Electromagnetism

A. Alonso Bizzi

Imperial College London

Physics, Blackett Laboratory
 0. Prelims
Remember :
- Info at the start of each PS
- Vector identities that =0
- Thermal velocity

- Time-averaging theorem :

- Phase vel

=w/k
 Through a conductor :

- Group velocity

- BCs for parallel, perp jumps in fields

- Characteristic times

- Skin depth and k

For both dielectrics and conductors

Vector identities

Scalar triple product

Triple vector product

Divergence of a scalar product:

- Vector fields F and G

Divergence of a scalar times vector field

Curl of products
Jacobian etc

Revise
- Reflection at conductors
- Look through EM1 APS

2. Fields and Forces

always points away from positive source charges.

Gauss’ Theorem/ Divergence theorem

Vector Calc - Divergence theorem:

Integral over a closed surface

EM - Gauss’ Theorem
The flux of E (electric field) through closed surface S = total charge enclosed by that volume

Compare to divergence theorem so:

(positive divergence  ‘outflux’)

First Maxwell law:

Magnetic fields

 no magnetic monopoles
By divergence theorem  2nd maxwell law:

Stokes’ Theorem
Any field integrated around a closed loop enclosing a surface

Ampere’s Law
Empirical:

As current density J (flux of charge per unit area)  dI=J.dS

So by stokes:

ONLY FOR TIME INDEPENDENT E AND B

Field in a solenoid
https://www.natureof3laws.co.in/magnetic-field-due-to-solenoid-class-12-derivation/

Faraday and Lenz

(negative sign  Lenz’s law)

Stokes:
dϕ
=−∫ ∇ × E ⋅ d S
dt S

Φ  magnetic flux

ϕ=∫ B . dS
S
So, Faraday: 4th Maxwell eq

Displacement current
Charge leaving a surface per second

as J is the flow of charge per second (flux) per area.

Total charge in a surface:

Charge outflux is the negative of the derivative of this.

So:

Continuity equation:

basically a statement of charge conservation.

Ampere’s law so far is incompatible

 which only works w contin eq when dp/dt=0

So, add a term


From 1st Maxwell relation:


So, Modified Ampere’s Law:

∂E
=displacement current
∂t


Integral form:

Simplify and apply Stokes’:

Lorentz law
How charges respond to local fields

Relativistic and non

P momentum of charge

Field equations – Maxwell equations

Sources: rho and J

Link to DE
Potential obeys Poisson’s Equation:

2 −ρ
∇ V=
ϵ0
(derived from Gauss as E=−∇ V )
When the net charge is 0  Laplace
2
∇ V =0
Laplacian in cylindrical polars:

See DEEM

3. E and B from charge and current sheets

E due to charge sheet
Normal component
 Thin, infinite sheet in xy plane
o  no components in x or y by symmetry  E(z)
o pillbox
 o Symmetry: E(z) = -E(-z) as one is pointing towards the charge sheet and the other is
pointing away from it.

Features:
σA
2 E ( z ) A= where q=σA∧σ=charge per unit area
ϵ0
Doesn’t decrease with distance from sheet (only because sheet in infinite)
σ
Discontinuous at sheet  jump of
ϵ0

For charged sheets of any shape, there might be a tangential component of E (finite sheet) but the normal
σ
component will still jump by
ϵ0

Perp/tangential component of E to sheet

Stokes theorem  small rectangular loop.

Static charges so RHS = 0
Shrink the height of the loop to 0  only get tangential contributions

continuous tangential component

B due to a current sheet

Normal

Tangential
Static case (i.e. B not time dependent) 
Stokes’ on RHS and integrate:

Loop normal to J

(I is current per unit length  not defining as total current in loop

so that the Ls cancel)
 Jump in tangential component from one side of the sheet to the other

Loop parallel to J
No current flowing through loop  integral =0

Combine
As only the tangential component of B normal to J is discontinuous

The discontinuous component is ppd to the normal vector and I.

Infinitesimal surface current densities

As the sheet is infinitesimally thin, the cross sectional area is negligible and the density of current is a
delta function.

 integrate over loop:

4. Maxwell Eqs  Wave Equations

In vacuum
No sources (J or rho)
Faraday:

Take curl of both sides

∇ × ( ∇ × E )=−∇ × ∂t B
 Vector identity on RHS

and take the curl inside the deriv on the LHS

2
∇ ( ∇ . E )−∇ E=−∂t (∇ × B)
Apply Gauss (LHS) and Ampere (RHS)

∇
( ϵρ )−∇ E=−∂ (μ J + ϵ μ ∂ E)
0
2
t 0 0 0 t

No sources  J= ρ=0

2
∇ E=∂t ϵ 0 μ0 ∂t E
2 2
∇ E=ϵ 0 μ0 ∂t E
Say E points along x-axis, but only varies with z and t (i.e. E = Ex(z,t)  E points in the x direction but
propagates in the z-direction.

GS (see DEEM)  f and g are arbitrary

where
Similarly, can eliminate E and obtain the same equation

Components parallel to direction of propagation

Return to general E=E(z,t) i.e. don’t assume it points
E only varies in z 

and as no sources, LHS=0 so Ez(z,t)=Ez(t) (i.e. z component doesn’t vary in z)

Assume Ez0 as z+/- inf.
But as constant for all z, Ez=0 for all z.
(similar for B)
Therefore, E and B are transverse to the direction of propagation

What direction do E and B point in?

Calculate curl and define E to point along x  E=Ex(z,t) ex

  wave linearly polarised in x direction (E, B, k mutually orthogonal)

Findings
Unified Light and electromagnetism
EM signals can propagate in a vacuum at c
Light is an EM wave
If a charge moves  fields will change  changes propagate at the speed of light (light cone)

Wave equation solutions

Simple and real

All points of constant φ travel at

Complex

~ iϕ
Complex amplitude: E0=E 0 e
~ ~
Complex field: E= E 0 e
i ( kz −ωt )

Actual field:
 (similar for B)
Relate complex E and B: (same as real)
Both real and imaginary parts satisfy Maxwell eqs.
As these are linear, the sum obeys them too:

Useful
Because we can use the properties of exponentials to simplify things.

So:

Orthogonality
E and B
Faraday:

Scalar product with E

as RHS = 0
E and B are orthogonal

E and k

Scalar prod w k RHS=0 so k.E=0  orthogonal

C=w/k
Take curl of Ampere’s law and use vector identity and orthogonality
 C=w/k

Complex amplitude relationship

Use orthogonality RHS = k|B0| and divide by k

Reflection at conductors

Perfect conductor: E=0 inside (charges more around to cancel out any net E-field)
The edge becomes a current (charge) sheet  use the BCs from chap 3.

Wave must be consistent in time  wI=wR=w (otherwise bits wouldn’t match at the boundary)
Choose kI in xz plane, with polarisation in xz plane

From our diagram

where
Tangential component of E (along surface) is continuous on both sides of the conductor:
o Must =0 outside too
 Apply at origin (r=0)


At all points

(similar (simpler) process for y-polarised light)

Therefore, specular reflection  conductors can be used as mirrors

Polarisation
https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/schwartz/files/lecture14-polarization.pdf
Right polarised  rotates clockwise
Left polarised  rotates anticlockwise

5. Energy densities and energy flux

How does a charge respond to the EM fields incident on it?
EM fields exert the Lorentz force on the charge:

This causes the charges to accelerate and gain energy

Where does this come from?

Work done on charge:

Power:

=
Lorentz force N2L

As second term vanishes  B-fields do no work P=rate of change of KE

Charge density of point charge qi at ri:

Q L Q
Current density  multiply by velocity × = 2 →J
L
3
t Lt

Rate of change of KE (rate of work done):

First we apply the power equality from above qivi . E

Then, the delta function comes in when integrating wrt volume as the volume is only non-zero at r i.
So… J.E is the power delivered (rate of work done) per unit volume.
Find J.E
Rearrange Ampere’s full law and dot with E (scalar prod):

A

Poynting’s Theorem and EM energy flux

Aim: write above in an easier to use form.
Faraday:

Scalar prod with B/µ0

So
1
μ0 (
B . ( ∇ × E ) + ∂t
1 2
2 μ0 )
B =0  B

Add B to A:
Use divergence of a scalar product:

Poynting’s Theorem 😊

Parts:

Poynting vector
S  flux of energy carried by EM field.
So rewrite as:

Poynting in differential form

Compare w continuity eq  here energy in fields is not conserved  source/sink
Integral form:
Integrate over V and apply Divergence theorem to S term

Terms:
6. Rate of change of EM energy in a certain volume
7. = influx of energy into the surface
8. – Energy per second transferred from the charges in that volume

Complex form and average power

Average power
Complex terms have time dependence e-iwt
first term ∝e-2iwt , second term ∝ e2iwt
Average out to 0
Last two terms  time dependence cancels out so constant average wrt time:

Examples
Examining Poynting vector:
Plane monochromatic waves

Heating a wire
Power dissipated through wire of length L  P=IV
Obtain same expression through Poynting vector
Apply Ampere’s Law at r=a (edge of wire):

 tangential to the wire, compared to the radial E-field

 denominator is surface area

Power dissipated is SA = IV
Summary: Influx of energy from the EM field is then dissipated according to P=IV.
Energy flow in a charging capacitor
Energy accumulates between the plates. How does it get there?
Not from wires
Wires are parallel to E and Poynting vector at right angles to E
For small separation (i.e. plates are much wider than the distance between them and can neglect
edge effects)  uniform E field  builds up at dE/dt.
Energy in electric field:


Rate of change of total energy (chain rule)
d U E dU dE 2 dE
= =ϵ 0 E × π a h×
dt dE dt dt
A changing E-field  B field (Ampere).
Between the plates J =0 so integral form of Ampere:

B loop between plates  LHS = 2pi*a

(direction of B found w right hand thumb rule as I along wire is in same direction as E)
So RHR  S inwards

Total inflowing power = SA where A is the surface normal to S between the plates: SA =
S*2pi*a*h =
Circuit
Ohm’s Law and Ohmic heating

J
- E=  for small σ ’s, there will be also be significant E pointing along J in conducting material
σ
 so a component of S will point towards the wire  Ohmic heating
(as it comes from Ohm’s law duhhh)

Joule heating
- Energy incident as heat
Battery
- energy outflow from battery (not heat)

6. Scalar and vector potentials

Electrostatics and magnetostatics no time dependence  dt=0

If J non-zero  charges are moving, but ‘static’ so I

has no time dependence

Electrostatic potential
For first box curl free field: if there is a scalar field Ψ and (and v.v.)
 not unique: can add any constant in front of the grad
Convention - sign:

Find φ:
Integrate E by using above relation:

potential difference
 path independent integral

Poisson’s equation for φ

As  

Solution  GREEN’S FUNCTIONS

  Coulomb pot:

Divide the charge distribution in question into small cells dV described by line above
Total solution: add cells up

δ qi= ρ ( r ' ) dV →
  STATIC CASE ONLY

Laplace and BCs

BCs: Dirichlet pot on boundary OR Neumann 

Laplace: Vacuum  rho=0  has a unique solution (proof: notes)

Faraday cage
Spherical shell of conducting matter around a cavity  E = 0 in cavity (conductor has constant potential or
charges will move around to account for this – this is why charges move in circuits, to account for this pot
diff)  If φ = const is a solution, must be the only solution.

Magnetostatics
Magnetic vector potential

 there is a magnetic vector pot A: Due to divergence of free fields:

∇ . F=0 → F=∇ × G
A  not unique (can add gradient of any scalar field)
Proof: if , then as =0

Gauge condition
 to make A unique

(part 7)
Magnetostatics:


Apply the Coulomb gauge: first term =0 

 solve as b4:
Check: solution satisfies

Plug:  proof in notes

Magnetic dipoles

Magnetic dipole: (I is current)

Ppd to loop
Force
Magnetic force on a charge per unit L: F = q(v x B)  on a current I:

No net force if B is uniform but yes if B varies with position (and net torque).
For the whole current loop, integrate:

B-field multivariate Taylor expansion:

(first order)
B-field in AB:

B-field in CD:

Total horizontal component: first 2 terms cancel  leave Bhorizontal = with current flowing in the -y
direction.
F=IxB

and .
Net F:

 
B-field of a magnetic dipole

 r’ carries I around loop

Look at loop from afar: r>>d (dimension of loop),  Taylor expansion

[Explanation :

 do for all derivs:

So:

(1/r term integrates to 0)

Dot with u and use Stokes:
 u const – no curl.
Follow derivation in notes :

B=∇ × A  use curl of products:

7. Time-independent EM

Still  so still
Faraday in terms of A

as

Wave eqs for phi and A

For A
Ampere:
Simplify by choosing Lorentz gauge:

so… wave eq for A

For phi

Gauss Plug Lorentz gauge:

Gauge transformations
As when , B (cross prod) is unchanged, can choose any scalar field. Therefore, we choose
the ones that meet the needs of the Lorentz condition.
In the time-dep case, if you make the above transform, also need to modify φ to keep E unchanged.

Solving the wave equations for phi and A

- Fourier anal & greens function technique:
Linear DE:

The GF is defined as the y(x) that yields f(x) =delta func:

Use the sifting property of the delta function to get f(x):

By that logic:

We work in 4D:

Define G:

Remove time derivs by taking FT wrt t:

LHS: RHS: remember normalisation 1/root(2pi)

Sub in U:

 which simplifies if spherically symmetrical (Laplacian)

Sub in V=RU:

 
Inverse FT :

(from grouping ew terms and using ).

Set B=0 (as it would give contributions from the future)

Retarded potentials and time

Close to charge, where R0, like stationary solution 
Retarded GF:

reflects causality
Retarded time:

Integrate:

Then find the relevant E and B from

Part 2

EM fields in matter

1. Dielectrics
= insulators
Apply field  atoms align
P = Np = Nqd
P  polarisation (atomic dipole moment/vol)
N number density
p dipole moment
d  displacement (neg to pos), i.e. charge separation (v. small due to massive E forces)
P= χ e ϵ 0 E
χ e →electric susceptibility
- scalar when P parallel to E (isotropic material), tensor otherwise (anisotropic)
- when independent of E  linear material
- when uniform (constant)  homogeneous material
- HIL (homogeneous, isotropic, linear)

Charge and current densities

#dipoles sticking out = NV  V 1 layer = Ad (d is the distance between charges)

So charge on surf = NAdq = PA

A’ = A/cos(theta)
Let the new surface area be A’ with A’n=S
Same height  same number of dipoles sticking out = Q=PA=P . S
Polarisation surface charge density = charge/Area
Q PA
ρ sp = = =P cos θ= n^ . P
A A /cos θ
'

In a dielectric, total charge = 0

Types of charge density
Free charge density: (0 in dielectrics)

- ρ f  free charge density

- ρ sf  free surface charge density
Polarisation charge density: (from bound charges)

- ρ p polarisation charge density

- ρ sp  surface polarisation charge density

Time varying P

= charge/volume *metres/second=charge/area/second=current/area

due to the movement of bound charges

How can bound charges move? Bound charges  e-s without enough energy to leave the atom. When an
E-field is applied, it polarises the material and deforms the atom as the e -s move to one side and the
nuclei move to the other. If P continues to vary in time, this current will persist (no longer just
instantaneous).

D and epsilon

Total charge density = sum of free charge density and polarisation charge density
To make notation easier, define electric displacement D = ϵ 0 E+ P

As:

applied Gauss. (pbound already included in D)

Maxwell in HIL
The same but ϵ 0 → ϵ 0 ϵ r

Clausius-Mossotti
E-field applied to a single atom  becomes polarised
A bigger dipole moment means a more stark separation of positive and negative charge.

Different atoms/molecules respond differently to E-fields depending on how much they resist
polarisation.


α → polarisability of atom/molecule (like the spring constant – how easy it is to
polarise the atom)
Place dielectric in a vacuum
Apply E-field to vacuum (Evac)  creates an electric field in the dielectric
Elocal  remove atom to leave a spherical cavity

Q2 PS6

When can it be used:

- Best for gases and simple non-polar liquids
- Not solids quantum effects are important
- equation assumes that the polarization is induced by the applied field can’t be applied to polar
molecules like water (molecules have permanent dipole moments).

2. Magnetic materials
= materials that are affected by atomic magnetic dipoles

Atomic magnetic dipole

- Quantum effect
- Simiplification  electron orbiting nucleus  current loop

 Jsm
 To describe the macroscopic effect define magnetization M = Nm = total magnetic dipole
moment/volume. m =M*V/num

Current densities
Small bock (volume element) so small that we can approximate M as uniform. Ribbon of I around surface.

Num blocks = 1; Vol block = LA

mblock =M V =M lA

Also,

Uniform M
Adjacent Iblocks cancel  no current inside

Non-uniform M
Let’s find out what components affect Jmx

Adjacent currents: as I =ML x n^ (direction given by RHR)

Assume small difference so by Taylor (Mz2 is Mz1 shifted a bit in the y-direction).

(difference between the 2 Ms x L (i.e. dz))

Contribution from My


Contribution from Mx
0 (parallel to Jmx)
Tot

Types of current density

Bound current densities:

Jm  due to magnetic dipoles
Jp  due to electric dipoles

Charge conservation

Conservation of free and bound charges.

H and µr
Separate J into its components:

∂P
J m =∇ × M ∧J p=
∂t

Notation to simplify life

Magnetic susceptibility χ m
- Don’t get confused by analogy to χ e . That is refine wrt E, this is wrt H not B.
- Scalar constant in HIL media

H is useful as it’s hard to calculate M

Classifying magnetic materials

Often ignore and take µr = 1
1. Diamagnetism
- Occurs in all materials
- Switch on B field induces an E
- Lenz: electrons modify their magnetic moment to oppose Bapp
- Reduced B  µr < 1
- Stays like this (no losses) until B switched off
2. Paramagnetic
- Atoms with permanent dipole moments
- When B= 0, M=0 (random orientation of atoms – thermal motion)
 - B increases  µr >1
- Bigger effect than diamagnetism
3. Ferromagnetic (NE)
- Permanent dipoles
- B=0  m’s aligned within a small domain (1mm) but separate domains not aligned
- B applied: domains align
- B massively increased
- Properties:
o M not linearly propto B
o Hysteresis (M depends on past and present B)

3. Conductors
= contain mobile free charges
Number density of free es : Ne
Number density of free ions: Ni

Total charge density of free charge ρ f =N i Ze−N e e

Assume singly-charged ions: Z=1

As ions are usually fixed vi=0

Ohm’s Law


Wire radius a, potential difference V, length of between 2 points on conductor L.
Pot diff is length dependent (measures the potential diff between 2 diff points on wire). Two points have
different potential if an E-field is applied across them. If the E-field is uniform, the ratio V/l is constant = E.

For surface, R diverges (0 area) 

Charge rearrangement time

Conservation of free charge (kind of like continuity eq):
i.e. apply E to conductor  free e’s rearrange until E=0 on a timescale τ*
ρ f can’t increase (just decay as t is always +ve)  if initially 0 stays 0.
τ* v small so assume ρ f = 0

Good/poor conductors

W  how fast the E-field charges (bigger = faster)

τ*  how fast charges rearrange (smaller = faster)
Behaviour of material changes depending on freq of applied E-field changes

i.e. a dielectric that conducts v slightly

Drude model

If both v and E ∝eiwt


When can you use Ohm’s law: when collisions are relevant (and thus resistance).

Skin Effect

As charges rearrange themselves fast enough so that there’s no charge density within conductor.

For AC current in cylindrical wire (spherical symmetry - ∇ 2 only depends on r):

Energy to drive current enters radially inwards through Poynting vect

 I travels mostly on the outer circles.

4. Plasma
Comparison to normal gas

Mobile charges  P=0

M not 0  current loops  Larmor orbits between ions and electrons
M due to free charges so can be calculated  don’t need H

Current
- Collosions neglect
Power
Per vol in
Plasma oscillations
Displace electrons ( ρ f ≠ 0 ¿  electric field  e-s move to the right, overshoot, E reverses, es to the left,
etc.

In a ohmic conductor this would dampen this  exponential decay of ρ f

EM waves in matter

5. Theoretical formalism

Consider simple materials: scalar constants

 ignore mag mats

Simple media:

Plane waves

(if in phase, complex if not)

Goal: find wave properties by finding k for a given w

In vacuum

From k x Faraday:

Phase velocity is always vphase = w/k

Complex vectors
Scalar vs inner prod
Different possibilities for k

6. Waves in dielectrics
Same eqs as in vac but ϵ 0 → ϵ
 

Oscillator model
Apply E  displace outer shell elecs  dipole mom
Treat as forced oscillations

Neglect correction due to dielectric to Elocal and assume it = Eapplied

Solve for x 
Dispersion

(so not reaaaally a constant – only w const w)

Dispersive medium = where the phase vel depends on the freq

Anomalous dispersion
 Iwy becomes important if w close to w0

 Attenuated
 Opaque at these freqs
Binomial exp small N:

Define 
 7. Waves in Plasmas

Simplify Faraday:

2 solutions for k:

Longitudinal
B = 0 (not EM)

 Plasma oscillation

Analogous to T*

Transverse
High freq: w>w_p
K real
Vphase = w/k

Vphase>c Well…. Info travels at group velocity (deriv instead of fraction)

Low freq
- K imag

- Decaying oscillation
- Attenuation distance:

Explains radio blackout  when spacecraft re-enters atmosphere, the air around it is ionised and forms a
plasma with w_p>radio freqs
Critical density
When is a plasma wave reflected

Imagine density increases

8. Waves in conductors

Dispersion relation:
Poor conductor

Good conductor
Different phi in conductors or vacuum as in cond Jc=0 and in cond Jd=0

What are metals

Metals can be treated as conductors or plasmas depending on ws and Ts
EM fields and waves at boundaries

23. Boundaries: theoretical formalism

BCs that apply at an interface
Use 4-field form of Mawell’s equations

Surface free charge an conduction current on interface

1. Gauss
 2. Mag monopoles

3. Faraday

Create loop and shrink so that area enclosed = 0, i.e. RHS =0

 4. Ampere
Again create loop and shrink height.

Summary
Setup

Assume:
- Big radius of curvature  flat
- Thin transition region  discontinuity from 1 to 2
- 3 waves have same w (source) but diff k, E and B

Properties

Coords: z =0 everywhere on interface, ky=0

3rd BC:

Sooo

Solve disp rel for a given w to find k1 and k2

Snell’s Law and Fresnel equation

Prisms
Fresnel equations
Derivation in notes

p-polarised

s-polarised

25. Boundaries between various media

In a dielectric

Note:
Low n to high n
High n to low n

Reflection from good conductor

Radiation pressure

E  drives I  experiences force due to B

Good conductor (essentially ignore Jd)

26. Boundaries between media

Vacuum to good cond – kR and kI parallel?

Analyse this previous assumption.

So transmitted wave should only be imag which means:

Dielectric to dielectric
(Vacuum = dielectric with n=1)

Evanescent waves
- Propagate in x with
- Decay in z-dir with
o  localised close to the boundary (highest intensity/concentration)
Total internal reflection

Detect evanescent waves

TIR

Frustrated TIR
Bring 2nd prism v close to 1st
- 2nd interface (vacuum  glass)

Evanescent waves couple to transmitted wave  no longer total internal reflection

- You will get diff amplitudes depending on the thickness of the ‘forbidden region’