju's mother leaves the house and goes away to live with her

brother in the village. She had been raised on different ideas, on a

different set of values. She cannot conceive of living in the same house

with his son and an unknown girl of an unknown caste who has left her

husband.

The circumstances under which Raju's mother has to leave her

own ancestral house have hardly any effect on Rosie. She acts like

a machine, a dancing machine. She is totally unconcerned with public

opinion. Narayan is not very explicit about the reaction of the people

of Malgudi to such a relationship, but it is certain that Malgudl,

orthodox and old-fashioned as it i s , could never have approved of the

arrangement. One really wonders how Rosie herself, young, intelligent,

and highly educated as she is, could have accepted the situation so
 96

com p lacen tly.

The moat Important factor which inlluencas the presentation

of Koala's character strongly ia tha point of view which tha author uses.

Over tha parts of tha book which deal with Raju's life as a sanvisi

Narayan has direct control. He narrates tha story from tha omniscient

point of view. In tha rest of the book he gives Raju complete liberty to

interpret and narrate his past. "He" becomes "I, " and this "I" is Raju

himself. The author does not step in to tell where Raju is wrong or

prejudiced. The result is that our knowledge of Rosie (and Marco, too)

is limited. We know only as much as Raju's unconscious mind can

permit him to relate. Rosie's reactions, feelings, and sentiments are

not given free expression. Consequently, the total Impression of her

character remains vague, and one hardly gets the feeling that she is

taken from life. At best, she remains a shadow of a shadow.

8ushila, the wife of the English teacher in Grateful to Life and

Death, is one of the best full-length character studies. The book has

a well-marked autobiographical strain. Narayan's wife died in 1939,

leaving a three-year-old daughter. Like Krishna, the hero, Narayan,

too, shortly after this catastrophe resigned the teaching position that

he had in a college. Since then he has devoted his life to the upbringing

of his daughter and the writing of short stories and novels.

Although the pattern of Krishna's life has many striking

 97

resemblances to that of tha author, Qrataful to Lila and Daath la not

Narayan'• autobiography. It la flrat and foruattst a work of fiction.

Krishna could bo Ilka Narayan. but ho la not Narayan. "Tha writer,"

aaya Somerset Maugham, "does not copy his originals; he takes what

he wants from them, a few traits that have caught his attention, a turn

of mind that has fired his Imagination, and therefrom constructs his
character. He is not concerned whether it Is a truthful likeness; he

is concerned only to create a plausible harmony convenient for his own

purposes. "71 In creating Krishna and Sushila Narayan might have drawn

from Incidents of his own personal life. But it is not the "truthful like*

ness" that he is trying to achieve. If It were so, the scope and the

perspective of the book would have been entirely different.

The picture of Sushila, ever fresh and beautiful, clad in her

indigo-colored silk saree, vibrates with life . There is nothing

sensational about hen in her attitudes and beliefs she is a typical

Indian girl. An excellent house manager, she makes the list of monthly

requirements with great precision and is immensely proud of this ability.

Small details like the following are not only Interesting in themselves

but they help also in understanding Sushila's character:

71The 8umminq Up (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Doran

and Company, Inc., 1945), p. 57.
 90

8he watched the containers as a sort of barometer, tha level

of their contents Indicating tha progress of die month. Each
had to be at a particular level on a particular data: and on
die last data of the month—just enough for another day, when
they would be replenished. 8he watched these with a keen
eye like a technician watching an all-important meter at a
power house.

Or, again,
There on a pedestal she kept a few silver Images of gods,
and covered them with flowers; two small lamps were lit
before diem every morning. I often saw her standing there
with the light in her face, her eyes closed and her lips lightly
moving. I was usually amused to see her thus, and often asked
what exactly it was that she repeated before her gods. 8he
never answered this question. To this day I have never learnt
what magical words she uttered there with closed eyes. Even
when I mildly joked about it, HOht becoming a yogi I" she
never tried to defend herself, but merely treated my references
with the utmost indifference. 8he seemed to have a 4aep
secret life .73

Through incidents like these we get to know 8ushila more

intimately. In a quiet way these create an atmosphere of peace,

domesticity, faith, love, and harmony. Unfortunately, the harmony of

such a life is destroyed by Sushila's illness. After suffering for a few

weeks she dies. Her death is described with great restraint. The

silent suffering, the poignancy, and the pathos are extremely moving.

8ushila's death closes one chapter of Krishna's life, but it opens

another. Although she is not physically present in the rest of the book,

7^Grateful to Life and Death, pp. 42-43.

73|bid., p. 37.
 99

her spirit hovsrs over it, both literally and psychologically. One day

Krishna rscaivas a message from an unknown parson that the spirit of

his daad wlfa wishes to communicate with him. This gives Krishna a

new lease on life . He tries his best to establish communication in

the way he is directed, and "when the boundaries of the two personalities

are suddenly dissolved," he feels a rare peace, solace, and Joy.

Narayan has handled here a very delicate subject. Halfway

through the novel the action is partly transferred to a realm where

physical existence Is of no Importance. Surprisingly enough, no ghosts

are seen; no doors are banged; no hinges creak. Nothing like that

happens; the action moves on quite another level. Sushila (a spirit

herself) with the help of a band of other spirits communicates with her

husband through a particular medium. "It Is an attempt, " as one of the

spirits puts it, "to turn the other side of the medal of existence, which

is called Death." 74 The spirit of Sushila keeps a constant watch over

her husband and child. She can see everything, know everything—even
r
the inmost thoughts of her husband—and remember everything. "She is
75
able to see things far more clearly than when she was on earth, " says

a helper spirit. The best results In communication, they tell, depend

7 4 jb id ., p . 129.

75i b i d . , p . 131 .
 100

upon tho mental state of tho medium. Tho medium, too, can ba eliminated,

but tha elimination dopanda upon tha psychic development. This Is what

8ushlla asks her husband to do.

Such Is the material on which Narayan has raised the structure

of Qrataful to Life and Death. The question to be considered is not

whether such a thing could happen or not, but how far it does Influence

the plot, the characterisation, and the rhythm of the novel. To put It In

simpler terms: is It convincingly written? Or do we feel cheated at the

end of the novel? As far as the "How" and "Why" are concerned, it is

Impossible to give a rational and scientific explanation for such a

phenomenon as direct communication with the spirit of a dead person.

Such an explanation Is neither sought nor given. Krishna may be actually

having communication with the spirit of his wife, or possibly he Is having

hallucinations.
As a matter of fact, the whole novel is written with so much

sincerity and intensity that while reading it we forget that the author is

writing about an Impossible and fantastic subject. Rather, we feel as

If It might have really happened. No wonder, Margaret Parton finds the

last part of the book quite convincing.7® The novelist has, of course, no

deliberate intention of making the reader convinced of the authenticity

76N ew York Herald Tribune Book Review, Nov. 29, 1953, p. 7.

 101

of this oxporlonoo. No arguments art given; no probloms sro possd.

What is significant is tha light that it throws on tha intanslty of parsonal

relationships. Tha faallng that paihaps it was all predastinad is thera

in tha background. This is what J. F. Muhal maans whan ha says,

"Thara is a brooding awarenass of fata which makes the story seam

not authored but merely transcribed."77

Bharati has tha same charm and tenderness that Sushila has,

but she is devoted to a different cause. Her father died in the 1920

oolltical movement. Some years later her mother also died, leaving

young Bharati alone. It is than that Mahatma Gandhi adopts her as his

own daughter. Living with her godfather and his many associates, she

has seen practically the whole of the country. Trained in the Ideals of

truth and non-violence, she knows what her country needs. Since she

has spent all her life in ishrams. her orientation is definitely different

from that of, say, Sushila or Malathl or Rosie. She is a soldier in the

struggle of the country for independence. There is an ideal before her.

The spirit of obedience, discipline, duty, and self-control that we find

in her character is the result of her early training. The Interest of the

reader, however, does not lie so much in her life as a political worker

as in her femininity, tenderness, and emotional sympathy. She is

77S aturday R eview , O c t. 31, 1953, p p . 2 2 -2 3 .

 102

beautiful, slender, and young, with ayas that aparkla with happlnaaa.

Tha first tima ftrlram happens to saa her, ha is startled by her beauty.

As a boy, ha had adored tha portrait of a European quean with apple

cheeks and wavy coiffure which ha had seen hanging In the little shop

opposite his house. But Bharati was different! "She looked so different

from the beauty in Kanni's shop; his critical faculties were at once alert,

and he realised how shallow was the other beauty, the European queen,

and he wondered that he had ever given her a thought. He wouldn't

78
look at the picture again even If Kannl should give it to him free. "

At times, Bharati seems to be an Idealized figure. Perhaps this

is because of her extraordinary background. She appears to be different

from a Kamla, a Vlmla or a Malathl because she Is different.

We get hardly any glimpse of her private life because she does

not have any. Nor do we feel that she has very strong private sentiments.

Even so personal a matter as her marriage she leaves completely to the

decision of Mahatma Gandhi. Indeed, without Mahatma's sanction she

cannot think of doing anything. It Is but natural that we do not feel as

near to her as we do to 8 ushlla. We never enter into her mind, her

feelings. The portrayal suffers from a lack of emotional warmth. Of

course, she is not cold, but she is not spontaneous either. Her life

is not entirely her own. The country has need of her.

78 w a ltln q for th e M ahatm a, p . 19.

 103

An important aspect of tho craft of a novallat ia tha way in which

he makes uae of hla toola: people, altuatlona, background, and action.

In Narayan*a caae it la hard to make a generalisation about thla aspect

of his work. The creation of a character is not solving a geometry

problem, where everything is definite and accurate. If three sides of

a triangle are equal, the angles of such a triangle are bound to be equal.

Not so with a novel. In it the human element is the most unpredictable,

indefinite one. We do not live our lives according to preconceived

theories and principles. On the contrary, most of the time our actions

are governed by oddities, whims, and other stray fancies. Something

strikes our mind, and we make a change in the entire course of our life.

But there are limits within which these caprices can possibly work. We

often hear people saying, "I bet such a person as he is can never do that."

It is equally true of fictional characters. A novel whose chief character

(or characters) is not convincing obviously fails to reach its goal.

A character in fiction (like a real person in life) is governed

by his own nature, attitudes, and beliefs. The element of surprise

cannot be totally eliminated, but a character based entirely on the

principle of Hglving surprise" has very little chance of survival. We

do not delight in all the Impossible things that a particular character

may do but in all the possible ones that he does. A successful

character acts from what one may call the center of his being. He mry
 104

be weak or strong, good or bad: whatever ha Is, ha must ramain trua

to hlmsalf.

Whan for tha saka of tha story Thackaray tails a 11a about Becky,

wa know ha is tailing a 11a and is only trying to blackan her character.

Sha could not and would not hava murdered Josh. And ha tails a lie

about Major Pendennls, too. Thetatfor is too honorable to have

indulged in blackmail. He is a worldly old gentleman but incapable

of real wickedness. If Narayan were to come and tell us that Srlnlvas

has been arrested for fraud and embezzlement, we would have exclaimed

NOhI No I It can not be true." We know that Narayan would be telling

a lie in that case and that Srlnlvas is too honest, sincere, and simple

to do anything like that. Or, if halfway through Grateful to Life and

Death he told us that Krishna two weeks after Sushila's death married

again, what would be our reaction? We would certainly resent strongly

such a violation of credibility on the part of the author. Once a

character has been "established" and life infused into him, there is

nothing much left to depend upon the discretion of the author. He

cannot "play" with his "breathing men and women. " He can watch

them; he can feel their logical reactions; but he cannot make them do

what he desires.

To the question of the "rights" of a character is Joined another

big question—the control that an author exercises on his characters.

 105

When Christopher Isherwood writes, "I an « camera with its shuttsr

open, quit* psssivs, recording not thinking. Recording ths man

•having at ths window opposit* and ths woman in ths kimono washing

hsr hair. 8obm day, all this will havs to bs developed, oarsfully
fixed, p r in te d7fl,h e is not sxprsssing ths whole truth. A novelist is

nsithsr a camsra nor a photographer. A camera with its shuttsr opsn

cannot by itself make beautiful pictures. Someone has very carefully

to compose the view, fix ths range, J_.e., make a selection.

To extend the analogy still further, the same is tras of a novelist.

He is not Just a camera plus a tape recorder. He has to compose the

view and fix the range. He needs to select, and this selection is

governed by certain principles for certain effects. For example, in the

Malgudl novels Narayan leaves out the political beliefs of his characters

but puts in the religious attitudes. This selection obviously implies

control which may in its turn be influenced by various other factors

such as,the vision, range, and purpose of the novelist. How much

control does Narayan have over hie characters ? How much freedom

does he give them ? Are his characters like Moll Flanders or like
Elizabeth Bennet, Emma, or Madam Bovary ? "Moll Flanders is like a

tree in a park so that we can see her from every aspect and are not

79Goodbye to Berlin (New York: Random House, 1939), p. 13.

 106

bothered by rival growths. la Moll Flanders Moll is ovorythlng and

la glvon tha maximum freedom.

In Malgudl thaxa are no Moll Flandars • Such a statement does

not imply any moral point of vlaw. Malgudl is, by no moans, tha city of

saints. It Is tha city of real people, "breathing man and woman." Tho

quastlon hare Is of haavy cantarlng and parfoct freedom of action of the

characters. The characters In Malgudi do not appear to run away from

the control of Narayan as Moll Flanders does from Defoe.

Jane Austen's characters stay within their limits. An Eleanor is

Eleanor, and a Marianne, Marianne. There is a harmony between their

actions and their temperaments. 80 it is with Narayan's characters.

Srlram does not elope with Bharati, because he can not. If he had done

it, it would have been a "dirty trick" played by the author.

Anthony Trollope in his autobiography says:

To a novelist it becomes a matter of deep conscience how

he shall handle those characters by whose words and doings
he hopes to interest his readers. It will very frequently be the
case that he will be tempted to sacrifice something for effect,
to say a word or two here, or to draw a picture there, for which
ha feels he has the power, and which when spoken or drawn
would be alluring. The regions of absolute vice are foul and
odious. The savour of them, till custom has hardened the
palate and the nose, is disgusting. In these he will hardly
tread. But there are outskirts on these regions on which
sweet-smelling flowers seem to grow, and grass to be green.
It is in these borderlands that the danger lie s .**1

80e . M. Forster, Aspects of the Novel (London: Edward Arnold

and C o., 1928), p. 87.

8 *An Autobiography (New York: Dodd, Mead and C o., 1927), p. 192.
 107

In Narayan thara ara naithar tha ever-growing "sweet-smelling

flowers" nor tha regions of "absolute v ic e ." Hla character* ara naithar

salnti (Raju la a fake one) nor devlla. Thay are ordinary, vary ordinary

man and woman. Thara la nothing vary aanaatlonal or heroic about them.

A little am* htfjfttnaaa-would have made them too conaplcuoua for

Malgudl. Lika Arnold Bennett*a charactera In Tha Old Wive a Tala thay

ara there, becauae thay have every right to ba thara. Sophia In the

Rue de la Palx and the Rue da la Chauaale d'Antln la a8 much out of

place aa Srlram la In Connaught Place, New Delhi.

To quote Trollope again:

It la ao that I have lived my charactera, and thence ha8

come whatever auccea8 I have obtained. There la a gallery
of them, and of all In that gallery I may aay that I know the
tone of tha voice, and the colour of tha hair, every flame of
tha aye, and tha very clothaa thay wear. Of each man I could
aaaart whether he would have aald theae or the other worda;
of every woman, whether aha would then have smiled or
frowned.

Narayan could have written the above passage, but perhaps he would

have done so In a milder tone. A "granny" must be real to him; so would

be Sampath. But we do not find any assertions. Trollope's control over

his character Is more definite. He can step In and take charge of the

whole situation. Like a typical Victorian novelist he can virtually take

the reader aside and tell him about some deep secret concerning his

character. The moralist In him remains vigilant lest any of his

82lbld., p. 202.
 108

character* Indulge in some unwarranted excesses. Ha it like a

presiding deity over hie Baroheeter people. Hie presence is felt in

alssost every page. If Mr. 81ope had married Eleanor Bold, "You, O

reader, and I, and Eleanor's other Mends would have received the story

of such a winning with much disgust and disappointment.N83 This is

Trollope, the typloal Victorian novelist, explaining his characters,

admonishing them, exercising complete control on their actions,

thoughts, movements, and judgments, and reminding us on every

second line that the figures who move in and out of his books are his

own creations and the life that they possess is given by him. They
appear to be real, and real they are but only in a qualified sense. The

novelist's intrusion in the action breaks the illusion of life that he

himself establishes.

Narayan's control over his characters is implicit. As an

omniscient author, he is there watching the externals, observing them

move, and even going into their inmost thoughts, but he does not

Intrude in the action. Thus, the illusion of art is preserved. Most of

his novels have one central observer (not in the Jamesian sense of the

term) over whose shoulders we watch the people and their doings. In

The Printer of Malgudl it is the editor Srlnlvas through whom we read

^ Barchestar Towers (London: The Zodiac Press, 1949), p. 229.

 109

94
"A* ttoiy of thro* minds and six wild universes." Wo know tho

printer, Mr. Sampatk and tho efcprk-cum-artlst, Ravi, through Srlnlvas.

Our knowledge of these ohereoters is limited by whet Srlnlvas observes

and relates. There is a very complicated relationship In which all

these three minds with their six wild universes are involved. Sampath

dominates the rest, even our editor Srlnlvas. Ravi Is too farcical to

be entirely credible. The attempts to give his character tragic tone

are not very successful. However, the fault does not lie In the

central observer; the very scope and nature of Ravi's character is such

that it lacks both breadth and depth.

Grateful to Life and Death is written In first person. The

narrator and the hero being the same person, the control of the author

is Invested In the hero. The perspective is limited, but it suits the

purpose of the story. One obvious result is a sense of immediacy

which the first person point of view leads to. In Waiting for the

Mahatma the author uses the omniscient point of view. Srlram is in

the focus, but then there are many other details, political and social,

which over-crowd the range and the perspective.

In The Guide Narayan has made a major experiment in the direction

of author's control. The point of view (first person) of the major character

8 4Tha New York Tim es Book R eview , M ay 19, 1957, p . 4.

 110

it used consistently in i o n parti of the book In drawing out hla past

Ufa. Thara are, however, auddan ahlfta from tha author's point of viaw

to Reju's. They braak tha past from tha prasant and thus maka an

artistic contrast batwaan tha Raju of "now" and of "than". But it is

still doubtful whathar tha affacts achiavad by tha experiment in form

are worth tha things sacrificed. Narayan himself raaUsas his difficulty.

At timas it bacomas a ilttla clumsy, and tha author's attampt to clarify

mattar by adding commants in paranthasas ara largaly unsuccessful. On

page 7, line 1, "My troubles would not have started but for R osie...

it is not clear to whom Raju is saying all this. It seams as if ha la

thinking aloud and not addressing anybody in particular. In order to

avoid this confusion Narayan adds a short paranthesls, and it reads

like this, "My trouble would not have started (Raju said in tha course

of narrating his life-story to this man who was called Velan at a later

stage) but for Rosie...." One thing is still not clear. Is Raju narrat­

ing his life-story to this man (tha villager who is sitting on the lower

step and has a problem) whom tha author wants to call Valan at a later
*
stage, now? This "now" hare refers to tha context of the previous

paragraph on p. 6 . Tha time scheau is hopelessly eenfused here.

Tha paranthesls in question seams to be an afterthought.

Tha question of the "control" of the author over his characters

is related to tha equally important one of tha authors perspective on his

characters. How does ha look at them? How does he bring them to live ?
 Ill

To e x p re ss the a lte rn a tiv e s in an o ft-re p e a te d p h rasin g : is h is approach

lik e C h a u c e r's tow ards th e W ife of Bath or is i t lik e S h a k e s p e a re 's in

H a m le t's s o lilo q u ie s ? In o th er w o rd s, are th e s e c h a ra c te rs v is u a lis e d

through th e ir e x te rn a l a ttrib u te s or through th e ir inm ost th o u g h ts, fe e lin g s ,

and s e n tim e n ts ? In order to know a re a l p e rso n in life fu lly , one n e e d s

d ifferen t p e rs p e c tiv e s , d ifferen t c lo s e - u p s . The way a p e rso n d r e s s e s ,

th e c h o ic e of th e c o lo r and th e m aterial of h is c lo th e s , th e v ario u s g e s tu re s

th a t he m a k e s, and other h a b its and m annerism s are a s im portant a s know ing

how he th in k s , fe e ls and a c t s . The sam e is tru e of a c h a ra c te r (not a

c arica tu re ) in fic tio n .

For a w e ll-d e v e lo p e d c h a ra c te r the author h as to com bine v ario u s

m eth o d s, though no t in any fixed p ro p ortion. An exam ination of N a ra y a n 's

c h a ra c te rs show s th a t th ere is no fix ed form ula a cco rd in g to w hich th ey

are c re a te d . All c h a ra c te rs are not e q u a lly su b tle, nor are th ey m eant to

be s o . S rinivas is not c o n ce iv e d in the sam e way a s Srlram i s . S rlnivas

is a far su p erio r p ie c e of c h a ra c te riz a tio n . Srlram is co m p arativ ely f la t.

N arayan hardly e v er g iv es fu ll d e sc rip tio n s of th e physiognom y of h is

p e o p le . He is sp e c ific only when i t h a s som e s p e c ia l sig n ific a n c e or

when the p e rso n a lity of the p erso n is In flu en ced by th o se s p e c ific d e t a i l s .

In g e n e ra l, we do not know w h eth er a p a rtic u la r p erso n in one

of h is n o v els is ta ll or s h o rt, fa ir or d ark , d re s s e d in gray tro u se rs or

w hite d h o ti. In ste a d of giving a c c u ra te d e ta ils , he d o e s give an im p re s­

s io n . This im p ressio n is no t the n o v e lis t's but th e r e a d e r 's . It is not

 112

im posed from o u tsid e but g a th e re d through th e in te rp la y of the

tem peram ent of a p a rtic u la r c h a ra c te r and o u tsid e f a c to r s . W henever

N arayan is c ritic a l of a situ a tio n or a c h a ra c te r, h is c ritic is m is re v e a le d

in an o ff-h an d sly rem ark. It n ev er ta k e s th e form of lo n g -w in d ed

d is c u s s io n and h e a te d a rg u m e n ts. No attem p t is m ade to prove a t h e s i s .

It is e x a c tly here th a t N arayan p a rts from B ennett w ith whom , o th e rw ise ,

he h a s g re a t a ffin ity . H is s a tir e , to o , is u s u a lly so m uch p lay ed down

th a t i t alm o st m erges in to hum or.

One thing th a t s trik e s th e re a d e rs of the M algudl n o v els is th e

la c k of any am bition on th e p a rt of th e author to tra n sm it Judgm ents to

u s . W hatever Judgm ents and v a lu e s he h a s are Im p lic it— a p art of the

life he c h o o se s to d e p ic t. D onald B arr's com m ent w hich he made w ith

a sp e c ific refe ren c e to The G uide h o ld s e q u ally tru e of a ll th e re s t of

N a ray a n 's n o v els:

H is com edy— by Ju x tap o sin g d ig n itie s and in d ig n itie s ,

m ingling the noble and th e Ig n o b le, show ing u s how porus
our so u ls a re , so th a t p u rp o se s e v a p o ra te and c irc u m sta n c e s
le a k in in c e s s a n tly — m akes Judgm ent d iffic u lt. But in fa c t
th a t is h is Judgm ent on hum an a f f a irs . He too h as v a lu e s ,
but he d o es no v io le n ce to l i f e . 85

There are no com partm ents in th is l if e . E verything is so fu se d

to g e th e r—p e o p le , s e ttin g , atm o sp h e re, a ttitu d e s , and b e lie f s —th a t

som etim es it is hard to find ou t w here h is s u c c e s s l i e s . Perhaps i t is

in th is very fu sio n , in c re a tin g the illu s io n of l if e , life a s it is liv e d ,

85The New York Times Book Review, March 23, 1958, p. 5.

 113

w ithout Id e a lis in g an d fa ls ify in g It, th a t th e s e c re t o f h is a rt l i e s .

H is people a re p a rt of th e w orld to w hich th ey b e lo n g . There Is th a t

s e n s e of belonging to a g ro u p , a c a s t e , a p ie c e of la n d , end a fam ily.

Half o f th e e ffe c t of a good novel d epends upon e x p o s itio n . It

may be In te re stin g to c o n s id e r how N arayan fa re s in h is c ra f t. A sk ilfu l

n o v e lis t has to in tro d u ce h is c h a ra c te rs p ro p erly , e s ta b lis h them in lif e ,

and then ex p o se them to the w orld around them w ithout giv in g the

im p ression th a t a su p e rio r figure is holding the strin g s tig h t. In order

to be e ffe c tiv e ,e x p o sitio n h a s to be s h o rt, dram atic and n a tu ra l.

U ndigested d e ta ile d topography w hen u se d a s an in tro d u ctio n is a

d e cid ed w e a k n e s s . In The O ld W ives Tale Bennett goes on for more

th an eig h t p a g e s d e sc rib in g th e to p o g rap h ical d e ta il, beginning w ith

la titu d e and lo n g itu d e and en d in g w ith the d e sc rip tio n of th e h o u se s

and th e shops b u ilt in B ursley S quare. Of c o u rs e , th is approach does

not make the book a l e s s e r w ork. The book rem ains a m aste rp ie ce in

sp ite of it. N a ra y a n 's n o v e ls , on th e o th er h an d , begin w ith people;

the topography is im p ercep tib ly w orked in to th e p a tte rn s of th e ir l i v e s .

N arayan is u s u a lly , though not a lw a y s, in te re s te d in c re a tin g

an im p ressiv e and m eaningful e x p o s itio n . H ere is Raju, the re lu c ta n t

holy man, d riftin g in to the w orld of The G uide:

Raju w elcom ed th e in tru s io n — som ething to re lie v e the

lo n e lin e s s of the p la c e . The man sto o d g azin g re v e re n tia lly
on h is f a c e . Raju fe lt am used and e m b a rra sse d . "Sit down
if y o u lik e , " Raju s a id , to break the s p e ll. The o th er a c c e p te d
the s u g g e stio n w ith a g rate fu l nod and w ent down the riv er
s te p s to w a sh h is fe e t and fa c e , cam e up w iping h im self dry
 114

w ith th a and of a c h e c k e re d y allo w to w al on h la sh o u ld e r,

and took h is s e a t tw o s te p s below th a g ran ite s la b on w hich
Raju w as s ittin g c ro s s - le g g e d a s If It w are a th ro n e , b e sid e
an a n c ie n t s h rin e . The b ran c h es o f th e tre e s canopying the
riv er c o u rse ru s tle d and trem bled w ith th e a g ita tio n of birds
and m onkeys s e ttlin g down for th e n ig h t. U pstream beyond
th e h ills th e sun w a s s e ttin g . Raju w a ite d for th e o th er to
sa y so m eth in g . But he w as too p o lite to open a c o n v e rsa tio n ? 6

In th e s e opening lin e s of The G uide N arayan h a s a c h ie v e d much more

th an a t firs t g la n c e seem s to be the c a s e . He h a s been a b le to e s ta b lis h

the p h y sic a l background vividly: an a n c ie n t sh rin e w ith s te p s going

down in to the riv er c an o p ied by tre e s on w hose b ran ch es birds and

m onkeys tak e r e s t a t n ig h t. In th is s e t-u p a p p ea r two p e rs o n s , Raju

sittin g c ro s s -le g g e d on the g ra n ite s la b , the v illa g e r stan d in g a few

ste p s dow n. T heir re a c tio n is a ls o g iv e n . Raju lik e s the man b e c a u se

he h ad been very lonely; the man from the v illa g e g a z e s "reverentially.**

W hy? Seeing Raju s ittin g c ro s s -le g g e d (that is the proper p o se of a

s a n y a s l when he is m editating) n e ar a tem p le, the v illa g e r h a s obv io u sly

tak en him for a g re a t holy m an. Since Raju u n d e rsta n d s th e c a u se of the

" g a z e " , he is "am used and e m b a rra s s e d ." The tim e is s u n s e t. It m eans

the v illa g e r can n o t s ta y for a long tim e . In a few m inutes he w ill have

to go so th a t he may re a c h h is v illa g e before i t is n ig h t. W hen in v ite d

by Raju to come n e ar him and s i t down, the v illa g e r firs t g o e s to the

riv e r, w a sh e s h is fe e t and fa c e and com es u p . T his little d e ta il h as

86The Guide, p. 1.
 115

s ig n ific a n c e in th e s e n s e th a t i t show s one of th e p o p u lar H indu

c u s to m s . Before en terin g a tem ple or s ittin g for m ed itatio n a Hindu

a lw ay s w a sh e s h is fa c e and f e e t. In o th er w o rd s, he p u rifie s h im s e lf.

In le s s th an a dozen lin e s N arayan e s ta b lis h e s p h y sic a l b ack ­

g round, tim e , c h a ra c te rs , th e ir re a c tio n s and a ttitu d e s . The n ex t

q u e stio n one w ould in e v ita b ly a s k a fte r rea d in g i t w ould be: W hat is

th is man Raju doing th e re ? Who i s h e ? an d the sto ry m oves o n .

N a ra y a n 's c h a ra c te rs are n o t s tu d ie d a s a stra n g e s p e c ie s but

are w ell p la c e d in a strong fram ework of s o c ia l c o n v e n tio n s . H is

a ttitu d e tow ards th is framework is n e ith e r la u d a to ry nor con d em n ato ry .

He Ju st a c c e p ts i t . He does not a d v o c a te any d e m o litio n . A p a ssa g e

lik e the follow ing w hich en d s M ulk Raj A nand's U n to u c h ab le , co u ld

n ev er h av e been w ritten by N arayan:

W ell, we m ust d e stro y c a s t e , we m ust d e stro y th e

in e q u a litie s of birth an d u n a lte ra b le v o c a tio n s . We m ust
rec o g n ize an e q u a lity of rig h ts , p riv ile g e s , and o p p o rtu n ities
for every o n e . The M ahatm a d id n 't sa y s o , but th e le g a l and
so c io lo g ic a l b a s is of c a s te having been broken down by the
B ritish, Indian p en al c o d e , w hich re c o g n is e s th e rig h ts of
ev ery man before a c o u rt, c a s te is now m ainly governed by
p ro fe s sio n . W hen the sw e e p e rs ch an g e th e ir p ro fe s sio n ,
th ey w ill no lo n g er rem ain u n to u c h a b le s . And th ey c a n do
th a t so o n , for th e firs t th in g we w ill do w hen we a c c e p t
th e m achine, w ill be to in tro d u ce the m achine w hich c le a rs
dung w ithout anyone h av in g to h an d le i t — the flu sh sy ste m .
Then th e sw ee p ers can be free from th e stig m a of u n to u ch a -
b ility and assu m e the d ig n ity of s ta tu s th a t is th e ir rig h t a s
u se fu l member of a c a s tle le s s and c l a s s l e s s s o c i e t y .8?

87U nto u ch ab le, p . 127.

 116

Narayan is nalthar a social pathologist nor a religious reformer.

He has detachment (not that of a sanvaal). Insight, and urbanity. Without

actually sharing the life of his characters he has enough sympathy for

them. It Is through this Insight and sympathy for customs, traditions,

normal and easy way of life that he tries to get at "the hidden poetry

and unrecognised pathos "of "the dull grey eyes and a voice of quite

ordinary tone." His characters are not merely alive but very much

alive. On the last page of the novel they vanish Into life again.
 CH A PTER I I I

STRUCTURE

Criticising the "droll and bemuddled" opposition betwsen

novels of character and novels of plot, Henry James says:

Character, In any sense In which we can get at it,

Is action, and action Is plot, and any plot which hangs
together, even If it pretend to interest us only in the
fashion of a Chinese puzzle, plays upon our emotion,
our suspense by means of personal references. We care
what happens to people only in proportion as we know
what people are.

Narayan's main interest lies in telling what his people are.

What they do is the consequence of what they are. His plots do not

fix his characters in the sense that those of Dickens do. To the

contrary, Narayan's plots are determined by the inner nature of the

characters portrayed. There is an air of ease and artlessness about

the arrangement of his novels. It is the ease and artlessness of life

itself.

1Henry James, The House of Fiction, ed. Leon Edel (London:

Rupert Hart-Davls, 1957), p. 95.

117
 118

In general, the structure of Narayan's plot is loose, but his

looseness Is not the plcarique looseness of 8mollett. However diverse

the material may be, he puts It together with great skill. As a result,

his plots usually, If not always, do not give the Impression of diversity

but of organic unity. This unity does not come so much from the outer

framework as from the central character of the story. His plots are

well-planned, though not always so carefully done as were Fielding's.

8ometlmes such incidents and situations are Included In the plots which

may not be necessary from the structural point of view, but their

significance for the light they throw on the inner life of the characters,

the sense of reality they evoke, the extra dimension they provide, can

hardly be minimised.
Narayan cannot be called an expert craftsman, but he has a

penetrating eye on the texture of life. He knows his Sampaths and

Chandrans from close observation. He seems to have "lived with them

2
in the full reality of the established intimacy." He knows well what

moves his people can or can not take. He does not have to dictate or

transplant them. Nor does he have to sacrifice them to the necessities

of plot. Without Imposing any limitations, he recognizes their rights

as characters. His plots lack the architectonic skill of Henry James,

^Anthony Trollope, An Autobiography, p. 202.

 119

the sweep of Alexander D iia u , tho perfection of Henry Fielding, the

richness of Whiter Scott, end the compactness of Charles Dickens.

What they do have is an intimate, warm, sincere, and sure sense of

life—'life as lived in Ifalgudl.

Plot in the sense of some dramatic clash of events is almost

absent in Narayan's novels. Nor do we have arbitrarily<Imposed

entanglements and spacious frameworks in which the characters have

the freedom to develop only up to that point when the superior judgment

of the novelist comes in to pronounce the verdict on their fate. Quietly

Narayan watches his characters, lets them grow and establish their

reality. ' The story grows out of this reality. What Edith Wharton

said of Jane Austen is equally true of Narayan:

. . .they evolve as real people do, but so softly, noise­

lessly, that to follow the development of their history is as
quiet a business as watching the passage of the season.
. . .character shapes events quietly but irresistibly as a
stream nibbles away its banks. 3

Narayan's plots are simple and organic. There are no complicated

knots to be untied on the last page of the novel, no thrills and sudden

discoveries of the hero's being the second cousin of the maharajah of a

ruling state. They are rather even, and they run on the expected lines.

^Edith Wharton, The Wrtting of Fiction (New York: Charles

Scribner's Sons, 1925) p. 128.
 120

They offer a good contrast to tko plots of Dickons, who usually

attempted vary ooapllcatad ami tight struoturas. It Is no wondar that

Dickens's plots oftan assume a falsa thaatrlcal air. Estelle's ralatlon-

shlp to tha oonvlot (Qraat Expectations) Is ona such lnstanoa. Too naat

a struotura In which avary knot has baan untiad and avary mystery

rasolvad oartalnly weakens tha sansa of raality and glvas to tha noval

tha air of a puppat show. A discriminating raadar will find It hard to

lend that "willing suspension of disbelief" of which Coleridge speaks.

Consistency and plausibility are other characteristics of

Narayan's plots. This plausibility is, in part, due to the freedom of

growth that his characters enjoy. This freedom Is, of course, different

from that which Dafoe gives to Moll Flanders. Moll virtually carries

the plot with her. It rambles from one husband to another till she begs

pardon of readers and assumes a stricter control on what had happened

to her.

"In Hardy", says E. M. Forster, "the characters have to suspend

their natures at every turn or else are so swept away by the course of
4
Fate that our sense of their raality Is weakened." This sense of reality

lias at the back of the struotura of the Malgudi novels. The sense of

*E. M. Forster, Aspects of the Novel, p. 140.

 121

fata is lngrainad In tha Orlantal mind, 5 but Narayan hardly avar uses
It as an essential part of his plots. His characters are free In motivation.

80 are his plots. For example, In The Bachelor of Arts the hero becomes

a sanytfsl and leaves his home and parents. This does not happen because

It was predestined, though Chandran's mother would surely have given

this verdict, nor is it because Narayan had to send him away to give

liveliness to the plot. It grows simply and naturally out of the character's

really feeling a strong urge to be away from the environment which reminds

him every moment of the girl he had loved and lost. Renouncing the world

and throwing away all the responsibilities of life are what a character

like Chandran would do in a similar situation. The fact that he is

disillusioned even in "renunciation" is equally plausible and adds to the

ironic interpretation of Chandran's character.

Unlike Hardy, Narayan does not depend upon accident as a means

of supplying Important plot-links or a determining factor in denouement.

But Instances can be quoted when the less motivated and sudden incidents

are given great importance from the point of view of structure. For

example, in The Guide the incident of Raju's putting forged signatures

on the legal documents meant for Rosie is a key point. It leads to his

5There is a very popular saying in Hindi which says: Karama

qatl tSre nS tare. Karama hare refers to fate or predestination. It
means, "Whatever is destined is bound to happen; nothing can be
done about it."
 122

arrest. It determines the rest of the plot. It Is the turning point of

his life—the first climax of the story (the second is Inevitable). There

is nothing very Improbable In such an Incident. 8 ometimes In life it

does happen so, but It Is certainly not enough for its being in The

Sulde- It Is hard to state what would have been a better way of

bringing the downfall of this corrupted character, but involving him

in a legal complication and then using It as a climax can not be the

only one. No doubt, it turns out to be a very convenient way of

manipulating arrangements. It gives neatness to the plot at the same

time. But the question arises! is it desirable?

The incident which causes Margayya's house of cards to

crumble (The Financial Expert) is more credible. It involves the inter­

relationship of the three most important characters of the book: Margayya,

the hero, Balu, his son, and Dr. Pal, a go-between. Margayya is a

businessman who has been amassing a large amount of wealth by dubious

means. He has, however, a good reputation. People are attracted

towards him and they readily deposit their savings with him because

he pays them twenty-five per cent interest. Dr. Pal has been a great

help to Margayya in establishing this business. The trouble comes

through the association of Dr. Pal with Balu. The son is incited

against the father. There occurs a little scene in which Margayya

loses his balance and commits the mistake of handling Dr. Pal—a key
 123

man—rathar roughly. In revenge for tha insult, Dr. Pal glvas a hint

In tha markat that Margayya's buslnaas la not going all right. A hint

la MMMfc’.iar a bualnaaa Ilka Margayya'a to fall. In laaa than an hour

and a half crowda ara pouring In demanding their money back. Super­

ficially, tha whole break-up aaama to be Incidental, almost farcical,

but actually it la there in tha basic schema of things. It fits perfectly

wall Into tha general pattern of the plot. A business such as Margayya

had could not have lasted for a longer time. His rise from a petty

moneylender of the banyan tree to a man of millions is spectacular.

So Is his fall.

Narayan's plots are simple, but they are usually full of dramatic

possibilities. The drama Inherent is often subtle. Sometimes it is even

left unexplored. Consequently, the effects achieved are not uniform.

Possibly they cannot be. The scope of a novel and the nature of its
characters naturally Influence the author In making use of these

dramatic possibilities.
Grateful to Life and Death is a simple story of a young man of

thirty who loses his wife and then tries to communicate with her spirit

through an external medium. The whole thing moves on such a level of

personal tragedy and a sense of quiet suffering that it carries the reafer

with it. This internal drama of a lonely and desolate man, almost

tricked by fate, is extremely moving. Narayan has been quite successful

 124

In providing It the background of social obligations.

The plot of Tha Bachelor of Arts is conceived on a much

lighter level. Chandran lacks the depth and intensity of Krishna.

His paislon for Malathl is a passing phase of immaturity. The aim­

lessness of his character naturally influences the shape of the events

of his l;lfe. In other words, the plot is heavily determined by this

single characteristic of the hero. His leaving home at twenty-one

and becoming a sanySsl verges more on melodrama than on tragedy.

It is very probable for a person like Chandran to take such a step.

But it does lack depth, the depth of personal tragedy. Hence, his
reconciliation provides the happy touch.

The plot of The Printer of Malcudl is comparatively more complex.

£
It involves "three minds and six wild universes." The main action goes

on rather rapidly. The interest shifts temporarily from one character to

another. Structurally considered, the role of Srlnivas is very Important.

It is he who integrates the plot and keeps the action moving. Almost

all the characters in the novel are known to us only in proportion as

they are related to him. Consistency in the use of the single point of

view Influences the plot-structure to a very large extent. The fact that

the person whose point of view is used is himself an active participant

6The New York Times Book R eview , May 19, 1957, p . 4.

 12S

in the action of tha plot Imposes a limitation on him as an observer.

What happens to Sampath after the breakdown of the whole affair and

what move he is next planning, Srlnlvas cannot tell. Sampath's own

version of his "tragedy" as he relates It to Srlnlvas after a lapse of

some time may or may not be correct. A note of slight ambiguity at

the end leaves the reader to resort to his own Imagination to find what
Sampath, being what he Is, would have done next.

The structure of Waiting for the Mahatma Is comparatively very

loose. The story rambles on. So does the hero. The main action of

the plot Is tied up closely with the political events of the period.

Srlram Is like a rudderless boat. Once Bharatl is In jail as a political

prisoner, he Is In no time led Into a position which Is the complete

antithesis of all his former beliefs and training. Part Three can be

easily eliminated from the rest of the story, and It would not do any

damage to the structure of the novel. The only Justification for its

being where It Is Is that it reflects once again the aimlessness of

Srlram1s character, the Insincerity of his political beliefs, and his

inability to take an Independent decision. His devotion to the cause

of Mahatma Gandhi is inspired, not by the spirit of patriotism, but

by the passion for a girl who Is the follower of the great man.

Part One of Waiting for the Mahatma is excellent. Here is

Narayan at his best. He shows the same grasp, the same interest
 126

In local color, tho sum mastery of organisation aa wo find in soma

of tha aarllor novala.

Part Two takoa a stroll out of Malgudl. Narayan losaa his

sura grasp. Tha action bacomas dllutad, tha trastmant dlscurslva.

Part Three, as axplalnad abovo, Is almost unnacassary. Part Pour

Is axoluslvaly davotad to Srlram's Ufa In jail. Part Flva unltas tha

lovars. Tha daath of tha Mahatma provides a convenient curtain drop.

Tha same five-part structure Is repeated In Tha Financial Expert.

A comparison of its structure with the one illustrated in tha preceding

paragraphs can give a fair Idea how a good use of external structure

adds to tha dramatic quality of the novel. The action mounts up till

the catastrophe of Part Five. The plot being heavily centered on the

chief character who can expand and adjust, the interest never flags.

There are hardly any digressions. Tha characters are few, and they are

so closely knit together that it is but natural that what happens to one

Is bound to exert considerable influence on the others. Balu's movements

form an essential part of the plot because by throwing Ught on the relation­

ship of the son and the father they reveal the hidden pathos of Margayya*s

inner life. Thus, it {fives meaning to the apparent confusion of his

character.

From the point of view of organization, The Financial Expert is

a successful book. If we can quietly accept Margayya*s spectacular

 127

rise, the rest of the story goaa on smoothly. Although hla rlao la

extremely unuaual and thara la daflnltaly a tlnga of lncradlblllty in

It, thara la nothing highly issprobable. It la a Tono-Sungay kind of

affair. With tha atata of banking In Malgudl aa It la and hla own

manipulatlona practice-parfact, thara la no wondar that Margayya can

managa to amttah c faw lakha from hla antarprlaa. Tha craah of

Margayya1a bualnaaa almoat approaohaa tha Wall Straat Craah, but

It la on a allghtly mora humbla laval.

In Tha Financial Expart transition from ona part to anothar la

logical and amooth. It la Ilka a flva-piace puzzle where each place

fita Into ona anothar. Part One deals with the Margayya of tha banyan

tr e e . Tha forty-day worship of Lakshml, the goddess of wealth, ends

this part and leads to tha publishing adventure of Part Two. The next

part presents Margayya on a search for a more respectable business

than the one he was In than. He had realised;

Money was not In Its right place hare, amidst all the
roar of printing machinery, ugly, streaming proof sheets,
and tha childish debits and credits that arose from book
sales with book-sellers and bookbuyers, who carried on
endless correspondence over trivialities about six and a
quarter and twelve and a half par cant and a few annas of
postage and so forth. 7

In Part Four Margayya la at the height of his power—the power

7The F in a n c ia l E xpert, p p . 11 7 -1 8 .
 128

of «onay. The beginning of tho noxt port finds him heading towards

disaster, which comes through his badly spoiled son Balu. The storm

oobm s and passes over. Calm prevails. However, it is not the oalm

of daath but the calm of a new life. Margayya gets ready to go back

into his old business under the banyan tree again.

The themes of Narayan's novels are Implicit in the story and

the characters. The reader is not taken by the arm to get a close view

of the author's perspective. Lack of any over-explicit thesis gives

freedom to his plots to grow out of characters and not from social and

philosophical theories. In his novels themes of love, friendship,

personal relationships and social obligations are well integrated both

with the characterization and the structure of the plots.

Although the canvas of the Malgudl novels is highly localised,

it is , within its limits, fairly broad. A cross-section of small town

life is vividly drawn. Narayan appreciates the intrinsic merit of

economy. He makes the canvas well-peopled but rarely over-crowded.

The minor characters are governed more by the necessity of plot than by

a penchant on Narayan's part for incidental local color. They are no

doubt Individualized and can be easily distinguished and remembered

afterwards, but their roles are always subordinate. The place devoted

to them in the main action of the plot is limited, and they are ordinarily

kept in their places. Naturally, the main action grows out of the
 1ZV

motivation* of tho ohlof characters.

Narayan/ however, &• not always suooassful In achieving a

complete integration of his plots and paopla. Tha lnstanoa of tha

stranga hea<baaster of tha nursary school in Qrataful tg. Ufa and Daath

is an obvious axampla of such a partial failure. Ha Is given so much

prominence in die second half of tha novel that ha saaaa to be taking

over tha plot and making It run on his own lines. His plot almost stands

apart from Krishna's . The only link that they have Is that ha is tha

headmaster of a school to which Krishna's daughter Leela goes. This

link is by no means enough to Justify his Intrusion Into tha main action

of the plot. If we consider his story as a sub-plot/ It has to be admitted

that this sub-plot is left mostly unresolved.

Thera is something theatrical in his character, his family, and

his entire background. But the questions here are these: Does the plot

really need him? Is he kept in proportion? Do the details of his life

and "death" (which had been predicted, with fortunate Inaccuracy, long

before by an astrologer) really contribute to the artistic effects of the

whole piece? Perhaps not. His talks about the new experiments in

nursery school education are not only boring but irritating, too. At

best, he is an Idealist, a dreamer; at worst, a bungling novice making

a mess of his own life and that of his family. It is a pity that Narayan

wastes so much skill on him:

 130

The traditions o f the Theatre Frangals u ssd to raqulra

th at tha number o f o b jects on tha sta g a — c h a ir s, ta b la s,
ev en to a g la s s o f w ater on a ta h ls— should ba lim ited to
tha actu al rsq u lrsa a a t o f tha draaax tha ch airs m ust a ll
ba sa t in , tha tab la c a n y som a o b ject n e c essa ry to tha
a c tio n , tha g la s s o f watar or dacantar o f wlna ba a part
Of tha dram a.”

This scanlc pilnolpla doas still sarva as a guldapost to tha novallst

as wall as to tha playwright. It makas claar how unnacassary

character* not only crowd tha soana but also confuse tha reader

uselessly. Tha headmaster of Grateful to Life and Death is one such.

A plot moves both in space and time. Tha sequence of time

as a determining factor in the structure of a novel is of great significance.

Tha s k ill w ith which a time-scheme is managed influences the scope of

the narrative. An author may relate the story entirely in the past tense,

or he may combine the past and the present. The first method is the

easiest and tha most convenient ona; the second needs a careful

handling. The two tlme-schemes have to be well Integrated; otherwise,

the result is chaos.

Narayan's Tha Guide is a good illustration of the second method.

In this book the two time schemes—Raju's past life and his present one—

are constantly alternating. His "present" life as a reluctant holy man is

seen through the author's point of view. It has a sense of Immediacy.

^Edith W harton, oj>. c l t . , p . 83.

 131

Raju's Ilia as a rall-road station food-vendor, a tourist-guide, a

sentimental adulterer and a prlsonar is told by Raju himself. Narayan

does not interfere with the hero's point of view. The interweaving of

the two tlme-sohesMs, one going straight and the other bending backwards,

Is artistic. 8uppose Narayan had stopped with the story of Raju, the

holy man, at, say, Page 100, and then let Raju relate the story of his

past life to Vslan uninterrupted. What would have possibly happened to

the novel? Monotony in tone would have been inevitable.

It is, however, not a question of monotony alone; It could not

have been possible for the author to give a complete picture of Raju—the

Raju of appearance and the Raju of reality. In the present form of the

book, Raju's charadter grows out of how he sees himself and lets others

see him and how the author sees him. Since the two points of view are

structurally so closely interwoven, but still preserve their identities,

the author's point of view serves as a flashlight in observing what actually

Raju i s .

The consciousness of time as the most predominant element bringing

constant changes in characters, which is present for example, in Arnold

Bennett's The Old Wives Tale, is hardly felt in Narayan's novels. It is

there, of course, but only in the background of the pattern of the life

depicted. And it remains there.

It was customary for a Victorian novelist to enter into the scheme

 132

of hit novel In the capacity of a presetting deity. He could easily step

into the action of the plot to explain something or to straighten the

things out. Ha could taka his reader aside and talk to him as to what

he planned to do with a particular character at a particular time. Open

sympathy for one character and condemnation for another were very

common. Thackeray Indulged in this technique rather too often. So

did Scott. Scott's explanations and his historical dlsqulstions are

frequently not narrative at all but mere lumps of explanatory matter.

Such a phrase as "our narrative is now about to make a large stride",

which serves as transition from one part of the book to another, is very

common in Scott.

Modem novelists, on the whole, are very cautious about

maintaining artistic illusion. In Narayan this illusion is well main­

tained. Even when he uses the omniscient point of view, he rarely

appears on the stage in the capacity of a director or a puppet master.

He goes from one character to another without letting the reader be

conscious of his presence. Action is usually free of any moralising

tendency on the part of the author. The Hindu philosophical attitudes

are implicit in the emotional and the spiritual set-up of the characters,

but these are never made over-explicit. Nor is any attempt made to

render them into a well-defined system of philosophy.

Who tells the story determines not only characterization, tone,

 133

and description but plot-struoture also. For example, If die story of

The Guide had been told from a point of view other than Raju's, It

would have made a tremendous difference In the method, the perspective,

and the emphasis • The only other charpcter whose point of view could

possibly have been used Is Rosie. If we make her the observer and the

narrator, a&any problems of major importance Immediately arise. Rosie's

acquaintance with Raju begins from the time when her husband hires the

services of Raju, the tourist guide. It soon grows Into intimacy and

eventually causes a break between the husband and the wife. When

deserted by her husband, Rosie decides to live with Raju. His

imprisonment, however, puts an end to this "common" life. In other

words, Rosie's knowledge of Raju is strictly limited to this particular

period only. How to make her know and relate Raju's life before he

becomes "the railway Raju", and also that part after he becomes a holy

man is a big question.

There can be perhaps many devices for getting the necessary

information. But it has to be admitted that whatever device the author

may use, there always lies the danger of letting a limited point of view

override the logic of the structure and give the impression that the story
is being made up. Moreover, it is very possible that because of a shift

in the emphasis, the story may tend to be more of Rosie than of her guide

and lover. Narayan's choice of using Raju's point of view is not only
 134

logical but also tha most appropriate ona.

Tha quaatlon of tha lnfluanca of point of viaw on atructura

whan appllad to Qrataful to Life and Daath la dlffarant. Hara tha author

and tha firat paraon narrator (who la tha chlaf oharactar alao) ara ona.

Wa know only that much In which KViihna haa participated. Ha la at

tha center; no slde-llghts are thrown at him. Thus, tha acopa of the

plot bacomaa limited, but the obvloua gain llaa In tha lntenalty with

which tha major charactera are portrayed.

Tha quaatlon of the tone of a story in its relation to the logic

of the events is an Important one. In Richard Fevaral Meredith departs

from the story tone and, disregarding the logic of the narrative, Imposes

an ending for which the reader Is not prepared. It Is, of course, one

of the rare examples of the forced tragic ending.

Forced happy endings were very common throughout the eighteenth

and nineteenth centuries. They were more or less like a convention and

had usually vary little to do with the logic of plot. 8 ometlmes the authors

received letters from readers In which they were asked not to kill a

particular character or to have anothar pair married off.

In Barchastar Towers Trollope comments, "The and of a novel

Ilka tha end of a children's dinner party must ba made up of sweet meats

and sugar p lu m s.C riticisin g this attitude Henry James says: "The

9B arch astar T o w ers, p . 229.

 135

en d in g o f • n o v e l, l a , for many p a rso n * , ilk a th a t of a good d in n e r, a

o o u rse o f d e s s e r ts an d lo e s , an d th e a r tis t in fic tio n i s re g a rd e d a s a

s o rt o f m eddlesom e d o cto r who forbids a g re e a b le a f t e r t a s t e s . " 10

N a ra y a n 's en d in g s are n a tu ra l an d lo g ic a l. U su a lly h is "happy"

en d in g s have an undertone of th e " s till s a d m usic of h u m an ity . " The

v— *

u n d erto n e is w ell s u s ta in e d throughout th e M algudl n o v e ls . H is is

e s s e n tia lly th e tra g i-c o m ic ap p ro ach to l if e . In W aitin g for th e

M ahatm a the tw o lo v e rs are u n ite d , but th e "com edy" e n d s in th e b a c k ­

ground of the trag ed y of th e M ah atm a's d e a th . This n o v e l, h o w ev er,

i s , by no m ean s, th e ty p ic a l N arayanlan n o v e l. Its m a te ria l an d sc o p e

are very different from th o se of o th e r s . It is in d ire c tly th e h is to ry of

th e In d ia of th e f o r tie s . Since th e book is a s much ab o u t th e M ahatm a

a s i t is about Srlram and B haratl, th e fic tio n a l M ahatm a h a s to d ie

w hen th e M ahatm a of th e re a l life is sh o t d e a d . N a tu ra lly , th e n o v e lis t

can n o t "prepare" th e re a d e rs for su ch a tra g e d y . If h e h ad done s o , it

w ould have been a to ta l m isre p re se n ta tio n of th e tru th . He c o u ld p erh ap s

h av e en d ed i t o th erw ise only if he h ad re d u c ed th e s tre tc h of th e tim e in

th e n o v e l. The in c lu sio n of M ah atm a's d e ath in the sto ry g iv e s poignancy

and irony to th e m eaning of l i f e .

The ending of The G uide is tr a g ic , an d th e trag e d y is m o stly

^ T h e H ouse of F ic tio n , p . 102.

 136

u n re lie v e d . The fa ll of Raju h as b a an g re a t. 80 i s h is tra g e d y .

Although h a h lm sa lf is ra sp o n slb la fo r w hat h a d o a s , th a ra s till

p e r s is ts a fe e lin g o f h e lp le s s n e s s , p a rtic u la rly to w ard s th e a n d .

A stra n g e s e n s e of fa te broods over R aju's tra g e d y . For h is d e v o te e s

he is a aw&ml, a sa g e who i s volu n tarily u n d e rta k in g a tw e lv e -d a y

f a s t for th e ir w e lfa re . From fa r-o ff p la c e s th e y com a to h a v e a

d arsh an of th is s a g e . W here is R aju? He i s stru g g lin g h ard to c h a s e

aw ay th e thoughts of food from his m ind. The stu d y of h is in n er

co n fu sio n is very re v e a lin g , and h is final re s o lu tio n to do p en an ce

thoroughly Is alm o st h e ro ic .

The B achelor of Arts is a com edy and Is m eant to be s u c h . A

g e n tle irony p erv ad es the b o o k . C h a n d ran 's h y s te ric a l co n cern over

a s lig h t d e lay of h is w ife 's le tte r a n d then h is im m ediate d ep artu re

for Taipur (where h is wife is stay in g w ith h e r p aren ts) are n a tu ra l,

though a little am using. T his Is th e sam e C handran who had

ren o u n ced the w orld and h a d becom e a s a n y a s l only a few m onths

back !

G rateful to Life and D eath i s a trag ed y w hich e n d s on a note

of p e a c e and re p o s e . It is K rish n a's com prom ise w ith th e In e v ita b le .

W hether the "moment of ra re , im m utable jo y — a moment for w hich

one fe e ls g ratefu l to Life an d D eath" is rea l o r ju s t a fan cy of h is

e x c ite d mind we do not know . This is c e rta in , th a t h e h a s a c c e p te d

 137

th e re a lity of both life an d d e a th . The r e s t of h is life Is a life of

stru g g le for tran scen d in g th e b o u n d aries of e x is te n c e an d n o n -e x is te n c e .

The P rin ter of M alqudl Is a b rillia n t book. The "ending" Is

n e ith e r tra g ic nor c o m ic . Sam path Is too big a c h a ra c te r to be c o n ta in e d

In a c o n v en tio n al e n d in g . He h a s fa ile d In h is film -m aking b u s in e s s ,

but h is s p irits h av e no t fa ile d him . N arayan d o e s not te ll u s w hat Is

th e n ex t bird of the c a tc h , but we know Sam path Is up to so m eth in g .

The ending of M a rg ay y a 's b u s in e s s h a s not en d ed him . He h a s

not only su rv iv ed the c ra s h but is In good s p i r i t s . On th e l a s t page of

th e novel he Is p lanning on going a g ain w ith h is knobby d isc o lo re d

tln -b o x to the sam e old banyan tre e to s ta rt h is life de n o u v e a u .

The Dark Room en d s in a reunion of the fam ily . It Is a lm o st

a s if I b s e n 's Nora had com e b ack to h er c h ild re n , h e r h u sb a n d , an d h er

hom e. S avltrl Is no N ora, nor The Dark Room, A D o ll's H o u s e . S avitri

h a s won h er Ind ep en d en ce by c o m p letely break in g aw ay (though, only

tem porarily) from the h o u se of th e dark room , but she d o e s not know

w hat she is going to do w ith th is new ly won in d e p e n d e n c e . It could

be p o s s ib le for a Nora to w alk out of her home and h u sb an d and liv e

a life of her own but not for th e 8a v itrl of M a lg u d i. Her d e c isio n to

come b ack to h e r h u sb an d and c h ild ren Is n a tu ra l and lo g ic a l. D eath

sh e h a s narrow ly e sc a p e d ; w hat rem ains th ere is to make a com prom ise

w ith lif e , though it is a life full of unco m p en sated su ffe rin g . W hether
 138

Ram anl, th e haughty and u n faith fu l h u ab an d , c h an g e s h la w ays or not

la an open q u e s tio n .

"There a re " , aaya H enry Jam es. "two hinds of t a s te In th e

a p p re c ia tio n of Im aginative lite ra tu re : th e ta s te for th e em otion of

su rp rise and th e ta a te for th e em otion of rec o g n itio n . It la th e la tte r

th a t N arayan g r a tif ie s . H is h e ro e s do not tak e big Jum ps, nor do th ey

d an ce on ro p e s . Nothing very s e n s a tio n a l happens In h is s to r ie s . At

b e s t th e h e ro e s go out of th e ir hom es and becom e s a n y a s l s , only to

com e b a c k , m arry, arid s e ttle dow n. Simple though h is p lo ts a re , th ey

are n e v e r d u ll. H is u nusual In te re s t In people a s p eople and in s tin c tiv e

p ercep tio n of human v a rie tie s fairly co m p en sate for the la c k of s o - c a lle d

a c tio n . It m akes N arayan s u c c e s s fu l (to borrow Ja m e s's words again) in

"catch in g th e very note and tric k , the stra n g e and Irreg u lar rhythm of

lif e , th a t Is th e attem pt w hose stren u o u s force k e ep s fic tio n upon her

f e e t. " 12

N aray an 1s p lo ts are w ell toned w ith the background of the sm all

tow n. H is u se of th is type of background I s , of c o u rs e , differen t from

th a t o f H ardy. In The Return of the N ative Egdon H eath d eterm in es the

p lo t a s w ell a s th e c h a ra c te rs . It I s , in fa c t, th e c e n tra l c h a ra c te r of

^ P a r ti a l P o rtraits (London: M acm illan and C o . , Lim ited, 1905),

p. 382.

12Ibid, p. 398
 139

th e s to ry . N a ra y a n 's M algudl is k e p t w ith in b o u n d s. It n e v e r o ver­

d o m in ates , nor does i t d ire c t th e flow of th e p lo ts . It is a background:

v iv id , a liv e , r e a l, and nothing m ore. W hat h appens to a C handran or

a S rin iv as in M algudl co u ld p o s s ib ly h av e happ en ed to them in any o th er

sm all to w n . For ex am p le, th e re is nothing p a rtic u la rly M algudl an in the

p lo t o f G ratefu l to Life and D e a th . The in flu e n ce of M algudl can n o t be

d e n ie d . It is th e re , but i t i s Im p licit and in d ire c t. It is f e lt more

d is tin c tly on th e c h a ra c te rs than on th e s e rie s of e v e n ts . There is a

kind of M algudlan flav o r around them . W hile h is p lo ts c a n be tra n s p la n te d ,

a t l e a s t th e o re tic a lly , in to an o th er s e ttin g , h is p eople c an n o t b e . They

w ould becom e e ith e r too c o n sp icu o u s or too b e little d anyw here e l s e .

In a c o n sid e ra tio n of the M algudl n o v e ls , the q u e stio n of the

developm ent of th e n o v e lis t is im p o rtan t. S tructurally c o n sid e re d ,

N a ra y a n 's la te r n o v e ls are much more organic and com plex th an th e

e a rlie r o n e s . Swam! and Friends and The G uide are alm o st a q u arter of

a c en tu ry ap art from e a c h o th e r. The f irs t w as p u b lish ed In 1935, when

N arayan w as ju s t tw e n ty -n in e . The l a t e s t, The G u id e , cam e out in 1958.

D uring th e s e tw e n ty -th re e y e a r s , th e author h a s n o t only m atured in h is

p h ilo so p h y of life but a ls o h a s g a in e d m astery over handling co m p arativ ely

c o m p lica te d p l o ts .

Swaml and Friends is a sim ple sto ry of a young In d ian boy who

fin d s th e h a lf-W e s te m lz e d sy ste m of e d u ca tio n very b a fflin g . This

 140

them e i t lo o s« ly Interw oven w ith th e them e of frie n d sh ip . The p lo t,

w hich g o n s ls ts of se v e ra l e p is o d e s som ehow Joined to g e th e r, m oves

m o stly around th e s e tw o th e m e s . The e p is o d e s are n o t e n tire ly

d isc o n n e c te d o r Irre c o n c ila b le , b u t, on th e o th e r h a n d , th e y do n o t

c o n trib u te to an y org an ic w hole a s s u c h . In f a c t, th ere is no c e n tra l

p o in t or " p e a k . " Some of th e In c id e n ts c a n e a s ily be e lim in a te d w ithou t

doing any dam age to th e "p lo t" or e v e n c h a ra c te riz a tio n . For in s ta n c e ,

the c h a p te r e n title d "The C o ach m an 's Son" c a n e a s ily be le f t ou t and

the sto ry w ill move on w ithout m issin g any lin k s . O ther In c id e n ts lik e

"Broken P a n e s" and "W hat is a T a le ? " are b e tte r In teg ra te d w ith th e

su b je c t an d the c h a ra c te rs . On the w h o le, th ere Is no w e ll-d e fin e d

developm ent e ith e r In the a c tio n or In th e c h a ra c te riz a tio n .

The w orld of Swam! and F riends Is the w orld of in n o c e n c e , but

It is not free from th e corrupting In flu en c es of th e a d u lt w o rld . Life a t

sch o o l for th e s e boys is not an e a s y a ffa ir. It g e ts e v en w orse by the

s tr ic t co n tro l Im posed on them a t hom e. The arith m e tic le s s o n s a re

in tric a te and p u z z lin g , and th e geography o n e s are d u ll, but Swaml

and Sam uel the "Pea" som ehow m anage tc k eep th e m se lv e s e n te rta in e d

by a c o n s ta n t com panionship In g ig g lin g and p a s s in g re m a rk s. It Is

refre sh in g to se e th e s e young m isch iev o u s b ra in s b u sy in d e v isin g

stra n g e m eans of e s c a p a d e s . The c h a ra c te riz a tio n m akes a sig n ific a n t

co n trib u tio n to the u n ity of im p re ssio n w hich, to som e e x te n t, h o ld s th e

 141

v a rio u s stra n d s of th s stru c tu re to g e th e r.

The In tern al stru c tu re o f th e novel I s not uniform th ro u g h o u t.

The f ir s t h a lf o f th e book (up to C h ap ter xn) Is v ery lo o s e ly o rg a n is e d .

I t ram b les a ll th e w ay from "R ajam 's T ail" to “The C o a ch m an 's B o n .N

The fin a l exam in atio n s give a l it t le clim ax to the fe v e r an d e x c ite m e n t

o f th e p rep aratio n d a y s . The "Broken P a n e s" le a d to grav e c o n s e q u e n c e s ,

an d Swaml finds h im se lf d ism is se d from th e s c h o o l. It b rin g s a n en d to a n

im portant c h a p te r of Sw am l's lif e —life a t Albert M issio n S ch o o l. N a tu ra lly

he fe e ls d e se rte d and o u tc a s t by h is f r ie n d s .

The form ation of the M .C .C . (C hapter XIII) g iv e s not o nly to

8waml a new lif e , but a ls o a stru c tu re u n ity to th e p lo t. All th a t h ap p en s

to Swaml and Raj am a fte r th e ir new a llia n c e Is d ire c tly re la te d to or

d eterm ined by the t e s t m atch th ey have c h a lle n g e d th e riv a l team to p la y .

S w am l's dram atic but unfortunate d isa p p e a ra n c e from home h a s an a ir of

p la u s ib ility . It is not ju s t a d e v ic e for se n d in g Swaml o u t of th e tow n

an d suiklng the w hole s itu a tio n c o m p licated ; It Is w e ll m o tiv a te d . W ith

Sw am i's d isa p p e a ra n c e the c ric k e t m atch h a s to be p la y e d w ithout the

"T ate" of th e tea m . No w onder the M .C .C . su ffe rs a d isg ra c e fu l d e fe a t.

That i s , how ever, not th e e n d . A rift becom es in e v ita b le in th e frien d ­

sh ip of Swaml and Rajam . Rajam can n o t forgive Swaml for h is sh a re In

th e c o lla p s e of th e ir "renow ned" tea m . Swaml s t i l l h o p es th a t he w ill

be forgiven som eday.

 142

The a c tio n of th a n o v a l, a s is d e a r , is poorly o rg a n is e d . It

fo llo w s p erh ap s no o th e r p rin c ip le but th a t of keep in g th e boys b u sy .

As th e e v e n ts happen in c h ro n o lo g ica l o rd er, a c h ro n ic le s -o f-c h ild h o o d

ty p e of p lo t i s th e in e v ita b le r e s u lt. The in te r e s t o f th e re a d e r i s

s u s ta in e d not by th e lo g ic of th e in c id e n ts , but by th e l if e - lik e

q u a lity o f th e c h a ra c te rs p re s e n te d . Another Im portant fa c to r c o n ­

trib u tin g to w h atev er u n ity th e stru c tu re h a s is th e s e ttin g . This is

N a ra y a n 's f ir s t novel an d he h a s h e re in tro d u c ed M a lg u d l. It is so

v iv id ly p ic tu re d th a t by th e end of th is sm all volum e i t i s more th an an

e s ta b lis h e d re a lity .

In The B achelor of Arts (1936) N arayan is no more "in th e w orksh o p . "

C o n sid e red from th e p o in t of view of th e s tru c tu re , it show s a c o n sid e ra b le

im provem ent over th e f ir s t book. It is not a c h ro n ic le but a fairly

p e n e tra tiv e study of C h a n d ra n 's c h a r a c te r . The p lo t grow s out of h is

re a c tio n to the e s ta b lis h e d s o c ia l tr a d itio n s . He c a n n e ith e r ch an g e

them nor a c c e p t them . He fin d s an e a s y so lu tio n of th e dilem m a in

becom ing a s a n y a s l and renouncing w orldly l if e . Sometime la te r , it

proves to be nothing more th an a sim ple d isillu sio n m e n t of s e lf . A

co m e -b ac k to the norm al life follow ed by a tra d itio n a l m arriage no t only

g iv e s m eaning to the B achelor of A rt's life but a n e a t and rounded ending

to th e p lo t of th e novel a ls o .

C handran is a t th e c e n te r of The B achelor of A rts. H is c h a ra c te r

 143

i s re v e a le d in th e s itu a tio n s for w hich h s h im se lf i s , in H u t, re s p o n s ib le .

Such in c id e n ts w hich do n o t d ire c tly c o n trib u te to th e a c tio n o f th e sto ry

e re e ith e r e lim in a te d or m uch to n ed dow n. By p u ttin g proper em p h a sis

w here i t i s d u e , c o h e re n c e is a c h ie v e d . The a im le s s n e s s o f h is l if e ,

d i s i l l u s i o n e d bom ou t of lo v e and frie n d sh ip , and th e a ttitu d e of

com prom ise are a ll w e ll-in te g ra te d w ith th e ty p e of p e rso n th a t C handran

is .

C om pared w ith Swaml and F rie n d s, th is book h a s a d e c id e d ly

Im proved o rg a n iz a tio n . The stru c tu re is lo g ic a l w ithout being fo rm al.

I t la c k s th e dram atic p e rfe c tio n of som e of th e la te r n o v e ls , bu t it d o es

p o s s e s s a n a rra tiv e e a s e , a c o n tin u ity , and a flow w hich g iv e s it a

m arked u n ity of im p re ss io n .

Another Im portant ch an g e in th e e x te rn a l fram ew ork of th e novel

is i t s d iv is io n in to four p a rts . In Swaml an d F riends th e re a re n in e te e n

c h a p te rs , and e a c h c h a p te r h a s a lit t le e p iso d e of its ow n. For ex am p le,

"G ranny 8how s H er Ig n o ran ce" forms th e s u b je c t m atter of one com plete

c h a p te r. R educing n in e te e n c h a p te rs into four p a rts is n o t Im portant in

its e lf ; i ts s ig n ific a n c e l ie s in th e in flu e n ce i t e x e rts on th e in te rn a l

stru c tu re o f th e n o v e l. Each p a rt of The B achelor o f Arts is a u n it a s

w e ll a s a p a rt of th e w hole o rg an ism . It r e g is te rs som e Im portant ch an g e

or dev elopm ent in the a c tio n of th e p lo t or th e c h a ra c te riz a tio n . P art One

d e p ic ts C handran a s th e ty p ic a l South Indian c o lle g e b o y . In P art Two he

 144

h a s becom e th a B achelor o f A rts, b u t h a s n o t boon a b ls to d ao ld a

w hat h a w ants to do in h is fu tu ra . Lova for a g irl whom ha c an n o t

m an y b a c a u s a th a lr h o ro sc o p e s do no t m atch brin g s d isillu sio n m e n t

Into h is U fa. Tha n e x t p a rt show s C handran out of M alg u d l, aw ay from

th a s ig h t of h i s l e s t lo v a . H is a x p a rla n c e s of sa v a n m onths In th a p o se

o f a s a n v i s l a re c o m p re sss d In to th is p a rt. In th a l a s t p a rt ha i s back

In h is home s a ttlln g In a jo b an d m arrying a g irl of h is own com m unity.

Tha B aohalor of A rts. In s p ita of an Im proved stru c tu ra l

o rg a n iz a tio n , w han p la c e d In th a proper c o n te x t of th a developm ent of

N a ra y a n 's a r t, I s n e a re r to Swaml and F riends th an to The F in a n cial

E xpert. As a m atter of f a c t, i t is alm o st a com panion p iec e to the f irs t

n o v e l. That I s p erh a p s one re a so n why th e M ichigan 8ta te U niversity

P re ss bought them ou t In one volum e (1954).

In th e y e a r w hich sa w th e p u b lic atio n of The B achelor of A rts,

th ere a p p e a re d a n o th e r n o v e l, The D ark Room.. S rin iv asa Iy en g ar c a lls

It an "Indian v a ria tio n on I b s e n 's A D o ll's H o u s e " ^ He h a s made

q u ite a good p o in t h e re . Some of th e s itu a tio n s of N a ra y a n 's novel

so c lo s e ly re se m b le th o se in I b s e n 's p lay th a t Iy e n g a r's com m ent does

not seem to be e x a g g e ra te d . H ow ever, one sh o u ld not d isre g a rd the fa c t

th a t th e sp irit In w hich th e c h a ra c te rs are c o n c e iv e d is e n tire ly d iffe re n t.

13K. R. S rln lv as Iy en g a r, Indo-A nallan L iteratu re (Bombay: The

In te rn a tio n a l Book H ouse L t d ., 1943), p . 45.
 145

Ramani i s too h au g h ty and a u to c ra tic for Ib a e n 's H elm ar. S av itri is

n e ith e r " s w e e t-la rk " nor "p retty d o ll-b lrd "; sh e la c k s N o ra 's charm ,

te n d e r n e s s , an d In d e p e n d e n c e . She h a s su ffe red in l if e , b u t sh e h a s

borne it q u ie tly . All th e s e y e a rs th e dark room h a s b e en th e p la c e of

h e r re fu g e . The c h ild re n know th is lit t le s e c r e t of th e "m y sterio u s "

room . At l e a s t th ey c a n figure out th a t th in g s a re not going a ll rig h t

w ith m other and fa th e r.

Ramani i s a lm o st a d ic ta to r both in h is o ffice an d h is h o m e .

B esides ow ning a big h o u se and a num ber of s e r v a n ts , he ow ns h is

w ife and c h ild re n , to o . H is word is th e la w . H is c h ild re n are v irtu a lly

s c a re d o f him , and h is w ife dare not o p p o se him on any p o in t. H is

trea tm e n t of h is w ife c a n , by no hum an s ta n d a rd s , be ju s tif ie d . H is

lia is o n w ith 8h a n ta Bai brings a c r is is in th e fam ily . W hen S av itri

c a n n o t b e a r it any lo n g e r, sh e r e b e ls , le a v e s h e r h o u se , an d g o e s to

Sarayu to find e te rn a l p e a c e in i t s w atery b e d . A p a s s in g v illa g e r ta k e s

h er out of th e w a ter before it is to o l a t e . After a few d ay s sh e retu rn s

hom e, an d a ll seem s to be w ell th a t en d s w e ll.

The c h a ra c te rs in th is novel are ty p e s , ju s t c o n v en tio n a l fig u re s .

Ramani is unredeem ed th ro u g h o u t. H is re la tio n w ith S hanta Bai is not

im p o s s ib le , but s till one g e ts th e im p re ssio n th a t th e w hole thing is

being m ade up for th e c o n v en ien c e of th e p lo t. The K rogstad a ffa ir of

A D o ll's H ouse is s t i ll more p la u s ib le and d ra m a tic a lly e ffe c tiv e than

 146

th is S h an ta Bal-Ram anl ro m an ce. The b e s t p a rt of the book Is th a t

w hich d e a ls w ith th e p rep a ratio n s for th e N a v aratrl c e le b ra tio n s .

T e c h n ic a lly , The D ark Room Is not very poor; th ere are som e good s c e n e s

In i t . But w eak an d u n b a la n ce d c h a ra c te riz a tio n sp o ils th e te c h n ic a l

e ffe c ts .

1945 sa w th e p u b lic a tio n of The E nglish T eacher (the t it l e w as

c h a n g e d to G ratefu l to Life and D eath In th e f ir s t American e d itio n , 1955).

In 1939 the au th o r (like h is new hero) had l o s t h is w ife. It is n o t known

e x a c tly w hen he s ta rte d w ritin g th e n o v e l, bu t the acu te se n se of

p e rs o n a l su ffering w hich p e rm e ates the stru c tu re of The E nglish T eacher

le a d s one to presum e th a t i t w as p erhaps w ritten when th e wound w as

s till f r e s h . The a u to b io g rap h ic al elem ent loom s larg e in the background

o f the p l o t . How much of h im se lf th e au th o r had put in to Krishna is an

in te re s tin g but a tric k y q u e s tio n . G oing in to th is d is c u s s io n w ithout an

in tim a te know ledge of th e a u th o r's p e rso n a l life is an extrem ely d iffic u lt

ta s k . T herefore, in the c o n sid e ra tio n of th e n o v e l's tech n iq u e and plot

any in flu e n c e s th a t the in c id e n ts of th e n o v e lis t's own life might have

h ad w ill sim ply be le f t o u t. An attem p t w ill be made to d e al w ith the

n o v el a s it i s .

The E nglish T each er is N a ra y a n 's f irs t trag ed y —th e trag ed y of

p e rs o n a l lo s s and lo n e lin e s s . K rishna h a s su ffered but h a s su rv iv ed the

o rd eal through c o u ra g e, p a tie n c e , and d e v o tio n . P artial s u c c e s s in h is

 147

atte m p ts to com m unicate w ith th a s p irit o f h is d a a d wife provide him

w hat h e n e e d s m ost: p e a c e and harm ony. This s e c tio n of th e plot

a p p e a rs to be an e la b o ra te fa n ta s y . But th e In te n s ity and s in c e rity

w ith w hich th e sto ry Is c o n c e iv e d , the sh arin g of K rishna's life and

fe e lin g s by th e re a d e rs m ake one fo rg et th e q u e stio n of " a u th e n tic ity ."

The a r tis tic In teg ra tio n of th e them e and th e c h a ra c te rs im pose enough

c re d u lity .

The p lo t Is sim p le , and th e e ffe c ts are a c h ie v e d through sm all

d e ta ils of th e young c o u p le 's everyday l i f e . The s e ttin g , a s u su a l in

N a ra y a n 's n o v e ls , h e lp s In e s ta b lis h in g a s e n s e of re a lity . The stru c tu re

is more lik e a fram ework th an a z lg - s a w p u z z le . W ithout bein g lo o s e , it

g iv e 8 enough freedom to th e c h a ra c te rs to e s ta b lis h th e m se lv e s a s re a l

men and w om en.

W ith M r. Sam path (1949, bu t rep u b lish e d in America under the

title of The P rin ter of M algudl in 1957) w e e n te r in to a perio d of c o m p licated

p lo ts . The novel is w e ll-p e o p le d w ithout being o v e r-c ro w d e d . There is

p len ty of hum or, b oth of c h a ra c te riz a tio n and of s itu a tio n . The s a tire ,

though w e ll-d e fin e d , is not b itte r. The com edy, w ith slig h t to u ch e s of

fa rc e , is a ll- p e r v a s iv e . And b en eath a ll th is th e re runs th e undertone

of s a d n e s s . This tra g ic -c o m lc -s a tlrlc to n e u n ite s the stru c tu ra l fram e­

work of the p lo t.

The c h a ra c te rs are brought to g e th e r, fir s t, through th e p u b lic atio n

 148

o f th e w eek ly m agazine The Banner, and th en through th e production

of th e film , MThe Burning of K am a." The outcom e is an e ffe c tiv e story

of in te re s tin g p eo p le an d th e ir co m p lica te d r e la tio n s h ip s . 8am path

tow ers over a ll o th er c h a ra c te rs , s e ts th e p ace of th e a c tio n , and

u n ite s th e v ario u s s tra n d s . There is enough Ju s tific a tio n for th e book

to be nam ed a fte r h im .

It is not only th e tone and the c h a ra c te riz a tio n w hich give

stru c tu ra l unity to th e plot; th e se ttin g h a s its due s h a re , to o . The

g roans of the tre a d le in th e Truth Printing W orks s itu a te d in the Kablr

Lane g iv e ap p ro p riate background to the n o isy dram a of th e s e "petty"

l iv e s . It a ls o c re a te s a n a tu ra l rhythm .

The stru c tu re of The F in an cial Expert (1952) r e lie s h e a v ily on

th e c e n tra l c h a ra c te r— "the s a d , a m b itio u s, ab su rd fin a n c ia l e x p e rt."

H is dream s of w e a lth , h is am bitions for a ris e in s o c ia l p re s tig e , h is

in n o cen t pride in h is b a d ly -s p o ile d so n , and h is in n er c o n fu sio n —a ll

th e s e form the ric h tex tu re of th e s to ry . The seq u en c e is sim ple but

d ram a tic . The in c id e n ts , p a rtic u la rly of th e l a s t s e c tio n , carry

co n v ic tio n in s p ite of being w hat they a re . M a rg ay y a 's m agnetic

p e rso n a lity in fu se s life in to the sk e le to n of the p lo t.

W aiting for th e M ahatm a (1955) is q uite d ifferen t from the two

n o v els w hich p rec ed e i t . The d ifferen ce is one of breadth a s w ell as

of d e p th . Thera are r.o M arg ay y as, no S am paths. In th e ir p lac e we

 149

h a v e h e re a poor v ersio n of C handran p la c e d in a d ifferen t s o c ia l

s e ttin g . They have much In common: th e ir a im le s s n e s s , th e ir rom antic

Id e a ls o f lo v e , and th e ir In c a p a b ility In m aking Independent d e c is io n s .

S rlram 's em otional Involvem ent w ith B haratl— who h a p p en s to be

a d e v o te e of M ahatm a G andhi—m akes up the e n tire p lo t. The m ovem ent

is c a u s e d more by th e o u tsid e p re ssu re of the p o litic a l s itu a tio n th an

by the in n e r n e ed of the c h a ra c te rs . Bharatl Is a lit t le too id e a liz e d ,

an d Sriram a l it t le to o f la t. As a r e s u lt, the sto ry , a t tim e s, g e ts out

of h a n d . The in te re s t Is s u s ta in e d , to som e e x te n t, by num erous o th e r

o c c u rre n c e s th a t happen In the country a t th a t time (and fill th e p a g es

of the b o o k ). The o rg an iz atio n of the p lo t is very lo o s e . It co u ld h av e

b een co m p re sse d w ith a more v ig ila n t eye on the c h a r a c te r s .

The G uide (1958) h a s a much more sk ilfu lly -m a n a g e d p lo t th an

th a t of W aiting for th e M ahatm a. It is th e sto ry of Raju a s v iew ed from

tw o p e rs p e c tiv e s . The pow er of the sto ry com es m ostly from th e c e n tra l

c h a ra c te r, who d ev elo p s and c h an g es and com bines in h im self d ish o n e sty

and c re d u lity in e q u al m ea su re . H is lo v e -a ffa ir w ith R osie, a dancing

g irl, is too co n sp icu o u s for the hum ble s e ttin g of M algudl. The p ictu re

of R aju 's background and h is childhood is very pow erfully draw n. The

tra n s itio n from the Railway Raju to M r. Raju of Lawley E xtension is

n a tu ra l but sw ift. The le g a l c o m p lica tio n s a risin g from a forged

sig n a tu re are ra th e r of the n atu re of Deux e x M a ch ln a . C e rta in ly th e s e

 150

a re not Irre c o n c ila b le w ith th e c h a ra c te r of th e h e ro . H is becom ing a

h o ly man Is alm o st lik e assu m in g a new ro le , or ra th e r being bom Into

a new l i f e . But b a s ic a lly he is th e sam e, a d o u b le -fa c e d m an.

The developm ent of th e p lo t Is d ra m a tic . The in c id e n ts co n trib u te

to th e r is e of th e a c tio n . The th e m e , the c h a r a c te r s , and th e a c tio n s

are c lo s e ly k n it to g e th e r. The c o n s is te n t u s e of the sin g le p o in t of view

in re la tin g R aju's p a s t life a ffe c ts th e stru c tu re of th e p lo t c o n s id e ra b ly .

A p e n e tra tiv e study of th e c e n tra l c h a ra c te r is s u c c e s s fu lly done through

a s h ift in th e p e rsp e c tiv e and e m p h a s is . The re s u lt is a pow erful sto ry

of w ell-d ra w n c h a ra c te rs in co n v in cin g s itu a tio n s .

From Swaml and Friends to The Guide is a long w ay . It p re s e n ts a

strik in g illu s tra tio n of an a r t i s t 's d evelopm ent. The grow th in tech n iq u e

from the c h ro n ic le -ty p e sto ry of young Swaml to the w e ll-in te g ra te d and

dram atic stru c tu re of The G uide m eans a life tim e devotion to s in c e rity ,

a r tis tic in te g rity , and c o n s ta n t se a rc h for p e rfe ctio n in stru c tu re and

e x p re s s io n . Yet The G uide is by no m eans th e end of i t . It may be only

a lan d m ark . Who knows about th e y e t-to -b e - w ritte n m a ste rp ie c e th a t

N arayan of M algudl may giv e us one day?

 C H A P T E R IV

ATTITUDES

W ife, c h ild , b ro th ers, p a re n ts, f r i e n d s . . . . We

come to g eth er only to go ap art a g a in . It Is one
continuous m ovem ent. They move aw ay from us a s we
move aw ay from th em . The law of life c a n 't be a v o id e d .
The law com es Into o p eratio n th e moment we d e ta c h
o u rse lv e s from our m o th er's womb. All stru g g le a n d
m isery In life Is due to our attem pt to a rre s t th is la w
or g e t away from i t or in allow ing o u rse lv e s to be hurt
by i t . . . . The law of l if e . No s e n s e In b a ttlin g
a g a in s t i t . *

T hese words of Krishna ra is e an Im portant is s u e w hich Is

fundam ental to N a ray a n 's b a s ic philosophy of lif e . It Is the is s u e

of the freedom of the in d iv id u a l. Are our a c tio n s p red e term in e d ?

Or are we free to choose and to a c t? Is th ere re a lly "no s e n s e in

b a ttlin g a g a in s t the law of lif e " ?

The q u estio n of the freedom of the individual a s c o n c e iv e d by

H indu th in k ers is in tim ately tie d up w ith an o th er fundam ental c o n c e p t,

the c o n ce p t of k arm a. The theory of karma does not belong to the

^G rateful to Life and D eath , p . 203.

151
 152

realm of m etap h y sics only— th e q u e stio n of being and n o n -b e in g ,

Im m ortality, and the tran sm ig ratio n of the s o u l— ; i t p erm eates

a ll a s p e c ts of the s o c ia l o rg an iz atio n of H indu s o c ie ty . A stu d y of

N a ra y a n 's a ttitu d e s w ill in clu d e th e study of th e s e fundam ental

c o n c e p ts of Hindu thought, th e s o c ia l stru c tu re of H indu s o c ie ty ,

th e im pact of W estern id e a s , and th e c h an g e s In outlo o k brought

about by su c h an im p act.

The m ost sig n ific a n t q u e stio n w ith w hich one c a n s ta rt is :

w hat is the g en eral a ttitu d e of a H indu tow ard life ? It is a key

q u e stio n , and d ire c tly or in d ire c tly , i t in flu e n c e s a ll oth er

c o n s id e r a tio n s . The very id e a l of th e sp iritu a l grow th of the

in d iv id u al is the d irect outcom e of th e way th a t a H indu lo o k s a t

lif e . All the relig io u s and the s o c ia l sa n c tio n s w hich put re s tra in t

on th e freedom of the in d iv id u al are e v e n tu a lly d eterm ined by su c h

an o u tlo o k .

From th e Vedas to the U pan ish ad s and th e P u ra n a s , one

them e w hich occu rs ag ain an d ag ain is the them e of the tra n sito ry

n atu re of th is l i f e . This life m erely by i ts e l f h a s no m ea n in g . It

is no more than a lin k betw een a previous and a future e x is te n c e .

It is Ju st a p a rt, a very sm all o n e, of the p ro c e ss of the c o n tin u ity

of l if e . It is "a ste p on a ro ad , th e d ire c tio n and go al of w hich are

lo s t in the in fin ite . On th is ro ad , d eath is nev er an end or an

 153

o b s ta c le but a t the m ost th e beginning of new s t e p s . " This p ro c e s s ,

th is c y c le of b irth s and d e a th s , g o e s on u n le s s final lib e ra tio n (moksha)

3
is a tta in e d w ithin th e sp an of a p a rtic u la r l if e .

Such an a ttitu d e tow ard life is c o u p le d w ith th e law of the

d eed and its retrib u tio n (karm a). N arayan re fe rs to th is law o f karm a

s e v e ra l tim es in h is n o v e ls . It m ight be in te re s tin g to in v e s tig a te

a t a la te r s ta g e how far the a c tio n s of h is c h a ra c te rs are in flu e n ce d

by th is b a sic c o n c e p t of k arm a. But before trying to tra c e a sy ste m

of b e lie fs b a s e d on su c h a c o n c e p t in N a ra y a n 's n o v e ls , it is n e c e s s a ry

to fin d out w hat karm a is and w hat i t im p lies for a H indu.

"Karma", according to R adhakrlshnan, "is not a m echanical

p rin cip le but a sp iritu a l n e c e s s ity . It is th e em bodim ent of the mind

and w ill of G o d ." ^ Reduced to its sim p le st and b a sic d im ensions it

^8 . R adhakrlshnan, Indian P hilosophy (London: George Allen

and Unwin L td . , 1925), II, 27.

^See M adhu Kanda and Y alnavalkya of Brhad- aran y ak a U panlgad

(The P rin cip al U p a n is a d s , e d . a n d tr a n s . S . R adhakrlshnan, New York:
H arper and B rothers, 1953) for a d e ta ile d e x p o sitio n of the n atu re of
s e lf , u ltim ate re a lity , and m o k sh a .

^Indian P h ilo so p h y , II, 73. 8ee th e S v e ta sv a ta ra U p a n lg ad ,

p a rtic u la rly , C h a p te r VI l i, p . 746:
eko d e v a s s a rv a - b h u tesh u qu d h as s a rv a - vyapl
sa rv a -b h fltln ta r- gtmB.
karm adhyakshas s a rv a - b h u ta d h iv a sa s sa k sh l
c e ta k ev alo n irq u n as c a .
"The one God hidden in a ll b e in g s , a ll-p e rv a d in g , the Inner
se lf o f all b e in g s , th e o rd ain er of a ll d e e d s , who d w e lls in a ll b ein g ,
 154

m ean s, "You s h a ll rea p a s you s o w . " S ince life acco rd in g to the

Hindu view m eans c o n tin u ity , a m a n 's v ic io u s and v lrto u s d e ed s

follow him a fte r d e ath and d eterm ine h is fa te In the n e x t b irth . God

Is Its su p e rv iso r— a K aram gdhyakshah. 5 In th e opening v e rs e of h is

g lo ss on Y alnavalkya- s m ritl, the com m entator B alam bhatta a a y s th a t

from the accum ulation of karm a grow the th ree fo ld re s u lts : f ir s t, JHtl

(birth In a high or low p o sitio n ); se c o n d , ayu (the len g th of life); and

C
th ird , bhog (the enjoym ent or su fferin g of the Individual b e in g ). But

the law of life "Is not so much Im posed from w ithout a s wrought Into
7
our n a t u r e s ." The rec o g n itio n of th is fa c t fre e s the In dividual to a c t

w ithout being under any In flu en ce of the c a p ric e s of a c h a o tic and

h a p h azard facto r c a lle d fa te or d e s tin y . W hen the sa g e s of the

th e w itn e s s , th e know er, th e only o n e , devoid of q u a li t ie s ."

5The Id ea of karm aphala (the fru ltltlo n of deeds) and reb irth
Is d ev eloped In Katha U p a n lia d (se e R adhakrlshnan, The P rin cip al
U p a n ls a d s , p p . 595-648) C h a p te r I , se c tio n 1, sh lo k a 6 of the
Katha U panlsad s a y s:
a n u p a sy a y a th a pSrve p ra tlp a s y a tathS pare
sa sy a m lv a m artyah p a c y a te sasy a m lv a
Jay a te p u n a h .
"C o n sid er how i t w a s w ith th e fo refath ers; behold how it is
w ith the la te r men; a m ortal rip en s lik e c o m , an d lik e com is bom
a g a in ."
For the sam e s u b je c t se e a ls o Brhad- Sranyaka U panlsad
III 2, 13, and IV 4, 2 -6 .

6Q uoted from P . N . Prabhu, H indu S o cial O rg an izatio n

(Bombay: Popular Book D ep o t, 1954), p . 35.

7 R adhakrlshnan, The Hindu View of Life (London: G eorge

Allen and Unwin L td ., 1927), p . 73.
 155

U p an lsh ad s sa y , "As Is h is d e s ir e , such Is h is purpose; a s is h is

p u rp o se , such is th e a ctio n h e perform s; w hat a c tio n h e perform s,

O
th a t he procures for h im self, " th ey point to th e sam e th in g .

The law of karm a h a s often b een m is in te rp re te d . This is how

M acdonnell in te rp re ts it:

A r e s u lt of th e com bined d o ctrin e of tran sm ig ratio n

and karm a I s , it is tr u e , to re c o n c ile men to th e ir fate
a s th e Ju s t retrib u tio n for d eed s done in a p rev io u s lif e ,
but on th e o th er h an d It p a ra ly z e s a c tio n , d riv es to
a s c e tic is m and m akes a c tio n s e lf-re g a rd in g , sin c e it
becom es th e aim of ev ery man to win s a lv a tio n for h im self
in d iv id u a lly , by acq u irin g the rig h t k n o w le d g e.^

A. B. K eith, a re p u te d s c h o la r of S an sk rit lite ra tu r e , a ls o in te rp re ts

the law of karma a s " e s s e n tia lly f a ta lis tic .

The law of karm a h as tw o a s p e c ts — c o n tin u ity w ith the p a s t

and the freedom of th e s e lf . T hese two a s p e c ts are not n e c e s s a rily

in c o n s is te n t w ith e a c h o th e r. To th e c o n trary , th ey su p p lem en t e a c h

o th e r. Karma in the rig h t s e n s e of th e word d o es not m ean in a c tio n .

The c e n tra l them e of th e B haqavad- G lta , th e s a c re d book of the H in d u s,

is th e them e of a c tio n . "Action" w hich G ita a d v o c a te s is not ju s t any

8R adhakrishnan, The P rin c ip a l U p a n ia a d s, p. 27 2: sa

vathakam o b h a v a tl, t a t kratur b h a v a tl, y a t k ratu r b h a v a tl, ta t karma
k u ru te , y a t karm a k u ru te , ta t a b h is a m p a d y a te .

^A. A. M acd o n n ell, L ectu res on C om parative R eligion (C alcu tta:

U n iv ersity of C a lc u tta , 1925), p . 67.

1OThe R eligion and P h ilo so p h y of th e Vedas and th e U pan lsh ad s

(Cam bridge: H arvard U n iv e rsity P r e s s , 1925), II, 596.
 156

actio n ; i t is m odified by tw o kinds of c h e c k s . An a c tio n h a s to be

perform ed w ithout s e lf is h n e s s —w ithout any d e sire for the fru its of

the actio n :

The ig n o ran t work

For th e fru it of th e ir a ctio n :
The w ise m ust work a ls o
W ithout d e sire
Pointing m an 's fe e t
To th e p ath of h is d u ty . 11

The id e a of "m ine" an d "th in e " sh o u ld not e n te r in to the a c t i o n .1^

S econdly, i t is only dharm a (right action) th a t one sh o u ld striv e for.

P harm a (which is often m is tra n s la te d into E nglish a s religion) does

not m ean ju s t w orship of God and an a s c e tic w ay of lif e , but "d u tie s"

th a t a man is e x p e c te d to perform a s a member of a fam ily, c a s t e , and

s o c ie ty . 13

The re s p o n s ib ility th a t lie s on the in d iv id u a l is g r e a t. Nothing

th a t is tho u g h t, sp o k e n , or done by him oan e s c a p e being c re d ite d or

d is c re d ite d to h is a c c o u n t. One can n o t v o lu n ta rily sto p doing karm a,

b e c a u se karm a m eans l if e . As long a s an in d iv id u a l liv e s , he h a s to

do k arm a. The freedom from karm a w hich is a p re re q u isite to the "final

1 l The Song of God (Bhagavad- G it a ) , t r a n s . Swaml Prabhavananda

and C h risto p h er Isherw ood (Hollywood: The M arcel Rodd C o ., 1944),
p . 56.
I frrhe B hagavad- G ita , e d . and tr a n s . S. R adhakrlshnan (New
York: H arpers & Brothers P u b lis h e rs , 1948), p p . 138-39 (III 19).

13 ib ld . , p . 134 a i l 7).
 157

lib e ra tio n " can n o t be a c h ie v e d by sto p p in g doing karm a but by doing

d h arm a. B h a g av a d -G ita , M a h a b h a ra ta . and S m ritie s, a ll a g re e w ith

th is b a s ic a t t i t u d e .1^

The u n iv e rse is not one in w hich ev ery d e ta il is

d e c re e d . We do n o t have a mere unfolding of a p re -a rra n g e d
p la n . There is no su c h th in g a s a b so lu te p re s c ie n c e on th e
p a rt of G od, for we are a ll h is fello w w o rk e rs. God is not
som ew here above u s and beyond u s , he is a ls o in u s . . . .
The re a l is an a c tiv e d eveloping life and not a m echaiU oal
ro u tin e . 15

Thus th e s p iritu a l elem en t in man g iv es him enough sco p e for

g e n u in e ra tio n a l freedom . Such a freedom is n e c e s s a rily lim ite d by the

n atu re (tra its w hich are inherent) of th e b e in g . M an h as c h o ic e , but the

c h o ic e is not th e sam e thin g a s c a p r ic e . Free w ill does not mean

u n re la te d , u n determ ined, and u n c a u se d c h o ic e . The law of karma

im p lies th a t man h a s the freedom to u s e h is m a te ria l. The m aterial is

in flu e n c e d by the d e ed s of th e p a s t l iv e s , but the gu id an ce for re a lis in g

th e tru th and a c tin g a cc o rd in g ly com es through Jnan (know ledge). On

th e problem of freedom for the s e lf and the law of karm a R adhakrlshnan

com m ents:

The c a rd s in the gam e of life are given to u s . We do not

s e le c t th em . They are tra c e d to our p a s t karm a, but we
c an c a ll a s we p le a s e , le a d w hat s u it we w ill, an d as we

14For a d e ta ile d d is c u s s io n of the problem s e e Prabhu, "The

B ases of Human R ela tio n s, " H indu S o cial O rg a n iz a tio n , p p . 15-69.

15Radhakrlshnan, The Hindu View of L ife, p . 76.

 158

p la y , we g a in or l o s e . And th e re is freed o m . 16

In th e lig h t o f th e above c o n c e p ts of Hindu tho u g h t, it w ill

be In te re stin g to find ou t how far N a ra y a n 's a ttitu d e tow ard lif e and

its m eaning In a ll Its a s p e c ts Is r e la te d to th e s e . B a sic a lly , h is

a ttitu d e , both a s re la te d to th e u ltim ate re a lity an d a s being j u s t a

so c ia l phenom enon, Is not d ifferen t from th a t of a tra d itio n a l H indu.

It is n o u rish e d on the sam e ro o ts , a n d i t b re a th e s th e sam e a ir , but

he is aw are of the s ile n t c h a n g e s th a t are Im p ercep tib ly c re e p in g

in to H indu s o c ia l in s titu tio n s and th u s in to the w ay of l if e . The

Im pact of W estern c iv iliz a tio n on life a s i t is liv e d in M algudl is

d is c e r n ib le , If not too o b v io u s . H ere Is a s o c ie ty w hich s till holds

stro n g ly to Its ro o ts, but th e w inds blow ing from o u tsid e hav e brought

som e ch an g e in i ts to n e and c o lo r. It is p a s s in g through a perio d of

tr a n s itio n . It is changing slo w ly a n d u n w illin g ly .

Another point w hich h a s som e sig n ific a n c e is the e x te n t and

in te n s ity of such a c h a n g e , for it h a s not b een a b le to touch a ll the

le v e ls of Hindu s o c ie ty in th e sam e w ay . Truly sp e a k in g , it is only

th e e d u c a te d c la s s w hich is re a lly a ffe c te d by i t . The m a s se s have

rem ained w hat th ey w e re, liv e and th in k an d a c t th e sam e way as

th e ir fo refath ers d id . Even in th e c a s e of th e e d u c a te d m inority the

1 6 lb ld .. p . 75.
 159

W estern In flu en c e h a s n o t m ade them abandon a ll th e old tra d itio n s

and begin on a c le a n s la te a g a in . At b e s t, th e y h av e begun to fe e l

q u ite stro n g ly an urge to s e e k n e w In te rp re ta tio n s of th e old sy ste m s

w hich h ad s ta rte d s ta g n a tin g . The n e ed for a liv in g tra d itio n Is

k een ly f e l t . V arious m ovem ents, s o c ia l a s w e ll a s re lig io u s , of

th e l a s t hundred y e a rs in In d ia , m ovem ents lik e Brahmo Samaj In the

e a s t and Arya SamSI In th e w e s t, are th e In e v ita b le outcom e of su c h

a phenom enon.

N a ra y a n 's a ttitu d e tow ard th e problem of hum an e x is te n c e and

Its v arious m a n ife sta tio n s is c o m p lete ly free from any s tra in of th a t

p essim ism w hich is often a s s o c ia te d , though w rongly, w ith the Hindu

co n cep t of mSyS (Illusion) and o th e r-w o rld lln e s s . In h is schem e of

life h is p eo p le are no t doom ed. He seem s to b e lie v e w ith th e

d istin g u is h e d p h ilo so p h e r R adhakrlshnan th a t "The w o rst sin n e r h a s

a future a s th e g re a te s t s a in t h a s had a p a s t . No one Is so good or

17
so bad a s h e im a g in e s ." N arayan Is aw are of the d iv in e p o s s ib ilitie s

of m an, though he d o es not portray s a i n ts . Of c o u rs e , he Is a ls o aw are

of the e v il te n d e n c ie s of man w hich m ake him a sin n e r an d c re a te s o c ia l

b a rric a d e s . He is e q u a lly aw are of s o c ia l and econom ic fa c to rs w hich

ten d to govern the a c tio n o f the in d iv id u a l, h is a ttitu d e tow ard s o c ia l

17lbld.. p. 71.
 160

in s titu tio n s an d h is re la tio n s h ip w ith o th e r s .

N arayan c o n c e iv e s of life in th e s p irit o f com edy, but i t i s not

a h ila rio u s an d fa rc ic a l type of com edy. There i s hope for re g e n e ra tio n ,

hope fo r the fu tu re . Even a sin n e r lik e Raju, who h a s sin n e d a g a in s t

h im self and is liv in g a double l if e , is given a c h a n c e to d e cid e for

h im self and to g iv e up h is life v o lu n ta rily . D eath c a lls him a t h is

d o o r. But he h a s a v a ile d h im se lf of th e c h an c e of becom ing h e ro ic in

resp o n d in g to i t . He is m ade a m artyr, a s a in t, a s a in t w ith a p a s t

w hich i s known only to V elan, h is d ev o ted fo llo w er. In d e ath a t l e a s t

he h a s found a n id e a l w orth striv in g fo r.

The c a s e s of th e B achelor of Arts an d the P rin ter of M algudl

are d iffe re n t. They have an o p tim istic view of l i f e . This optim ism ,

h o w ev er, is a q u a lifie d o n e . C handran h a s becom e w ise r through

ex p erien c e; he h a s le a rn e d how to fa c e life w ith co n fid e n ce and h o p e .

The c lo u d s of d isillu s io n m e n t w hich h ad made him s e e k p e ac e (or

probably revenge) in becom ing a s a n y a s l have p a s s e d a w ay . C handran

Sam path h a s a lre ad y to ld h is s e c r e t w hen he te lls S rinivas

on th e ir firs t m ee tin g , nI te ll y o u , 81r, I'm an o p tim ist in l if e . I

18
b e lie v e in keep in g p eo p le h a p p y ." He i s an o p tim ist not only in

b e lie fs but a ls o in a c tio n s . Sudden v ic is s itu d e s in h is c irc u m sta n c e s

do not throw him out of g e a r. He s till c a n p re se rv e som e b a la n c e to

18t Hs P rin ter of M a lg u d l, p . 85.

 161

sta n d and th in k o f a naw scham e to c o u n ta ra c t tha fa ilu re s o f tha

p raoading o n a . Ha c a n r is e to a ll o c c a s io n s w ith e q u al g u s to .

W h eth er i t i s Somu Sundram w ith ra is e d eyebrow s and an annoyed

fa c e over th e d e la y in th e p rinting of th e in au g ra l s p e e c h , or th e old

stin g y lan d lo rd w ith th o u sa n d s of ru p e e s in th e bank and a p e rs is te n t

re q u e s t for fin d in g a su ita b le boy for h is gran d d au g h ter of m arriag eab le

ag e m akes no d ifferen ce to Sam path. He know s w ell how to h an d le

them a ll, an d he a ls o knows w hen to quote h is g u ru 's v e rs e s :

W hen I becom e a handful of a s h w hat do I

c a re who ta k e s my p u rse ,
W ho c o u n ts my c o in s and who lo c k s th e
door of my s a fe ,
W hen my bones lie b le a c h in g , w hat m atter
if th e door of my h o u se is left u n lo c k e d ? 1**

Sam path is no t th e one to keep the door of h is h o u se u n lo ck e d , dead

or a liv e t

Sriram is j u s t th e o p p o site of w hat Sampath sta n d s fo r. For

him if th ere is any w orld it i s the one w here Bharatl l i v e s . He is lik e

a stra w in a running stream w hose fa te d ep en d s on th e sw ift c u rr e n ts .

In d e c isio n is h is "trag ic" flaw — a flaw w hich a c c id e n ta lly m akes h is

life a com edy in s te a d of turning it in to a tra g e d y . It i s h is karm a I

Coming b a c k to the freedom of th e in d iv id u a l, we may say

th a t p eople in M algudl are free but only in a highly q u a lifie d s e n s e .

19ib id ., p. 209.
 162

No doom or c u rs e h a n g s o v er th e ir d e s tin y . No m ec h ln a tlo n s of " fa te "

d is tu rb th e ir s c h e m e s . No flood oom es to w ipe aw ay th e v illa in s of

th e p lo ts . W h atev er th ey d o , th ey th e m se lv e s a re r e s p o n s ib le . No

e v il s p irits from o u tsid e a d v is e Raju to fa ll In lo v e w ith a m arried

g irl, abandon h is m other, th en go to Ja il for a forgery, an d In th e

end p o se a s a s a n y a s l, a re a l s a in t. If th e re e v e r w as any d e v il, It

w as th e d ev il In him — h is d e s ir e s , h is s e lf is h n e s s , and h is d e c e p tiv e

a p p e a ra n c e s . No one s u g g e s ts to Sriram th a t h e le a v e h is home and

h is d e a r old grandm other, and tak e to a life w hose m eaning Is beyond

h is c o m p reh en sio n . The a c tio n s of N a ra y a n 's c h a ra c te rs are ro o ted

In th e ir very n a tu r e s . A Sriram co u ld n ev er have a c te d th e way th a t a

Raju d o e s . The sim ple and very lo g ic a l re a so n is th at Raju is Raju,

and Sriram , Sriram .

It is only In th is p a rtic u la r s e n s e th a t N a ra y a n 's p eo p le are fre e .

But th e y are no t free to a c t out of th e ir n a tu re s . Their freedom h a s

s e v e ra l c h e c k s — the c h e c k s of c a s t e , re lig io n , econom y, s o c ia l

p re s tig e , fam ily s tru c tu re , and th e p re ssu re of s o c ia l re la tio n s h ip s .

This co rre sp o n d s to the Id ea of q u a lifie d freedom re la te d to the law of

karm a a s c o n c e iv e d by Hindu p h ilo so p h ers and s o c io lo g is ts . Such a

20
c o n c e p t h as a lre ad y been d is c u s s e d a t som e len g th In an e a rlie r s e c tio n .

208ee ab o v e, p p . 153-158.
 163

The q u e stio n of th e s e o h e o k s w ill be d e a lt w ith in th e s e c tio n on

H indu s o c ia l o rg a n is a tio n .

N a ra y a n 's b a s ic a ttitu d e tow ard life i s a p o sitiv e o n e . A

Krishna m ay fe e l In th e moment o f u tte r d e je c tio n a n d lo n e lin e s s

th a t th e re I s no s e n s e In fig h tin g a g a in s t th e b a ttle o f l if e , but

M argayyas an d S am p ath s, C h an d ran s and S rin iv a sa s c o n fid e n tly

d e c la re th a t a ll b a ttle s a re w orth fig h tin g . To go b ack to K rishna

(G rateful to Life and D eath), d o es h e re a lly g iv e up th e gam e thinking

lif e to be a n im p o ssib le p ro p o sitio n ? P erhaps n o t.

It i s s ig n ific a n t to in v e s tig a te how N arayan w eav es som e of

th e fundam ental c o n c e p ts of H indu p h ilo so p h y in to th e p a tte rn of life

in M alg u d l. It is n o t th e q u e stio n of im posing a sy ste m of p h ilo so p h y

on th e p h y s ic a l stru c tu re of the p lo t th a t we are in te re s te d in; w hat

in te r e s ts u s more is th e c h a ra c te rs ' w ay of life ra th e r th an th e ir form

o f th o u g h t. The n o v e lis t d o e s no t h av e to te ll us th a t a p a rtic u la r

21
c h a ra c te r b e lie v e s in th e p rin c ip le of k arm a. We know he d o e s .

21 R egarding H indu id e a s a n d id e a ls R lsley com m ents in The

P eople of In d ia (C alcu tta] T h ack er, S pink, 1908): "T hese id e a ls
a re not th e m onopoly o f th e le a rn e d , th e y a re sh a re d in g re a t m easure
by the man in th e s t r e e t . If you ta lk to a fa irly in te llig e n t H indu
p e a s a n t a b o u t P a ra m ltm l, Karma. M B y i. M u k tl, a n d so fo rth , you
w ill find a s soon a s h e h a e got o v e r h is su rp rise a t your in te r e s t in
su c h m a tters th a t th e term s are fa m ilia r to him , and th a t he h a s
form ed a rough w orking th eo ry of th e ir bearin g on h is own fu tu re ."
 164

I t i t a ll w ritte m tn h is a c tio n s . Som etim es, h o w ev er, N arayan d o e s

re fe r c o n sc io u s ly to som e su c h c o n c e p ts . It Is n o t to v e il h is n o v e ls

w ith a m e tap h y sic a l covering th a t h e d o es so; nor i s It an attem p t to

m ake u s aw are th a t th ere are som e su c h phenom ena a s karm a and

re b irth . The p u rp o ses In su c h c a s e s vary a c c o rd in g to th e c o n te x t

in w hich th e y are p la c e d .

For ex am p le, in P art One of The F in a n cial Expert th e p rie s t

who is a s s is tin g M argayya in se ttin g h is s ta r s rig h t h a s a ls o perform ed

a puih for a c rip p le d c h ild w hose co n d itio n h a s b een grow ing w o rse

from day to d a y . It is a pujh w h ich , a s th e p rie s t s a y s , w as perform ed

once by M arkandya (a m ythical figure) who c o n se q u e n tly liv e d till

e te rn ity w ithout e v er g e ttin g o ld . M argayya c a n n o t su p p re ss a doubt:

"W ill th e c h ild l iv e ? " a sk e d M argayya, h is In te re s t

co m p letely ro u se d .
"How c a n I s a y ? I t 's our duty to perform a PuJa: th e
re s u lt can n o t be our c o n c e rn . I t 's Karma. "
"Yes, Y e s ," a g re ed M argayya som ew hat b a f f le d .22

W hat In te re s t us h ere is not w h eth er any puj> c a n or c an n o t

h av e th e e ffic a c y of curing a fa ta l p h y sic a l d is e a s e , but th e p e rv a s iv e ­

n e s s of the Id eal of doing duty w ithout being c o n c e rn e d for the r e s u l t.

This is th e c e n tra l them e o f the E h a q a v a d -G lta . It b a ffle s M argayya,

b e c a u se i t Is for re s u lts (wealth) th a t he h a s com e to c o n su lt h is

22The F in an cial E xpert, p . 33.

 185

s p i r i tu a l a d v i s e r . N a ra y a n 's s lig h tly Ironic a ttltu d a tow ard th a p r la s t

m akas th a la o k of conform ity b etw aan th a a th lc a l ld a a ls an d g a n eral

p ra c tlc a a v ld a n t.

In a n o th a r p lao a In tha sam e book M argayya fa a ls s k a p tlc a l of

th a pow er o f th a m antras (hym ns). Ha lik e s to be r e a s s u re d th a t th a

In stru c tio n s of th a p r ie s t w ill, if fo llow ed p ro p erly , produce a v a s t

am ount o f w e a lth . Ha a s k s the p rla s t:

"W ill th ey produce r e s u lts ?"

"Who c a n s a y ? " th a p rie s t a n sw e re d . "R esults a re
not in our h a n d s . " 23

The p r ie s t h a s c o m p letely sn u b b ed him:

M argayya fe lt c ru sh e d under th is m etap h y sic a l e x p la n a tio n .

He bow ed h is h e a d in h u m ility . The p r ie s t c lo s e d one door,
h e ld h is hand on the o th e r, an d sa id : "The S h a stra s la y
dow n su c h and su c h ritu a ls for su c h and su ch e n d s . Betw een
a man who perform s them and one who d o e s n 't, th e c h a n c e s
are g re a te r for th e form er. T h a t's a ll I c a n s a y . The r e s u lts
a r e . . .y o u may have r e s u lts or you may n o t . . .o r you may
h av e r e s u lts and w ish th a t you had fa ile d — " 24

It is very c o n v en ien t for th e p rie s t to red u c e e v ery th in g to the

la w o f p ro b a b ility . It p re su p p o se s a c a p ric io u s d iv in e schem e

re v e llin g in giv in g s u rp ris e s to m o rta ls . W hat the p rie s t s a y s about

r e s u lts i s , no d oubt, b a se d on th e te a c h in g s of G ita , but i t is s t i l l not

th e sa m e . In G ita K rishna s a y s to Arjun, "Do your dharm a w ithout

23 l b ld ., p . 56.

24Lo c . p i t .
 166

th in k in g of tho f r u i ts . " Horo in Tho F in a n cial Export wo h av e a lm o st

th a sam o w ords b u t plaood in a d iffe re n t c o n te x t. It i s for th e en d s

th a t th e p rie s t h a s a d v ise d M argayya to perform c e rta in r i t u a l s . The

" ritu a ls " h av e nothing to do w ith th e c o n c e p t of doing dharm a o r o n e 's

d u ty . Iro n ic a lly enough, M argayya is s ta rtin g w ith th e " e n d s . " T here­

fore , th e v ery q u e stio n of being in d iffe re n t to them d o e s not a r i s e .

Another in te rp re ta tio n of th e law of k arm a, w hich is c o m p lete ly

f a ta lis tic in i ts im p licatio n and w hich is no t very uncommon in In d ia ,

is th a t g iv en by C h a n d ran 's m other. Birth, m arriag e, d e a th , th e th re e

m ajor p h a s e s of hum an e x is te n c e , are in th e H indu mind tie d up w ith

th e c o n c e p t of k arm a. According to th is in te rp re ta tio n , e v ery th in g is

p red eterm in ed , p rec o n ce iv ed , and p rea rran g e d . T alking of m arriag e,

C h a n d ra n 's m other say s:

It is a ll a m atter of f a t e . You c a n m arry only th e p e rso n

whom you are d e stin e d to marry an d a t the a p p o in te d tim e .
W hen th e tim e c o m e s, l e t h er be the u g lie s t g irl, s h e w ill
look a ll rig h t to th e d e stin e d e y e . . . . It is a ll s e t tl e d
a lre a d y , th e h u sb an d of every g irl and w ife of ev ery m an.
It is in nob o d y 's c h o ic e . 25

Such an approach red u c es th is u n iv erse in to an ex trem ely n e a t little

c h e c k e r board in w hich every m ovem ent of th e In d iv id u al h as b een

p lan n ed by an e x te rn a l agency c a lle d fa te even before h e is b o m . In

su ch a schem e th e q u e stio n of c h o ic e can n o t a ris e s in c e c h o ic e is not

^ The B achelor of Arts, p . 158.

 167

In any o n e 's pow er. Such an a ttitu d e c a n be very c o n v e n ie n tly made

a n e x c u s e for In e rtia and tim id ity . It fre e s th e In dividual from any

re s p o n s ib ility w h a tso e v e r. At th e sam e tim e , i t d e n ie s th e In d iv id u al

an y sc o p e o f re p e n ta n c e and im provem ent. The sin n e r Is to ld , "Not

o n ly a re you a w reck , but th a t is a ll you co u ld e v e r h av e b e e n . That

26
w as y our p re -o rd a in e d bein g from th e beginning of tim e . " No w onder

If we fin d In th e s o c ia l h isto ry of th e cou n try su c h an approach being

m ade som etim es a w eapon of e x p lo itatio n of th e Shudrae (the fourth

an d th e lo w e st c a ste ) by th e upper c a s t e s .

Before going in to th e in d iv id u a l an d the s o c ia l a s p e c ts of th e

la w of karm a a s re v e a le d in the H indu sy ste m s of Sshram a (different

s ta g e s of m a n 's life) and of v aran a (c a s te ), N a ra y a n 's a ttitu d e tow ard

su c h c o n c e p ts a s lif e a fte r d e a th , im m o rtalallty , a n d tran sm ig ratio n

of so u l may be b riefly to u ch ed upon.

The very p lo t of G rateful to Life an d D eath strongly su g g e sts

a b e lie f In som e kind of life a fte r d e a th . S u sh ila , K rishna's w ife,

not only com m unicates w ith h er h u sb an d a fte r h er death, sh e is aw are

of e a c h an d every m ovem ent th a t he ta k e s in th is w orld. She o b se rv e s

ev en h is th oughts th a t p a s s through h is su b c o n sc io u s or h a lf-c o n s c io u s

mind from tim e to tim e . A " sp irit" Inform s him , "The lad y w an ts to sa y

26R adhakrlshnan, The H indu View of L ife , p . 76.

 168

th a t sh e la aa d e ap ly devoted to h er huab an d an d c h ild and th e fam ily

aa e v e r. She w atch ea o ver them and pray a for th e ir w e lfa re — only 8he

la a b le to a e e th in g s far more c le a rly th an w hen sh e w as on e a rth ,

27
alth o u gh you are not aw are of my p re s e n c e a t t i m e s . "

And a g a in ,

H ere we a re , a band of s p ir its w h o 'v e b e en w orking to

bridge th e gulf betw een life and a f te r lif e . 28

. . . p le a s e u n d erstan d th a t th is work may re v o lu tio n iz e

hum an Id e a s , and th a t you a re p lay in g a v ita l p e rt In I t.
T his Is an attem pt to turn th e o th er sid e of the m edal of
e x is te n c e , w hich is c a lle d D e a th . 2$

But w hen the h ead m aster of G rateful to Life and D eath is a s k e d about

h is b e lie f in d eath and a fte rlife , he h a s a d ifferen t answ er:

It Is a ll a m atter of p e rso n a l faith an d c o n v ic tio n .

But I am not In te re s te d In life a fte r d e a th . I h av e no
opinion e ith e r w a y . There may be a c o n tin u a tio n In o th er
s p h e re s , under o th er c o n d itio n s, or th ere may no t b e . It
is Im m aterial to m e. The only re a lity I re c o g n iz e Is d e a th .
To me It is nothing more th an a f u l l - s t o p .30

O nce ag ain he c la rifie s h is p o sitio n :

27Qrateful to Life and D e a th , p . 131.

28I b ld ., p . 126.

2 9 lb ld .. p . 129.

3 0 i b l d . , p. 187.
 169

But my tru s t Is only In reg ard to m a tters of th is lif e ,

not an in ch b e y o n d .. . . My know ledge o f p a s t , p re s e n t,
a n d future s tric tly p e rta in to th is l i f e . Beyond th a t I h av e
nothing to s a y , b e c a u s e I b e lie v e I s h a ll o n ce a g a in be
re s o lv e d in to th e fiv e e le m e n ts of w hich I'm com posed:
and my in te llig e n c e a n d memory may n o t be more th an
w hat we s e e in a ir a n d w a te r. ^

In v iew of th e s e c o n flic tin g o p in io n s of h is c h a r a c te r s , It Is

ra th e r d iffic u lt to te ll w hat may be the n o v e lis t's own a ttitu d e to th is

problem . Like Krishna he may b e lie v e In a fte rlife , or lik e th e h e a d -

32
m aster he may c o n sid e r d eath a s a f u ll- s to p . C o m p ara tiv e ly , the

h e a d m a s te r's view s ap p ear to be more so u n d and r a tio n a lis tic .

The sam e d iffic u lty a ris e s when a n attem p t is m ade to d ed u ce

th e a ttitu d e of the n o v e list tow ard the c o n c e p t of reb irth an d tr a n s ­

m igration of so u l from w hat som e of h is c h a ra c te rs th in k and b e lie v e .

There is a good d e al of c o n s is te n c y , but th e p o s s ib ilitie s of c o n tra ­

d ictio n are e v e r p re s e n t. B eliefs In re b irth and tran sm ig ratio n of so u l

are som e of th e commonly b e lie v e d c o n c e p ts of H indu s o c ie ty . The

p h ilo so p h ic al b a s is of th e s e c o n c e p ts a s re v e a le d in a n c ie n t H indu

te x ts h a s b een d is c u s s e d e a rlie r In the c h a p te r. The m ain in te r e s t

h ere Is In th e ir e th ic a l im p lic a tio n s . T hese c o n c e p ts are not lim ite d

3 1 lb ld ., p . 187.

3 2por th e view of the U p an lsh ad s on the problem of S elf a fte r

d eath s e e Brhad-B ranyaka U panlaad (R ad h ak rlsh n an 's The P rin cip al
U panlsads) IV, 3, 35-38 and IV, 4, 1 -2 4 .
 170

to th e m etap h y sic a l tr e a tis e s of s h ts tr a k S r s : th e y a re a ll-p e rv a s lv e

in th e b e lie fs , thoughts and a c tio n s of th e common m an. T hese

b e lie f s , how ever, a s they have p a s s e d from g e n e ra tio n to g e n e ra tio n

h av e accu m u lated som e "alie n " m a tte r, a l it t le c o n tra d ic tio n h e re , a

dogma th e r e . But on the w hole th e y h av e fo llow ed th e m ain r o o ts . In

s p ite of th e Im pact o f W estern I d e a s , p eo p le in In d ia e v e n to d ay

s t i ll b e lie v e In th e c o n c e p t of re b irth , In th e la w of karm a a s an

a c tiv e p rin c ip le su s ta in in g l i f e . It is very n a tu ra l for th e old h o u se ­

ow ner of G rateful to Life and D eath to sa y : "C o lleg e te a c h e rs I I

rev e re c o lle g e te a c h e rs , our G u ru s. M erito rio u s d e e d s in p rev io u s

OO
b irth s make them gurus In th is lif e " This is not only a b e lie f In the

p rin cip le of re trib u tio n , but a ls o a c o n v ic tio n of th e c o n tin u ity of l if e .

It a ls o re fle c ts th e s o c ia l a s p e c ts of the la w of karm a an d th e re lig io u s

and s o c ia l sa n c tio n s of c e rta in o c c u p a tio n s .

According to the Hindu sh fistra s th e re are four fa c to rs w hich

In flu ence man a s a s o c ia l b e in g . T hese are d e sh a (p la c e ), k a la (tim e),

shram a (effo rt), and gun a (inherent t r a i t s ) . The a c c e p ta n c e of d e sh a

and k a la a s determ lng fa c to rs allo w s sc o p e for v a ria b ility and m o d ifica­

t i o n . 34 It m akes the g o o d n ess or b a d n e ss of a p a rtic u la r a c tio n r e la tiv e .

33N aray an , G rateful to Life and D e a th , p . 25.

34Q uoted from Prabhu, H indu S o cial O rg a n iz a tio n , p . 73.

 171

Tha c irc u m sta n c e s u nder w hich su c h an a c tio n is perform ed d e c id e

w h eth er It should be Ju s tifie d or n o t. Por ex am p le, Sriram*s le a v in g

h is home and h is old grandm other c a n be Ju s tifie d if we c o n s id e r the

fa c to rs of d e s h a , k l l a , and h is co n trib u tio n to th e stru g g le for

n a tio n a l freedom .

It is im p ortant to no te how N arayan p la c e s shram a and guna

in the schem e of s o c ia l o rg a n iz a tio n . U nder shram a man is c o n sid e re d

a s o c ia l being w ith re fe re n c e to h is train in g and developm ent in th e

n a tu ra l an d s o c ia l env iro n m en t. The fa c to r of guna s tu d ie s man in

re la tio n to h is n a tu ra l d is p o s itio n and a ttitu d e s . The stu d y of th e s e

tw o fa c to rs le a d s e v e n tu a lly to th e stu d y of two co rresp o n d in g sch em es

of Hindu s o c ia l stru c tu re , ash ram a (sta g e s of life) and v a ra n a ( c a s te ) .

In order to u n d e rsta n d N a ra y a n 's g e n eral a ttitu d e tow ard th e s o c ia l

o rg a n iz atio n of the s o c ie ty he w rites a b o u t, i t is n e c e s s a ry to

e v a lu a te , if p o s s ib le , the re la tiv e e m p h a sis th a t he p u ts on th e s e

f a c to r s . It h a s a double s ig n ific a n c e , b e c a u se once ag ain i t ta k e s

u s back to the o rig in a l q u e stio n w ith w hich th is stu d y of a ttitu d e s

b e g an , th e q u e stio n of the freedom of th e in d iv id u a l. A to o -rig id

in s is te n c e on th e v ara n a sy ste m and a ll th a t i t im p lies w ill not only

pu t a h eav y lim ita tio n on th e freedom of th e in d iv id u a l, i t w ill a ls o

a u to m a tic a lly assu m e com plete co n tro l on the p a tte rn of s o c ia l b e h av io r.

E ty m ologlcally, the word ash ram a is d eriv ed from th e S an sk rit

 172

ro o t w ord sh ram a, w h ich m oans "to s x s r t o n a s a l f ." By d e riv a tio n it

may m ean e ith e r a p la c e w here e x ertio n i s perform ed or th e a c t of

perform ing e x e rtio n s .35 in i t s s p e c ific co n n o ta tio n th e word s ig n ifie s

a h a lt in th e Journey of m an 's l if e . From the tim es of th e V edas and

th e U p a n ish a d s, H indu p h ilo so p h e rs and s o c io lo g is ts hav e re c o g n ise d

four a sh ram a s in m a n 's l if e . The f ir s t in order is th e brahm achary-

ish ra m a (that p a rt of life w hich sh o u ld be c o m p letely d e v o te d to

acq u irin g k n o w led g e). The se c o n d is th e q rlh a s tis h ra m a (the tim e

w hen one a ssu m e s th e r e s p o n s ib ilitie s of m arried l i f e ) . One is

su p p o se d to be in th is a sh ram a for tw e n ty -fiv e y e a r s — from th e age

of tw e n ty -fiv e to fifty . The n e x t p e rio d , from fifty to s e v e n ty -fiv e ,

i s known a s th e v S n a p ra s th ls h ra m a . It is tim e for one to be fre e from

th e s o c ia l and fam ily o b lig a tio n s and le a d a re tire d lif e of m ed itatio n

in f o r e s ts . The fourth an d th e l a s t is th e sa n y a s a s h ra m a . It m eans

life of co m plete re n u n c ia tio n . From the poin t of view of s o c ia l

v a lu a tio n , the se c o n d a sh ram a is giv en su p erio rity ; from th a t of

a c q u isitio n of know ledge by th e in d iv id u a l the brahm acharyashram a

w ould evoke th e h ig h e s t p ra is e ; w h ile from the poin t of view of the

in d iv id u a l's sa lv a tio n th e sa n y a sa sh ra m a w ould tak e th e p la c e of

honor.

35gee P . D e u s s e n , "A shram a, 11 E ncy clo p aed ia of R eligion and

E th ic s, e d . Jam es H a stin g s (N ew Y ork: C . S c rib n e r's s o n s , 1924-1926),
p p . 1 2 8-131.
 173

Realistically speaking, this scheme of ishramas has lost much

of Its meaning la modem tim es. The strict code of adapting to this

pattern Is not only neglected. but also thought to be unnecessary . . .

Of o o u rse , p eo p le do le a d som e s o rt of s tu d e n t life (How d ifferen t

In d eed from th e o rig in a l H indu Id e a ls a n d p r a c tic e s ) , m arry a n d s e ttle

down In g r lh a s th is h ra m a , bu t v ery few re tire to fo re s ts and th e n renoun ce

th e w orld by becom ing s a n y a s l. A g la n c e a t th e w orld of M algudl can

w ell I llu s tr a te th is p o in t. 8waml and Friends an d The B achelor of Arts

p re s e n t a p ictu re of m odem "b rah m ach ary ash ram a"— Swaml in h is

Albert M issio n S chool, C handran w ith h is M ohans and V eerasw am ls.

O ther c h a ra c te rs in the r e s t of th e n o v e ls h av e su re ly p a s s e d through

su ch o rd e a ls a s poor Swaml h a s to stru g g le w ith , but th e y e n te r our

n o v e ls a little la te (and th u s d ep riv e us of a c h an c e to sym pathize

w ith them o ver th e ir too p itia b le l o t ) . A ccording to the a c c e p te d

tra d itio n s of b rah m ach ary ash ram a, a stu d e n t is e x p e c te d to le a d a

life of rigorous d is c ip lin e and p u rity and sh o u ld not even th in k of the

o th er s e x . How d is c ip lin e d C h a n d ra n 's life is we a ll know . It is

p erh ap s the d is c ip lin e of in d is c ip lin e . As far a s the is s u e of s e x is

c o n c e rn e d , C handran is n o t only a ttra c te d by M a la th l, he is read y to

fig h t w ith h is p a re n ts and th e s o c ie ty to se e h is m arriage w ith M alath i

s e ttle d .

Q rlhaath& shram a se em s to be th e c o rn e rsto n e of M alg u d l. Tb9

 174

n o v e lis t a p p e a rs to be q u ite a n x io u s to s e e th a t everybody in h is

n o v e ls is m arried , or i s g e ttin g m arried . On th e o th er h an d , w e do

n o t h av e anyone g e ttin g rea d y for v a n a p ra sth S sh ra m a . No one g o e s to

f o re s ts to re tire from l i f e . Sam path v is its th e Mempl F o re sts (Peak

H ouse is s itu a te d in th e s e fo re sts) w ith th e a c tr e s s Shanti no t to

re tir e from life b u t to acq u ire som e m o re.

Sanyffsls in M algudl a re ra th e r too m any. In The B achelor of

Arts C handran becom es a s a n y a s l but only in a q u a lifie d s e n s e and

th a t, to o , for a sh o rt w h ile . O nce he is b ack in M algudl, th in g s

som ehow g e t stra ig h te n e d ou t in no tim e . In The P rinter of M algudl

th e o ld lan d lo rd p o se s a s a s a n y d s l. In The G uide Raju h a s no other

o p tio n but re a lly to becom e o n e , a t le a s t in th e e y e s of the p e o p le .

Sriram (W aiting for th e M ahatm a) w ould su re ly have becom e one if

N arayan h ad not arran g ed h is m arriage in tim e, or if Bharatl had

a s k e d him to be o n e . The h e a d m a ste r of G ratefu l to Life and D eath

c a n n o t perh ap s d e cid e to w hich a sh ram a he b elongs ( An unhappy

r e s u lt is a c u rio u s m ixture of a ll th e four a s h ra m a s . W hatever may be

th e c a s e , one th in g is c e rta in about a ll th e s e s o - c a lle d s a n y a s is :

th e y are a ll fake o n e s , c irc u m s ta n tia l s a n y B s is .

Com ing b a ck to C handran an d h is Albert M issio n C o lle g e , we

are re a lly not in te re s te d in w h eth er a p a rtic u la r c h a ra c te r o b se rv e s a

p a rtic u la r ru le of su c h a life a s la id down in th e sh & stra s. In f a c t ,

 175

th la q u e stio n d o es n o t a r is e . After a ll , Albert C o lleg e Is not run by

a h la tr a a b u t by P rin c ip a l Brown, and C handran Is liv in g In th e

tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , n o t th e tw e lfth . S till, we a re In te re ste d In

know ing to w hat e x te n t does th is sy ste m of e d u catio n w ith w hich

M alg u d l, lik e th e r e s t of th e co u n try , Is b le s s e d In flu en ce th e p a ttern

o f life w hich rem ains alm o st th e sam e a s It w as In the tw elfth cen tu ry

A .D . o r ev en B .C . (for It m atters l i t t l e ) .

It Is a w e ll-re c o g n iz e d fa c t th a t th e sy stem of e d u c a tio n of

a s o c ie ty e x e rts trem endous In flu en ce on its life and g e n eral o u tlo o k .

E ducation is a s ig n ific a n t an d pow erful s o c ia l instrum ent w hich can

be put to any u s e . If h a n d led p roperly, i t c a n train th e in d iv id u al to

p lay h is ro le in s o c ie ty s u c c e s s fu lly ; it c a n eq u ally be made a tool of

v ic io u s propoganda. It c a n a ls o c re a te an a ttitu d e of re v o lt a g a in s t

tra d itio n s and a g e -o ld c u s to m s . This is e x a c tly w hat i t h as trie d to

do in In d ia .

The sy stem of e d u ca tio n w hich is p rev alen t in M algudi h a s a

long an d in te re s tin g h isto ry of its ow n. It is th e h isto ry of th e

predom inance of one s e t of v a lu e s over a n o th e r. It h a s not ev o lv ed

out of th e ro o ts; it h a s b een tra n s p la n te d from an a lie n s o il. The

r e s u lt h a s b een a cu rio u s hybrid s p e c ie s w hich is n e ith e r E astern

nor W e ste rn . It h a s no t c h an g ed i ts e l f w ith the changing n e ed s of the

tim e . Its prim ary aim , w hen It w as firs t im ported, w as to tra in a

 176

num ber of b ib u n (clerks) so th a t th s y m ight h a lp a handful of E ng lish ­

m an to ru le th is country of v a s t d im e n sio n s. The fa c t rem ain s a f a c t

from w h atev er a n g le i t i s s e e n (e x c e p t, of c o u rs e , th e a n g le of th e

th e n H is M a je sty G overnm ent). W hen Lord M acau lay made th e

follow ing rem ark in the c o n c lu sio n o f h is fam ous M inute of February

26, 1835, he did not r e a lis e th a t he w as m aking h isto ry :

I th in k i t i s d e a r th a t we a re no t fe tte re d by any p led g e

e x p re ss e d or im plied; th a t we a re free to em ploy our funds
a s we c h o o se; th a t we ought to em ploy them in te a c h in g
w hat is b e s t w orth knowing; th a t E nglish is b e tte r worth
knowing th an S a n sk rit or Arabic; th a t th e n a tiv e s a re
d e siro u s to be tau g h t E n g lish , an d are no t d e siro u s to be
tau g h t S a n sk rit or Arabic; th a t n e ith e r a s th e lan g u a g es
o f la w nor a s th e lan g u a g e s of re lig io n hav e th e S a n sk rit
and Arabic any p e c u lia r c la im to our encouragem ent; th a t
It is p o s s ib le to make n a tiv e s o f th is country thoroughly
good E nglish sc h o la rs; an d th a t to th is end our e ffo rts
ought to be d i r e c te d .. . . The la n g u a g e s of W estern
Europe c iv iliz e d R u ssia . I c a n n o t doubt th a t th ey w ill
do for th e H indu w hat th e y have done for th e T artar.

I t re fle c ts more th a n anything e ls e M a c a u la y 's d e lib e ra te

ig n o ran ce of th e rich h e rita g e of the p a s t of In d ia . Y es, the sy ste m

of e d u c a tio n w hich he cham pioned h a s " c iv iliz e d " the " n a tiv e s ." It

h a s brought th e W est to the very h e a rt of th e c o u n try . It h a s given a

se rio u s blow to th e overriding d istin c tio n s of c a s te w hich e n a b le d

c e rta in c a s te s to m aintain th e ir suprem acy a t th e e x p e n se of o th e r s .

H ow ever, a ll h a s not been fo r the b e s t . This sy ste m of e d u ca tio n

36Q uoted from Ramsay M uir, M aking of B ritish In d ia (M an ch ester:

M a n c h e ste r U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1923), p . 301.
 177

w a s lim ite d to only a sm all c la s s of p e o p le . In Its e ffo rts to w ipe

o u t th e d is tin c tio n s o f c a s t e , i t I ts e lf h a s c re a te d a n o th e r " c a s te " — th e

" c a s te " of th e e d u c a te d c l a s s . The m a s se s of p eople w ho liv e in

v illa g e s h av e b een le f t a lo n e . T hus, a big vacuum h a s b een c re a te d

b e tw een th is new " c a s te " and the "teem ing m illio n s ." W hat

C unningham s a id In M odem In d ia and th e W est Is sig n ific an t:

A cen tu ry h a s p a s s e d sin c e the in ce p tio n of th e p o lic y of

ed u ca tin g India on W estern l i n e s . N inety p e r c e n t o f th e
people a re s till Illite ra te an d th e n a tio n a l econom y I s not
su ffic ie n tly a d v an ced to provide su ita b le em ploym ent for
more th an a fra c tio n of th e e d u c a te d m inority. P ro g ress
h a s been ham pered, and Is s till ham pered, by th e u s e of
a foreign lan g u ag e for a ll th e p u rp o se s of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .
The a u th o rity of relig io n h a s been w eakened a n d w ith It
th e s o c ia l order w hich it s a n c tio n e d . Our e d u c a tio n h a s
Ignored relig io n an d brought nothing of equal v a lid ity to
tak e its p la c e .® 7

And a g a in ,

It is unfortunate th a t the advance of e d u c a tio n , so In s p ire d ,

sh o u ld h av e o u tp aced the s o c ia l and econom ic developm ent
of th e c o u n tr y .3®

W hat Q andhl s a id in a sp e ec h d e liv ere d a t the Royal In s titu te

o f In te rn a tio n a l a ffa irs in London on O ctober 20, 1931, i s s till true:

"The B ritish a d m ln stra to rs, w hen th ey cam e to In d ia , in s te a d of tak in g

®7M odem In d ia and th e W e s t , e d . L .S .8 . O 'M a lle y (London:

Oxford U n iv e rsity P r e s s , 1941), p p . 1781179.

38 ib ld . . p . 182. C unningham w as in th e Indian E d u cational

S erv ice for se v e ra l d e c a d e s . He w as D irector of Public In stru c tio n
in Assam for som e tim e . H is a n a ly s is of the s itu a tio n i s fairly
re lia b le .
 178

39
h o ld of th in g s a s th a y w a re , b ag an to ro o t tham o u t . " W hataver

m ight h a v a b aan th a c a u s e s , th a fa c t s ta n d s th a t th a sy ste m of

e d u c a tio n , w hich N arayan p re s e n ts in h is n o v e ls , is h ard ly a d e q u a te

for providing th a train in g th a t h is p eople n e e d . C h an d ran , b a ffle d ,

c o n fu se d , unable to d e c id e w hat to do w ith h is d eg re e of B achelor

of A rts, is th e ty p ic a l product of su ch a s y s te m . W hen Krishna

(G rateful to Life and Death) s a y s , "This e d u c a tio n h ad re d u c e d us

to a n a tio n of morons; we w ere stra n g e rs to our own c u ltu re and cam p

40
fo llo w ers of an o th er c u ltu r e , feed in g on le a v in g s an d g a rb a g e , " he

is n o t very much o v e rsta tin g th e s itu a tio n .

"Know ledge, " s a y s R ad h ak rish n an , "is not som ething to be

p ack ed aw ay in som e c o m e r of our b ra in , but w hat e n te rs in to our

b e in g , co lo u rs our em otion, h a u n ts our s o u l, and is a s c lo s e to us a s

life i t s e l f . It is th e o v e r-m a ste rin g pow er w hich through th e In te lle c t

m oulds th e w hole p e rs o n a lity , tra in s th e em otions an d d is c ip lin e s th e

w ill. It le a v e s us w ondering how fa r aw ay is th e sy ste m of e d u c a tio n

w hich N arayan c ritic iz e s from su c h a c o n c e p t of k n o w led g e.

39Q uoted from Sir P h illip H artog, Some A spects of In d ian

E d u catio n , P a st and P re s e n t, U n iv e rsity of London In s titu te of
E ducation, S tu d ies and R eports, VII, 1939, p . 69.

^ G r a te f u l to Life and D e a th , p . 205.

In d ian P h ilo so p h y , I, 431.

 179

The n ex t s ig n ific a n t s o c ia l in s titu tio n i s th a t o f m arriag e .

Among H indus m arriage is g e n e ra lly c o n sid e re d to be o b lig a to ry for

e v ery p e rs o n . It is lik e a s o c ia l and re lig io u s d u ty . This id e a w as

w e ll e s ta b lis h e d e v en in th e Vedic a g e . S everal p a s s a g e s in the

T a ittiriy a Brlhm ana show th a t an unm arried p erso n is from th e

re lig io u s p o in t o f v iew c o n sid e re d to be inco m p lete and is n o t fu lly

e lig ib le to p a rtic ip a te in re lig io u s c e re m o n ie s . In th e Ram ayana i t is

s a id th a t w hen Ram C handra w a s perform ing th e a s h v a -m e g h a y a q y a ,

h e h ad to g e t a n im age of S ita (who w as a t th a t tim e liv in g in a ju n g le

in a n e x ile d sta te ) p u t by h is s id e so th a t h is o fferin g s to G od co u ld

be a c c e p te d . The m odem p ra c tic e of k eeping a b e te l nut by o n e 's sid e

A0
in th e a b se n c e o f o n e 's w ife p o in ts to th e sam e b e lie f . M oreover,

i t is b e lie v e d th a t one c a n n o t a c h ie v e m oksha a fte r h is d e a th u n le s s

o b la tio n s a re o ffered to the g o d s and th e a n c e sto rs by h is s o n . T hus,

th is b e lie f a ls o h a s h e lp e d in m aking th e in s titu tio n of m arriage not

only a s o c ia l n e c e s s ity but a s p iritu a l a ls o . The in d iv id u a l a s p e c t

4^a . 8 . A ltekar, The P o sitio n of Women in H indu C iv iliz a tio n ,

p . 3 1 . See a ls o p . 33, w here A ltekar q u o tes a sto ry from th e
M ah ah h arata to illu s tr a te how by th a t tim e m arriag es h a d becom e
o b lig a to ry , p a rtic u la rly for g irls : "8ubhru w as th e d au g h ter of sa g e
Kunl. H er fa th e r w an ted to g iv e h e r in m arriag e, but sh e w ould not
c o n s e n t. She rem ain ed unm arried for a ll h er lif e , p ra c tis in g se v e re
p e n a n c e . At th e tim e of h e r d e a th , how ever, sh e le a rn t to h e r g re a t
su rp rise th a t sh e c o u ld not go to h e av e n b e c a u se h e r body w a s not
c o n s e c ra te d by th e sa c ra m e n t of m a rria g e . W ith g re a t d iffic u lty sh e
th e n in d u ced s a g e S hrln g av at to marry h e r, s ta y e d w ith him for one
n ig h t and w as th e n e n a b le d to go to h e a v e n ."
 180

Is a s much e m p h a slz s d a s tha s o c ia l o n e . W riting about the H indu

Id e a l of m arriag e, R adhakrlshnan sa y s:

Tha H indu Id ea l e m p h a siz e s th e Ind iv id u al and th e s o c ia l

a s p e c ts o f th e In s titu tio n o f m arria g e . M an i s not a ty ran t
n o r Is a woman a s la v e , b u t both are se rv a n ts of a h ig h er
Id e a l to w hich th e ir In d iv id u a l In c lin a tio n s a re to be
su b o rd in a te d . 8 e n su a l lo v e Is su b lim a ted In to se lf-fo rg e tfu l
d e v o tio n . M arriage for th e H indu is a problem and n o t a
d a tu m . 43

One w onders how N arayan m akes h is M algudl p eo p le fa c e th is

" p ro b le m ." O ne th in g w hich s trik e s u s m ost Is the fa c t th a t th e a g e -o ld

c u sto m s w h ich o rig in a te d in th e o b sc u re p a s t and w hich today have lo s t

m uch of th e ir o rig in a l s ig n ific a n c e s t i l l h old u n d isp u ted a u th o rity . T hese

are ad h ered to rigidly, b e c a u se th e s lig h te s t n e g lig en c e or in d ifferen ce

may p rove, i t is b e lie v e d , d is a s tro u s to th e fam ily and th e m arried

c o u p le . W hile N a ra y a n 's g e n eral outlo o k tow ard th e Hindu id e a ls is

th a t o f approval; he is c e rta in ly c ritic a l of th e p ra c tic e s and cu sto m s

w h ich c re a te nothing but e n d le s s d iffic u ltie s for both th e p a rtie s ,

p a rtic u la rly th e p a re n ts of the g ir l. It is tru e th a t N arayan does not

a d v o c a te any o u trig h t re v o lu tio n , but h e does feel a g e n u in e n e ed for

a m ore s e n s ib le app roach to th o se p ra c tic e s w hich re a lly do not mean

m uch in the c h a n g e d s o c ia l and econom ic s itu a tio n s .

43Ib l d . , p p . 8 4 -8 5 .
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44
S m rltls and th e e p ic s re c o g n iz e d e ig h t forms o f m arriag e.

Some of th e s e w ere s o c ia lly unapproved, w h ile oth ers w ere com m ended.

The form of m arriage w hich we com e a c ro s s in th a M algudl n o v e ls — the

brahm a v iv lh a —is th e one w hich h a s b een for long th e m ost popular

an d s a c re d form . I t i s th e tra d itio n a l Hindu m arriage, u n iv e rsa lly

ap p ro v ed a n d p ra c tis e d a t l e a s t by th e upper c a s te H in d u s. It is

arran g ed by th e p a re n ts of th e boy and the g i r l . W hen Balu re a c h e s

m arriag eab le a g e , i t i s M argayya and not Balu who s ta r ts n e g o tia tio n s

for a s u ita b le b rid e . C handran c e rta in ly ta k e s a very u n conventional

s te p f ir s t by fa llin g in love w ith a girl and th e n by a sk in g h is p a re n ts

to arran g e h is m arriage w ith h e r.

The s e le c tio n of a su ita b le bride or bridegroom is determ ined

by v a rio u s c o n s id e r a tio n s , som e of w hich lik e c a s te and q o tra have

44T hese e ig h t forms are:

1. P a lsh a c h a v iv a h a — Force and frau d w as u se d by th e b rid e ­
groom to m ake th e wom an y ie ld to h is p a s s io n . It w as th e m ost
condem ned form of m arriag e .
2. R lk sh a a a v iv lh a —A ccording to th is form of m arriage woman
w as reg a rd ed a s p rize of w a r. The v ic to r c a rrie d aw ay the bride and
m arried h e r.
3. Asura v iv a h a — The bridegroom p a id a price for h is b rid e .
4 . G in d h a rv a v iv lh a —It m eant a lo v e m arriage.
The f irs t th ree forms o f m arriage w ere highly condem ned, w hile
opinion w as div id ed ab o u t th e fourth o n e .
5 . Arsha v iv lh a —In th is m arriage th e fath e r of the bride w as
p erm itted to a c c e p t a cow and a b u ll from h is w ould-be s o n - in - la w .
The fa th e r h a d to u se th is c o w 's m ilk for perform ing s a c r i f i c e s .
6 . D ava v iv a h a — In th is form a d au g h ter w as offered in
m arriage to an o ffic ia tin g p rie s t by th e s a c rlflc e r.
7 - 8 . P rB llp aty a v iv lh a and Brihma v iv lh a — th e re is very
 182

re lig io u s s a n c tio n s . Tha fa c to rs of s o c ia l s ta tu s an d eco n o m ics

(dowry) a re e q u a lly im p o rtan t.

F irs t of a l l , th ere is the c o n sid e ra tio n of c a s t e . M arriage

o u t o f o n e 's c a s te i s n o t p e rm itted . Even w ith in th e sam e c a s te th ere

are fu rth er re s tric tio n s of s u b - c a s t e s . In The B achelor o f Arts C handran

d o es not hav e to worry to o much o ver th is problem , s in c e th e g irl he

w an ts to m arry belongs to the sam e s u b - c a s te a s h e d o e s:

The su ffix to th e name of the g ir l's fa th e r w a s a com forting

in d ic a tio n th a t h e w as of th e sam e c a s te a n d s u b - c a s te a s
C han d ran . C handran sh u d d ered a t th e th o u g h t of a ll th e
c o m p lica tio n s th a t he w ould hav e h ad to fa c e i f th e g e n tle ­
man h ad b een Krishna Iy en g a r, or K rishna Rao, o r K rishna
M u d aliar. H is fath e r w ould c e rta in ly c a s t him off if he
trie d to marry out of c a s t e . 45

In th e M algudl n o v e ls nobody is throw n out of h is c a s t e , sin c e

th ey a ll h av e m arried according to th e c a s te r u l e s . The c a s e o f 8rlram

an d B haratl is doubtful, sin c e we do no t know w ith a c e rta in ty to w hich

c a s te s th ey b e lo n g . It is very p o s s ib le th a t th ey are n o t of th e sam e

c a s te . Of c o u rs e , in th e ir c a s e it d o es not m atter m uch.

little d ifferen c e b etw een th e s e tw o fo rm s. The fa th e r c a re fu lly s e le c ts

th e s o n - in - la w , in v ite s him to h is h o u s e , an d o ffers him h is d au g h ter
acco rd in g to proper re lig io u s r i te s , along w ith p re s e n ts w hich h e lik e s
to g iv e .

45The B achelor of A rts, p . 67.

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N ext o o u i th e problem of h o ro s c o p e s . It Is th e f i r s t s te p

In th e n e g o tia tio n s o f m arriage s in c e th e q u e stio n o f o a s te is

p re -s u p p o s e d . The h o ro sco p e of th e boy and th e g irl are e x c h a n g e d

an d th en s tu d ie d by th e a stro lo g e rs o f th e tw o s id e s to th e ir b e s t

s a tis f a c tio n . They a re su p p o se d to m atch p e rfe c tly , and th e governing

s ta r s (n ak sh atras) of th e boy and th e g irl sh o u ld be in th e rig h t h o u s e s

(otherw ise th e re is ev ery dan g er of a te rrib le w arfare b e tw ee n th e

h e av e n ly b o d ies over th e q u e stio n of d o m in an ce). The m atching of

h o ro sc o p es is u s u a lly no t a very big problem , sin c e th e n a k s h a tra s

c a n b e s e t rig h t by an e x tra fee to th e a stro lo g e r! M argayya re s o rts

to i t when h is astr* >loger c o n c lu d e s th a t th e se v e n th an d the nin th

h o u se s in h is s o n 's h o ro sco p e are no t so u n d . At o n c e , D r. P a l,

M a rg ay y a 's frie n d , fin d s out a d ifferen t a stro lo g e r who c a n rea rran g e

th e s ta r s of Balu to s u it th e c irc u m s ta n c e s . H ow ever, th e fe e c h a rg e d

is s e v e n ty -fiv e ru p ees in s te a d of being ju s t fiv e . It re fle c ts how som e

of th e s tr ic t re g u la tio n s of th e p a s t have been fa rc ic a lly red u c ed to

no th in g but a m atter of c o n v e n ie n c e . Of c o u rs e , th ere are s t i l l p eo p le

lik e M a la th i's fa th e r who stro n g ly b e lie v e s in th e in a u s p ic io u s r e s u lts

A ltekar th in k s th a t th e p ra c tic e of c o n su ltin g h o ro sc o p e s did

n o t e x is t till 400 A .D . By 900 A .D . i t becam e an e s ta b lis h e d p ra c tic e ,
an d it p lay e d a n im portant p a rt in m aking and break in g of m a tc h e s .
 184

of ill-m a tc h e d h o ro s c o p e s . That la th a ra a a o n w hy he d o e s no t a g re e

to th e m arriage p ro p o sa l s e n t by C h a n d ra n 's p e o p le .

The m ateria l a s p e c t In th e n e g o tia tio n of m arriage Is n o t l e s s

Im portant. There Is th e o v e r-rid in g q u e stio n of s o c ia l s t a tu s .

C h a n d ra n 's m other d o es n o t lik e th e id e a of h er s o n 's m arrying the

d au g h ter o f a h e a d c le r k . W ith th e q u e stio n of s ta tu s and s o c ia l

p re s tig e Is co u p led th e In e v ita b le q u e stio n of dow ry. H ere Is

M argayya re la tin g to h is c lie n ts th e e ffe c ts of th is sy ste m on h is fam ily:

Three d a u g h te rs w ere born to my fa th e r. Five c a r t- lo a d s of

paddy cam e to u s ev ery h a lf y e a r, from th e f i e l d s . We ju s t
h eap e d them on th e flo o r of th e h a ll, w e had fiv e h a lls to
our h o u se; but w here h a s It a ll gone ? To the th re e d a u g h te rs .
By th e tim e my fa th e r found h u sb a n d s for them th e re w as
nothing le f t for u s to e a t a t h om e.

But w hen i t com es to th e q u e stio n of B a lu 's m arriag e, M argayya is

d e c id e d th a t h is so n sh o u ld marry a g irl who is n o t only b e au tifu l

but c a n bring a big fa t dow ry, to o .

C handran, lik e m ost o th er young m en, is very much a g a in s t

su ch a sy ste m . He fe e ls th a t dem anding a c a s h dowry am ounts to

e x to rtio n , but he c a n h ard ly do a n y th in g ab o u t i t . H is m other is very

much annoyed w ith him o ver th is p o in t. She s a y s :

My fa th e r g av e s e v e n th o u sa n d in c a s h to your fa th e r, an d
over tw o th o u sa n d In s ilv e r v e s s e l s , a n d sp e n t n e a rly fiv e
th o u sa n d on w edding c e le b r a tio n s . W hat w as wrong In it ?
How a re we any th e w orse for It ? It is th e duty of ev ery
fa th e r to s e t som e m oney a p a rt for se c u rin g a s o n - in - la w .

47The F in a n cial E x p ert, p p . 6 - 7 .

 185

W e c e n 't d isre g a rd th e c u s to m .4®

If s h e had fiv e d a u g h te rs , sh e c e rta in ly w ould not h a v e s a id

the sam e th in g . Now th a t sh e h a s tw o s o n s —-and th is m eans two

big .d o w ries are going to oome in to h e r h o u se — sh e c a n ju s tif y the

sy ste m of d o w ry .4®

H ere is the d ifferen c e b e tw ee n th e a ttitu d e s of th e tw o

g e n e ra tio n s, the g e n e ra tio n of C han d ran and th a t of h is m other. The

m other s till fe e ls stro n g ly a tta c h e d to old c u sto m s . For ex am p le, sh e

can n o t even think o f th e id e a o f sen d in g a p ro p o sal to th e b rid e 's

p eo p le f ir s t. According to th e tim e -h o n o re d p ra c tic e , it h a s to come

from the o th er s id e , an d she Is no t p rep ared to be the la u g h in g -sto c k

of th e comm unity for doing any th in g c o n trary to th is . In f a c t, sh e fe e ls

so strongly about th is th a t sh e s a y s , "I s h a ll drown m y self in 8arayu

48The B achelor of A rts, p p . 8 4 -8 5 .

4®Thls sy ste m is c o n n e c te d w ith th e c o n ce p tio n of m arriage a s

a dBna or g if t. The v ery word k a n y g - d ln a , _ l .e . , giving aw ay of a
d au g h ter, w hich form s a p art o f th e m ajor cerem ony of m arria g e , p o in ts
to th e sam e th in g . C u sto m a rily , a re lig io u s g ift h a s to be accom panied
by a g ift of g old or c a s h . 80 k a n y a - d in a w as a ls o acco m p an ied by a
g ift In c a s h o r o rn a m e n ts. For a long tim e th is g ift had been very
nom inal. The c a s e of th e Rajput ro y a lty w as different; In ordinary
fam ilies i t w a s n ev er a pro b lem . H ow ever, th e s itu a tio n h a s
co m p letely ch an g ed during the l a s t s ix ty or se v e n ty y e a r s . It has
assu m ed v a s t proportions and la d e fin ite ly one of th e w orst e v ils of
the p re se n t H indu m arriage s y s te m .
 186

before I a llo w an y p ro p o sal to go from th is s id e .

It b rin g s u s b ack to th e q u e stio n of tra d itio n s and w hat

h ap p en s w hen th e y g e t se p a ra te d from th e stream of l i f e . A liv in g

tra d itio n f ills a gen u in e n e e d of every s o c ie ty . It "in flu e n ce s our

in n er f a c u ltie s , h u m an ises our n a tu re , a n d lif ts us to a hig h er le v e l.

By m eans of i t ; ev ery g e n e ra tio n is m oulded in a p a rtic u la r c a s t w hich

g iv e s in d iv id u a lity and in te r e s t to ev ery c u ltu re ty p e . But w hen it

k e ep s i ts w indow sh u t and d o e s not le t any fre sh a ir blow in , it

s ta r ts lo sin g i ts v ita lity . It becom es sta g n a n t; in s te a d of working

lik e a guide it th w a rts the grow th of th e in d iv id u a l and through him

th e growth of the so c ie ty in w hich It e x i s t s . It is probably w hat has

hap p en ed in th e c a s e of se v e ra l of th o se cu sto m s w hich C h a n d ran 's

m other c an n o t d is re g a rd .

N a ra y a n 's a ttitu d e tow ard the tra d itio n a l In stitu tio n s and

cu sto m s is th a t of tru s t tem pered by c ritic is m . He tru s ts them b e c a u se

th e sy ste m s w hich hav e b een working w ell for th o u sa n d s of y e ars

m ight s till hav e som e good in them; he c r itic iz e s them , though s ile n tly ,

b e c a u se w hat w as good for th e p a s t may very lik e ly not s u it the needs

o f the p re s e n t. He ra re ly condem ns the orthodox v iew p o in t. He show s

a sp irit of to le ra n c e ev en for such id e a s a s C h a n d ra n 's m other p ro p a g a te s.

^ The B achelor of A rts, p . 73.

5 iThe H indu View of L ife , p . 18.

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W hat is 8till more s ig n ific a n t is th e fa c t th a t he w elcom es a t the

sam e tim e the slo w ch an g e th a t th e younger g e n e ra tio n is bringing

w ith i t . N arayan does not seem to be approving o f th e to o -stro n g

w inds uprooting the very p la n t its e l f .

Such an a ttitu d e on N a ra y a n 's p a rt is fa irly c o n sp icu o u s in

h is p o rtray al of fam ily and p e rso n a l r e la tio n s h ip s . On one han d / he

show s th e s o lid a rity of the fam ily a s a s o c ia l u n it, th e id e a l of

52 -5 3
s p iritu a l c o n tin u ity , and th e id e a of k u ladhanna and kulapram para

a s th e b a s e s w hich s u s ta in th e life of the in d iv id u al; on the o th er, he

show s th e b re a k -u p of old in s titu tio n s su c h a s th e jo in t fam ily sy ste m .

The jo in t fam ily sy ste m is a sy ste m in w hich "all the members

of the fam ily liv e to g eth er in the sam e a b o d e . The fam ily c irc le is

n o t th e narrow one c o n s is tin g of p a re n ts and c h il d r e n .. . . It seem s

th a t norm ally th e , ;in t fam ily in clu d ed th ree g e n e ra tio n s, for the

lif e - s p a n of th ree g e n e ra tio n s is u su a lly a hundred y e a rs; and it

54
would be ex trem ely rare th a t an in d iv id u a l may o u tliv e a c e n tu ry ."

52jt is very d iffic u lt to give e x a c t E nglish e q u iv a le n ts for

th e s e te rm s. The S a n sk rit w ord k u la m eans "fam ily ". This id e a of
fam ily i s d ifferen t from w hat is comm only m eant by fam ily in the W e st.
It is v ery broad; i t in c lu d e s th e liv in g m em bers a s w ell a s a ll the
a n c e s to r s . Pharm a h a s b een e x p la in e d e a r lie r . K uladhanna m eans
th e re lig io u s an d s o c ia l d u tie s of an in d iv id u a l tow aro h is fam ily.

53Fam ily tra d itio n s .

54prabhu, oj>. c i t . , p . 18.

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It w as in e v ita b le th a t a ch an g e in econom ic c o n d itio n s (for exam ple,

se e k in g a jo b aw ay from o n e 's home) sh o u ld h av e sh a k e n the stru c tu re

o f su c h a s y s te m . It w ould be wrong to assu m e th a t th e jo in t fam ily

sy s te m h a s c o m p letely d is a p p e a re d . It s t i ll forms th e b a s is of th e

lif e o f e ig h ty p e r c e n t of p eo p le who liv e In v illa g e s .

M alg u d i, being a sm all to w n , h a s n e ith e r c o m p letely broken

from th e o ld er stru c tu re nor h a s It b een c o m p letely m odernized. A

d iv id in g w all betw een the tw o h o u se s (w hich w ere o rig in a lly o n e ),

o n e b elonging to our M argayya and the o th e r to h is b ro th er, rem inds

u s th a t th e jo in t fam ily sy ste m is a phenom enon of a very re c e n t p a s t.

M argayya s till c h e ris h e s th e memory of liv in g to g e th e r in the big

h o u s e — "the f ir s t h o u se of th e s t r e e t . " In The P rin ter of M algudi

S rln iv a s , h is b ro th er, and th e ir f a m ilie s , a ll u se d to liv e to g e th e r

b efo re S rln iv as m oved in to M algudi to s ta rt h is n ew sp a p er w o rk .

In a s o c ie ty In w hich re s p e c t for e ld e rs Is alm o st a re lig io n ,

th e way of lif e , th e code of s o c ia l r e la tio n s h ip s , d u tie s and

r e s p o n s ib ilitie s , a ll are to a g rea t e x te n t in flu e n c e d by su c h an

a ttitu d e . Taya Zlnkin com m ents:

W ithin th e fam ily i ts e lf , th e In d iv id u al's Im portance grow s

w ith a g e , for ag e Is re s p e c te d In In d ia a s s u c c e s s is in
the U nited S ta te s . A man may be fifty y e a rs o ld and
e d u c a te d far beyond h is e ld e r s , bu t h e s till tre a ts them
w ith a ll th e r e s p e c t due to a g e . He d o e s not s i t down or
ta lk In front of them w ithout being in v ite d to do so , and
under no c irc u m s ta n c e s d o es he sm oke in front of them .
This re s p e c t for ag e m akes for contentm ent; i t provides
 189

everybody w ith a p lao a w ithin h is own fam ily . T h u s, a

governm ent s a rv a n t, holding th a p o sitio n of a parm anant
U n d a r-8 a c ra ta ry o f S ta ta , w ill k is s th a te a t of h is v llla g a
a ld a r s , if cu sto m ra q u ira s him to do s o .

W hat Taya Zinkln s a y s is b a s ic a lly rig h t, but th in g s a re changing

ra p id ly . One can n o t ignore Raj us an d B alus, for th e ir num ber is not

v ery sm a ll.

The upbringing of c h ild ren is on th e w hole ra th e r s t r i c t . N arayan

d o e s not seem to approve th is s tr ic tn e s s . In Swaml an d F riends th is is

th e c e n tra l i s s u e . The d is c ip lin e of the sch o o l and h is f a th e r 's e a rn e s t

e ffo rts a t home to m ake him a s c h o la r c re a te a s itu a tio n w hich young

Swaml can n o t a p p re c ia te . The c a s e of Balu (The F in a n cial Expert) is

Ju st th e o p p o s ite . He had b een a com pletely sp o ile d c h ild and h is

grow th in to an irre s p o n s ib le , alm o st an abnorm al young man i s along

th e e x p e c te d l i n e s . The re la tio n sh ip of th e fa th e r and th e son m akes

an in te re s tin g stu d y . M a rg ay y a 's am bitions about B alu's p a s s in g th e

high sch o o l exam in atio n rem ain u n fu lfille d . There is som ething

p a th e tic in M a rg ay y a 's dream s about h is s o n 's fu tu re . N e v e rth e le s s ,

i t d o es not make him l e s s re s p o n s ib le for w hat he h as made of the boy.

There is not much d ifferen ce b etw een the Balu of Part One who a s k s h is

fa th e r ev ery day to bring a little e le p h a n t and th e Balu of P art Five who

h a s grown up to be a young fa th e r h im self— Balu whom D r. Pal can

55in d la Changes 1 pp. 13-14.

 190

e a s ily u a a a v a la a t M arg ay y a. O nly th a l a t t a r Balu th in k s th a t h a

Is n o more a c h ild . Som ething h a s gone w rong so m ew h ere. M argayya

r e a l is e s It very l a t e . Balu d o e s not seem to p o s s e s s th e c a p a c ity of

e v e n r e a lis in g i t .

8 rlram 's upbringing c o u ld n o t have b e e n b e tte r . D eprived of

lo v e a n d th e c a re o f h is p a re n ts whom he h a s n e v er s e e n e x c e p t in a

p h o to g rap h , he grow s up to be extrem ely lo n e ly , re s e rv e d , and b a sh fu l.

The o ld grandm other c a n g iv e him e v ery th in g — lo v e , m oney, c a re — but

n o t th e se c u rity of a fa th e r and a m other. S rlram 's deep attach m en t to

B haratl i s p erh ap s Ju st a re a c tio n to h is e a rly lif e .

In a stu d y of p e rso n a l re la tio n sh ip s th e in -la w re la tio n s n eed

s p e c ia l m ention. T hese are o b v io u sly very d e lic a te and are often guided

more by su c h c o n sid e ra tio n s a s p u b lic opinion and fam ily p re s tig e th an

by g e n u in e fe e lin g s of lo v e an d a tta c h m e n t. They p re s e n t a g re a t deal

of c o m p lic a tio n , p a rtic u la rly in a Jo in t fam ily . L ittle m aladjustm ents

e v e n tu a lly may le a d to th e b re a k -u p o f the Jo in t n ature of the fam ily .

In G ra te fu l to Life and D eath th ere a re K rish n a's m other and h er e ld e r

d a u g h te r-in -la w who c an n o t g e t along very w e l l . T heir problem is

tem p o rarily so lv e d by th e so n and the d a u g h te r-in -la w moving to an o th er

c ity . But i t d o es no t k eep K rish n a's m other from d e clarin g (only when

h e r e ld e r so n is not p re s e n t), "W hatever h a p p e n s, even w ith a te n

th o u sa n d ru p ee dow ry, 1 s h a ll n ev er a c c e p t a girl from a High C ourt

 191

Ju d g e'* fam ily a g a i n . . . . "5® Tha ah aft i* aim ed a t th a d a u g h te r-in -la w ,

who la th a d au g h ta r of a r a tlia d High C o u rt Judga.

A s ig n ific a n t a a p a o t of M algudi llf a w hich haa y e t to be

c o n a ld a ra d ia lta re lig io n . One thing w hich s trik e s th * .re a d e rs m oat

la th a a b a e n c e o f any dogm a o r a a s e rtlo n of one re lig io n 's su p e rio rity

o v er o th e r fa ith s an d b e lie f s . It la vary c o m p re h en siv e . It d o e s n o t

i n s i s t a o much on re lig io u s conform ity a s on e th ic a l o u tlo o k on l i f e .

I t is c o n d u ct and not c re e d th a t m a tte rs . There is a S a n sk rit sh lo k a

w hich s a y a , "na hi kalyim akrt k a a c lt durqatim t i t a g a c c h a tl, w hich

m eans th a t the perform er of th e good—a n d not th e b e lie v e r in th is or

th a t v iew — c a n n e v e r g e t in to a n e v il s t a t e .

"R eligion" in th e H indu s e n s e o f the word h as a very e x te n d ed

m eaning and In c lu d e s th e w hole moral u n iv e rs e . It is d h arm a. The

word d h a n aa is form ed from th e 8 a n sk rlt root d h r, w hich m eans to h old

o r to s u s ta in . D hanaa h o ld s a thing and m ain tain s it in b e in g . P a rtic u la r

c re e d s or fa ith s a re known a s sa m p ra d a y a . M ech an ical b e lie fs do not

m ean much in th e H indu schem e of m o rality . Dharma is re fle c te d in the

e v ery d ay c o n d u ct of the in d iv id u a l.

SSG rateful to Life an d D e a th , p . 30.

5 7The Bhaqavad G ita , tra n s la te d an d In terp rete d by Pranklin

Edgerton (Cam bridge: H arvard U n iv e rsity P re s s , 1946), P art I,
p . 68.
 192

Since d h i m I s n o t a flx s d formula* s s c h p s rs o n may ev o lv e

h is own d harm a. M arg ay y a 's d h a n aa Is d iffe re n t from th a t of K rish n a.

M argayya rs o o g n ls s s ona foot abova a l l , and th a t Is m onay. Tha

c e n tra l p o in t o f h is "philo so p h y " i s th a t m onay alo n a Is Im portant In

th is w o rld . Ha p ro p itia te s th a g o d d e ss Lakshm i s o th a t more and

more monay may pour i n . For him Lakshm i Is th a h ig h e s t d eity ; sh e

Is th a A bsolute, th a U ltim a ta . M argayya h a s , h o w ev er, v ary good

b u s in e s s s e n s e . Balu h a s to acq u ire learning; so why w a s te tim e o v e r

w orshipping th a wrong type of g o d d e s s ? No, Balu h a s to p le a s e tha

g o d d e ss S a ra s v a tl. M argayya h a s se c u re d a sm all fram ed p ic tu re of

th is g o d d e s s , th e g o d d e ss of lea rn in g and e n lig h ten m en t s ittin g b e s id e

h er p e a c o c k an d p laying on th e strin g s of a v e e n a . To M a rg a y y a 's g re a t

d isap p o in tm en t h is prom ising so n is n o t In te re s te d In e ith e r of the

g o d d e s s e s . The g o d d e ss of e n llg h tem en t is ex trem ely sp a rin g In

b le s s in g Balu w ith any e n llg h tem en t.

K rishna, on th e oth er h a n d , d o es not w orship an y g o d d e s s . But

s till h e i s a s good a H indu a s M argayya is or a s the p rie s t of the tem ple

th a t M argayya g o es to i s . P erhaps he is e v en b e tte r th a n th e s e tw o.

C h a n d ra n 's m other, who w o rsh ip s h e r gods an d turns th e p ray e r b e ad s

reg u la rly (though w hen sh e is doling s o , p a rt of her m ind b u s ie s i ts e l f

w ith th e th oughts of h e r h u sb a n d , hom e, c h ild re n , and r e la tiv e s ) , and

R av i's m other, who b e lie v e s stro n g ly th a t Ravi c an be c u re d by a

 193

p a rtic u la r k ind of p u i i — a ll f it In to th a p a tto m of H induism . The

d iffe re n c e is only o f g ra d a tio n . "The w o rsh ip p ers of th e A bsolute

a re th e h ig h e s t In rank; se c o n d to them a re th a w o rsh ip p ers o f th e

p e rs o n a l God; th en com e th e w o rsh ip p ers of th e In c a rn a tio n s lik e

Rama, K rishna, Buddha; below them a re th o se who w o rsh ip a n c e s to r s ,

d e itie s and s a g e s , a n d th e lo w e st of a ll are th e w o rsh ip p ers o f th e

p e tty fo rc e s a n d s p i r i ts . "5®

In th e M algudi n o v e ls w e do n o t h a v e very m any w o rsh ip p e rs

of th e A b so lu te. In order to w orship i t one n e e d s I n in of th e n a tu re

of th e s e lf and of th e U ltim ate r e a lity , an d th is is no t e a s y . The

p e o p le of M algudi w orship in c a rn a tio n s , d e i t i e s , a n c e s tr a l g o d s , and

e v en s p i r i t s . "The man of a c tio n fin d s h is God in f i r e , th e m an of

fe e lin g in the h e a rt, and th e fee b le-m in d e d in th e id o l, but th e strong

59
in s p irit find God e v ery w h e re . " But one th in g w hich is s ig n ific a n t

is th e ir to le ra n c e for e a c h o th e r. 8 rln lv as n e ith e r b e lie v e s n o r ap p ro v es

of th e w ay R av i's p eo p le a re try in g to c u re h is m a d n e ss, but h e to le ra te s

i t e v en w hen th e w hole stra n g e pro ceed in g i s being c o n d u c te d in h is

v ery h o u s e . W hen R a v i's m other a s k s for p e rm issio n to ta k e Ravi to

th e tem ple a t Balim w here, sh e th in k s , he w ill be a ll rig h t if k e p t for

SB Radhakrishnan, The H indu View of L ife , p . 32.

5SL o c. c l t .
 194

• w e e k a t t h e p o rta ls o f th a te m p le , h a s a y s w ith a p p a re n t oonvlo tlo n i

"By a ll s w a n s . Ha I s bound to g a t w a ll a g a in . I v a n sw d n e s s p a s s a s .

O nly a x is ta n o a a s s a r ts l t s a l f ."
so

E x ista n c a — th a la w o f b a ln g — a s s a r ts l t s a l f in v a rio u s fo n as

an d s h a p a s . It a s s a r ts l ts a l f in S hiva (tha d a stro y a r God) a s w a ll a s

in Vishnu (tha p ra s a rv a r, th a s u s ta ln a i) . Tha fo llo w ar o f S hiva m ay

tam porarily th in k th a t i t is only h is God who i s su p rem e, bu t so o n a r

or la ta r, th a r e a liz a tio n is bound to com a th a t S hiva an d V ishnu a rs

only two m an ifesta tio n * Of th a la m a s p i r i t . 61 The follow ing s to ry ,

w hich is v ary o ften to ld in In d ia , m ay be m entioned h e re in th is

co n n ection:

O nce th ere w as a m an who w o rshipped only V ishnu.

Ha did n o t th in k much o f anyone who w o rsh ip p ed Shiva
or any o th e r G od. H ow ever, o n e day w han h a w as
p ro stra tin g h im se lf b efo re V ishnu, h e thought i ll of th e
w o rsh ip p e rs of th a o th e r God S h iv a . W han ha o p en ed
h is e y a s an d loo k ed a t th e Im age of V ishnu, h a sa w th e
fa c e of th e im age d iv id e d in to tw o p a r t s . On one p a rt
a p p e a re d God Vishnu and on th e o th er G od S h iv a . The
tw o a p p e a re d a s one fa c e and to ld him th a t V ishnu and
Shiva a re o n e .

There c an be nothing b e tte r th an th is exam ple of re lig io u s

to le ra n c e . Even M arg ay y a, th e d e v o te e of L akshm i, h a s to sa y a t one

p o in t, "It i s a ll th e sam e G o d d e ss . There is no d ifferen c e b etw een

SOThe P rin ter of M alg u d i, p . 262.

6*800 R adakrishnan, The P rin c ip a l U p a n la a d a , p . \ 4 4 .

 19$

Lakshml and S a r a a w a tl.B u t complete toleration Is often easier

In principle than In practice. In Margayya's case, this noble

stateawnt Is not translated Into practice. It Is a good piece of advice

to his sea. However, toe know he himself very much believes In the

pronounced difference between the two. Lakshml Is for him who has

recognised the real value of money. His son should propitiate the

other Goddess. It Is a confusing scheme of worship—a kind of

departmentalising of heavenly powers I

What Webb wrote In Science. Religion and Reality about

Hinduism Is Important fo r understanding tha complexity of forms that

we find In Malgudi:
With Its traditions of periodically repeated Incarnations of
the deity In the most diverse forms, its ready acceptance
of any and every local divinity or founder of a sect or
ascetic devotee as a manifestation of God, Its tolerance
of symbols and legends of all kinds, however repulsive or
obscene by the side of the most exalted flights of
world-renouncing mysticism, It could perhaps more easily
than any other faith develop, without loss of continuity
with Its past, into a universal religion which could see in
every creed a form suited to some particular group or
Individual, of the universal aspiration after one Eternal
Reality, to whose true being the Infinitely various shapes
in which it reveals itself to or conceals itself from one
are alike Indifferent.®3

92yhe Financial Expert, p. 113.

Science, Religion and Reality, ed. Joseph Needham (London:

The Sheldon Press, 1925), pp. 334-35.
 196

The influence of this religion on ethics and morala la regularized

or ohannellsed In the fora of aanctlona which it gives to social be­

havior, practices, relationships and responsibilities. A halo of

sanctify is put around these sanctions. Thus, they gain power and

peraanenoe and give to people the rules of life which they readily

accept as valid.

On the whole Narayan's attitude toward religion is that of

trust; but he is critical of the unhealthy tendencies, especially

superstitious practices which the popular religion has accumulated

to itself. Sometimes instead of criticizing, he laughs at these

absurdities. His pictures of the priests and the astrologers are

tempered with gentle satire. The impact of the West is reflected in

characters like Krishna and Chandran who without being agnostic or

atheist can question some of the traditional values and try to

rationalize them in their own way.

Narayan's attitude of tolerance extends to the field of politics

a lso. One may find incidental references to political events and

movements in his novels, but he does not try to make an ideological

system out of them. He remains, above all, an artist. His main

interest lies In the even tenor of the life of the small town. It gives

the Impression of an old sleepy town. However, it does not entirely

escape the impress of the big political events which almost shake
 117

the rest of the country. The influence Is slow but obvloue.

In Bwaml end Friend* Narayan devotes one full chapter to

political activities, the Swadeshi movement, and the locally

organised protest meeting in which young Swaad plays not a very

insignificant role (of breaking window-panes of his school). He

hardly understands what it Is ail about. For boys like him It is

great fun. The only sad thing about it is that Swaml gets caught and

is appropriately rewarded for his enthusiasm by ah immediate dismissal.

In Waiting tor the Mahatma the tone is slightly different and

the colors are a bit heavier. Malgudi with the rest of the country is

passing through a very crucial period of Its history. Mahatma Gandhi

has shown it a way of fighting a battle of non-violence. The book

gives warm and authentic picture of the life of Gandhi's ashram .

Narayan's attitude is not that of a newspaper observer but of one who

shares the concern and feels and sympathizes with those who have

suffered.

In a discussion of an author's attitudes, there remains a final

consideration, one of admittedly less importance than that which comes

directly from his writings, and yet one which has its own emphatic

significance . To make use of it Is like estimating the same objective

from another vantage point, a vantage point which is farther away: the

details become vague, but the over-all situation Is more apparent. This
 it s

la a oonsldaratlon of tha novelist's own atatamanta about hla

lntantlona.

Narayan la alngularly reticent in thla raapact. Hla la tha

attltuda of an artlat who prafara to kaap allant and lata hla booka
explain theaaelvea.

In a study of a novallat's davalopmant tha question of tha

beginning of hla writing career la vary Important. The story of the

early Impressionable years whan the writer la struggling for form/

expression and coherence has usually more than Just biographical

value. It la true that we do not know much about Narayan's early

years/ but we know that his Interest In writing was aroused when he

was about twenty. How ha was encouraged and who encouraged or

Inspired him are questions which one would very much like to know,

but In view of the novelist's reluctance to answer these there Is no

other way but to leave them as they are. It may be of some Interest

to make mention of Narayan's association with Graham Greene. In

Narayan's own words, "He Is not only the finest writer but the finest

and most perfect friend that a man can have In this world.

64peraonal latter from the author dated December 16, 1959.

The statements by Narayan that are quoted In the rest of this chapter
are all quoted from this latter.

65Quoted from Twentieth Century Authors, First Supplement,

eds. Stanley J. Kunlts and Vlnela Colby (New York* The H. W. Wilson
Company, 1955), pp. 704-705.
 199

Narayan'■ first noval, Swaml and Frlnda appaarad when ha

was twenty-eight. Tha parlod from 1927 to 1935 was ona of apprentlce-

shlp whan young Narayan was sharpanlng his tools—a keen obsarvatlon

and a skill for drawing life-like charactars plaoad in a satting vibrating

with lifa. It is a parlod which saw tha rlss of Narayan as a short story

writar. Aftar publishing Swaml and Prlends Narayan davotad himself

to tha writing of novels. But tha emergenca of tha novalist in him did

not mean tha and of short story writing career. Evan today, he is as

much a novalist as a short-story writar. Ha has written literally

hundreds of stories, and most of these have appeared in the Weekly

edition of The Hindu of Madras. He has brought several collections of

these stories and he has plans for bringing out some more. 66 Those

who have read his stories like "An Astrologer's Day", "Iswaran", or

"The Roman Image" would surely welcome this "plan". It is hoped

that with more of his stories before the readers, a fair estimate of his

genuine ability as a short story writer would be possible.

In studying Narayan's novels (as well as short stories) the

reader is aware that one constituent which dominates all others Is

Malgudi—the scene of all his novels and several of his short stories.

It is the Malgudi of Krishna and Chandran, Raju and 8ampath, Srlnivas

®^Personal letter; see footnote 64.

 200

and Srlram, raal and breathing, Malgudi which Narayan hat described

with tuch vivid exactness that one could go Into It and never be lost.

On the railway platform one could see Raju's stall (which, however,

has been taken over by another contractor—vide The Guide). On the

turning of the Railway Road one could hear Gaffur, the taxi driver,

bargaining with his customers. The streets and sights do not need an

Introduction. From the Market Road to the New Extension, everything

seems to be very familiar. On the Market Road one could perhaps still

see Dr. Pal's signboard— "Sociologist, Journalist and Writer." A little

farther there is the Anand Bhawan Restaurant, where 8rlnivas and

Sampath had once met. There is rarely any greatly detailed description

of Malgudi, but we know how it looks.

A question such as how the idea of creating a fictional town

came to the author's mind is inevitable. It could have been a sudden

discovery. Or Narayan might have had some writer with a similar

fictional town—say, Trollope—in mind. Or if Malgudi came completely

from his own imagination, he might have been thinking it over for a long

time. On a question like this, one could go on speculating endlessly.

Narayan's own words, "Malgudi created its e lf,"67 do not help us much.

Another very interesting question is that of the author's tasta.

One wonders who are Narayan's favorite authors. When recently

®7 Cf. footnote 64, above.

 201

Hsartagway asked the sum question by an interviewer for The

Farts Pavtaw, Im gays naass which would fill a page, names which

cover four oeuturles of lltorary and artistic efforts In Europe, England,

and America. When Narayan was asked s similar question, he politely

and economically replied, NI have no answer.

On another question which is very much related to the above-<Mhe

question of possible Influences on his writing career—he again replied,

"None. This monosyllable Is enough of a signal to the critics to

spare him and his art from a critical dissection. However, it still

leaves us wondering whether Narayan's novels are really "Influence-less "

and "lnsplratlon-less"; or whether he is just over-simplifying the Issue

and Is trying to say, "Just read my novels. It is the finished product,

not the method, that counts. "

The reply to another question, which Is about the posalble

Influence of any particular event or events of the author's life on his

writing, Is of the same nature. Narayan apparently fears over-explicit

remarks and resorts to such almost meaningless generalizations as "I

have no faith In Influences. " It is really hard to understand how an

author can totally eliminate such Influences. A work of fiction Is not

®®8ee footnote 64.

69gee footnote 64.

 202

the diary of an authon nobody will dispute that fact. The author does

possess imaginative freedom, freedom to handle his material any way

he lik es. This freedom, however, is checked by certain restraints. He

does not build structures in the air. At the back of it lies the solid

experience of life—people he has met. situations he has seen, and

the impressions diet he has gathered unawares. Even if he has no

faith in them, they do not cease to exist. The very fact that Narayan

says that, "The English Teacher is autobiographical in some parts" 70

Implies an influence and a most emphatic faith in that influence. How­

ever. one does have sympathy with Narayan's point of view, particularly

in the light of some of the contemporary critical studies connected with

the field of literary Influences and how these are often overdone.

The reply to the question. "Could you please throw some light

on your method of writing?" was an emphatic "No. it being a sub­

conscious process." This statement means much more than the author

perhaps Intended. Or perhaps it does not mean anything. All creative

writing, to some degree, is a "subconscious process". It is entirely

different from elaborating a mechanical principle. But each writer has

perhaps his own way of writing. Henry James's Notebooks, with his

sometimes elaborate, sometimes sketchy plans of plot, structure and

70 S e e fo o tn o te 64. a b o v e .
 203

characterisation, would suggest that It is not Just tha "subconscious

process". A good dsal of planning is needed before the characters

can wove on tee pages of the novel. A subject may occupy the mind

of an author for a ntuabar of years, or he may make considerable change

in his original plan. The developswnt of the idea and how it is given

"form" have their own significance.

It is not very unoosuaon to find writers with a definite liking

for sosM of their characters or books, or even a prejudice against

them. In Pendennis Thackeray likes Helen Pendennis and makes no

secret of his liking. If somebody had asked him, "Whom do you like

most in your novels?" it certainly could not have been Becky Sharp.

Henry James preferred The Ambassadors to, say, The Bostonian or

Washington Square. He did not Include the latter in the collected

edition of his novels and tales which he later brought out.

Narayan finds it "impossible to answer" 71 such questions.

Perhaps he wants to be fair to all of his characters and does not want

to make us prejudiced. His polite but sharp answers indicate that he

wants to put emphasis on his books rather than "explain" teem.

Narayan's reputation in England has been an established fact

for quite a long time. In the 1950's tee Michigan State University

71See foo tn o te 34, a b o v e .

 204

Press by bringing out an A— rlnan edition of most of hla already

published novels has Introduced hla to the American reading public.

The Viking P n ia 'i pabltcatlon of The Qalde In 19S8 and Narayan's

present work on two acre books for the same concern strongly suggest,

that he Is building up a reading public in this country, too.

In India, like many other distinguished contemporary Indian

writers, Narayan has been completely neglected. The following

incident which John Ifaverstlck quotes in his review reveals the
extent of this neglect:

Traveling there a few years ago, an American Journalist,

preparing for an interview with Mr. Narayan, stopped in
at one of the largest English-language bookstores in
Banglore, a city of 750,000 people which lies about sixty
miles from Mr. Narayan's home in Mysore. "All sold out? "
asked the journalist, finding no works by Narayan. No,
the manager explained, they simply did not stock his books.
"But Mr. Narayan is one of India's own novelists, " said the
Journalist. "He lives nearby In Mysore city. You display
all these new British and American novels. Why not his new
one?" "Yes, " replied the manager indifferently, "I know.
But we do not read much fiction hers in India."

There are many factors responsible for this apparent neglect by

the Indian reading public. The first and the foremost is the poor

economy of the country; people are too poor to afford the luxury of

books. This factor, however, affects all Indian literatures in equal

measure. The neglect of the Indo-Anglian literature cannot be

7 ^The T ragi-O om ic In d ia n s , S aturday R eview . Jan. 14, 1956.

p . 11.
 205

explained simply by the poor purchasing power of tha paopla; thara is

something more to it. Tha story of this indifference and apathy to tha

Indo-Angllan wrltars is dlraotly ralatad to tha political history of tha

country. Tha attituda of suspicion and antagonism toward thosa who

sought self-expression in tha languaga of tha rulars was tha logical

outcoma of such a situation and hanca, quita undarstandabla. It may

ba mentioned hara that during tha last tan yaars with tha ohanga in the

political set*-upa noticeable difference in tha attituda of tha Indian

reading public toward tha Indo-Anglian wrltars is seen. But still

there is need for further improvement.

Tha neglect at home is fairly compensated for by the laurels

he has recently won in Europe. His books, especially the last four,

have been translated into most of the European languages. It is

encouraging that his talent is now being widely recognised.

The world of Malgudi is intimate, warm, lifelike, and engaging.

The small town of Malgudi, which serves as the locale of this world

of Margayyas and Sampaths, is shabby, old, and unassuming; its

streets are dark and dingy, its buildings unimpressive. Yet, this is

real—real as a town like Malgudi can ba. Tha setting is modem, and

the life portrayed is contemporary. 8till, there is an old-time air about

 209

It. The wheels of time have oithor not moved at all or have moved

at an extremely alow pace.

In the foroground of this familiar and unassuadng sotting—Lawley

fxtanslon and Anderson Lane, Albert Mission Collogo and Keblr Lana,

Sarayu Street and Market Road—tharo appoar a faw faadliaur facas,

some of whom wo know intimately; tharo ara still othars with whom wa

hava formed Just casual acquaintanca. Thare Is Sr&nlvas busy in writing

tha oditorlal for his weekly, Tha Banner. A faw stops down tha office of

tha Mhtor wa ara graatad by the printer himself in some warm and effusive

words. Away from tha groans of tha treadles of tha Truth Printing Works,

under tha shade of tha big banyan tree, and on tha granite slab of the
old and deserted temple wa happen to see Raju in tha pose of a sanyasl.

Wa sea them, great them, and laugh with them (as well as at them). Yet

thare is something deeper in this human comedy. Tha sympathy and

compassion which the reader feels for the patty lives of these insig­

nificant men help Mm in sharing a part of this tragl-comlc world with­

out completely identifying himself with a Srlnivas or a Sampath. In a

way tha reader is involved in this schasiing world, yet thare remains

that distance and detachment by which ha can watch these people

grow, act, and move. Margayya's "tragedy" is not tha tragedy of the

Prince of Denmark; there is something farcical in it. At the same time,

it is different from tha clownish acrobatics of a circus. His moves are

 207

at l« u t o n tfb lt. He iu i i hMrt which can In I and i alnd which

oan think and plan. Hla ambitions about his badly-spoiled son Balu,

• v w in thair absurdities, ara vary lika him.

Narayan's paopla hava strong ties with traditions. Marriages

ara arranged, horosoopas consultad, and nuias performed. Tha casta

of tha forafathars dominates all othsr considarations. But this U not

tha c<Maplata piotura; thara is another side to it. In tha heart of this

ramshackle town thara stands the Albert Mission Collage headed by

Principal Brown. AChandran, its typical product, can neither

whole-heartedly accept the traditional patterns nor boldly reject them.

Tha result is an inconsequential mixture of old patterns and new ideas.

The frasMwork is almost intact; it is only the inner lines which are

affected. It is in this context that Narayan studies his people.

Narayan's Swaml and Friends, his first novel, and his latest,

The Guide, are a quarter of a century apart from each other. The story

of this long stretch of time is the story of the literary development of

the novelist. The structure of his later novels is comparatively compact,

the organisation much Improved, and the style more flexible. Narayan

has matured; he has not changed. He still has that sure sense of life

which transcends the mere physical structure and through which he has

been able to portray the saga of Malgudi.

Narayan is no moralist; yet he has his moral values. His judg-

 20*

« u t i are implied rather than stated. Ha does no ham to tha illusion

of lifa ha creates. Kean observation, sense of native humor, and

delicate tinges of irony are his most serviceable tools.

At the end of this study, we, like Qrahasi Greene, have come to

have ooagdete faith in the reality of Malgudi; and with him we wonder

whom we are going to meet next in this town, so strongly implanted in

our imaginations. We will not have to wait for another novel. We can
go out, in Graham Greene's words, ''into those loved and shabby streets

and see with excitement and a certainty of pleasure a stranger approach­

ing, past the bank, the cinema, the haircuttlng saloon, a stranger who

will greet us we know with some unexpected and revealing phrase that
73
will open a door on to yet another human existence. "

This is the greatness of the Malgudi novels.

73The Financial Expert, p. vi.

 APPENDIX

A GLOSSARY OP INDIAN TERMS

Aanl. P in.
Nonviolence.
j a w . Father.
h h r ia . Different itagai of man's Ilfs; It also rafars to a place
where the holy men live.
Ashva-meoh Yaova. Horse sacrifice performed by Hindu kings In
ancient times after a great victory.
Avu. The span of life.
A title like Mr. or Esquire; also refers to a dark.
B to - Enjoyment or suffering In life .
Brahma. The Creator God.
Brahmachfiirnihriiflr According to Hindu Ideals, a man is supposed
to lead a life of hrahmacharva (celibacy) for twenty-five years.
It Is the time of acquiring knowledge.
Brlhmln. The highest caste among Hindus.
Chamlr. A cobbler. It refers to caste as well as to profession.
Chappatti. Wheat-flour pancake.
Darshan. "Darshan In practice is a form of happiness induced among
Hindus by being in the presence of some great manifestation of
their collective consciousness. It may be person, place or
thing, and represent past, present or future, so long as it sets
up the definite recognizable glow of suprapersonal happiness."
—Vincent Sheean
Desh. Country.
Devadasl. Temple-dancing girls.
Dharma. It has different levels of meaning. On one level it simply
means "duties"; on another, "that which sustains man's l i f e ."
Dhoti. Cloth worn around the body below the waist.
Gotra. Clan.
Grlhaathlahrama. Life of a married man.
Guna. Qualities, Inherent traits.
Guru. Teacher, spiritual guide.
Hardens. Low caste Hindus, untouchables.
TStl. Caste in which a Hindu is bom.
JnSn. Knowledge, wisdom.
209
 210

Tutkis. Horse-drawn carriages.

H U . Time.
Danri-diM. Giving away daughter In marrlaga; tha main oaramony in
Hindu marrlaga.
rmrmm Destiny; tea dootrlna teat one's actions continue to have thair
afteota in another incarnation.
rtnrff<a>iralr*Tlfr- God; tha heavenly power who sits on judgment.
JBtoMBfcili* Tha fruits of ona'a doada.
AjfafL. Rand-spun doth popularised by Mahatma Gandhi.
I d a . Faadly.
Kkladharma. That which one should do aa tha maatear of a family.
Khlanrampari. FamUy traditions.
Lgthi. A stick.
Mant*ra». Holy hymns.
M id * Illusion. According to Hindu ideals, this worldly life is MSyh.
Moksha. Eternal salvation; that state when man is free from the bonds
of birth and death.
Mukh. Mouth.
M uktl. M fikiha-
Nakshatra. Planet. It is believed among Hindus that tha position of
tha planets at tha time of one's birth influences tha entire
course of his life .
Paramitma. God.
Parvati. Wife of Shiva, the destroyer God.
Puli. Worship.
Purina. Hindu religious texts.
Pypl. Elevated and roofed veranda in front of a house.
Ral. Rule, kingdom.
fli»hhar. South Indian vegetable curry.
gamoradlva. Religious denominations.
Sanvlsl. One who has renounced worldly life.
flanvielehiama. That part of man's life when one leads the life of a
san ylsi.
Slree. Hindu woman's dress.
Satvacrraha. Mahatma Gandhi's program of non-violence.
Shlstras. Sacred scriptures.
Shlstrlkars. The persons who wrote shaetras.
Shlklr. Hunting.
Shloka. Sacred Hysuts.
Shrama. Exertion.
Shudra. Low caste Hindus.
Surya Devata. Sun-god.
 211

Sw&ml. A ta in t.
Thill. A special kind of necklace worn by married women in 8outh
India.
Upanlihadt. Reliflout texts of Hindus.
Vannrasthlthrama. The time when a Hindu retiros from worldly life
and goes to forests.
Oasta system.
Vedas. Religious texts of Hindus.
Vedanta. A system of Hindu philosophy based on the interpretations
of the Vedas.
Yogi. A saint; one who is well-versed in all kinds of yogas.
Zamidlrs. Big landowners.
Zenina. Female.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Source*

A. Noval*

Narayan, R. K. Tha Bachelor of Art*. East Lansing: Tha

Michigan State Collage Press, 1954.

_______ . Tha Dark Room: A Novel. London: Macmillan and

C o., 1938.

_______ . Tha Financial Expert. A Noval. London: Methuen

and C o., 1952.

_______ . Grateful to Life and Death. East Lansing: Tho

Michigan State University Press, 1953 £ Published
earlier under the title, The English Teacher. London:
Eyre and Spottiswoode, 194T f .

_______ . The Guide. New York: The Viking Pres s , 1958.

_______ . The Printer of Maloudi. East Lansing: The Michigan

State University Press, 1957 /[Published earlier under
the title, Mr. Sampath. London: Eyre and Spottiswoode,
l»49f.

_______ . Swaml and Friend*. East Lansing: The Michigan State

College Press, 1954.

_______ . Waiting for the Mahatma. East Lansing: Michigan

8 tate University Press, 1955.

B. Short Stories

Narayan, R. K. An Astrologer's Day, and Other Stories. London:

Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1947.

212
 213

. Cvole ind Other Storing. Mysore! Indian Thought

Publications, n.d.

• Dodu and Other Stories. Mysore! Indian Thought

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. Lawley Hoad (Thirty-two Short Stories) . Mysore: Indian
Thought Publications, 1956.

. Malcudl Days (Short Stories). Mysore: Indian Thought

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Altekar, A. S. The Position of Women In Hindu Civilization.
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Anand, MulkRaJ. The Bio Heart. A Novel. London: Hutchinson

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. Untouchable. New York: Hutchinson International

Authors, 1947.

The Bhaqavad Gita, 2 Vols. Translated and interpreted by Franklin

Edgerton. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press, 1946.

The BhaaavadqRa, ed. andtrans. 8. Radhakrlshnan. New York:

Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1948.

Bhaqavad-Glta, The Song of God. Trans. Swami Prabhavananda

and Christopher Isherwood. Hollywood: The Marcel
Rodd C o ., 1946.

Bhattacharya, Bhabanl. He Who Rides a Tiger. New York:

Crown Publishers, Inc., 1954.

___________ . Music for Mohlnl. New York: Crown Publishers,

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___________ . 8o Many Hungers 1 Bombay: Hind Kitabs, 1947.

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Bromfleld, Loula. Night in Bombay. Now York: Horpor and

Brothers, 1940.

________ . Tha Rains Oamo. Now York: Grosset and Dunlap,

1837.

Eliot, Goorgo. Adam Bodo. Now York and Boston: H. M.

CaldwoU Company, n.d.

. Sconos of Clorlcal Llfo. Boston and Now York: Houghton

Mifflin and Company, 1907.

Forator, E. M. A Passaoo to India. New York: Harcourt Brace

and Company, 1924.

______. Aspects of the Novel. London: Edward Arnold and

C o., 1928.

Gauba, K. L. Uncle Sham: The Strange Tale of a Civilisation

Run Amuck. Lahore: Times Publishing C o., 1929.

Gogol, Nlfceisi. Bead Souls. Trans. George Reavey. London:

Oxford University Press, 1957.

. Tales of Good and Evil, Trans. David Margarshack.

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Hastings, James. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, II.

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Haverstlck, John. "India In Fiction," Saturday Review, Jan. 14,

1S56, p. 11.

Isherwood, Christopher. Goodbye to Berlin. New York: Random

House, 1939.

James, Henry. The House of Fiction. ed. Leon Edel. London:

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. Partial Portraits. London: Macmillan and C o ., Limited,

1905.
 21S

Jonaon, Ban. Ban Tonson, ada. C. H. Harford and Percy Simpaon.

H. Oxford: Glarandon Preea, 1925.

. Tha Worka of Ban Ionson, ad. Francis Cunningham. II.

London: Chatto & Wlndua, 1904.

Karaka, D. F. TUat Flaah. Bombay: Thacker and C o ., 1941.

. There Lay tha City. Bombay: Thacker an d Co., 1944.

_____ . Wa Never Die. Bombay: Thacker and C o ., 1944.

Keith, A. B. Tha Religion and tha Phlloaophv of the Vadaa and

- Cambridge: Harvard University Preas,
1925.
Lavrin, Janko. Nikolai Gogol. London: Sylvan Press, 1951.

Masters, John. Bhowanl Tunctlon. New York: Tha Viking Press,

1954.

Maugham, Somerset. Tha Summing Up. Garden City, New York:

Doubleday, Doran and Company In c., 1938.

Mayo, Katharine. Mother India. New York: Harcourt, Brace &

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Muir, Ramsay. Making of British India. Manchester: Manchester

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Mukerjee, Radhakamal. Tha Culture and Art of India. New York:

Frederick A. Praager, 1925.

Needham, Joseph, ad. Sclenoe. Religion and Reality. London:

Tha Sheldon Press, 1925.

O'Malley, L. S. 8. Modem India and the West. London: Oxford

University Press, 1941.
Prabhu, P. N. Tfinrfu Social Organization. Bombay: Popular Book
Depot, 1954.
 216

Radhakrlshnan, 8 . B ast and W ast. Naw York: Harper &

Brothers, 1956.

______________. Tha Hindu View o f L ife. London: G eorye A llen

& Unwin L td ., 1927.

____________ . Indian F h Jh m gaih y. 2 Vole. London: George

Allen & Unwin IrfBU 1925.

____________. Tha Principal Unanlaada. New York: Harper &

Brothers, 1953.

Rlsley, H. H. The People of India. Calcutta: Thacker, Spink,

1908.

Rosenthal, A. M. "Talk with Raalpuram Krishna*wami Narayan

of Malgudl, India." The New York Time* Book Review.
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Oxford Univeraity Press, 1934.

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Bibliography. Philadelphia: University of
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8 rlnlvas Iyengar, K. R. The Indian Contribution to English

Literature. Bombay: Kamatak Publishing House, 1945.

_______. Indo-Anglian Literature. Bombay: The International

Book House Ltd., 1943.

Trollope, Anthony. The Trollope Reader, eds. E. C. Dunn and

Marion E. Dodd. New York: Oxford University Press,
1947.

_______. An Autobiography. New York: Dodd, Mead and

Company, 1927.

_______. Barohester Towers. London: The Zodiac Press, 1949.

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 k 217

"Wall Mat In Malgudl." Anon, artlola, Tha Times Lltarary

Supplement, May 9, 1958, p. 254.

Waston, Ohrlstlna. Tha World la a Bridge. Naw York: Charles

Scribner's sons, 19S0.

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Scribner's sons, 1925.

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Praia, 1958.

B. Reviews (In chronological ordar)

Tha Bachalor of Arta

Anon. Bookmark, Nov. 1954, p. 35.

Anon. Tha Naw Yorkar, Nov. 20, 1954, pp. 216-217.

Anon. Tha Naw York Tlmaa Book Review, Nov. 21,

1954, p. 36.

Anon. Time. Dec. 27, 1954, p. 66.

Hughes, Serge. "Two Adolescents," Tha Commonweal,

April 1, 1955, pp. 681-682.

Gold, Herbert. Tha Hudson Review, Spring 1955, pp.

154-155.

Tha Financial Expert

Anon. Tha Times Literary Supplement, Oct. 31, 1952,

p. 705.

Lean, Tangye. Spectator. Jan. 9, 1953, p. 52.

Anon. Klrkua. April 1, 1953, p. 228.

M uehl, John F re d eric k . S aturday R eview . April 18, 1953,

p p . 2 2 -2 3 .
 218

Goddan, Rumer. New York Herald Tribune Book Review,

April 19, 1953, p. 3.

Anon. The Now Yorker. April 25, 1953, pp. 129-130.

Bplelbaiger, Charles. NUndor tho Banyan Troo, "Tha

MVS H agg. goofc IfrylfW, May 3, 1953, p. 20.
Gatloln, Frank. "The 'Littla Llia' of Everyman, " Tha
rr^m r^T*1 May 8, 1953, p. 126.
Wood, Farcy. Chicago Sunday Tribuna, May 10, 1953,
p. 14.
Anon. "Hindu Businessman," Tima. May 11, 1953,
pp. 124--125.

Anon. Tha Atlantic Monthly. June 1953, p. 86.

Hlghet, Gilbert. Harper’s Magazine. June 1953, pp.

100- 10 1 .

Grateful to Life and Death

Fremantle, Anne. "The Nearness of Two Worlds, " The

Commonweal. Oct. 23, 1953, pp. 70-71.

West, Anthony. The Naw Yorker, Oct. 31, 1953, pp.

128-127.

Muehl, J. F. "Fate In Eternity," Saturday Review,

Oct. 31, 1953, p. 19.
Parton, Margaret. Naw York Herald Tribune Book Review.
Nov. 29, 1953, p. 7.
Adams, Robert Martin. Tha Hudson Review. 8pring 1954,
p. 141.

The G uide

P arton, M a rg a re t. N ew York H erald Tribune Book R eview ,

M arch 16, 1958, p . 5 .
 219

Richardson, Maurice. Naw BUUim m and Halloa,

March 22, 1958, p. 385.

Bair, Donald. "Fortunes of a Reluctant Holy Man,"

Ifeft NtW York Tlmaa Book R eview , March 23, 1958,
p. 5.

Anon. Tims. March 24, 1958, p. 116.

Anon. Bookllat. April 1, 1958, p. 444.

T. O. Chrlatlan Bclanoa Monitor. April 3, 1958, p. 7.

Hogan, WUllam. San Franclaoo Chronlola, April 3, 1958,

p. 35.

Nicholson, Geoffrey. Spectator. April 11, 1958, p. 465.

Mlsh, J. L. Library Tournal. April 15, 1958, p. 1230.

West, Anthony. The New Yorker. April 19, 1958, p. 145.

Rama Rau, Santha. "Man With Answers, " Saturday

Review. May 3, 1958, p. 21.

Anon. "Well Met In Malgudl, " The Times L iterary

Supplement, May 9, 1958, p. 254.

Anon. America. May 17, 1958, p. 231.

Appleton, Sally. "The Ambiguous Man," The Commonweal.

May 30, 1958, p. 238.

Anon. Bookmark. June 1958, p. 226.

Anon. Chicago Sunday Tribune. June 8, 1958, p. 9.

Spears, Monroe. Yale Review. Sept. 1958, p. 120.

The Printer of Malgudl

Haverstiok, John. "Sly Rascal, " Saturday Review. May

11, 1957, p. 20.
 220

B u r, D onald. "Three M inds In T rou b le,N Tha Naw York

Timas Booh R eview , May 19, 1957, p . 4 .

Anon. ISStiSMEk* Tuna 1957, p. 215.

Waston, Christina. "Odd, Entertaining Doings in a

Small Town in India," Naw York Harald Tribuna Book
Review. June 2, 1957, p. 6.

A»on. Booklist. July 15, 1957, p. 579.

Framantla, Anna. "Absurd and Cradihla Bvants," Tha

August 2, 1957, pp. 452-453.
Swami and Prlands

Anon. Bookmark, Nov. 1954, p. 35.

Hitrac, Josaph. "Hindu Huckleberry," Saturday Raviaw,

Nov. 6, 1954, pp. 27-28.

Anon. Tha Naw Yorkar. Nov. 20, 1954, pp. 216-217.

Anon. Tha Naw York Times Book Raviaw, Nov. 21,

1954, p. 36.

Anon. Tima. Dec. 27, 1954, p. 66.

Hughas, Sarga. "Two Adolescents, " The Commonweal,

April 1, 1955, pp. 681-682.

Gold, Herbert. Tha Hudson Raviaw. 8prlng 1955, pp.

154-155.

Waiting for tha Mahatma

Hewitt, Douglas. Manchester Guardian, August 30,

1955, p. 4.

Anon. Tha Times Literary Supplement, Sept. 9, 1955,

p. 521.
 221

C raapton, M iohaal. Naw Stataaaan and N ation, O ct. 1,

1955, p p . 4 0 1 -4 0 7 .

Aaon. Tha Maw Yorkar. D e c . 10, 1955, p . 220.

Barr, D onald. "Diaoiplaa of Qaadhl, " Tha Naw York

Tlmaa Book Bavlaw, D ao. 21, 1955, p . 10.

W ood, Paroy. C hicago Bundar Tribuna, D ao. 25, 1955,

p . 5.
 VI TA

Nlrmal ldukerjl w t i born on June 26, 1933, in Dora Ism ail

Khan (formerly in India and now in W est P akistan ). She received

e

the B.A. degree from Allahabad U niversity in 1951. In 1953 sh e

receiv ed her M .A . in English from Agra U n iversity. From 1953 to

1958 sh e worked as a lecturer in English at Modi G irls' C o lleg e ,

Modlnagar; Vldya Bhawan C o lle g e , Udaipur; and Vedlc G irls'

C o lle g e , M uzzaffam agar. She joined Louisiana State U niversity

a s a graduate student in September 1958. She i s now a candidate

for the degree of Doctor of P hilosophy.

222
 EKAMDVA390M AND

CfcndMrie: M lm ai M ukaiji

Major FMd:

Title of Thaala: AgtiMhr o f the M oveli o f R« I . M in crtt

Approved:

in i Chairman

the Graduate School

EXAMINING COMMITTEE:

I /J a A a v ’

(i? -Quu/flXji^.

7 ;. -7 ) , . _____

Date of Examination:

June 29, 1960