STONES: A BUILDING

MATERIAL

NAINA SHRIVASTAVA 19SA138

VIDUSHI PAUL 19SA162
SHIVAM PUROHIT 19SA150
SOUMIL CHHATWANI 19SA154
URMI GHODASARA 19SA157
MAYANK KHANDELWAL 19SA134
CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION 01
2. HISTORY 02
3. CLASSIFICATION 05
4. PROPERTIES OF GOOD STONES 09
5. USES OF STONES 14
6. LIMITATIONS OF STONES 15
7. ERECTION AND CONSTRUCTION PROCESS 16
8. STRUCTURAL SYSTEM 31
9. CASE STUDIES OR EXAMPLES 40
INTRODUCTION
STONES : A stone is a piece of rock. It is a mass of hard,
compacted mineral. The word is often used to mean a
small piece of rock, weathered to have a smooth exterior.

The word "stone" also refers to natural rock as a material,

especially a building material. Natural stones used as
building material include granite, marble and sandstone.
Manufactured, artificial products, such as concrete or
clay bricks, are not stone.

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HISTORY
Stone is one of the oldest construction materials known to

man. The history of stone applied to architecture is linked to

human beings since the beginning of our times. It was a shelter

for the prehistoric man when he lived in caves, assuming from
the dawn of our existence its telluric character and
understanding it as our connection with the Earth.

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The stone enabled a connection with another space and another time, for example, at the
Stonehenge site, built approximately 2500 BC. Those stones were the medium to connect the
human and the divine, the Earth and the stars. They were raised to last eternally in time and to
be a link with future generations.
The relocation of the stone lintels in Stonehenge in 1959 was a complicated process even for
modern times. There are some mysteries to solve:

● How were those stones lifted 4500 years ago?

● How were they brought to Salisbury from their origin in South Wales, 250 km from the
place?
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The builders of Stonehenge not only used
technology to transport and position the
stones but also to lace and retain the
stones between each other similar to joints
of wood construction but adapted to the
stone. This represented undoubtedly a
sophisticated technique at that moment.
“Wall of the Incas” and “Wall of the
Incapable.” the walls of the old palace of the
Inca Roca, in Cuzco, the perfect placement of
the stones leads to seamless joints with not
even enough space for a sheet of paper. It is a
puzzle which was absolutely intentional in
order to obtain a seismic resistant
construction.
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CLASSIFICATION
● Physical Classification of stone
Depending upon Physical classification rocks are classified into two groups,
namely, stratified and unstratified.

Stratified Stones

These stones are derived from sedimentary rocks. These stones are found in
layers one above another Limestone and sandstones are the stratified stone.

Unstratified Stones

These stones do not show any types of layers. Granite, marble, trap, etc. are the
unstratified stones.

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Geological classification of stone

Depends upon Geological formation of rocks, stones are classified as

igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

● Igneous Rocks
● Metamorphic rocks
● Sedimentary rocks

Scientific or Engineering classification of stone

● Silicious Rocks
● Argillaceous Rocks
● calcareous rocks

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Silicious Rocks

These have silica as the principal constituent. These rocks are hardly
affected by weathering action. These are very hard and also durable.
Granite, sandstone, gneiss, basalt, trap syenite are the siliceous rocks.

Argillaceous rocks

These have clay as the principal constituent. These stones are hard and
durable but brittle in nature. Slate and laterite are the Argillaceous rocks.

Calcareous Rocks

These have carbonate of lime as the principal constituent. Limestone, marble,

kankar, dolomite, and gravel are the calcareous rocks.

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Depending upon physical characteristics, stones are classified as
under-

● Granite : The formation of minerals of granite is quartz,

feldspar, and mica.
● Sandstone : Sandstone is composed of sand grains, cemented
together by calcium or magnesium carbonate or silicic acid,
alumina, and also oxide of iron.
● Limestone : These are carbonate of lime intermixed with other
minerals and impurities such as silica, magnesium carbonate,
aluminum, and iron.
● Slate : These are also composed of silica and alumina.

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REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES

1. STRENGTH
Generally most of the building stones have high strength to resist the load
coming on it. Therefore it is not of prime concern when it comes to check the
quality of stones. But when the stones are to be used in large structures, it
becomes necessary to check the compressive strength of stones.

Compressive strength of building stones generally fall within the range of 60 to

200N/mm2.

2. DURABILITY
Building stones should be capable to resist the adverse effects of natural forces
like wind, rain and heat. It must be durable and should not deteriorate due to the
adverse effects of the above natural forces.

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3. HARDNESS
When stones are used in floors, pavements or aprons of bridges, they
become subjected to wearing and abrasive forces caused by movement of
men or machine over them. So it is required to test hardness of stone.

Hardness of stone is determined by Mohs scale.

4. TOUGHNESS
Toughness of stones means it ability to resist impact forces. Building stones
should be tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations.
The vibrations may be due to the machinery mounted over them or due to
the loads moving over them. The stone aggregates used in the road
constructions should be tough.

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5. SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The more the specific gravity of stone, the more heavier and stronger the stone is.

Therefore stones having higher specific gravity values should be used for the
construction of dams, retaining walls, docks and harbors. The specific gravity of
good building stone is between 2.4 and 2.8.

6. POROSITY AND ABSORPTION

Porosity of building stones depend upon the mineral constituent and structural
formation of the parent rock. If stones used in building construction are porous
then rain water can easily enter into the pore spaces and cause damage to the
stones. Therefore building stone should not be porous.

Water absorption of stone is directly proportional to the porosity of rock. If a stone

is more porous then it will absorb more water and cause more damage to stone.

In higher altitudes, the freezing of water in pores takes place and it results into the
disintegration of the stone.

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7. DRESSING
Giving required shape to the stone is called dressing. It should be easy to dress so
that the cost of dressing is reduced. However, the care should be taken so that, this is
not be at the cost of the required strength and the durability.

8. APPEARANCE
In case of the stones to be used for face works, where appearance is a primary
requirement, its colour and ability to receive polish is an important factor.

Light colored stones are more preferred than dark colored stones as the colour are
likely to fade out with time.

9. SEASONING
Good stones should be free from the quarry sap. Lateritic stones should not be used
for 6 to 12 months after quarrying. They are allowed to get rid of quarry sap by the
action of nature. This process of removing quarry sap is called seasoning.

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10. WORKABILITY
Stone should be workable. Stone is said to be workable when the work involved in
stone working (such as cutting, dressing & shaping) is economical and easy to
conduct.

11. COST
Cost is an important consideration in selecting a building material. Proximity of
the quarry to building site brings down the cost of transportation and hence the
cost of stones comes down.

12. FIRE RESISTANCE

Stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron, and minerals having
different coefficients of thermal expansion. Igneous rock show marked
disintegration principally because of quartz which disintegrates into small
particles at a temperature of about 575°C. Limestone, however, can withstand a
little higher temperature; i.e. up to 800°C after which they disintegrate.

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USES OF STONE

1. It is used in foundation of Buildings.

2. It is used in construction of dams, bridges, barrages, etc.
3. In its crushed form it is used as artificial sand.
4. It is used as a raw material for manufacturing of cement.
5. As a decorative material.
6. Also used as parts of buildings like lintels, beams , arches, etc.
7. It is used as thin slabs for building roofing.
8. In its broken form is used in manufacturing of concrete.

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LIMITATIONS OF STONES

1. Dressing of stones is tedious, laborious and time

consuming job.
2. Desired strength and quality is not available at
moderate rates especially in plain areas.
3. Stone structure design can’t provide freeness and
flexibility to the designer.

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ERECTION AND CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
Stone Masonry

Stonemasonry or stonecraft is the creation of buildings, structures, and

sculpture using stone as the primary material. It is one of the oldest activities
and professions in human history.

Masonry is the craft of shaping rough pieces of rock into accurate geometrical
shapes, at times simple, but some of considerable complexity, and then
arranging the resulting stones, often together with mortar, to form structures.

Quarrymen split sheets of rock, and extract the resulting blocks of stone from
the ground.Sawyers cut these rough blocks into cuboids, to required size with
diamond-tipped saws. The resulting block if ordered for a specific component is
known as sawn six sides

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Banker masons are workshop-based, and specialize in working the stones into the
shapes required by a building's design, this set out on templets and a bed mould. They
can produce anything from stones with simple chamfers to tracery windows, detailed
mouldings and the more classical architectural building masonry. When working a stone
from a sawn block, the mason ensures that the stone is bedded in the right way, so the
finished work sits in the building in the same orientation as it was formed on the
ground. Occasionally though some stones need to be oriented correctly for the
application; this includes voussoirs, jambs, copings and cornices.

The basic tools, methods and skills of the banker mason have existed as a trade for
thousands of years.
● Carvers cross the line from craft to art, and use their artistic ability to carve
stone into foliage, figures, animals or abstract designs.
● Fixer masons specialize in the fixing of stones onto buildings, using lifting
tackle, and traditional lime mortars and grouts. Sometimes modern cements,
mastics and epoxy resins are used, usually on specialist applications such as
stone cladding. Metal fixings, from simple dowels and cramps to specialised
single application fixings, are also used. The precise tolerances necessary make
this a highly skilled job.
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Types of stonemasonry are:
Fixer masons
This type of masons have specialized into fixing the stones onto the
buildings. They might do this with grouts, mortars and lifting tackle. They
might also use things like single application specialized fixings, simple
cramps, and dowels as well as stone cladding with things like epoxy resins,
mastics and modern cements.
Memorial masons
These are the masons that make headstones and carve the inscriptions on
them.
Today's stonemasons undergo training that is quite comprehensive and is
done both in the work environment and in the classroom. It isn't enough to
have hands-on skill anymore. One must also have knowledge of the types of
stones as well as its best uses and how to work it as well as how to fix it in
place.

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Rubble masonry
In rubble masonry, the blocks of stones that are used are either undressed or
comparatively roughly dressed. The masonry has wide joints since stones of
irregular size are used.

i) Random rubble
• Un-coursed

It is the roughest and the cheapest form of stonewalling. Since stones are not of
uniform shape and size, they are arranged with great care so as to distribute
pressure over the maximum area and at the same time avoid long vertical joints.

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ii) Square rubble
• Un-coursed

Stones having straight beds and sides are arranged in an irregular pattern to
give a good appearance and avoid the formation of long, continuous joints.

• Built to course

Stones having straight bed and sides are leveled up to form courses of varying
depth.

• Regular course

Stones having straight beds and sides are leveled up to form courses of varying
depth but the height of stones in each course is the same.

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iii) Miscellaneous type rubble
. Polygonal rubble masonry

In this type, stones are hammer finished on the face to an irregular polygonal shape.

If stones are roughly shaped to form rough fitting, such a work is called rough picked work.
If stones are carefully shaped to form close fitting such a work is called close-picked work.
• Flint rubble masonry

In this type the main material is “flints or cobbles” and is used that have vary in width and
thickness from 7.5 cm to 15 cm and length vary from 15 cm to 30cm . The stones are
extremely bard but brittle.

The strength of such walls can be increased using a lacing course of thin long stones or
bricks at 1 to 2m vertical intervals.

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b) Ashlar masonry
In ashlar masonry, square or rectangular blocks that are used are dressed and have an
extremely fine bed and end joints.

i) Ashlar fine tooled

It is the finest stone masonry. The beds, joints, and faces of the stones are chisel dressed to
remove all unevenness and obtain perfectly horizontal and vertical joints.

ii) Ashlar rough tooled

The beds and sides are finely chisel dressed but the exposed face is dressed by rough
tooling.

iii) Ashlar rock faced.

The exposed face of the stones is not dressed but is kept as such to give rough facing.

iv) Ashlar chamfered

It is a special type of ashlar rock-faced in which the strip provided around the perimeter of
the exposed face is chamfered at an angle of 45° to a depth of 25 mm.

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Ashlar chamfered Ashlar fine tooled

Most traditional walls are made 450mm (18”) thick, it is not

necessary to stick to this thickness. The thickness of random
rubble walls could be safely reduced up to 375mm (15”) without
unduly sacrificing its strength. The insulation provided by these
walls would be adequate to keep the cold out.

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Stone Masonry Footing

Stone masonry footing is a structural foundation constructed to support walls.

Purpose of Stone Masonry Footing

The purpose of stone masonry foundation is to support structural walls and transfer load to

the soil beneath it. It should serve its purpose without settlement or sinking. The load

exerted on stone masonry footing should be vertical.

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Dimensions of Excavation for Stone Masonry Footing

Prior to the construction of stone masonry footing, a trench with depth ranges from

1m to 1.5 m should be excavated.

The width of excavation would be controlled by amount of loads exerted on the

footing. So, the width of footing is specified based on the imposed loads and

properties of soil on which the footing is constructed.

Then, the soil at the bottom of the trench needs to be compacted properly. At this

stage, the excavation is ready for the construction of stone masonry footing.

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 Properties of Stones for Footing

Stones should possess the following properties

otherwise they will be disqualified for the

construction of stone masonry footing:

● The stone should durable

● Free from cracks
● Free from cavity
Trench excavated for stone ● It need to be hard and tough
masonry footing construction
Examples of stones which are desirable for stone

masonry footing construction include granite, hard

laminated stand stone and limestone, and

bluestone.

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Concrete Mix Ratio used for Plain Concrete
Bed

The plain concrete bed provided at the bottom of the foundation

is made of one part of cement four part of sand and eight parts of

coarse aggregate. The maximum size of the aggregate is 40mm.

Dimensions of Plain Concrete Bed

The plain concrete bed thickness ranges from 10cm to 15cm. The

plain concrete layer should extend about 15cm from the stone

masonry foundation on each side of bottom course. So, the width

of plain concrete is 30cm wider than the bottom course of stone

masonry footing.
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Stone Masonry Footing Construction Steps

● After the trench is dug and prepared, then a layer of plain concrete will be poured at the
bottom of the trench.
● After plain concrete bed is set, the construction of stone masonry footing will begin with
laying a layer of mortar on which first stone masonry course will be installed.
● Stones should be placed close to each other and the maximum joint between is 2 cm.
● The face of stone should be arranged to stagger the joints
● Long vertical joints should be avoided since it would be weakness point of the stone masonry
footing.
● To improve strength of stone masonry footing, bond stones will be placed at a specified
spacing of 1m. This bond stones will run through the thickness of stone masonry footing.
● If the thickness of stone masonry footing is large, then the length of bond stone should be
increased to achieve its objective. This can be obtained by installing a set of two or more
bond stones overlapping each other.
● Heart stones, which are installed at the middle of stone masonry footing, should be as close
to each other as possible and smaller stone sizes should be used to fill voids.

Then, heart stones and smaller stone sizes will be covered by mortar and spaces should be

filled with mortar to improve footing strength.

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Small sized stones are placed to fill Placement of mortar over a course of
voids masonry footing to fill spaces

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STONE FOOTING FOUNDATION
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STRUCTURE SYSTEM
The term structural system or structural frame in structural engineering
refers to the load-resisting sub-system of a building or object. The
structural system transfers loads through interconnected elements or
members.

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A detail sketch of In a building made of
reinforcement provided stone, to prevent it
in a building made of
stone.
from damages by
slight earthquakes
they are provided
seismic bands of
reinforcements at
critical levels, vertical
bars at corners and
junction of walls and
encasement of
openings.
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It should be noted that the seismic safety of the structure does not
depend upon which material the walls are made of, such as stone or
bricks or concrete blocks.

The performance of a structure, however, depends primarily on the

quality of construction carried out. If the cement mortar used in the
masonry is not cured properly, or if it is used long after its initial
setting, or if the vertical joints are not filled with the mortar then the
wall could have high vulnerability.

On the other hand, if in a random rubble wall stones are properly

interlocked and if through-stones or the headers are used
adequately, then the wall may perform well even in an earthquake.

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Foundations :

Rocky Ground Site Weathered, jointed and fissured rock may be leveled by
chiseling, in steps of about 150 mm and stepped strip footing built on it, with
the foundation width of 600 mm for two storied houses.
Boulder site may be leveled by removing small boulders but leaving large
boulders in place. If the rock is massive, the surface should be roughened by
chiseling and stepped-strip footing built on it. In all cases, the base concrete
of sufficient thickness (with a minimum of 100 mm) should be used for leveling
before starting the masonry.

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Seismic Bands : In the building the horizontal seismic bands of
reinforcements are :
Lintel band, sill band, floor band, plinth band, and junction stiffener
_which are provided at critical levels for buildings with flat roof and for
buildings with ·sloping roof.
Seismic Bands shall be provided on all internal and external walls, and shall
·be uninterrupted at various levels as described below.

Plinth Band: It is provided at just below the Plinth level on top of masonry
foundation wall that is resting on Strip Footing. It is strongly recommended
where soils are soft or uneven as frequently happens in hilly tracts. This
band serves as ·damp proof course as well.

Sill Band: It is provided at just below the window sill. It is needed in all
buildings in ·Category E, but is optional in Category D buildings.

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Lintle Band: It is provided at just above the Lintle level of doors
and windows. If the gap between the lintel level and eave or floor
level is 600mm (2') or less than this band can be avoided. In such
a case the lintel is to be connected to the Eave or Floor level
band immediately above it by extending the reinforcement of the
lintel to the band.

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Eave Band:
It is provided a t j u s t b e l o w t h e Eave/Roof level in case of roof other than RC or RB
slab, or if the slab does not cover the support walls ·fully
Floor Band:
It is provided at just below the Floor l e v e l i n c a s e o f intermediate floor other than RC
or RB slab, or if the slab does not cover ·the support walls fully
Gable Band:
It is provided at Gable level along the sloping top of masonry Gable wall just below the
purl ins. It must be integrally connected to the Eave Band. The details of the band are
·given below. The band width should fully cover the thickness of the wall, and its depth
shall be no less than 75mm. · 1/2 ·The band should be made of RC of the grade not leaner
than M20 (1:1 :3). ·Requirement of reinforcing bars in RC bands are given in the Table below.

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 Opening rules for single Opening rules for
storey double storey building
building

38
 Height restrictions for pitched
Rules for Max. Wall Length roof building

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 Examples

1. Sanchi Stupa is a Buddhist complex, famous for its Great Stupa, on a hilltop at
Sanchi Town in Raisen District of the State of Madhya Pradesh, India.The Great
Stupa at Sanchi is one of the oldest stone structures in India which was made by
the emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.

The Sanchi Stupa is made out of locally quarried sandstone.

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Trulli Cetis

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Cabanes Boris

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Giren Corichana temple

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Monsanto Portugal

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