Aesthetic Education: Its Historical Precedents

Author(s): Ronald L. Jones

Source: Art Education , Dec., 1974, Vol. 27, No. 9 (Dec., 1974), pp. 12-16
Published by: National Art Education Association

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 AESTHETIC EDUCATION:
ITS HISTORICAL PRECEDENTS

Ronald L. Jones

More and more frequently we are the National Education Association, John" and Della Robbia's "Bambino"
hearing educators in our field held in 1896, three speakers were were casts recommended for
enthusiastically talking about aesthetic selected to address themselves to the kindergarten and the primary g
education. To a generation of art subject "Art in the Schoolroom, A second direction of thought
educators molded by Dewey, Through Decorations and Works of education that influenced the po
Lowenfeld, and the "creativity im- Art." Of particular interest is a con- of appreciation occurred in 1899. A
petus," this growing emphasis upon cluding remark made by a Mr. Ross committee appointed by the NEA to
the art product and the student's Turner of Boston in support of the consider drawing and the objectives of
critical skills must seem a revolutionary power of exposure, "Let the decoration art education in the schools, cited the
move. The fact of the matter, however, of the schoolroom and artistic in- development of an appreciation of
is that professional art education has fluences surrounding them in their beauty as a major goal.4 Thus, ap-
previously experienced similar con- everyday life be such as to unfold the preciation as a facet of the art program
cerns for an emphasis upon the critical faculties and develop the full powers wasofformally and officially stated, mov-
and cultural dimensions of art. At a the children."1 ing it from a peripheral concern to a
time when our professional journals The Art Department of the NEA did goal for art teachers to consciously
are alloting an increased amount ofnot overlook the practical application consider. This goal or objective, in-
space to aesthetics in education, it of Mr. Turner's theory of decoration as terestingly, has enjoyed "lip-service"
seems not only appropriate, but advan-a means of developing children: in- by practically every art teacher to this
tageous, to examine the role that pic- cluded as one of the speakers on this day.
subject was Langdon Thompson who
ture study, art history, art appreciation, The third direction that affected the
and art judgment have played in theprovided a "definite scheme" of im- position of appreciation prior to the
evolution of our field. plementation for grades one through beginning of this century can be at-
Although a systematic and organiz- eight and high school. His approach to tributed to one man, Charles Elliot Nor-
ed art education unquestionably found decoration concerned itself primarily ton. The end of the nineteenth century
its beginning in the 1870's with Walter with placing "a frieze around the upper (to 1898) found Norton refining an art
Smith's efforts in Massachusetts, it was part of the walls and perhaps covering survey and appreciation type of course
considerably later before serious the ceiling of each room so as to il- at Harvard designed not only to elevate
thought was given by art teachers to lustrate different styles of historical or- art to an academic subject, but more
anything other than drawing and its nament ...." This, Thompson importantly to cultivate an attitude
contribution to industrial preparation. recommended should be done in toward art as being of historical impor-
The dogmatic regimentation of Smith's chronological order with the first tance.5 The last quarter of the
approach concerned itself in no way school year exposed to Egyptian, the nineteenth century was marked by a
with appreciation of or sensitivity to the second year, Greek, and continuing to tremendous expansion of courses in
visual products of our civilization. the eighth year where a "modern style American colleges and universities,
By any measure Smith's influence of ornament" could be used.2 particularly of the elective type;6 and
was significant well into the twentieth An individual of the 1890's that later the creation of a formal course in art
century, but by the 1890's new forces appreciation at Harvard established a
would assume a major role in deter-
were finding inroads into art education. precedent upon which a number of
mining the course of art education,
One of these forces, a concern for Henry Turner Bailey, in 1899 teamed
rapidly growing institutions could look
"beauty," enjoyed a growing support with Severance Burrage to deal formal- in their attempts to provide breadth to
as the nineteenth century drew to a ly and exhaustively with the subject of the curriculum. Art appreciation as a
CT close. schoolroom decoration. In their book, part of the general education program
As art education approached the School Sanitation and Decoration, of our colleges and universities has,
1900 mark, three avenues of thought every aspect of the physical plant was since the close of the nineteenth cen-
emerged that were important to the considered, but particular stress was tury enjoyed a position relatively
3 position appreciation would take in the placed upon the selection of art work secure, although its content and
scheme of education. First, and for the development of intellect, specific objectives have undergone a
perhaps the most characteristic at- morals, and appreciation. Included in number of modifications.
titude of the 1890's, was the concept of the book were details as to where and With a new century came an even
"decoration" as a method of cultivating how to display two- and three- greater interest in the "masterpiece" of
children's sensitivity to that which is dimensional art work for each grade.art as a subject in the schools-and the
beautiful. At the 35th annual meeting of For example, Donatello's "Infant St. name given this subject became com-
13

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monly known as "picture study." The ture study that not only enjoyed a posi-
proach to appreciation through picture
importance of picture study no doubt tion of major importance for more than study during the early part of this cen-
grew out of earlier efforts to expose twenty years, but also more closely tury found a comfortable home in the
children to art: it can be theorized that parallels the thinking of art educatorschronologically developed art history
as classroom teachers became aware today. program. This method of developing
of the limited effect that school Although Arthur Wesley Dow was an understanding and "appreciation"
"decorations," regardless of quality, certainly not the first to advocate the of the masterpieces of the past no
had upon children, a more structured study of composition as the primary doubt was the result of a filtering down
formal study of the work was under- concern of picture study, he, process, as the Charles Elliot Norton
taken to insure learning. This more survey course gained appeal on the
nevertheless, can be seen as the major
structured approach, whatever its force in perpetuating the idea in the
college level. For whatever the reason,
origin, began first as a study of subject first two decades of this century. however,
By by 1908 the Prang Company,
matter and slowly evolved into a con- 1913, Dow's book, Composition, had a major patron of art education at that
sideration of composition, the prin- been received so well that it was revis- time, had published a text designed to
ciples, and the elements. ed and in its second printing. Dow, assist art teachers in dealing with the
Fred J. Orr, supervisor of drawing of from his prestegious position as direc-"important divisions" of art in the
the State Normal School, Athens, tor of the Department of Fine Art at school-and one of those areas was art
Georgia, explicitly described the Teachers College, Columbia Universi-history.13 Not too dissimilar to present
prevailing attitude toward picture ty, made his viewpoint relative to pic-day art history practice, the course
study at the annual meeting of the NEA ture study unquestionably clear: the opened with Egyptian and Greek, then
in 1900. He outlined two distinct values approach employed by many art continued chronologically to the
of picture study in education: a culturaleducators to study a work through aRomantic era (an attempt to deal with
value resulting in a "training of the discussion of the subject matter, itsthe art of the present day or recent past
mind, morals and taste," and a meaning, and the accuracy of the was totally avoided).
technical value resulting in the drawing "... relate to art only super- A second deviation from Dow's
students' better use "of one or another
ficially and give no key to the percep- method, although retaining the sam
medium of pictorial expression."7 tion of fine quality." Finding such an ultimate goal was the humanistic
Perhaps even more illuminating was approach unacceptable, Dow con- method. During the first quarter of this
Orr's concluding remark: tinued by stating, "The most important century a number of texts were
fact about great creative work is that it published that advanced the proposi-
Picture study is, therefore, valuable is beautiful; and the best way to see this tion that subject matter and an
in placing before young minds the "intellectualizing" of the compositional
is to study the art-structure of it ... ."11
teachings of great men who have And to this end he devotes his book us- design were of secondary importance
been able to present their lessons in ing developmental exercises in line, in appreciation: what was of
simple and attractive form, easily un- value, and color. paramount concern was the feeling, o
derstood and gladly studied. Their Dow's approach to appreciation, the personal response, felt by the viewer
delineations of great themes inspire term he used to describe the ultimate Typical of this approach was the 1908
thought and a desire for truth; their goal of his program, was activity based book, Guide to Pictures. In a style com
outlines of figures and faces shine and obviously designed as a studio ap-mensurate with its approach, the
with goodness and spirituality; and proach; but there were others who author, Charles Caffin sums up the
their combinations of line and space, shared Dow's views but chose a humanistic position relative to picture
shade and shadow, satisfy the year- different means to the same end. And study by stating that " ... the enjoy-
ning for that which pleases and to adequately survey the historical ment of beauty, whether in pictures or
delights the eye.8 roots of our current concern with any other form comes to us through
aesthetic education demands at least a feeling," and " . . .we should study pic-
Although this attitude, so well ex- brief consideration of each. tures not solely for their own sake, but
pressed by Orr, became less important No better example can be given ofalso as a means of making our lives
early in this century, a few educators the academic approach to composition fuller and better.14" Balance, contrast,
continued to subscribe to the view that and appreciation than Henry R. Poore's color, form, texture, in fact all aspects
a correlation existed between picture Pictorial Composition and the Critical of composition are presented, but not
study and moral training. In 1907, for Judgement of Pictures, a book which in isolation: rather, these aspects of
example, an article in School Arts was written in 1903 and by 1915 had composition are treated in terms of the
stated that "Pictures are introduced realized its tenth edition. Where Dow's feelings and response they elicit from
into the modern schoolroom in order Composition can be seen as represen- human beings.
that the imagination might be exer- tative of the workbook and activity A third variation from an activity bas-
cised, the emotions cultivated, the love centered program, Poore's text ex- ed program designed to develop an ap-
of the beautiful fostered, the love of the emplifies the more scholarly and ex- preciation and sensitivity to composi-
great and good made permanent."9 haustive approach to the subject. One tion and beauty during this period can
And as late as 1914, attempts were still example, to illustrate the thoroughness be termed the personal approach. This
being made to equate the moral and the of the academic method, is Poore's un- was the children's book which was
beautiful with little or no concern for conditional developments of the con- designed to introduce children to th
much more than subject matter. Henry cept of balance. Thirty-eight pages vocabulary of art, the elementary co
Davies, in his 1914 book Art In Educa- were devoted to a detailed analysis of cepts of material, techniques and co
tion and Life, saw "moral perfection" as every nuance of balance through the position, and to develop a "recognit
a primary consideration in education, use of reproductions, diagrams, and of the beautiful in pictures.15" In 19
and what he termed the "aesthetic" was prose.12 The result was a book, and a Maude Oliver, at the time art critic for
the means whereby the idea could be method, that diligently delved into the Chicago Herald, wrote First Steps
"quickened."10 composition; and although its format in the Enjoyment of Pictures. In her in-
Not all that transpired in the think- was too scholarly for direct use in troduction she tells her child reader,
ing concerning picture study and ap- public education, its impact upon art "... when we understand how he (an
preciation was couched in such sweep- teachers must certainly have resulted artist) can tell if a picture is good or
ing generalities as Orr displayed. In in the Poore approach being incor- bad, we can see why pictures give him
fact, the turn of the century marked the porated into the classroom situation. so much pleasure and why just talking
beginning and growth of a form of pic- The high school's academic ap- about them with his friends gives so
14 Art Education, December 1974

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much fun to everybody.'6" Oliver, and ing concern for picture-study and art education, such apparently was not the
the many other writers of this period appreciation was held in, check. The case. Seldom in the decades that
who employed a personal approach excitement of educators over the new followed did the writings by
directed toward children, must be direction pointed to by the progres- progressive art educators reflect a
viewed as an important break from thesive movement, however, had become desire to incorporate a formal study of
earlier efforts of art educators to con- so great that had a concerted attempt pictures.
centrate only upon subject matter and been made by Lemos and School Arts Tying together all of the loose
the "story." to perpetuate picture study, it would threads of progressive art education,
It would be presumptuous, however, most definitely have been inconse- Viktor Lowenfeld emerged in the late
to assume that picture study and ap- quential in light of the new educational forties as the most influential art
preciation were the central forces of art interests. educator of our professional history.
educators during this century's first By the end of the First World War, The persuaveness of his 1947 text,
two decades. School Arts, first known John Dewey had wheted the appetite of Creative and Mental Growth,24 has, in
as the Applied Arts Book, during this American education, and new ideas an almost singular manner, been in-
time served as the pace setter for much began to preoccupy art educators. strumental in determining the course
of what actually occurred in the art What was in store for the students in art of art education for the past quarter of a
class, and a brief examination of the was no longer a study of composition century. In keeping with the thoughts
early volumes indicates little in the way and pictures; albeit, appreciation of art educators throughout history,
of concern for picture study. From its remained an objective, but in a Lowenfeld states that "... aesthetic
initiation in 1901 through 1905, the dramatically different context. Ap- education should be one of the main
primary role pictures played was as preciation and a sensitive response toforces in a democratic society.",25 but
"paste-ups" for Christmas cards and as art could only result from an ex- like Margaret Mathias of 1924, he plac-
a visual means through which the story perience based program, not a formally ed the emphasis upon appreciation
of Christmas could be told.17 But as pic- structured study of great works. and aesthetic sensitivity as it grows out
ture study texts increased in number. An early disciple of Dewey, Margaret of primarily creative and personal in-
Henry Turner Bailey, as editor of Mathias, in 1924, explained the new at- volvement and not the formal type of
School Arts, began to devote some titudes toward appreciation, "The approach called picture study.26 It is
space to the subject: in 1906, the first child's appreciation of the work of unclear why art educators neglected to
five monthly issues featured articles on others through his own use of materials respond to Lowenfeld's total thesis;
the pedagogy of picture study, and by increases as his experiences in- from this writer's observations, the
1907, Bailey himself devoted seven- crease."21 Mathias and the many other Lowenfeld which, in many instances,
teen pages of his magazine to a survey progressive art educators of the twen- was put into actual classroom practice
of art educators' attitudes toward the ties by no means advocated the concentrated only on the development
subject.18 abandonment of looking at and talk- of creative and emotional growth, with
Bailey's article reproduced thirteen ing about masterpieces but rather em- aesthetic growth being only the ac-
responses to the survey question, phasized process, experience, self-ex-
cidental by-product of an activity
"should the masterpieces of pictorial pression, and creativity; appreciation
centered program. Perhaps it has been
art be utilized in the teaching of chil- thus became a "by-product." this partial adoption of Lowenfeld's
dren?," and it represented a cross-sec- The influence of Dewey's ideas that has instigated the current
tion of art education positions, e.g., progressivism on art education has reaction to the progressive movement.
directors of art schools, supervisors of been marked by a limited interest in Lowenfeld's writings do not in any way
drawing, directors of manual arts pro- consciously developing the aesthetic discount the importance of a concern
grams, and heads of normal schools. dimension of students. The majority of with aesthetic education, but his in-
The results of this opinion poll are to art educators bound up in the fluence upon art education as it was
some degree indicative of the attitude progressive movement turned their put into practice was detrimental to the
held by the total art education popula- backs to the early interests of this cen- growth and development of the
tion of the time. Cheshire Lowton tury in developing appreciation aesthetic dimension of children.
Boone, director of the Department of
through a structured curriculum. One From the early twenties well into the
Art and Handwork, Montclair, New early exception within the progressive sixties, this progressive thought has
York, was the only participant to movement, however, was the work of dominated the teaching of art. This is
respond negatively: "If the print be a Belle Boas, director of the Horace not to suggest, however, that for more
reproduction of a masterpiece the Mann School of Columbia University's than forty years of our history the art
qualities which have made the picture education community has given no
Teachers College. In 1924 she publish-
enduring are qualities ... which are concern to a conscious development of
ed Art in the School, a book combining
entirely outside the comprehension of John Dewey's pragmatic view and appreciation and aesthetic education.
children," was Boone's justification for Arthur Wesley Dow's compositional Evolving out of the progressive educa-
responding as he did. All other re- approach.22 tion movement was the 1930's and the
sponses were in the affirmative.'9 Of interest to this study is Boas' at- 1940's belief that the child's immediate
For the final ten years of Bailey's titude toward appreciation, aesthetic environment is where "the experience"
eighteen year tenure as editor of education, and picture study. Similarto takes place; the result in art education
School Arts, he presented picture all art educators with a progressive in- was a structured approach to "art in
study sections, continued to provide clination, she believed appreciation to everyday life."
space for picture study discussions, be an ultimate objective, but she went As early as 1913 the concept of
and by 1916 had even authored a series beyond the assumption that it would be "beauty" as being embodied not only in
of articles entitled "Photography as a an outgrowth of experience and ex- pictures, but also in the " ... arts that
Fine Art."20 But Bailey's magazine pression. Boas believed "Picture study pertain to daily living" was finding its
placed the emphasis upon a "how to do as such almost always must be taught way into print. Charles DeGarmo in
it," step by step approach to crafts, separately, rather than as part of that year published a text for teachers
drawing, and design-not apprecia- another lesson,"23 and her method was that had a rather contemporary title:
tion as a formal consideration. Pedro an analysis of composition and the Aesthetic Education.27 Although this
Lemos, Bailey's 1919 successor to the "aesthetic qualities" put forth by Dow. book is not an outgrowth of the
editorship of School Arts, apparently Although her position at Teachers progressive movement, it nevertheless
saw no reason to modify a successful College should have assured her in- contained the proposition of art in
format, so, what appeared to be a grow- fluence upon the direction of art relationship to life that was so basic to a
15

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 new direction in art education.
jor forces at work in the area of ap- Company, 1914, p. 19 and 24.
By 1925 the two concepts, preciation and aesthetic sensitivity "Arthur Wesley Dow, Composition,
progressive education and "art in training. New York: Doubleday, Doran and
everyday life," were joining in the Today's enthusiasm for and concept Company, 1913, p. 39.
minds of a number of art educators. In
of aesthetic education unquestionably '2H. R. Poore, Pictorial Composition
that year the Goldstein sisters goes beyond the story in picture study, and the Critical Judgement of Pic-
authored a text designed "to show the
beyond the design of compositional tures, New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons,
principles of art as they are seen in analysis, beyond the product of ex- 1903.
familiar works of art, and as they are perience, and beyond the aesthetic 13Prang Company, Art Education for
related to everyday problems, such as dimension of life. But when one thinks High Schools, New York: Prang, 1908.
house design, decoration, store of the activity centered programs of '4Charles H. Caffin, A Guide to Pic-
decoration, costume design, adver- CEMREL, the aesthetic criticism of Ed- tures for Beginners and Students,
tising, and city planning."28 mund Feldman,33 the artist and con- Garden City: Doubleday, Page and
This purpose has been given tan- noisseur of Kenneth Lansing,34 the Company, 1908, pp. 14-15.
gible expression in one form or an- productive, cultural, and critical 15Maude I. G. Oliver, First Steps in the
other since the late twenties, but it was emphasis of Elliot Eisner,35 and the Enjoyment of Pictures, New York:
realized most dramatically in the five many other suggested models con- Henry Holt and Company, 1920, p. vii.
year Owatonna project which began in cerned with the development of the 16lbid., p. xxii.
1933. The effort of Edwin Ziegfeld and aesthetic domain in art education, 17for example: "Christmas Gifts By
others to undertake a community-wide one's mind cannot help but relate themthe Children:, Applied Arts Book,
aesthetic education program in to the past. The aesthetic concern ad- December 1901, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 5-11.,
Minnesota represents a landmark une- vanced in recent years, although new and "An Approved Outline for Decem-
qualed in the history of American art in concept, is not revolutionary in ber in All Grades, School Arts, Decem-
education. The 1944 text that describes character. Our profession has witness- ber 1902, Vol. 2, No. 4, p. 124.
the project reveals a definite concern ed a number of similar inclinations 18Henry Turner Bailey, "Picture
with art and the aesthetic dimension of toward an aesthetic emphasis withinStudy," its School Arts, February 1907,
living relative to daily life, the com- first one hundred years. Vol. 7, No. 6, pp. 482-499.
munity, and the school.29 ..................... 91bid., p. 483.
The early forties brought to the Ronald L. Jones is chairman, Art 20Henry Turner Bailey, "Photography
profession two influential volumes Department, Shepherd College, as a Fine Art," School Arts, October 16,
related to this new emphasis upon the Shepherdstown, West Virginia. No. 2, pp. 59-67.
immediate environment as the means
21Margaret E. Mathias, Beginnings of
whereby art and aesthetic education Art In the Public Schools, New York:
could be best developed. First, in 1941, REFERENCE
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1924, p. 71.
the National Society for the Study of 1Ross Turner, "Art For the Eye," 22Belle Boas, Art in the School, Gar-
Education sponsored the yearbook, National Education Association, Jour- den City: Doubleday, Doran and Com-
Art in American Life and Education.30 nal of Proceedings and Addresses, pany, 1924.
"Esthetic sensibility and enjoyment"Session of the Year 1896, The Associa- 231bid., p. 90.
were the motivating factors behind an tion, 1896, pp. 673-678. 24Viktor Lowenfeld, Creative and
exhaustive study of "art in American 2Langdon Thompson, "Art in the Mental Growth, New York: The Mac-
Life" and "The Nature of Art and Schoolroom, Through Decoration and millan Company, 1947.
Related Types of Experience."31 Works of Art," National Education 25Viktor Lowenfeld, Creative and
The influence of the NSSE Yearbook Association, Journal of Proceedings Mental Growth, 3rd Edition, New York:
upon art educators must be viewed asand Addresses, Session of the Year The Macmillan Company, 1957, p. 58.
instrumental in the success of the 1941 1896, The Association, 1896, pp. 678- 261bid., p. 33.
text, Art Today.32 Whereas the year- 684. 27Charles DeGarmo, Aesthetic
book was oriented to the art educator, 3Henry Turner Bailey and Severance Education, Syracuse: C. W. Bardeen,
Art Today was for the student, and its Burrage, School Sanitation and 1913.
five editions attest to not only a most Decoration, Boston: D.C. Heath and 28Harriet Goldstein and Vetta Golds-
favorable reception but also a major in- Company, 1899, p. 113. tein, Art in Every Day Life, New York:
terest on the part of art educators to 4Walter H. Klar, Leon Winslow and C.The Macmillan Company, 1925, p. vii.
consciously develop aesthetic Valentine Kirby, Art Education in Prin- 29Edwin Ziegfeld and Mary E. Smith,
awareness. Combining the attitudes ciple and Practice, Springfield, Art for Daily Living: The Story of the
that had grown out of the general art in Massachusetts: Milton Bradley Com- Owatonna Project, Number 4,
everyday life movement and particular- pany, 1933, p. 27. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
ly the Owatonna Project, this book ar- 5Frederick M. Logan, Growth of Art in Press, 1944.
ticulately develops the concept of an American Schools, New York: Harper 30National Society for the Study of
aesthetic dimension in everyday living. and Brothers, 1955, pp. 64-65. Education, Art in American Life and
Art in the home, community, religion, 6John S. Brubaker, and Willis Rudy, Education, Bloomington, Illinois:
industry, and commerce is central to Higher Education in Transition, New Public School Publishing Company,
this text's efforts in renewing a York: Harper and Row, 1968, p. 98. 1941.
systematic approach to aesthetic 7Fred J. Orr, "Picture Study-Its 31Ibid.
education and appreciation. Relation to Culture and General
32Ray Faulkner, Edwin Ziegfeld and
From the fifties, when the art in Education," National Education Gerald Hill, Art Today, New York: Holt,
everyday life emphasis began to fade, Association, Journal of Proceedings Rinehart and Winston, 1941.
to our most recent past, the subject of and Addresses, Session of the Year 33Edmund Burke Feldman, Becom-
creativity has not only preoccupied our 1900, the Association, 1900, pp. 514- ing Human Through Art, Englewood
profession but overshadowed any 516. Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1970.
serious concern with the development 81bid., p. 516. 34Kenneth Lansing, Art, Artists and
of aesthetic sensitivity. This is not to 9Laura Hagerty, "Picture Enjoy- Art Education, New York: McGraw-Hill
say, however, that there has been no ment," School Arts, January 1907, Vol. Book Company, 1969.
concern in the past two decades with 6, No. 5, p. 387. 35Elliot Eisner, Educating Artistic Vi-
the subject; rather, this survey has 'OHenry Davies, Art in Education and sion, New York: The Macmillan Com-
attempted to deal historically with ma- Life, Columbia, Ohio: E. G. Adams and pany, 1972.
16 Art Education, December 1974

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