Introduction:

Thermocouple: is a sensor that measures temperature by detecting the voltage generated at the
junction of two different metals when exposed to a temperature gradient and this phenomenon
is based on the Seebeck effect. The amount of voltage will greatly depend on the characteristics
of metals used and the range of the temperature change. In a junction formed by two wires, one
of these is called the hot or measuring junction. This is connected to the body of the
thermocouple and is responsible for measuring the temperature. The second junction, on the
other hand, is the reference junction and is attached to the body of a known temperature. Any
two different metals or metal alloys exhibit the thermoelectric effect, but only a few are used as
thermocouples—e.g., antimony and bismuth, copper and iron, or copper and constantan (a
copper-nickel alloy). Usually platinum, either with rhodium or with a platinum-rhodium alloy,
is used in high-temperature thermocouples.

Figure 1: A thermocouple develops a voltage based on the difference between a temperature of

interest and a cold-junction temperature

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How Does a Thermocouple Work?
Unlike thermistors or mercury thermometers, thermocouples don’t directly measure a
temperature of interest. Instead, they measure the difference between a temperature of interest
and a known reference temperature. Figure 1 shows the basic setup. The welded thermocouple
tip measures the temperature of interest. The other ends of the thermocouple wires terminate at
the cold junction and present a voltage that depends on the temperature difference and the
metals used to make up the thermocouple. Copper leads carry the cold-junction voltage to a
digital multimeter. These devices are derived from three principles and these are the: Seebeck
effect, Peltier Effect, and the Thomson effect.

 The Seebeck effect: It states that whenever two dissimilar metal wires are connected to
each other to form two junctions out of which one junctions is subjected to high
temperature and another is subjected to low temperature then EMF induced is
proportional to temperature variation between two junctions.
 The Peltier effect: It states that when two dissimilar metals form a closed loop and if
external current forced to flow through closed loop, then one junction will get heated &
other will become cool.
 Thomson effect: It states that a potential gradient exists even in a single conductor
having temperature gradient if a temperature gradient exists along any one metal or both
the metal of thermocouple then junction Electromotive Force may be slightly altered.

Figure 2: Seebeck effect & Peltier effect and Thomson effect

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Thermocouple Construction:
Thermocouples come in several different construction types as shown in Figure 3.
Thermocouple leads are protected by a layer of insulation and often have a protective sheath at
the thermocouple junction tip to protect the sensor element

Figure 3: Thermocouple Construction Types

 Exposed junction – In an exposed junction, the conductors are outside the thermocouple
sheath. They have a very rapid response to temperature changes but can be easily
damaged. The best use for exposed junction thermocouples is where a fast response is
required, and there is a low risk of damage to the sensor.
 Grounded junction – In a grounded junction, the conductors are connected and welded
to the external sheath, which forms a sealed connection. Since the wires are connected to
the sheath, they are not insulated and may be affected by EMF’s. They are used to
measure temperatures in corrosive environments and are the most common form of
connection.
 Ungrounded junction or insulated – An insulated junction uses magnesium oxide
insulating material to protect the sensor from EMF’s. The response time of an
ungrounded thermocouple is slower than a grounded or exposed junction types. They are
used to protect sensitive electronics from feedback voltages.

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Thermocouple Insulation:

 Vinyl: is low cost, has good flexibility, fair electrical, and is a general purpose material.
 Teflon: has high cost, a high temperature rating, excellent chemical resistance, and
electrical properties but has poor cut through resistance.
 Kapton: has excellent physical, electrical, and mechanical properties over a wide variety
of temperature ranges and is used in applications where there is extreme heat and
vibration. It maintains its mechanical properties in the harshest of conditions.
 Polyethylene: has low cost, excellent electrical properties, high flammability, and is
stiffer than vinyl.
 Fiberglass: excellent for high temperature applications and suitable for use with ambient
temperatures where there is a possibility of hot spots
 Ceramic: is used in commercial ovens and furnaces and can monitor ambient
temperatures of fireboxes, kilns, and grills. Its temperature range is -58°F to 2200°F
 Conductor Jacket: can be put over the primary insulation and is necessary when
additional mechanical protection is needed. A jacket for vinyl Insulation Is nylon with
polyethylene used for vinyl or nylon insulation. A conductor jacket acts as a mechanical
barrier and prevents shorting.

Thermocouple Types:
Thermocouples come in different types for a variety of applications and use a system of letters
to identify each type. There is a wide range of thermocouple types with their own characteristics
and temperature ranges. The difference between each type is determined by their durability,
temperature range, resistance, and applications.

The most commonly used thermocouple type has a grounded construction, chosen primarily for
their speed since they are 50% faster than ungrounded types. Their two wires are welded to the
side of the metal probe sheath with the tip of the probe completing the circuit.

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The ungrounded type of thermocouple is normally the second choice with the ungrounded
junction isolated from the sheath material. Due to the method of isolation, ungrounded
thermocouples are slower but last longer, interface easily with instrumentation, and do not have
ground loop problems.

The least used thermocouple is the exposed type where the thermocouple sticks out of the
sheath and is exposed to the environment. It has the highest response time but is limited to
applications that are dry, non-corrosive, and non-pressurized. Since the element is exposed, it is
subject to damage and corrosion

Base Metal Thermocouples:

Types C, B, E, J, N, K, R, T, P and S type are common types of thermocouples and have base
metals of iron, copper, nickel, platinum, rhodium, and chromel. A thermocouple requires two
metals to be joined to form a junction with each junction having a different temperature.

1. Type K: This thermocouple is composed of 90% Nickel, 10% Chromium for positive leg and
for the negative leg is composed of 95% Nickel, 2% Aluminum, 2% Manganese and 1%
Silicon. Type K thermocouples are used in inert or oxidizing environments with a temperature
range of -454°F to 2300°F (-270°C to 1260°C). They generate an EMF variation in
temperatures below 1800°F (982°C), which limits their use in inert environments. Their color
coding is red or yellow.

Figure 4: Type K thermocouples

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Pros
• To measure temperature it provide good linearity of emf.
• It provide good resistance against oxidation below 1000 °C (1832°F).
• Highly stable output.
• Comparatively cost effective than other thermocouple.

Cons
• Not suitable for reducing atmosphere but can withstand metallic vapor.
• Aging of the emf characteristic, when compared to noble metal thermocouples (B,
R, and S).
• Not suitable for vacuum applications due to vaporization of chromium in the
positive element.
Uses:

 They are used in many industries like Steel & Iron to monitor temperature &
chemistry throughout the steel making process.
 Used for testing temperatures associated with process.
 Used for Testing of heating appliance safety.

2. Type J: This thermocouple have Iron for the positive leg and the negative leg is composed of
mixture of Copper 55% and Nickel 45%. They are used in oxidizing, vacuum, inert, and
reducing atmospheres with injection molding being their most common application. Type J
thermocouples have to be closely monitored since the iron leg can rust. Their temperature range
is -346°F to 1400°F (-210°C to 760°C) and have a red or white color. The lifespan of a J type
thermocouple can be when they are continually exposed to high temperatures.

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 Figure 5: Type J thermocouples

Pros
• They are cheapest thermocouple.
• Suitable for reducing atmospheres.
• They are versatile and have widespread usage throughout industry.

Cons

• Not suitable for temperature above 760°C.

• They consist of iron wire in one leg so it rusts in humid weather. The rust causes
inaccurate readings & at worse open circuit.
• If used above 760 °C as an abrupt magnetic transformation will cause permanent
recalibrations.
Uses:
• Used to monitor temperatures of inert materials.
• In vacuum applications.
• The main use is with old equipment that can not accept modern thermocouples.