2 Geography
Universe, Solar System and Earth Our Solar System
What is the Universe?
‰ All the existing matter and space involving stars, planets,
galaxies, etc. is named as the Universe.
‰ Physical subatomic particles such as electrons and protons and
non-physical (like light, gravitation, space, and so on) elements
make up the Universe.
The Big Bang Theory
‰ After Edwin Hubble proposed the constant enlargement of the
Universe, one more Belgian cosmologist came up with the Big
Bang Theory in 1931.
‰ According to the big bang theory, all of the matter that made
up the universe is occupied in a single location with a volume
smaller than an atom, an unlimited temperature, and an infinite
density.
‰ The theory suggests that the Universe, at some point in time,
was condensed into a single particle and later started enlarging
infinitely after a huge explosion.
‰ The enlargement later gave birth to nebulae that in turn, coalesced
into stars and planets.
‰ The science region unanimously agrees over the age of the
Universe to be around 13.7 billion years.
‰ Around 3 lakh years after the big bang, the universe turns
transparent due to the development of atomic matter.
Composition of the Universe
‰ Hydrogen & Helium Gas (4%): Hydrogen & Helium are
the most important abundant element in the universe. This
element is produced in great abundance in stars and gas
giant planets.
‰ Star (0.5%): A brightly shining ball made mostly of hydrogen
and helium gas. Our Sun is a celestial body.
‰ Neutrino (0.3%): A small particle that has no charge and is
thought to have very tiny mass. Neutrinos are created in energetic
collisions in the middle of nuclear particles.
‰ Heavy elements (0.03%): Planets etc.
Formation of Galaxies and Star
‰ A galaxy contains a huge number of stars.
‰ Galaxies spread over big distances that are calculated in
thousands of light-years.
‰ The diameters of separate galaxies range from 80,000-150,000
light years.
‰ A galaxy starts to form by agglomeration of hydrogen gas in the
form of a very large cloud known as a nebula.
‰ Eventually, the growing nebula Produced localized clumps of gas.
‰ These clumps continue to grow into even denser gaseous bodies,
giving rise to development of stars.
Our solar system comprises the sun (the star), eight planets, 63
moons, asteroids, comets and vast amounts of dust-grains and
gases. The solar system is believed to have been formed about
5 – 5.6 billion years ago and the planets were developed about
4.6 billion years ago. The eight planets namely Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune revolve all over
the sun in fixed elliptical orbits.
‰ Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are known as the inner
planets and also called terrestrial planets, which means
earth-like as they are made up of rocks and metals.
The other four planets – Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune are known as outer planets as well as Jovian
(Jupiter-like) or Gas Giant planets. They are mainly larger than
terrestrial planets and have a thick atmosphere mostly of helium
and hydrogen.
‰ Pluto was earlier considered a planet; however, it is now trusted
to be a “dwarf planet”.
z Dwarf planets are small planets in our solar system. Any
celestial body orbiting around the sun, weighing for self-
gravity and nearly round in shape is known as a dwarf
planet.
‰ Number of satellites of planets:
z Mercury – 0
z Venus – 0
z Earth – 1
z Mars – 2
z Jupiter – 80
z Saturn – 83
z Uranus – 27
z Neptune – 13
The Moon
‰ The moon is the only natural satellite of the earth.
‰ Like the origin of the earth, there have been attempts to describe
how the moon was formed.
‰ In 1838, Sir George Darwin recommended that initially, the
earth and the moon formed a single quickly rotating body.
Evolution of Earth
‰ The planet earth initially was an unproductive, rocky and hot
object with a thin atmosphere of hydrogen and helium.
‰ The earth has a layered structure.
‰ From the exterior end of the atmosphere to the centre of the
earth, the material that exists is not uniform.
‰ The atmospheric matter has the slightest density.
‰ From the surface to deeper depths, the earth’s interior has
different zones and all of these contain materials with different
characteristics.
Origin and Evolution of Life On Earth
‰ Charles Darwin (1859) hypothesized that new species rise by
the modification of existing ones—that the raw material of life
is life. The origin of life is one of the most fascinating, difficult,
and enduring questions in science.
‰ To begin with, situations on earth were inhospitable for life.
‰ Gases of the primitive atmosphere were essentially methane,
ammonia, carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
‰ Water vapour filled the atmosphere but there was no free oxygen.
‰ It was thus a decreasing atmosphere on primitive earth and no
life existed.
‰ Biological evolution– from the easy organisms to complex
organisms
z As earth cooled, water vapour condensed to form liquid water.
z Rains poured to form water bodies on earth.
z The molecules of life were produced in the water.
z From the molecules of life develop bacteria, the earliest and
easiest organisms
Solar System
‰ According to Big Bang theory, proposed by Georges Lemaitre,
the universe was evolved by a small singularity and then
expanded over the next 13.8 billion years and is still expanding.
‰ Our solar system lies in a spiral-shaped galaxy called the
“Milky way”. The nearest galaxy from us(Earth) is called
“Andromeda”.
‰ Generally, there is a black hole in the centre of every galaxy
“Sagittarius” is the black hole at the centre of the galaxy milky
way.
‰ In our solar system, 8 planets and many other celestial bodies
revolve around the sun in an elliptical orbit.
‰ The minuscule (dwarf) planet named “Pluto” was removed
by “The International Astronomical Union “from the list of
planets in 2006.
Facts About the Sun and the Planets
Sun
‰ The only star in the solar system and also the Powerhouse of
the solar system.
‰ Composed of Hydrogen(73%), Helium(23%) gases and other
metals. The Sun carries 99% of the mass of our solar system.
1. Mercury
‰ It is the nearest planet to the sun.
‰ The smallest planet in the solar system.
‰ The fastest planet in the solar system to complete a revolution
around the sun in 88 days.
‰ The planet with no water and gases.
2. Venus
‰ The Hottest planet in the solar system with a temperature of
478 degrees Celsius.
‰ Also known as the “Earths Twin and mornings star”. It is
because of the size and mass between Venus and Earth.
3. Earth
‰ The only planet to “Support Life” with a pleasant atmosphere.
‰ Known as “Blue Planet” because of the presence of water.
‰ It has one natural satellite named “Moon”.
2 Geography
4. Mars
‰ Scientists named it the “Red Planet” because of iron-rich
red soil.
‰ Second smallest planet in the solar system after mercury.
‰ It has 2 natural moons named “Phobos” & ”Deimos”.
‰ “Olympus Mons”- Largest volcano and the tallest mountain
in the solar system lies on mars.
5. Jupiter
‰ Largest planet in the solar system with the smallest rotation.
‰ An atmosphere filled with hydrogen, helium and other gases.
‰ Third biggest object in the solar system after the moon and
Venus.
‰ The Great Red Spot, a giant storm in the solar system, exists
on this planet.
6. Saturn
‰ Second largest planet in the solar system and a gas giant.
‰ It has 82 moons and Titan is the largest among them.
‰ Saturn can float into the water because of its lower density than
water.
7. Uranus
‰ Third largest planet with radius and the fourth-largest planet
with mass in the solar system.
‰ Greenish in Color.
‰ Known as “Ice giant”. The atmosphere of Uranus is composed
of hydrogen and helium primarily, but also contains more water,
ammonia etc.
‰ It has the coldest planetary atmosphere in the solar system.
‰ Has at least 27 Moons. Famous moons- Miranda, Ariel and
Umbriel.
8. Neptune
‰ Farthest planet from the sun.
‰ Blue in colour because of methane.
‰ Fourth largest planet and the third most massive planet in
the solar system.
‰ Has known 14 satellites. Famous moon-Triton.
Other Space Objects
1. Asteroids
These are small objects; rocks(mostly debris) revolve around the
sun.
‰ They are also known as small planets.
‰ Cyrus, vesta, and Psyche are some famous and largest asteroids
in the solar system.
2. Meteors and Meteorites
‰ These are also known as Shooting stars.
‰ Because of atmospheric layers, these rocks burn before reaching
the surface.
‰ Willamette, Mbozi, Cape York, and Elchacho are some
Meteorites found on the earth.
‰ Lonar lake, Maharashtra in India is supposed to be created by
a meteor impact in the Pleistocene epoch.
Longitudes and Latitudes Important Parallels of Latitudes
Besides the equator (0°), the North Pole (90°N) and the south pole
North Pole (90°S), there are four important parallel latitudes
1. Tropic of cancer(23 1\2°N) in the northern hemisphere.
2. Tropic of capricon (23 1\2°S) in the southern hemisphere.
3. Arctic Circle at 661\2° in the north of the equator.
e
ud

4. Antarctic Circle at 661\2° south of the equator.

it
ng

Longitudes
Lo

‰ Longitude is the measurement east or west of the prime meridian.

Equator Longitude is measured by the imaginary lines that are around the
earth vertically(up and down) and meet at the north and south
poles. These lines are called meridians of longitude. The distance
between Longitudes is measured in ‘degrees of longitude’.
‰ Each degree is divided into minutes, and minutes are divided into
seconds. They are semicircles, and the distance between them
decreases steadily polewards until it becomes zero at the poles,
where all meridians meet.
South Pole ‰ Unlike all similar latitudes, all meridians are of equal length. Thus,
it was difficult to number the meridians. Hence, all countries
decided that the count should begin from the meridian which
passes through Greenwich, where the British Royal Observatory
is located. The Meridian is called the Prime Meridian.
‰ The value of the prime meridian is 0° longitude; from it we can
count eastward and westward.
‰ There are 180 vertical east longitudes of the Prime Meridian and
180 vertical west longitudes of the Prime Meridian. The total
number of longitudes is 360.
Longitude and Time
As the Earth rotates from west to east, the place situated to the east
to the meridian has sunrise earlier than the place situated to its west.
The time difference between the two places is due to the difference
in their longitudes between those places.
The earth takes 24hrs to complete one rotation. This means that 360
e degrees of longitudes are covered in 24 hours. This gives rise to a
ud
tit time of 4 Minutes for 1° of Longitude. The time difference must be
Prime Meridian La added in the case of places to the east of a point.

Globe Geomorphology and Interior of Earth

‰ Globe is a true model(Miniature form)of the earth.
‰ Globes may be of varying size and type – big ones, which
Interior of Earth
cannot be carried easily, small pockets globes, and globes like The interior of the earth can be divided into 3 different layers - crust,
balloons, which may be inflated and are handy and carried mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost layer of the earth, and the
with ease. core is the innermost layer of the earth, located at a depth of 2900 Km.
‰ Two points on the globe through which the needle passes are two
Inner core
poles-North pole and the South pole.
Outer core
Latitude
Mantle
‰ An imaginary line running on the globe divides it into two equal
parts known as the Equator.
Crust
‰ The Northern half of the earth is known as the Northern
Hemisphere and the southern half is known as the Southern
Hemisphere.
‰ All parallel circles from the equator up to the poles are called
parallels of latitude. Latitudes are measured in degrees.
‰ The equator represents the zero degrees latitude.
‰ The distance from the equator to either of the poles is one–fourth
of a circle around the earth. It will measure 1\4th of 360 degrees,
i.e. 90.

Geography 3
Crust
‰ It is the outermost solid part of the earth, normally about 8-40
kms thick.
‰ It is brittle in nature.
‰ Nearly 1 % of the earth’s volume and 0.5% of earth’s mass are
made of the crust.
Mantle
‰ The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called as the mantle.
‰ The discontinuity between the crust and mantle is called as the
Mohorovich Discontinuity or Moho discontinuity.
‰ The mantle is about 290 kms in thickness.
‰ Nearly 84% of the earth’s volume and 67% of the earth’s mass
is occupied by the mantle.
Core
‰ It is the innermost layer surrounding the earth’s centre.
‰ The core is separated from the mantle by Guttenberg’s
Discontinuity.
‰ It is composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) and hence it
is also called as NI FE
Continental Drift Theory
‰ Continental drift theory deals with the distribution of the
oceans and the continents. It was first suggested by a German
meteorologist, Alfred Wegener in 1912.
‰ According to the theory, all the continents formed a single
continental mass- Pangea and mega ocean- Panthalassa
surrounded it.
‰ Around 200 million years ago Pangaea started splitting and
broke down into two large continental masses as Laurasia and
Gondwanaland forming the northern and southern components
respectively.
‰ Subsequently, Laurasia and Gondwanaland continued to break
into various smaller continents that exist today.

Formation of Continents Permian Triassic

225 million years ago 200 million years ago
Plate Tectonics Theory
‰ Developed from the 1950s to the 1970s, the theory of plate
tectonics is the modern update to continental drift, an idea first
proposed by scientist Alfred Wegener in 1912 which stated that
Earth’s continents had “drifted” across the planet over time.
‰ Wegener didn’t have a correct explanation for how continents
could move around the planet, but researchers do now.
‰ Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth’s outer shell is divided into Cretaceous
65 million years ago Present Day
large slabs of solid rock, called “plates;,” that glide over Earth’s
mantle, the rocky inner layer above Earth’s core.
‰ Earth’s solid outer layer, which includes the crust and the Plate Tectonics
uppermost mantle, is called the Lithosphere.
‰ Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere — a viscous layer The term plate tectonics was first used by Tuzo Wilson, but the
kept malleable by heat deep within the Earth. Plate Tectonics theory was first given by W.J Morgan of Princeton
University in 1962.
‰ It lubricates the undersides of Earth’s tectonic plates, allowing
the lithosphere to move around. Plate Tectonics Theory
‰ The Earth’s Lithosphere is divided into seven major and some
The comprehensive theory tries to explain most of the dynamism of
minor plates.
earth’s crust and features of the endogenetic forces.
Major Plates The development of the theory began in the 1960s with extensive
‰ The Antarctic (and the surrounding oceanic) Plate seafloor mapping.
PLATE BOUNDARIES This theory is based on the 2-principal hypothesis – Arthur Holmes’s
Divergent Convergent Transform convection current hypothesis, and the concept of seafloor spreading’
Plate Boundaries Plate Boundaries Plate Boundaries advocated by Hess.
It is an improvement over Wegener’s continental drift theory and
has been considered as the most Sophisticated and comprehensive
theory about the drift of continents and the expansion of sea floors.

Geomorphic process
Transform The endogenic and exogenic forces that are responsible for physical
Fault and chemical changes on the earth‘s surface is termed as geomorphic
Oceanic Ridge Oceanic Trench
processes.
The formation and deformation of landforms on the surface of the
OCEAN CRUST earth is continuous process which is due to the constant influence
of external and internal forces. The internal and external forces cre-
ate stress and perform chemical action on earth materials and bring
about changes in the configuration of the surface of the earth are
MANTLE known as geomorphic processes.
4 Geography
Earthquake
‰ An earthquake in normal words is the shaking of the earth. It is a
natural event. It is caused due to loss of energy, which produces
waves that travel in all directions.
‰ The vibrations known as seismic waves are produced from
earthquakes that move through the Earth and are written down
on instruments called seismographs.
‰ The location below the earth’s surface where the earthquake starts
is known as hypocenter (focus) and the location directly above
it on the surface of the earth is known as epicenter.
Types of Earthquake and Causes
Fault zones
‰ The loss of energy occurs along a fault. A sharp break in the
crustal rocks is called a fault.
‰ Rocks along a fault tend to travel in opposite directions. As the
enclosing rock strata press them, the friction locks them together.
‰ Although, their tendency to travel apart at some point in time
controls the friction. As a result, the blocks get disfigured and
eventually, they slide past one another immediately.
‰ This causes earthquakes in the form of the release of energy, and
the energy waves move in all directions.
Tectonic Earthquakes
‰ Tectonic earthquakes are the most known earthquakes.
‰ However the Earth looks like a beautiful solid place from the
surface, it’s literally extremely active just below the surface.
‰ The Earth is produced by four basic layers (generally three):
1. A solid crust
2. Hot
3. Nearly solid mantle
4. A liquid outer core and a solid inner core
‰ Tectonic plates (Lithospheric plates) are continuously shifting
as they drift all over on the gummy, or slowly flowing, mantle
layer beneath.
‰ This non-stop motion causes stress on Earth’s crust. When the
stresses get too big, it leads to cracks known as faults.
‰ When tectonic plates travel, it also causes motions at the faults.
Thus, the slipping of land along the faultline along convergent,
divergent and transform borders causes earthquakes.
‰ The point where the energy is released is known as the focus
of an earthquake, alternatively, it is known as the hypocentre
(focus). The energy waves moving in different directions reach
the surface.
‰ The point on the surface, nearest to the focus, is known as the
epicentre. epicentre is the first one to experience the waves.
Epicentre is a point directly above the focus.
Volcanic Earthquake
‰ Earthquakes generated by stress changes in solid rock due to the
injection or withdrawal of magma (molten rock) are known as
volcano earthquakes.
‰ Volcanic earthquakes can give rise to land to subside and can
produce large ground cracks. These earthquakes can happen as
the rock is moving to pervade spaces where magma is no longer
present.
‰ Volcano-tectonic earthquakes don’t suggest that the volcano will
erupt but can happen at any time.
Geography
Measurement of Earthquakes
‰ The energy from an earthquake moves through Earth in vibrations
known as waves.
‰ Scientists can measure these seismic waves on instruments known
as seismometers.
‰ Scientists can find out the time, location and intensity of an
earthquake from the data written down by a seismometer. This
data also gives information about the rocks the seismic waves
moved through.
‰ The earthquake events ascend either according to the magnitude
or intensity of the shock. The magnitude scale is called the Richter
scale. The magnitude covers the energy released during the quake.
Seismic Waves (Earthquake Waves)
‰ The waves of energy caused by earthquakes or an explosion are
known as seismic waves. They are the energy that moves through
the earth and are recorded on seismographs.
‰ The two types of earthquake waves are- body waves and surface
waves.
‰ Body waves are produced due to the release of energy at the
focus and travelled in all directions moving through the body of
the earth. Therefore, the name body waves.
There are two types of body waves. They are known as P and
S-waves.
‰ P-waves move rapidly and are the first to take place at the
surface. These are also known as ‘primary waves’. The P-waves
are similar to sound waves. They move through gaseous, liquid
and solid materials.
‰ S-waves ensue at the surface with some time lag. These are
known as secondary waves. An important fact about S-waves is
that they can move only through solid materials.
‰ The body waves interchange with the surface rocks and generate a
new set of waves known as surface waves. These waves travelled
along the surface.
‰ Earthquake waves are more devastating. They cause the
dislocation of rocks, and hence, the collapse.
Different Stages of Volcanoes
Volcanoes appear in a variety of forms, based on the nature of the
material that erupted, the type of eruption, and the type of change
since these volcanoes occurred.
Mostly volcanoes are divided into three main categories:
‰ Active Volcanoes: A volcano will be classified as an active
volcano if at a particular time it is likely to erupt or is erupting
already.
‰ Dormant Volcanoes: The classification of volcanoes that is being
referred to as dormant are those volcanoes that are not likely to
break out soon.
‰ Extinct Volcanoes: Extinct volcanoes are those volcanoes whose
eruption is not expected by anyone. No one has any idea about
the incident of these volcanoes
Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes
‰ These types of volcanoes mostly erupt in the oceanic areas.
‰ There exists a system of mid-ocean hills /ranges that stretches to
more than 70000 kilometres across the ocean basins.
‰ The central region of this ridge registers the maximum eruptions
continuously.
5
Major Volcanoes in India ‰ Erosional geomorphic representatives like running water,
groundwater, glaciers, wind and waves remove and transport it
Name Location Type Date of recent eruption to other places depending upon the dynamics of each of these
Barren Andaman Active representatives.
Active since 2017 ‰ Corrosion by rock debris carried by these geomorphic agents
Island Islands volcano
also aids greatly in erosion. By erosion, relief degrades, i.e., the
Andaman Active landscape is worn down.
Baratang Active since 2003
Islands Volcano ‰ It is erosion that is largely responsible for constant changes that
Dhi- the earth’s surface is undergoing.
nodhar Gujarat Extinct Inactive ‰ Denudational processes like erosion and transportation are
hills managed by kinetic energy.
‰ The erosion and transportation of earth materials takes place by
Weathering running water, wind, glaciers, waves and ground water.
The mechanical decomposition and chemicalbreak up of rocks
through the actions of several componentsof weather and climate
are known as weathering
Types of Rocks
There are three types of weathering processes–
3.4 Rock
‰ Chemical Weathering
‰ Physical or mechanical Weathering ‰ Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals.
‰ Biological weathering ‰ They may be hard or soft in varied colours.
‰ They do not have definite chemical composition.
Erosion and Deposition
‰ Petrology is the science of rocks. Petrologist who studies the
‰ Erosion involves the removal and transportation of rock debris
scientific methods of rocks.
when massive rocks crack into tiny pieces through weathering
and any other process. ‰ There are at least six mineral groups which form rocks in the crust.

3.6 Classification of Rocks

Classification of Rocks

Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks

Based on chemical Based of formation Foliated

Magma as a source Metamorphic rocks
composition

Mechanical Non Foliated

Intrusive Igneous Extrusive Igneous Metamorphic rocks
Acidic Rocks Basic Rocks
rocks rocks
Organic

Plutonic
Chemical
Hypabyssal

Batholiths

Laccoliths

Fig. 3.5 Classification of Rocks

3.7 Igneous Rocks ‰ Examples of intrusive igneous rocks:
z Granite: (batholith generally), Felsic, igneous rock.
‰ Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock cools, forming
silicate mineral crystals. z Diorite: intermediate.
‰ The upper 16 kilometres of the Earth’s crust is made up of z Gabbro: Mafic igneous rocks equivalent to basalt.
95% Igneous rock, with a thin covering of sedimentary and z Peridotite, Rhyolite, Andesite, Basalt, Komatiite, Diabase etc.
metamorphic rocks. 3.7.2.2 Extrusive Igneous Rocks
3.7.2.1 Intrusive Igneous Rocks ‰ If the magma reaches the surface and emerges as lava, it forms
‰ Magma that solidifies below the Earth’s surface and remains extrusive igneous rock.
surrounded by older, pre-existing rock. ‰ Examples of extrusive igneous rocks: Basalt, Andesite, Rhyolite.
6 Geography
3.7.3 Felsic Rocks and Mafic Rocks Soil: Types and Formation
‰ Felsic rocks are rich in silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium,
and potassium. Soil
‰ Mafic rocks are rich in magnesium and iron.
Soil is the upper layer of the continental crust having weathered par-
‰ If the rock is highly dominated by Magnesium and Iron, it is ticles of rocks. The soils of India are the product of physical ele-
called Ultramafic. ments as well as human factors.
3.7.4 Classification based on Chemical Composition Soil can be simply explained as a mixture of small rock particles/
debris and organic materials/humus which produced on the earth’s
‰ Those with a high proportion of silica are known as acidic
surface and support the development of plants.
rocks.
Factors that impact soil formation–
‰ Those with a high proportion of basic oxides are denser and
darker in appearance are known as basic rocks. ‰ Parent Material
‰ Relief/Topography
3.8 Sedimentary Rocks ‰ Climate
‰ Sedimentary rocks are made from layers, or strata of mineral ‰ Natural Vegetation & Biological factors
particles found in other rocks that have been weathered and from ‰ Time
newly formed organic matter.
‰ Sedimentary rocks are important because: Soil Profile
z Preserve a record of ancient landscapes, climates, and A vertical section through different layers of the soil is known as the
mountain ranges, as well as the history of the erosion of Earth. soil profile. Soil contains three horizontal layers. They are true soil
z Provide evidence of the evolution of life through time. at the upper, subsoil, and bedrock.
‰ They are found over 95% of the crust but contribute only 5% in
In India, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has
the crustal volume.
divided soils into 8 categories.
3.8.2 Types and Examples of Sedimentary Rocks ‰ Alluvial Soil
‰ Black Cotton Soil
‰ Sandstone {cemented sand grains}.
‰ Siltstone {Cemented silt particles}. ‰ Red Soil
‰ Conglomerate {sandstone containing pebbles ‰ Laterite Soil
Mechanical of hard rocks}. ‰ Mountainous or Forest Soils
‰ Mudstone {mainly silt and clay}. ‰ Arid or Desert Soil
‰ Claystone {mainly clay} and shale {clay and ‰ Saline and Alkaline Soil
mud rock}. ‰ Peaty, and Marshy Soil/Bog Soil
‰ Calcareous types like limestone, chalk.
Organic Alluvial Soils
‰ Carbonaceous like peat, lignite, coal.
‰ Alluvial soils are produced mostly due to silt deposited by Indo-
Chemical ‰ Dolomite, rock salt, gypsum. Gangetic-Brahmaputra rivers. In coastal regions, some alluvial
deposits are developed due to wave action.
3.9 Metamorphic Rocks ‰ They are the largest soil group covering over 15 lakh sq km or
‰ Metamorphic rocks are formed from the pre-existing rocks about 46 percent of the whole area.
within the Earth’s crust by changes in temperature and ‰ They support more than 40% of India’s population by providing
pressure and by chemical action of fluid. the most important productive agricultural lands.
‰ Rocks are Schist, Gneiss, Slate, Quartzite, Marble and Granite.
Geological Divisions of Alluvial Soils
3.9.2 Types of Metamorphic Rocks ‰ Geologically, the alluvium of the Great plain of India is classified
‰ Foliated metamorphic rocks: such as gneiss, phyllite, schist into newer or younger khadar and older bhangra soils.
and slate which have a layered or banded appearance that is Bhabar
produced by exposure to heat and directed pressure.
‰ The bhabar belt is around 8–16 km wide running along the
‰ Non-foliated metamorphic rocks: such as marble and quartzite Shivalik foothills. It is a porous, northern main stretch of the
which do not have a layered or banded appearance. Indo-Gangetic plain.
Type of Rock Original Rock Metamorphic Rock ‰ Rivers reducing from the Himalayas deposit their load along the
foothills in the form of alluvial fans. These alluvial fans (often
Igneous ‰ Granite ‰ Gneiss
pebbly soils) have combined to build up the bhabar belt.
‰ Basalt ‰ Homblend
Terai
‰ Limestone ‰ Marble
‰ Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy), and densely forested
‰ Coal ‰ Graphite Coal narrow tract (15–30 km wide) to the south of Bhabar running
Sedimentary collateral to it.
‰ Sandstone ‰ Quartzite
‰ The underground streams of the Bhabar belt reappear in this belt.
‰ Shale/clay ‰ Slate/Mica sheet
Terai is a swampy lowland region with silty soils.

Geography 7
Bhangar
‰ The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river beds developing
terraces higher than the flood plain (about 30 meters about the
flood level).
‰ It is of a more clayey composition and is commonly dark-
coloured.
‰ Some meters below the terrace of the bhangra are beds of lime
nodules called “Kankar”.
Khadar
‰ The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and developed the
flood plains along the river banks.
‰ The banks are flooded almost every year and a new layer of
alluvium is accumulated with every flood. This makes them the
main fertile soils of the Ganges.
‰ Khadar is sandy, clays and loams, drier and leached, less
calcareous and carbonaceous (less kankary). A new layer of
alluvium is deposited by river floods nearly every year.
Black soils
‰ The parent material for the main black soil is the volcanic rocks
that were developed in the Deccan Plateau.
‰ Black soil is a region of high temperature and low rainfall. It is,
therefore, a soil category typical to the dry and hot regions of
the Peninsula.
‰ Extent – 15% of the area
Crops in black soils
‰ These soils are best suitable for cotton crops. Hence these soils
are known as regur and black cotton soils.
‰ Other major crops grown on the black soils involve wheat, jowar,
linseed, Virginia tobacco, castor, sunflower and millets.
Red soil
‰ The existence of ferric oxides makes the color of soil red, ferric
oxides happening as thin coatings on the soil particles.
‰ The upper layer of the soil is red and the horizon below is
yellowish.
‰ Extent – 18.5% of the area
‰ Texture: Sandy to clay and loamy.
‰ This soil is also called the omnibus group.
Distribution of Red Soils
They are mainly formed in the Peninsula from Tamil Nadu in the
south to Bundelkhand in the north and Raj Mahal in the east to
Kathiawad in the west.
What is Soil Erosion?
In this method, the soil particles are loosened or cleansed away in the
valleys, oceans, rivers, streams or a long away land. This has been
aggravation due to human activities like agriculture and deforestation.
Physical Features of India
India – Size and Location
Location
‰ India lies wholly in the Northern Hemisphere and is longitudinally
situated in the Eastern Hemisphere.
8 Geography
z Latitude – in the middle of 8°4’ N & 37°6’ N, from south
to north.
z Longitude – in the middle of 68°7’ E & 97°25’ E, from west
to east.
‰ The Tropic of Cancer (23°30’ N) separates India into almost two
equal parts. It moves through eight states – Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Tripura
and Mizoram.
‰ To the south-east of the mainland lies the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands in the Bay of Bengal.
‰ To the south-west of the mainland lies the Lakshadweep Islands
in the Arabian sea.
‰ The southernmost part of India known as “Indira Point” (Great
Nicobar Island of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands) got
immersed under seawater in 2004 during the Tsunami.
Size
‰ Area – 3.28 million square km.
‰ Its area is approximately 2.4 % of the whole geographical area
of the world.
‰ It is the 7th biggest country on earth. (7 countries in the decreasing
order of their size – Russia, Canada, USA, China, Brazil,
Australia, India).
‰ Land boundary – approx. 15,200 km.
‰ Complete length of the coastal line, involving Lakshadweep and
Andaman & Nicobar islands – 7517 km.
‰ Both the longitudinal and latitudinal expanse of the mainland is
approx. 30°, despite the fact that the north-south expanse seems
to be larger than the east-west.
‰ The continent of India expanses from Kashmir in the north to
Kanyakumari in the south (3214 km) and Arunachal Pradesh in
the east to Gujarat in the west (2933 km). The territorial limit
of India extends towards the sea up to 12 nautical miles (~ 21.9
km) from the coast. (1 Nautical mile ~ 1.852 km).
‰ The southern part of the country reclines within the Tropics
and the northern part lies in the sub-tropical zone or the hot
temperate zone. This place is responsible for large differentiation
in landforms, climate, soil types and natural vegetation in the
country.
The Standard Meridian of India (82°30’ E) moves between Mirzapur
in Uttar Pradesh and is taken as the quality time for the complete
country (there is a time lag of 2 hrs. from Gujarat to Arunachal
Pradesh). Indian Standard Time is ahead of Greenwich Mean Time
by 5 hours and 30 minutes. The Standard Meridian of India moves
through Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Telangana and
Andhra Pradesh.
India and the World
‰ India is situated in the south-central part of the continent of Asia.
‰ India shares its surface boundaries with seven countries –
Pakistan and Afghanistan in the north-west, China, Nepal and
Bhutan in the north and Myanmar and Bangladesh in the east.
Besides these, the lengthiest border is shared by Bangladesh
(4096.7 km) and the smallest by Afghanistan (106 km).
Beyond the sea, the southern Neighbours are Sri Lanka and
the Maldives. Sri Lanka is separated from India by a small
channel of sea produced by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of
Mannar, and Maldives islands are located to the south of the
Lakshadweep islands.
Physical Features of India
The land of India exhibits great physical differences. Geologically,
the Peninsular Plateau constitutes one of the earliest landmasses and
main stable land blocks on the earth’s surface. The Himalayas and
the Northern Plains are the main current landforms. The Himalayan
mountains constitute a most youthful topography with high peaks,
deep valleys and fast-moving rivers. The Northern Plains are pro-
duced of alluvial accumulation and the Peninsular Plateau is col-
lected of igneous and metamorphic rocks with gently originating
hills and wide valleys.
Major Physiographic Divisions
The physical characteristics of India can be assembled under the fol-
lowing physiographic divisions:
1. The Himalayan Mountains
2. The Northern Plains
3. The Penisular Plateau
4. The Indian Desert
5. The Coastal Plains
6. The Islands
The Himalayan Mountains
The Himalayas represent the highest and one of the main unavenged
mountain barriers of the world. These mountains are geologically
young and configurationally fold mountains. The approximate
height of the Great Himalayan range, also called the central axial
range, is 2500 km from east to west and their width differs from 400
km (Kashmir) to 150 km (Arunachal Pradesh).
The Himalayas consists of four mountain variety (from north to
south) termly
‰ Trans Himalaya or the Tibetan Himalay.
‰ The Great or inside Himalaya or Himadri
‰ The Lesser Himalaya or Himachal and
‰ The Shiwalik or the outer Himalaya.
(A) The trans himalaya
‰ It is situated to the north of the Great Himalaya and comprises
Karakoram, Ladakh, Zanskar and Kailash mountain ranges. It
is also called the Tibet Himalayan Region as important parts of
these ranges lie in Tibet.
(B) The Great or Inner Himalaya or Himadri
‰ It is the main continuous range consisting of the tallest peaks
with an average height of 6000 meters.
‰ It contains all important Himalayan peaks and few of the highest
peaks are:
‰ Mount Everest situated in Nepal – 8848 m.
‰ Kanchenjunga in India – 8598 m.
‰ Makalu in Nepal – 8481 m.
‰ Dhaulagiri in Nepal – 8172 m.
‰ Nanga Parbat is situated in India – 8126 m.
‰ Annapurna in Nepal – 8078 m.
‰ Nanda Devi situated in India – 7817 m.
‰ Namcha Barwa situated in India – 7756 m.
(C) The Lesser Himalaya or the Himachal
‰ This range reclines to the south of Himadri and is composed of
highly flattened and altered rocks.
‰ The altitude differs from 3700 m and 4700 m and the approximate
width is 50 km.
Geography
‰ The popular ranges are the Pir Panjal range (lengthiest), the
Dhaula Dhar and the Mahabharat ranges.
‰ The range comprises the pretty valley of Kashmir, Kullu and
Kangra valley in Himachal Pradesh. This range is well known
for its hill stations.
(D) The Shiwaliks or the Outer Himalaya
‰ The external range of the Himalayas is known as the Shiwaliks.
They expand over a width of 10 – 15 km and have altitudes
differing between 900m & 100m. These ranges are composed
of loosened sediments brought down by rivers from the main
ranges situated farther north. These valleys are covered with
thick shingle and alluvium.
‰ Between the Shiwaliks and the lesser Himalayas are longitudinal
valleys known as Duns. Few of the important Duns are Dehra
Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun. Dehradun is the longest of all
the duns with an estimated length of 35 – 45 km and a width of
22 – 25 km.
The Northern Plains
‰ The Great Plains of India reclines south to the Shiwalik and represent
a transitional zone in the middle of the Himalayas of the north
and Peninsular India of the south. It is produced by the alluvial
segments of the Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries. It
increases along an area of 7 lakh sq. km. The Northern Plains are
approximately 2400 km long and 240 – 320 km broad. With a rich
soil cover merged with an adequate water supply and favorable
climate, it is an agriculturally fertile part of India.
‰ Northern India is broadly classified into three sections:
‰ The Punjab Plains –
‰ The western part of the Northern Plains is referred to as the Punjab
Plains. It is developed by the Indus and its tributaries; the larger
part of this plain reclines in Pakistan.
‰ The Ganga Plains –
‰ It expands in the middle of the Ghaggar and Teesta rivers. It is
increased over the states of Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
comparatively Jharkhand and West Bengal to its east.
The Brahmaputra Plains – It lies mostly in Assam.
‰ According to the difference in relief characteristics, the northern
plains can be classified into four regions – Bhabar, Terai, Bhangar
and Khadar
(a) Bhabar
‰ The rivers after reducing from the mountains sediments pebbles
in a small belt of about 8 to 16 km in width perfidious south
to the slopes of Shiwaliks and is called as Bhabar. Due to the
high impermeability of this region, all the streams vanish in this
Bhabar belt.
(b) Terai
‰ To the south of the Bhabar is the Terai belt with an about breadth
between 10 – 20 km where most of the brooks and rivers re-
emerge without having any appropriately differentiated channel,
thereby generating marshy and swampy conditions called
the Terai. This region has a luxurious development of natural
vegetation and houses different wildlife.
(c) Bhangar
‰ It is the biggest part of the northern plains and is produced
of ancient alluvium. It reclines above the floodplains of the
rivers and presents a terrace as a feature. The soil in this region
comprises calcareous deposits, commonly called as Kankar.
9
(d) Khadar
‰ The progeny, younger sediments of the flood plains are known
as Khadar. Tracts are enhanced by fresh sediment of silt every
year during the rainy season. This productive region is ideal for
intensive agriculture.
The Peninsular Plateau
The Peninsular upland developed the largest physiographic clas-
sification of India. With a general elevation in the middle of 600
– 900 m, the region constitutes an irregular triangle. Delhi hill
in the northwest (addition of Aravallis), the Raj Mahal hills in
the east, Gir range in the west and Cardamom hills in the south
established the exterior expansion of the Peninsular plateau.
The northeast addition is in the form of the Shillong and Karbi-
Anglong plateau.
‰ Aravali Hills: The Aravallis of Northwestern India, one of the
oldest fold mountains of the world, now form residual mountains
with an elevation of 300 m. to 900 m. They stretch for a distance
of 800 km. from Himmatnagar in Gujarat to Delhi, spanning
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Delhi, the 692 kilometre (km).
The mountains are divided into two, main ranges – the Sambhar
Sirohi Range and the Sambhar Khetri Range in Rajasthan, where
their extension is about 560 km. These are fold mountains of
which rocks are formed primarily of folded crust, when two
convergent plates move towards each other by the process called
orogenic movement.
‰ Satpura Hills: Satpura range is a combination of Satpura,
Mahadeo, and Maikala hills. They are tectonic mountains, run
for a distance of about 900 km. Mahadeo hills lie to the east
of Satpura hills. Pachmarhi is the highest point of the Satpura
range. The plateau has the drainage systems of Narmada and
Son, hence it has drainage into the Bay of Bengal as well as the
Arabian sea. These are mostly situated in the States of Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
‰ On the basis of the prominent relief characteristics, the Peninsular
plateau can be classified into three broad groups –
z The Central Highlands
z The Deccan plateau
z The North-Eastern plateau
(a) The Central Highlands
‰ The part of the Peninsular plateau mendacious to the north of the
Narmada river, covering a major area of the Malwa plateau, is
called the Central Highlands. The Malwa Plateau is surrounded
by the Aravallis in the north and the Vindhya range in the south.
The Aravallis is one of the oldest folded mountains of the universe
(Its highest peak is Guru Sikhar, 1722 m in height). The Vindhya
range is surrounded by the Satpura range in the south. This range
develops the northernmost boundary of the Deccan plateau.
10
‰ The addition of the Peninsular plateau can be perceived as long
away as Jaisalmer in the west, where it has been bordered by
longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-shaped sand dunes Known
as barchans. This region has undergone metamorphic methods in
its geological history, which can be authenticated by the presence
of metamorphic rocks such as marble, slate, genesis, etc.
‰ The Central Highlands are wider in the west and smaller in the
east. The eastward additions of this plateau are commonly known
as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand. The Chotanagpur (which
is a large reservoir of mineral resources) noticed the further
eastward addition, cleared out by the Damodar river.
(b) The Northeastern Plateau
‰ It is an addition of the main peninsular plateau. It is believed
that due to the force applied by the north-eastward motions of
the Indian plate at the time of the Himalayan start, a vast fault
was generated between the Raajmahal hills and the Meghalaya
plateau. Later this recession got filled up by the overthrow of
many rivers. Now, the Meghalaya and Karbi-Anglong plateau
stand unfastened from the main peninsular block.
‰ The Meghalaya plateau is classified into the Garo hills, the
Khasi hills and the Jaintia hills termed after the tribal categories
inhabiting this region. An addition of this is also seen in the Karbi
Anglong hills of Assam.
‰ The Meghalaya plateau, such the Chotanagpur plateau, is rich
in mineral quantities such as iron ore, limestone, sillimanite
and uranium. This region gets the maximum rainfall from the
southwest monsoon. As a result, Meghalaya has a highly corroded
surface. Cherrapunji displays a bare rocky surface lacking any
enduring vegetation cover.
(c) The Deccan Plateau
‰ The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass that reclines to the
south of the river Narmada. The Satpura range sides its vast base
in the north, while the Mahadev, the Kaimur Hills and the Maikal
range form its eastward additions. The Deccan Plateau is taller in
the west and slopes slightly eastwards. An addition of the plateau
is also seen in the northeast, commonly called the Meghalaya,
Karbi-Anglong Plateau and North Cachar Hills. It is split by a
responsibility from the Chotanagpur Plateau. Three hill categories
from west to east are the Garo, the Khasi and the Jaintia Hills.
Geography
‰ Western Ghats
z The Deccan Plateau is surrounded by the Western Ghats
in the west which moves parallel to the western coast for
approximately 1600 km in the north-south direction from the
Tapi river to Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin).
z Western ghats are commonly famous by various names like
Sahyadri in Maharashtra, Nilgiri Hills in Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu and Anaimalai Hills and Cardamom Hills in Kerala.
z The Western Ghats are relatively higher in elevation and more
continuous than the Eastern Ghats. Their average promotion is
900-1600 m as against 600 m of the Eastern Ghats and it rises
from north to south. Anai Mudi (2695 m) is the lengthiest peak
of the Peninsular Plateau which is situated on the Animalia
Hills of the Western Ghats followed by Doda Betta (2637 m)
on the Nilgiri hills.
z Main of the peninsular rivers (Godavari, Krishna & Kaveri)
have their start in the Western Ghats.
z The Western Ghats cause convective rain by facing the rain-
bearing wet winds to increase along the western slopes of
the Ghats.
z Hill stations such as Lonavala, Khandala, Matheran,
Mahabaleshwar, Panchgani, etc. are situated in this region.
z It is a World patrimony Site and one of the eight hottest
hotspots (endangered species) of biological variety in the
world.
z Know more on the Western Ghats in the connection.
‰ Eastern Ghats
z The Eastern Ghats develop the eastern boundaries of the
Deccan Plateau.
z The Eastern Ghats contains the discontinuous, irregular and
low hills which are corroded by the rivers moving into the Bay
of Bengal. Few of the main ranges involved Javadi hills, the
Pal Conda range, the Nalla Mala hills, the Mahendra Giri hills
(1,501 m which is the lengthiest peak in the Eastern Ghats).
z The eastern and western ghats joins each other at the Nilgiri hills.
The Great Indian Desert/Thar Desert
A desert is a dry land where the rate of evaporation is larger than the
rate of precipitation. Greater than 60% of the Thar desert reclines in
Rajasthan.
‰ To the northwest of the Aravalli hills lies the Great Indian
Desert/Thar Desert. It is a land of surging topography dotted
with longitudinal dunes and barchans (crescent-shaped dunes).
‰ The region gets very low rainfall (Lower 150 mm per year). It
has a dry climate with low vegetation cover. Unsettled by these
features, it is also called Marusthali.
‰ It is believed that through the Mesozoic era, this region was
inland. The proof is obtainable at the wood fossils park at
Aakal and marine sediments around Brahmsar near Jaisalmer.
The approximate age of the wood fossils is guessed to be 180
million years.
The Coastal Plains
The Peninsular plateau is flanked by a stretch of narrow coastal
strips, running along the Arabian Sea on the west (Western Coastal
Plains) and the Bay of Bengal in the east (Eastern Coastal Plains).
‰ The Western Coastal Plains
z The Western Coastal Plains sandwiched in the middle of the
Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is a smaller plain. The
Western Coastal Plains are an example of doused coastal
Geography
plains. It is believed that the city of Dwarka, which once
was part of the Indian mainland located along the west
coast, is deluged under water. Because of its deluge, it is a
smaller belt and supplies inborn conditions for the growth
of inherent ports along the west coast. Few of the inherent
ports over the west coast are Kandla, Mazagaon, Mangalore,
Cochin, etc.
z The western coastal plains are smaller in the middle and
get wider towards the north and south. The rivers that pass
between this coastal plain do not form a delta, in lieu form
estuaries.
z Besides the Malabar coast, there are many shallow lagoons
and backwaters – “Kayals’’. These lagoons are connected
together to facilitate navigation between tiny country boats.
Vembanad and Ashtamudi are the prominent lagoons of the
Malabar coast. The backwaters are prominent tourist spots
and are of significance for inland navigation and fishing.
Each year the popular Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (Boat Race)
is held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala.
‰ The Eastern Coastal Plains
z The Eastern Coastal Plains reclines in the middle of the
Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It extends over the
coasts of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
z The Eastern Coastal Plains are wider than the Western
Coastal Plains and are an example of an emerging coast. The
intercontinental shelf expands up to 500 km into the sea, which
makes it difficult for the growth of good ports and harbors.
z The rivers running in this region fall into the Bay of Bengal
and develop well-formed deltas – the deltas of the Mahanadi,
the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri.
z The Eastern Coastal Plain is divided into two divisions:
■ The Northern Circar – These plains comprises deltas
of Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna. These rivers have
split the Eastern Ghats in many places. The important
characteristics of this plain is the Chilika Lake (Odisha,
south of the Mahanadi delta), the biggest saltwater lake
in India.
■ The Coromandel Coast – it expands from the delta of
river Krishna to Kanyakumari.
The Islands
There are two major island groups in India – Andaman and
Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep Islands
in the Arabian sea.
11
 ‰ Andaman and Nicobar Islands Argon Xenon
z Andaman and Nicobar islands comprises about 572 islands/ 0.93% 0.000009%
islets. These are located roughly in the middle of 6°N – 14°N Oxygen Neon
Nitrogen 0.0018%
(latitude) and 92°E – 94°E (longitude). The two principal classes 78.08% 20.95%
of islets involved Ritchie’s archipelago and Labyrinth Island. Hydrogen
0.00005%
z The Andaman class of islands is in the north and Nicobar is in
the south. They are breakers by a water body which is known Helium
0.0005%
as the Ten Degree Channel (10° latitude moves between the
Andaman and Nicobar groups of islands). Krypton
0.0001%
z It is believed that these islands are a raised portion of
submarine mountains. Barren Island in Nicobar is the only Carbon dioxide
0.038%
energetic volcano in India.
z The coastline of these islands has few coral sediments and are Structure of the Atmosphere
called for beautiful beaches. These islands get normal rainfall
The atmosphere can be classified into five layers according to the
and have an equatorial type of vegetation.
diversity of temperature and density. They are:
z There is a great variety of flora and fauna in this category
‰ Troposphere
of islands.
Few of the prominent mountain peaks in the Andaman and Nicobar ‰ Stratosphere
islands are Saddle peak (North Andaman – 738m), Mount Diavolo ‰ Mesosphere
(Middle Andaman – 515m), Mount Koyob (South Andaman – 460m) ‰ Thermosphere (Ionosphere)
and Mount Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642m). ‰ Exosphere
‰ Lakshadweep Islands
Troposphere
z These are scattered between 8°N – 12°N latitude and 71°E
– 74°E longitude. ‰ Troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.
z There are approximately 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited. ‰ The height of this layer is over 18 km on the equator and 8 km
z Minicoy (southernmost) is the biggest island with an area of on the poles.
453 sq.km.
Tropopause
z These islands are situated at a distance of 280 – 480 km
southwest off the Kerala coast. ‰ Upper most layer of troposphere.
z The administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep in Kavaratti. ‰ It behaves like a border between troposphere and stratosphere.
This island group has a great variety of flora and fauna. Pitti ‰ This layer is marked by continuous temperatures.
island, which is unpopulated, has a bird sanctuary. The whole
Lakshadweep consists of coral deposits. Stratosphere
‰ The Stratosphere is produced just above the troposphere.
‰ It expands up to a height of 50 km.
Climate and Atmosphere ‰ The temperature remains almost the same in the lower part of this
layer up to the height of 20 km. After this, the temperature increases
What is atmosphere steadily with the increase in the height. The temperature increases
Earth is called an unique planet due to the presence of life. The air due to the existence of ozone gas in the upper part of this layer.
is one among the mandatory conditions for the presence of life on ‰ Weather related occurrences do not take place in this layer. The
this planet. The air is a mixture of various gases and it surrounds the air moves horizontally here. Therefore this layer is considered
earth from all sides. ideal for flying of aircraft.
‰ Atmosphere is the air surrounding the earth. ‰ The upper line of the stratosphere is called stratopause.
‰ The atmosphere is a mixture of different types of gases. ‰ One important property of the stratosphere is that it contains a
Atmosphere contains life-giving gases such as Oxygen for layer of ozone gas.
humans and animals and carbon dioxide for plants. ‰ Ozone gas is mainly produced in the lower portion of the
‰ It covers the earth all round and is held in place by the gravity stratosphere, from approximately 20 to 30 km above the earth’s
of the earth. surface.
‰ It helps in stopping the ultraviolet rays dangerous to life and ‰ The Stratosphere contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) in
maintains the suitable temperature necessary for life. connection to other parts of the atmosphere.
‰ Generally, the atmosphere expands up to about 1600 km from Mesosphere
the earth’s surface. Although, 99 % of the whole mass of the
‰ It is around the stratosphere that soaked most of the sun’s
atmosphere is constricted to the height of 32 km from the earth’s
ultraviolet radiations.
surface.
‰ It is the third layer of the atmosphere laid out over the stratosphere.
Composition of the Atmosphere ‰ It expands up to a height of 80 km.
‰ The atmosphere is produced with different gases, water vapor
and dust particles.
Thermosphere
‰ The composition of the atmosphere is not static and it changes ‰ This layer is located in the middle of the mesosphere and
according to the time and place. exosphere.
12 Geography
‰ Thermosphere contains electrically charged particles called ions,
and hence, it also contains a large part of the ionosphere. Waves
transfer from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this
layer and due to this, radio transmission has become possible.
‰ The temperature here starts growing with height due to the photo
dissociation of molecules , absorbing a lot of UV rays and X rays
given off by the sun.
Exosphere
‰ The topmost layer of the atmosphere is the exosphere.
‰ Gasses are very scanty in this sphere due to the lack of gravitational
force. Therefore, the density of air is very slighter here.
Ozonosphere
‰ The Ozonosphere lies at an altitude in the middle of 30 km and
60 km from the earth’s surface and spans the stratosphere and
lower mesosphere.
‰ Because of the existence of ozone molecules, this layer reflects
the dangerous ultraviolet radiation.
‰ The ozonosphere is also known as chemosphere because a lot of
chemical activity goes on here.
‰ The temperature rises at a rate of 5°C per kilometer through the
ozone layer.
Ionosphere
‰ This layer is located in the middle of 80 km and 400 km and is
an electrically charged layer.
‰ This layer is distinguished by ionization of atoms.
‰ Because of the electric charge, radio waves passing from the
earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer.
Cyclones
Introduction
‰ Cyclones are rapid inward air circulation over a low-pressure
area. The air flows in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern
hemisphere and the Southern hemisphere in clockwise.
‰ Cyclones are commonly accompanied by violent storms and
bad weather.
Classification
There are Two Types of Cyclones
‰ Tropical cyclones
‰ Extra Tropical cyclones (also known as Temperate cyclones or
middle latitude cyclones or Frontal cyclones or Wave cyclones).
‰ The World Meteorological Organization uses the name ‘Tropical
cyclone’ to cover weather systems in which winds overreach
‘Gale Force’ (minimum of 63 km per hour).
‰ Tropical cyclones evolve in the region between the Tropics of
Capricorn and Cancer. They are large‑scale weather systems
developing above tropical or subtropical waters, where they get
organized into surface wind circulation.
‰ Extra tropical cyclones happen in temperate zones and high
latitude regions, they are known to originate in the Polar Regions.
Anticyclones
‰ An anticyclone is the opposite of a cyclone i.e., it has an exterior-
swirling air circulation all over a high pressure center.
‰ Anticyclone winds rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
all over a center of high pressure.
‰ In anticyclones, air comes in from over and sinks to the ground.
High pressure centers commonly have fair weather.
Geography
Tropical Cyclones
‰ Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate above oceans
in tropical areas and travel over to the coastal areas bringing
about large scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy
rainfall and storm surges.
‰ Tropical cyclones are one of the most devastating natural disasters
in the world.
‰ Tropical cyclones derive and intensify over warm tropical oceans.
The conditions beneficial for the formation and escalation of
tropical storms are.
‰ Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C.
‰ Presence of the Coriolis force.
‰ Small variations in the vertical wind speed.
(a) pre-existing weak low- pressure area or
low-level-cyclonic circulation
Nomenclature of Tropical cyclones
‰ The term tropical cyclones is a recent phenomenon. The process
of calling cyclones involves several Countries in the region and is
done under the aegis of the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO).
‰ For the Indian Ocean region, a formula for calling cyclones
was agreed upon in 2004. Eight Countries in the region -
Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka and Thailand - all given a set of names which are assigned
sequentially whenever a cyclonic storm develops.
‰ Hudhud, Titli, Phethai, Fani, Vayu and Amphan are among the
terms of cyclones in the Indian Ocean region.
Worldwide Terminology of Tropical cyclones
‰ They are given many names in distinct regions of the world – eg.they
are called Typhoons in the China Sea and Pacific Ocean; Hurricanes
in the West Indian islands in the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean;
Tornados in the Guinea lands of West Africa and southern USA.;
Willy-willies in north-western Australia and Tropical cyclones
in the Indian Ocean.
Cyclones in India
Tropical Cyclones
‰ Tropical cyclones derive over the bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea and
the Indian ocean. These tropical cyclones have very high wind
velocity and heavy rainfall and hit the Indian Coastal states of
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha and Gujarat
(These five states are more endangered to cyclone disasters than
others in India).
Western Disturbance
‰ A Common weather phenomena in India is Western disturbance.
A western disturbance is an extratropical cyclone deriving in the
mediterranean region that brings unexpected winter rain to the
northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent.
‰ They are the cause of the most winter and pre-monsoon season
rainfall across North-West India (like Punjab, Haryana, Delhi
and Western Uttar Pradesh). This phenomenon is commonly
associated with cloudy sky, higher night temperatures and
unexpected rain.
‰ This precipitation during the winter season has great importance
in agriculture especially for rabi crops including wheat. It is
approximately that India gets close to 5-10% of its total annual
rainfall from western disturbances.
13
 Rivers, Lakes and Dams of India
Drainage Pattern and Rivers of India
Drainage System in India
‰ Drainage refers to the aqueduct of a river system in an area.
‰ Drainage Basin conserves an area which is cleared out by one
river system, i.e., Main River over with its branches.
‰ The major features of drainage affect are – topography, slope,
amount of water flow, nature and structure of rocks.
Important Drainage pattern
‰ Dendritic: The drainage pattern resembling the branches of a
tree is known as “dendritic” the examples of which are the rivers
of northern plain.
‰ Radical: When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all
directions, the drainage pattern is known as ‘radial’. The rivers
originating from the Amarkantak range present a good example
of it.
‰ Trellis: When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to
each other and secondary tributaries join them at right angles,
the pattern is known as ‘trellis’.
‰ Centripetal: When the rivers discharge their waters from
all directions in a lake or depression, the pattern is known as
‘centripetal’.
Indian Drainage System
‰ The drainage system of India is mostly divided into:
‰ Himalayan rivers
‰ Peninsular rivers
Himalayan River System
‰ The upliftment of Himalayas in various geological period
outcomes in the present drainage system of Himalayan rivers.
‰ The water divide, watershed and the channel of these rivers have
changed at various times and the folding guides to the creation
of many rivers.
‰ There are three important river systems in the Himalayas: (i) The
Indus System; (ii) The Ganga System; (iii) The Brahmaputra
System.
Peninsular Rivers System
‰ The course and channel of Peninsular rivers are progressed by
passing through different geological events such as subsidence,
Upheaval of Himalayas, the tilt of Peninsular India
‰ The Western Ghats acts as a water divide between thus most
of the peninsular river’s flow towards the east and few flowing
through the west extending the Arabian Sea with few exceptions
which flow northwards.
‰ The features of river channels of these rivers like the fixed course,
absence of meanders, etc., implies that these rivers are older than
Himalayan rivers.
Important Rivers in India
Watersheds
‰ Himalayan range
z Brahmaputra - Assam
z Satluj - Himachal Pradesh, Punjab
14
z Ganges - Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal
z Yamuna - Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh
‰ Vindhayan/Satpura range
z Mahanandi - Orissa
z Narmada - Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat
z Tapti - Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat
‰ Western ghat
z Godavari - Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh
z Bhima - Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh
z Krishna - Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
z Cavery - Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
z Bhavani - Kerala, Tamil Nadu
Indus
‰ the 2880 km long river rises in Tibet near the Mansarovar Lake
and ends in the Arabian Sea.
‰ Its five great tributaries connect it at Mithankot in Pakistan.
‰ Flows between Ladakh and Zanskar ranges in India, developing
a gorge.
Chenab
‰ It arises near the Baralacha Pass as two headstreams Chandra
and Bhanga on both sides of the pass.
‰ The united stream flows between the Pangi Valley parallel to
the Pir Panjal Range.
‰ Connect the Indus at Panchanand in Pakistan.
‰ Projects– Salal, Baglihar, Dul Hasti.
Ravi
‰ Originates in the Kullu hills close to the Rohtang Pass in
Himachal Pradesh.
‰ Flows through the Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar
‰ Develops a deep gorge in the Dhauladhar Range
‰ Cities- Chamba and Kathua
‰ Develops boundary between Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir
and then in the middle of India and Pakistan.
Beas
‰ Originates near the Rohtang Pass in HP and connects the Satluj
at Harike near Kapurthala.
‰ Develops a deep gorge in the Dhauladhar Range.
‰ Pong Reservoir (HP).
Satluj
‰ Southernmost utmost tributary of the Indus, it arises from the
Rakas Lake in Tibet and enters India through the Shipki La
‰ Projects: Nathpa Jhakri and Bhakra – Nangal
‰ Tributaries: Beas, Spiti, and Parchhu.
Ganga
‰ The largest and longest river in India.
‰ Arises from the Gangotri Glacier as the Bhagirathi and clears
out into the Bay of Bengal.
‰ Termed Ganga after Devprayag and enters the plain after
Haridwar.
‰ Called the Padma in Bangladesh.
‰ Religious river of India.
Geography
Mahananda
‰ The transboundary river flows Between West Bengal, Bihar,
and Bangladesh.
‰ Last prominent left bank tributary of the Ganga before the
Brahmaputra.
‰ Originates in the Darjeeling district and flows through the
Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary.
‰ 360 km Large (324 km in India ).
Brahmaputra
‰ Originates in the Chemayungdung Glacier in the Kailas Range
and meets the Padma in Bangladesh.
‰ Called Tsangpo in Tibet.
‰ Develops the largest riverine island Majuli.
‰ The biggest volume of water of any river in India.
Yamuna
‰ A very prominent tributary of the Ganga rises from the Yamunotri
Glacier and joins the Ganga at Allahabad.
‰ Tributaries: Chambal, Sind, Betwa, and Ken.
‰ Cities – Delhi, Mathura, Agra, and Allahabad.
‰ Unnecessarily used and highly polluted.
Chambal
‰ A very important tributary of the Yamuna.
‰ It originates from the Janapav Hills of the Vindhyas and Joins
the Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh near Etawah.
‰ Tributaries: Banas, Kali Sindh and Parbati.
‰ Reservoirs: Gandhi Sagar, Rana Pratap Sagar, and Jawahar Sagar.
‰ Popular for ‘ravines’ (badland topography )
Son
‰ The prominent right bank tributary of the Ganga originates
near Amarkantak and meets the Ganga near Ramnagar
in Bihar.
‰ Flows through the Kaimur Hills and the Sonar Hills.
‰ Tributaries: Johilla, Gopad, Rihand, Kanhar, and North Koel.
Mahanadi
‰ Originates from the Sihawa Parvat of the Raipur district of
Chhattisgarh and develops a large delta in the Bay of Bengal.
‰ Hirakud Dam close to Sambalpur in Orissa.
‰ Tributaries: Tel, Hasdo, Ib, Mand, Jonk, Sheonath, etc.
‰ Cities – Sambalpur and Cuttack.
‰ Develops the Chhattisgarh Plain, ‘Rice Bowl of India’.
Godavari river
‰ The second longest river in India and the longest river in southern
India
‰ Originates from the Trimbak Plateau in the Nasik district and
develops a large delta along with Krishna in the Bay of Bengal.
‰ Called as the ‘Vridha Ganga’
‰ Projects – Jayakwadi
‰ Tributaries: Pranhita, Indravati, Sileru, and Manjra.
Krishna river
‰ The second largest river of the Indian Peninsula originates from
the Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar and closeout into the Bay
of Bengal, forming a joint delta with the Godavari
Geography
‰ Tributaries – Musi, Tungabhadra, Bhima, Koyna, Munneru,
Ghataprabha, Malaprabha.
‰ Dams – Srisailam and Nagarjunasagar.
Cauvery
‰ Originates from Taal Cauvery in the Brahmagiri Range of the
Western Ghats in Karnataka
‰ Develops quadrilateral delta
‰ Falls–Shivanasamudra and Hogenakkal
‰ Reservoirs – Krishna raja Sagar and Stanley Reservoir.
‰ Tributaries- Hemavati, Shimsa, Lakshman Tirtha, Arkavathi,
Kabani, Suvarnavathi, Noyil, and Amaravati.
Tapi river
‰ The second lengthiest west-flowing river of the Indian Peninsula
originates in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh in the Mahadeo
Hills and clears out into the Gulf of Khambhat near Surat.
‰ Passes parallel to the Satpura Range.
‰ Tributaries – Purna, Girna, Bori and Panjhra.
‰ Ukai Dam is situated on it.
Narmada river
‰ The lengthiest west-flowing river of the Indian Peninsula
originates from the Amarkantak Plateau and clears out into the
Gulf of Khambhat.
‰ Flow through the Vindhyas and Satpura, through a rift valley.
‰ Dams – Sardar Sarovar, Omkareshwar, Maheshwar, and Indira
Sagar.
‰ Tributaries – Chota Tawa, Hiran, Shakkar, and Burner.
Sabarmati
‰ The name was given to the merges stream of the Sabar and
Hathmati
‰ Originates from the hills of Mewar in the southern Aravalli Range
‰ Passes between a gorge at Dharoi and falls into the Gulf of
Khambhat.
‰ Tributaries – Hathmati, Sethi, Wakrul, Harnav, Meshwa, and Vatrak.
‰ Cities: Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad.
Ghaggar
‰ Believed to be the remains of the mythical Saraswati River, flows
between Punjab and Haryana and fades into the Thar Desert.
‰ Seasonal and inland rivers do not extend to the sea.
The Neighbours of India
‰ India is strategically located in the south of Asia. It is divided into
28 states and 8 union territories. While Rajasthan is the largest
state, Goa is the smallest state.
‰ India shares its boundaries with Afghanistan and Pakistan in the
northwest, China, Nepal and Bhutan in the north and Myanmar
and Bangladesh in the east. In the south, Sri Lanka and Maldives
are sea neighbours.
While Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea
formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar, the islands of
Maldives are located to the south of the Lakshadweep Islands.
Note: Before 1947, there were two types of states in India — the
provinces and the Princely states. Provinces were ruled directly by
British officials, who were appointed by the Viceroy. Princely states
were ruled by local, hereditary rulers, who acknowledged sover-
eignty in return for local autonomy.
15
 World Map and Countries across World
Asia
Asia is the world’s biggest continent, having an area of44,444,100
sq km.
It extends through 8.8% of the Earth’s whole surface area with a pop-
ulation of 4.4 billion which is 60 % of the world’s whole population.
It is a continent of differences in relief, vegetation, temperature and
people also.
Asia is to the east of the Suez Canal, the Ural River, and the Ural
Mountains, and south of these Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian
and Black Seas.
It is surrounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean,on the north by the
Arctic Ocean and on the south by the Indian Ocean.
The earth’s tallest and shortest places are both in Asia:
‰ The tallest place on earth is Mount Everest.
‰ The shortest place on earth is Dead Seashore.
Major Physical Divisions of Asia
‰ The Northern Lowlands
‰ The Central Mountains
‰ The Central and Southern Plateaus
‰ The Peninsulas
‰ Deserts
‰ The Great River Plains
‰ Island Groups
1. The Northern Lowlands
The Northern Lowlands are the large plain areas that comprise of
various patches of lowlands of this big continent.
The major lowlands are:
Great Siberian plain
‰ It expands between the Ural Mountains in the west and the river
Lena in the east. It is the biggest lowland in the world covering
an area of 1,200,000 square miles approx.
Manchurian Plain
‰ It is the area that passes by the Amur River and its tributaries in
the northern part of China with an area of 135,000 square miles
approx.
Peaks of Asia
‰ Mount Everest (8848 m), Nepal-Tibet and China border.
‰ K2 (8,61,1 m) and Pakistan-China.
‰ Kangchenjunga (8,586 m) and Nepal-Sikkim (Indi(A)
‰ Lhotse (8,516 m) and Nepal-Tibet, China.
‰ Makalu (8,462 m) and Nepal-Tibet, China.
‰ Cho Oyu (8,201 m) and Nepal.
Seas
As the continent is surrounded by sea from its three sides, It has also
featured by the long stretch of bay and gulf.
Major seas contributing to Asian Drainage are the East Siberian
Sea, Arabian Sea, Banda Sea, Barents Sea, Bering Sea, Black Sea,
Caspian Sea, Java Sea, Kara Sea, Laccadive Sea, Sea of Japan, and
the Sea of Okhotsk. The Yellow Sea and the South China Sea.
16
Lakes
Major lakes of Asia are
‰ Lake Baikal, Peipus, Ladoga, and Omega in Russia.
‰ Lake Akan, Shikotsu, Biwa, Mashu in Japan.
‰ Qinghai Lake, Lake Khanka in China;
‰ Sukhna, Chilka, Vembanada, Pulicat and Dal Lake in India;
‰ Lake Matano and Toba in Indonesia, et(C).
Baikal is the deepest lake in the universe. Baikal is in Southern
Siberia, Russia.
Antarctica
‰ It is the southernmost continent and lies wholly within the
Antarctic Circle and expands around the South Pole.
‰ To the south of India, beneath the Indian Ocean lies the frozen
continent of Antarctica.
‰ The term means – opposite the Arctic.
‰ It is divided from the rest of the world by the icy waters of the
Southern Ocean contains of the southern portions of the Indian,
Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans.
‰ Its area is around 14 million square kilometres.
‰ It is the fifth-biggest continent.
‰ It is bigger than Europe and is twice the size of Australia.
‰ The continent is a great plateau that is frozen throughout the year.
‰ There is no coastal plain.
‰ There are mountain ranges, a rift valley, peaks and volcanoes.
‰ Two broad inlets, the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea and the Trans-
‰ Antarctic Mountains that intersect the complete continent divide
the land into West Antarctica and East Antarctica.
The Antarctic Treaty
‰ The Antarctic Treaty was authorized in Washington on 1
December 1959 by the twelve nations that had been active during
the IGY (Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan,
New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, United Kingdom, United
States, and USSR). The Treaty, which appeals to the area south
of 60° South latitude, is surprisingly short, but exceptionally
effective. Through this agreement, the countries active in
Antarctica consult on the uses of a complete continent, with a
commitment that it should not become the scene or object of
international discor(D). In its fourteen articles the Treaty:
Australia
‰ Australia is the only continent which is also a country.
‰ It lies in the middle of the Indian and the Pacific oceans.
‰ It is adjoined by
z The Timor Sea in the North-West.
z The Gulf of Carpentaria in the North,
z Great barrier reef in the north-east &
z Great Australian bight in the south.
Desert
‰ Gibson Desert – a central Australian desert
‰ Great Sandy Desert – a northwestern Australian desert
‰ Great Victoria Desert – the sixth-largest desert in the world by
area, located in south-central Australia.
‰ Simpson Desert – a central Australian desert
Geography
‰ Little Sandy Desert – a western Australian desert
‰ Strzelecki Desert – a south-central Australian desert
‰ Tanami Desert – a northern Australian desert
‰ Western Desert – a desert located in western Australia, comprising
the Gibson, Great Sandy, and Little Sandy deserts.
‰ Rangipo Desert – a barren light altitude desert on the North Island
Volcanic Plateau in New Zealand.
The Great Barrier Reef
‰ This is the biggest coral reef in the world.
‰ It lies over the east coast of Queensland, Australia, in the Pacific
Ocean.
‰ It is about 2,000 kilometres long, in a few areas is as near as 16
kilometres to the coast while in other places it is 200 kilometres
away.
‰ It is one of the natural wonders of the universe.
‰ It is formed by small coral polyps.
South America
South America is a long Triangular Shaped Continent.
‰ It stretched from 12°N to 55°S latitude.
‰ The Equator passes through the northern part of the continent
and the Tropic of Capricorn runs roughly through the middle.
‰ Because of its tapering shape, a major part of the landmass is in
the tropics. South America lies on the west of the Prime Meridian.
So the time at any place on this continent will be some hours less
than or behind the Greenwich Mean Time.
South America Includes 14 Countries
1. Argentina, 2. Bolivia, 3. Brazil, 4. Chile, 5. Colombia, 6. Ecuador,
7. Falkland Islands (United Kingdom) i.e. (British Overseas
Territories) 8. French Guiana (France), 9. Guyana, 10. Paraguay, 11.
Peru, 12. Suriname, 13. Uruguay, 14. Venezuela
Major Physical Divisions of South America
Andes mountains
‰ Forms the second-highest mountain system in the world and is
next to the Himalayas
‰ Mount Aconcagua is an extinct volcano that lies in Argentina
‰ Mount Ojos del Salado is the highest active volcano in the world
of Argentina
‰ Andes Mountains – A part of seven countries: Venezuela,
Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, Chile, and Argentina.
Deserts of South America
‰ Patagonian Desert – the largest desert by area located in Argentina
‰ La Guajira Desert – a desert in northern Colombia and some of
northwestern Venezuela
‰ Atacama – a desert in Chile, the driest place on Earth.
‰ Sechura Desert – a desert located along a portion of the
northwestern coast of South America
‰ Monte Desert – in Argentina, a smaller desert above the
Patagonian desert.
The Amazon Basin
‰ It is the basin of the River Amazon.
‰ Its length is second to that of the Nile river of Africa.
‰ The river drains nearly 40 per cent of the area of South America.
Geography
‰ The major tributaries of the Amazon river are the Caqueta, the
Jurua, the Madeira, the Negro, et(C).
‰ Equatorial rainforest
‰ Amazon rainforest – deforestation due to cattle ranching and
soya beans fields.
Lithium Triangle
‰ Lithium Triangle is an intersection of Chile, Bolivia and
Argentina, known for high quality salt flats.
‰ Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia, Salar de Atacama in Chile, and Salar
de Arizaro in Argentina contain over 45%of known global
lithium reserves.
‰ Beneath Salar de Uyuni, the world’s largest salt flat lies the
world’s greatest lithium deposits.
‰ Lithium dissolved in underground saline aquifers called “brine”,
pumped to the surface by wells and then allowed to evaporate in
vast knee-deep ponds.
‰ Demand for electric vehicles and smart devices powered by
lithium-ion batteries gives an opportunity for development.
Europe
Europe is the 2ndsmallest continent, the smallest in Australia. Its
area, including the islands around the coast, is nearly 10 million
square kilometres.
Europe is often termed a “peninsula of peninsulas.” A peninsula is
a piece of land surrounded by water on three sides. It is nearly three
times the size of India and smaller than China.
Physical Divisions of Europe
The Alpine Mountain Ranges
1. The highest peak is mount Blanc 5,000 m.
2. The mountain range runs in a number of branches.
3. The main ones are the Balkans, the Carpathians, the alps, the
Caucasus, et(C).
4. Another faction is the Apennines (Italy, the Atlas (Africa, and
the Sierra Nevada Spain).
5. 
Still another one is the Dinaric and the Pindus mountain
(Yugoslavia and Greece) and enters through the Crete island
into Asia.
Balkan Mountains
‰ The Balkan Mountain are a mountain range located in the eastern
part of the Balkan Peninsula, stretching for nearly 557 km from
the Vrashka Chuka Peak near the Bulgaria-Serbia border to Cape
Emine along the Black Sea coast.
‰ The highest peak ofBalkan Mountains are located in the central
part of the bulgaria, the tallest of which is Botev Peak, with an
elevation of 2,375 m.
‰ Several protected areas, such as Central Balkan National Park
and Bulgarka Nature Park, help in conserving the ecosystem and
landscapes within the Balkan Mountains. Additionally, several
caves within the range are a significant tourist attraction in the
region.
‰ The Balkan Mountains are connected to the history of Bulgaria and
are considered to have the nation and its people.
Caucasus Mountains
1. Like the Urals, the Caucasus Mountains also form part of the
boundary between Europe and Asia. The mountain range has
a length of nearly 1,200 km and stretches between the Caspian
Sea and the Black Sea.
17
 2. Europe’s highest peak, Mount Elbrus, which has an elevation of
5,642.1m, is located in the Caucasus Mountains. Additionally,
all 10 of the tallest peaks in Europe are located in the Caucasus
Mountains, particularly in Georgia, Russia, or along the Russia-
Georgia border.
North America
‰ North America is the 3rd largest continent after Asia and Africa. It
covers an area of nearly 24 million square kilometres.
‰ From south to north, it stretches from 7°N to 85°N latitude and
east to west from 20°W to 179° W.
‰ In other words, its northern boundary is about 500 kilometres
away from the North Pole and its western boundary is about 10
kilometres away from the International Date Line.
‰ There are 5 time zones in North America.
‰ The Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle pass through the
continent and the 100°W longitude cuts through the centre of
the continent.
Regional Divisions of North America
Gulfs of North America
A gulf is a portion of the ocean that penetrates land which is very
large in size, shape, and depth. They are generally larger and more
deeply indented than bays and often make excellent harbors. Many
important trading centers are located on the Gulf.
‰ Gulf of Mexico
‰ Gulf of Alaska
‰ Gulf of California
‰ Gulf of St. Lawrence
Gulf of Mexico
It is an important economic site for three countries and is surrounded
by the United States, Mexico, and the island nation of Cuba. As one
of the biggest gulfs, it has a coastline of 5000 kilometres.
Gulf of Alaska
It is situated in the northwestern part of North America where two
types of water run into each other, a light, almost electric blue
merging with a darker slate blue.
Gulf of California
It separates the Baja California Peninsula from the Mexican
mainland. It has a coastline of 4000 km (2600 miles). It is considered
to be one of the most diversified seas on the planet and is home to
more than 5,000 species of macroinvertebrates.
Gulf of St. Lawrence
It is a water outlet of the North American Great Lakes via the Saint
Lawrence River. It’s a semi-enclosed sea that covers 236,000 square
kilometres (91,000 sq mi) and contains about 35,000 cubic kilometres
(8,400 cu mi) of water, which results in an average depth of 148
meters (486 ft).
Islands
The world-famous islands of North America are:
Vancouver island
It is located on Canada’s Pacific Coast, and is known for its mild
climate and excellent arts community. It is parted from British
Columbia mainland by the Strait of Georgia and Queen Charlotte
Strait and from Washington by the Juan De Fuca Strait.
18
Greenland
It is a massive island situated between the Atlantic and Arctic oceans
and 80% of it is covered by ice.
Hawaii Island
It is otherwise known as the Big Island and provides a vast scenery
of the natural environment and it is the largest island of the Hawaiian
archipelago in the Central Pacific.
Cuba Islands of Antilles
It is called the sugar bowl of the World and its vast source of metallic
resources includes cobalt, nickel, iron ore, chromium, and copper.
Other resources include silica, petroleum, timber, salt, and arable
land.
Bermuda Island
It is the territory of the British Islands in the North Atlantic and is
known for its pink sand beaches such as Elbow and Horseshoe Bay.
Africa
‰ Africa is the 2ndlargest continent in the area (30,330,000 sq Km)
which covers 6% of Earth’s total surface area and 20.4 % of its
total land area.
‰ Africa is sometimes called the “Mother Continent” as it’s the
oldest inhabited continent on Earth. Africa is the only continent
which is passed by the equator, the Tropic of Capricorn and the
Tropic of Cancer.
‰ Greenwich Meridian passes through the western part of Africa. It
is the only continent where the 0° latitude meets the 0° longitudes,
these lines meet at the Gulf of Guiana.
‰ Algeria is Africa’s largest country in terms of area, and Nigeria in
terms of population. Seychelles is the smallest country in Africa.
‰ Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is connected
with Asia at its northeast extreme end by the Isthmus of Suez 163
Km wide. It is bounded by the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula
to the north-east, the Indian Ocean to the south-east, and the
Atlantic Ocean to the west.
‰ It is divided into half almost equally by the Equator. Africa has
8 major physical regions: The Sahara, The Sahel, The Ethiopian
Highlands, the savanna, the Swahili Coast, the rainforest, the
African Great Lakes, and southern Africa.
It has fully recognized 54 sovereign states.
Regional Divisions of Africa
Rwenzori mountains
‰ Stretching over an area of 240 sq. miles the range bordering
Uganda and Congo (Kinshasa). and thought to be the “Mountains
of the Moon.
‰ Mount Stanley at Margherita Peak (5,119 m is the highest peak
of this mountain system.
‰ It is a gigantic horst of 6 separate glaciated masses which falls
steeply westward to the Western Rift Valley.
Mount Elgon
‰ It is an extinct volcanic mountain located in the northeast part of
lake Victoria on the Uganda – Kenya border.
‰ The height is around 4,321 km from the mean sea level.
‰ As a volcanic mountain it has a crater which is 610 m in depth
and 8 km across.
Geography
Tibesti Mountains
‰ These are mostly located in the northern part of Chad and spread
west into northern Niger and the Southern border area of Libya.
‰ They have a volcanic origin.
‰ The highest peak is 3,415 metres from mean sea level.
Ahaggar Mountains
‰ The Ahaggar Mountains, also known by the Hoggar, is a highland
region in central Sahara, or southern Algeria near the Tropic of
Cancer. They are situated about 1,500 km south of the capital,
Algiers. Mount Tahat is the tallest peak (2, 918 m).
‰ It has a volcanic formation.
The Drakensberg
‰ These mountains are the highest in Southern Africa rising up at
Thabana Ntlenyana at 3,482 m (11,422 ft) in height.
‰ They are situated in the eastern part of South Africa, running
from some 1,000 km.
‰ The highest peak is Thabana Ntlenyana at 3,482 m (11,422 ft).
It is also the tallest peak of Lesotho.
Mount Kenya
‰ Mount Kenya is the tallest mountain in Kenya, and the second-
highest in Africa (after Mount Kilimanjaro). The highest peaks
of the mountain are Batian (5,199m – 17,058 ft), Nelion (5,
188m – 17,022 ft) and Lenana (4,958 – 16,355 ft).
‰ Mount Kenya is situated in central Kenya, just south of the
equator, around 150 km (95 miles) north-northeast of Nairobi.
Kilimanjaro
‰ Kilimanjaro with its three volcanic cones, Kibo, Mawenzi, and Shira,
is an inactive stratovolcano in the north-eastern part of Tanzania.
‰ Kilimanjaro is the tallest free-standing mountain rise in the world
rising 4,600 m (15,100 ft) measuring from its base and consists
of the highest peak in Africa at 5,895 meters (19,340 ft).
The Deserts
Sahara Desert
‰ The Sahara, the largest hot desert in the world,extends across
the entire width of North Africa. It covers an area of approx.
3,320,000 sq. miles.
‰ The major countries contributing their land to Sahara deserts are
Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Tunisia, Chad, Morocco, Eritrea, Niger,
Mauritania, Mali, and Sudan.
‰ The principal topographical features of the Sahara include
shallow, seasonally inundated basins (chotts and dayas) and large
oasis depressions; extensive gravel-covered plains (series or
regs); rock-strewn plateaus (hammadas); abrupt mountains; and
sand sheets, dunes, sand seas (ergs) and Oases( lush green area)
Nubian Desert
‰ The Nubian Desert is the eastern region of the Sahara desert,
between the Nile and the Red Sea. There is almost no rainfall
here, and there are no oases. It is in Egypt. It covers an area of
1,54,000 sq. miles approximately.
Namib Desert
‰ Namib is a cool coastal desert in southern Africa. The Namib
Desert is believed to be old as 55 million years; thus, it is the
oldest desert of the worl(D).
‰ The high sand dunes in the Namib Desert and the point where the
desert meets the sea are the important attraction of this UNESCO
World Heritage Site.
Kalahari Desert
‰ The Kalahari Desert lies in the south and the Namib Desert is
along the south-west shore of Africa. It covers an area of 3,50,000
sq. miles and encroaching on parts of Botswana, Namibia,
Zambia, Angola, and Zimbabwe.
‰ San People have lived in the difficult terrain of the Kalahari
Desert.
‰ Famous for Diamond mining.
The Islands
‰ Madagascar (Malagasy) in the Indian Ocean is the largest island
in Africa.
‰ To the north-west, in the Atlantic Ocean lies the Canary Islands.
‰ West of Africa in the South Atlantic Ocean is the island of Saint
Helena where Napoleon died in exile.
‰ Zanzibar belongs to Tanzania and is quite closer to the Indian
Ocean.
‰ Madeira –Portugal territory
‰ Canary – Spanish territory
‰ Cape Verde
‰ Mauritius
‰ Reunion – France overseas territory
‰ Comoros – France
‰ Seychelles
The Rivers of Africa
River Zambezi
‰ River Zambezi drains into the Indian Ocean.
‰ The famous Victoria Falls at the head of a long gorge is on this
river.
River Limpopo
‰ River Limpopo also drains into the Indian Oceans, which crosses
the Tropic of Capricorn twice.
River Orange
‰ This starts from the Drakensberg Mountains and drains into the
Atlantic Ocean.
River Nile
‰ This is the longest river in the world.
‰ It begins from many streams in the equatorial rainforest of Lake
Victoria and the Rwenzori Mountain (the mountains of the
moon) region.
‰ From Lake Albert, it continues as the White Nile.
‰ The Nile flows from 3,000 kilometers through the dry Sahara
Desert of Egypt and enters the Mediterranean Sea.
Sea and Oceans across world
Ocean
While there is only one global ocean, the huge body of water that
covers 71 percent of the Earth is geographically classified into dis-
tinct named regions. The boundaries between these regions have
progressed over time for a variety of historical, scientific, geograph-
ical, and cultural reasons.
Historically, there are 4 named oceans: the Atlantic, Arctic, Indian,
and Pacific. However, a new ocean has now been acknowledged as

Geography 19
the Southern (Antarctic) ocean as the fifth ocean. The Pacific, India,
and Atlantic are called as the three major oceans.
‰ Oceanography is the branch of science that deals with
the biological and physical properties and occurrence of
the sea.
‰ Earlier echo-sounding methods were used, now radar soundings
and electrical Echo devices are used to find the exact depths of
ocean floors and map the relief of oceans.
Ocean Relief Features
‰ The oceans, unlike the continents, merge so commonly into one
another that it is hard to bound them. The geographers have
Continental
shelf Volcanic island
Guyot
Seamount Abyssal plain
Shoal
A shoal is a disengaged elevation with shallow depths. Since they
project out of water with modest heights, they are threatening for
navigation.
Reef
‰ A reef is a predominantly organic deposit made by living or
dead organisms that form a mound or rocky promotion like
a ridge.
‰ Coral reefs are a characteristic feature of the Pacific Ocean where
they are connected with seamounts and guyots.
‰ The greatest reef in the world is found off the Queensland coast
of Australia.
‰ Since the reefs may expand above the surface, they are commonly
dangerous for navigation.
Significance of Study of Oceanic Relief
‰ Ocean relief overcomes the motion of sea-water.
‰ The oceanic motions in the form of currents, in turn, cause many
variations in both oceans and in the atmosphere.
‰ The bottom relief of oceans also affected navigation and fishing.
Estuary vs Delta
‰ The estuary is an area where saltwater of sea blend with fresh
water of rivers. It is developed by a tidal bore.
‰ Delta is a low triangular area of alluvial deposits where a river
classified before entering a larger body of water.
20
classified the oceanic part of the earth into five oceans, namely
the Pacific, Southern, the Indian, the Atlantic, and the Arctic.
The various seas, gulfs, bays, and other inlets are parts of these
four big oceans.
‰ A major portion of the ocean floor is found in the middle of 3-6
km beneath the sea level. The ‘land’ under the waters of the
oceans, that is, the ocean floor exhibits complex and different
features as those observed over the land.
‰ The floors of the oceans are rugged with the world’s largest
mountain ranges, the largest plains, and deepest trenches. These
features are formed, such as those of the continents, by the factors
of volcanic, tectonic, and depositional processes.
Mid‑Ocean ridge
Continental slope
Treanch
Lagoon and Estuary
‰ An estuary refers to a coastal body of water that is partly enclosed
having a river or a stream, or several of them flowing into an
estuary while at the similar time having a free link to the ocean
or the sea.
‰ They are commonly a transition zone in the middle of the
river environment and ocean environment, and therefore they
experience the affected of both the river and the ocean.
‰ On the other hand, a lagoon refers to a shallow body of water that
is alienated by a reef or barrier from the bigger body of water, and
they are common coastal landforms in various regions around the
world. There are two types of lagoons and involve atoll lagoons and
coastal lagoons.
Properties of Ocean Water
Geography
Movements of Ocean Water: The Classification
The major movements of the ocean waters can be divided into three.
They are:
‰ Waves
‰ Tides
‰ Ocean Currents
Waves and the ocean currents are horizontal movements of ocean
waters while the tide is a variety of vertical movement of the ocean
water.
Waves
‰ Waves are nothing but the oscillatory movements that outcomes
in the rise and fall of water surface.
‰ They are generally the energy, not the water as such, which moves
across the ocean surface.
‰ In a wave, the movement of each water particle is in a circular
method.
‰ A wave has two major parts: the raised part is known as the crest
while the low-point is known as the trough.
wavelength
height
wave
crest
trough
Tides
‰ Tide is the periodical rise and fall of the sea levels, once or twice
a day, caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces
applied by the moon, the sun and the rotation of the earth.
‰ They are a vertical motion of waters and are different from
movements of ocean water caused by meteorological impacts
such as the winds and atmospheric pressure changes.
Tides Based on the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth’s
Positions
1. Spring Tides: When the moon, the sun, and the earth are in a
straight line, the height of the tide will be greater than normal.
These are known as a spring tide. They happen twice in a month-
one on the full moon (Poornima) and the other on the new moon
(Amavasya).
2. Neap Tides: Generally, after 7 days of a spring tide, the moon
and the sun become at a right angle to each other with respect to
the earth. Thus, the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun
tend to prevent one another. The tides during this period will be
less than the normal which are known as the neap tides. They also
happen twice in a month- during the first quarter moon and the
last quarter moon.
Magnitude of Tides
‰ Perigee: When the moon’s orbit is nearest to the earth, it is
known as perigee. During this period, unusually high and low
tides happen.
‰ Apogee: When the moon’s orbit is a long way from the earth, it
is known as apogee. Tidal ranges will be much lesser than the
average during this period.
Geography
‰ Perihelion: It is the position where the earth is nearest to the
sun (around January 3rd). Unusual high and low tides happen
during this time.
‰ Aphelion: It is the position where the earth is a long way from
the sun (around July 4th). Tidal ranges are much lesser than the
average during this period.
Population and Transportation
Transport
‰ Transport is an organization in which passengers and goods are
transferred from one place to another.
‰ Growth of cheap and efficient means of transport is essential for
the advance of a large and developing country like India.
‰ Transport ways are the basic economic highway of the country.
‰ India is a huge country with long distances from Kashmir
in North to Kanyakumari in the south; Kandla in the west to
Kohima in the East
Railway
‰ Railways effectively form the life-line of the country, catering
to its needs for large scale passes of traffic, both freight
and passenger, thereby giving to economic growth and also
encouraging national railway.
Development and growth of Indian Railways
‰ The earliest railway line was opened for public traffic in 1853,
in the middle of Mumbai and Thane.
‰ At present, India has the second biggest railway network in
Asia, and the fourth biggest in the world; after USA, Russia
and China.
‰ ‘Indian Railways’ is the biggest public sector undertaking of the
country, containing huge network stations and route length with
fleet of locomotives, passenger vehicles etc.
Distribution of Indian Railways
‰ The North Indian Plain
z This region has a thick network of railways through Amritsar
to Howrah.
z Dense population, growth of Industry & Agriculture, large
scale Urbanization have assisted in development of Railways.
‰ The peninsular plateau
z The whole of peninsular plateau has hilly and plateau terrain,
which hampers the growth of railways.
z For such reasons, except, Saurashtra and Tamil Nadu, a
comparatively open and more lose network has evolved here.
‰ The Himalayan region
z There are virtually no railway line in North-Eastern states of
Meghalaya, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur
and Nagaland.
‰ Hence, construction of railways under these situations is a
difficult and expensive affair.
The Coastal Plains
‰ There is different contrast in rail network in the middle of eastern
and western coastal plains.
‰ The Eastern Coastal plain is quite broad and allowed the
construction of railways.
‰ But this network has been avoided in the Western coastal plain,
due to the structure and relief of the area.
21
Metro Rail Distribution
‰ Metro Rail offers fast, inexpensive and cozy journey in ‰ The historically prominent Sher Shah Suri Marg is called as
metropolitan cities of India. National Highway 1. It connects Delhi and Amritsar.
‰ It is a part of fast mass transport; and first fast movement system ‰ National Highway 44 is the lengthiest one, and it connects
in India was the Kolkata Metro, which started performance in Srinagar to Kanyakumari.
1984. ‰ Maharashtra has the largest length of National Highway, come
‰ The Delhi Metro was India’s first Modern Metro and third fast after by Uttar Predesh and Rajasthan.
movement system in India, which started its operations in 2002.
‰ After the success of Metro Rail in Delhi, other cities such Major Initiatives
as Bengaluru, Hyderabad, have planned to ease the public ‰ The National Highways Development Project (NHDP) started
movement system. in 1998, is a project to improve, rehabilitate and widen prime
highways in India to a higher standard.
Railway Zones of India
‰ The Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) project starts in 1999,
S. No. Railway Zones Headquarter is a national highway network joining most of the major
1. Central Railway Mumbai industrial, agricultural and cultural centers of India. It
develops a quadrilateral joining the four major metro cities
2. Eastern Railway Kolkata of India, viz., Delhi (north), Kolkata (east), Mumbai (west)
3. East Central Railway Hajipur and Chennai (south)
‰ The Bharatmala Pariyojana (‘India garland project’) is a
4. East Coast Railway Bhubaneswar centrally-financed and capitalized Road and Highways project
5. Northern Railway New Delhi of the Government of India.

6. North Central Railway Allahabad State Highways

7. North Eastern Railway Gorakhpur z These are constructed and controlled by state governments,
and connected the state capitals with district headquarters
8. Northeast Frontier Railway Guwahati and other main towns.
z These roads constitute about 3.5% of the complete road
9. North Western Railway Jaipur
length in India.
10. Southern Railway Chennai ‰ District Roadways
11. South Central Railway Secunderabad z These roads meet the district headquarters with other places
of the district.
12. South Eastern Railway Kolkata
z Growth and maintenance of these roads fall within the
13. South East Central Railway Bilaspur compass of Zila Parishads.
14. South Western Railway Hubli z Maharashtra is at the uppermost, in this group.
‰ Village roads
15. Western Railway Mumbai
z These are mostly the responsibility of village panchayats
16. West Central Railway Jabalpur and joins the villages with the neighboring towns and
cities.
17. Metro Railway Kolkata
z These are commonly dusty tracks, and become muddy and
unusable during the rainy season.
Roadways New shove was given to Village roads when the Pradhan
Mantri Gram Sadak. Yojana (PMGSY) was opened in
Introduction December 2020.
‰ In the early phases of Indian History, Ashoka and Chandragupta ‰ Border Roads
made results to construct roads; but the real advance was made
during the Mughal Period. z Border roads organization (BRO) was put up in 1960, for
accelerating economic growth and strengthening defense
Classification of Roadways preparedness through fast and coordinated development of
The roads in India are divided into four groups, on functional basis roads in the North and North-Eastern border areas.
z This Border Roads Organization (BRO) has built and black-
National Highways topped the highest road in the world at Umlingla Pass in
‰ The National highways in India are a network of trunk roads Eastern Ladakh. The longest motorable road in the universe
possess by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. is located at an altitude of 19,300 feet.
‰ It is constructed and controlled by the National Highway ‰ International Highways
Authority of India (NHAI), the National Highways and z The roads which are funded by the World Bank and joins
Infrastructure development Corporation Limited (NHIDCL), India with neighboring countries are known as International
and the public works departments (PWD) of state governments. Highways.
22 Geography
Water transport
‰ Waterways are the inexpensive means of transport and are most
suitable for transferring heavy and bulky materials having low
particular cost.
‰ Water transport is a fuel systematic and environmentally
friendly mode of transportation which has huge employment
creation potential.
‰ Currently, coastal and inland waterways donate 6% of
the country’s freight modal mix, while adjacent evolving
economies, such as Bangladesh (16%) and Thailand (12%) have
a higher share of water-based transport, highlighting the scope
for growth for India.
‰ The exclusive jurisdiction of the Central Government is only
in consider to shipping and navigation on inland waterways
proclaim to be ‘national waterways’ by an act of Parliament.
Utilization/sailing of vessels, in other waterways, is within the
scope of the concurrent list or is in the authority of the respective
state governments.
Inland Water Transport in India
‰ India is provided with several Inland Water Transport (IWT)
options that contains rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, and
tidal inlets.
‰ India has around 5,000 km of negotiable inland waterways under
development.
‰ To harness the potential of IWT, Inland Waterways Authority of
India (IWAI) was accepted in 1986, and since has been working
towards growth and balancing of inland waterways.
‰ In order to increase the importance of Inland Waterways and to
upgrade their efficiency, the Government has recognized some
important Waterways, which are given the status of National
Waterways.
‰ Only five waterways recognized as National Waterways
(NWs).
‰ In inclusion to notification of NWs, the government has also
undertaken enterprises for speeding infrastructure growth.
These include
z Jal Marg Vikas Project (JMVP) for NW-1.
z Arth Ganga and Arth Brahmaputra for holistic and sustainable
growth leveraging NW-1 and NW-2 for freight and traveler
movement.
z Inland Vessels Bill.
z Land Use Policy for Inland Waterways (IWs).
z Dredging Policy for IWs.
z Promoting private participation in terminal operations and
preservation.
‰ Rivers in south India are continual and are not greatly benefit
for navigation.
Ports in India
‰ There are 13 major and 200 average and tiny ports in India.
‰ The major ports are under the management of the Central
Government, while the minor ones are operated by the
concerned state Governments.
Geography
Major Ports in India
Kandia
Kalkata‑Haldia
Paradip
Mumbai
JNPT
Visakhapatnam
Mormugao
New Endore
Manglore Chennai
Cochin
Tuticorin
‰ The 13 major ports operate about 90% of our foreign trade.
‰ The prime ports on the west coast are Mumbai, Jawaharlal Nehru,
Kandla, Marmagao, Mangalore and Cochin
z The ports on the east coast are Kolkata/Haldia, Paradip,
Visakhapatnam, Chennai, Ennore and Tuticorin
Sagarmala Project
z The Sagarmala is a sequence of projects to leverage the
country’s coastline and inland waterways to obtain industrial
growth.
z Sagarmala, integrated with the development of inland
waterways, is expected to decreased cost and time for
transporting goods, profit industries and export/import trade.
z The initiatives under this project involves
‰ Modernizing port infrastructure
‰ Developing port connectivity through rail corridors, freight-
favorable inland waterways.
‰ Generates 14 coastal economic zones or CEZs and a special
economic zone at Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust in Mumbai with
producing clusters to enable port-led industrialization.
Air transport
Introduction
‰ Air Transport is the rapid mode of transport which has decreased
distances and has led to extreme shrinking of the world.
z This mode of transport is essential when speed and time are
the main restriction.
‰ Air transport is very necessary for a vast country such India,
where distances are so lengthy and the terrain and climatic
situations so diverse.
‰ Air transportation in India made a submissive beginning in 1911,
when mail operation begins over a very short distance of 10km
in the middle of Allahabad and Naini.
‰ Indian national airways were developed in 1933 and it inaugurate
air services in the middle of Karachi and Lahore.
23
Airport Authority of India (AAI)
‰ This jurisdiction is responsible for providing safe and systematic
air traffic services, over with aeronautical communication
services for successful control of air traffic in the whole Indian
air space.
z It commands and manages the whole Indian space even far
away the territorial restrict of the country, in accordance
with the norms set by International Civil Aviation
Organization.
‰ The International Airports division of AAI, manages and
improved international Airports
z It has undertaken establishment of terminal complexes at
numerous international airports and development/upgradation
of runways and terminal buildings.
UDAN Scheme
z The scheme is aimed at increasing connectivity to remote
and regional areas of the country and producing air travel
inexpensive.
z It is a key constituent of Centre’s National Civil Aviation
Policy, opened in 2016.
z Under the scheme, closely half of the seats in Udan flights
are provided at subsidized fares, and the engaged carriers
are offered a specific amount of viability gap funding
(VGF) –a quantity shared in the middle of the Centre and
the concerned states.
On the total, India seeks to chase an energetic aviation policy in
order to produced ‘aviation a force’ in the social and economic
growth of the country.
Population
A population is explained as a category of individuals of the simi-
lar categories or species living and interbreeding within a given area.
Members of a population frequently rely on the similar resources,
are subject to same environmental constraints, and depend on the
accessibility of other members to persevere over time.
Population growth
Population growth is approximately explained as the change in
the number of independent in a population in an area around
time. To discover the development rate of a population, we take
the number of independent passing into an area and subtract the
number of individuals passing out of an area by taking the birth
rate, adding the migration rate, and subtracting the death rate and
departure rate.
‰ Growth rate = Birth rate – Death rate + Immigration rate –
Emigration rate
Agriculture
Agriculture is the art and science of fertilizing the soil, growing
crops, and raising livestock. It involves the preparation of plant
and animal products for people to use and their supply to markets.
Agriculture supplies most of the world’s food and fabrics.
Types of Agriculture in India
There are various types of farming activities performed in India
which are as follows
24
Subsistence Farming
‰ Subsistence farming is a type of farming in which closely all
the crops or livestock raised are used to continue the farmer and
farmer’s family leaving little.
‰ Subsistence farms generally consist of no more than a few acres
and farm technology tends to be ancient and of low yield.
Mixed Farming
‰ Mixed farming is an agricultural system in which a farmer
manages different agricultural practices together, such as cash
crops and livestock
‰ The aim is to increase income through different sources and to
accompaniment land and labor demands across the year.
Shifting Cultivation
‰ Shifting cultivation means migratory shifting agriculture.
‰ Under this system, a plot of land is cultivated for a few years,
and then, when the crop yield reduces because of soil exhaustion
and the impacts of pests and weeds, is deserted for another area.
‰ Here the ground is again empty by slash-and-burn methods, and
the procedure is repeated.
‰ Shifting cultivation is prime in the forest areas of Assam (Known
as jhum), Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram,
Arunachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh
(Podu).
Primitive Subsistence Farming
Primitive subsistence farming is slash and burns agriculture. Farmers
empty a patch of land and develop cereals and other food crops. When
the soil fertility reduces, the farmers shift and empty a fresh patch of
land for cultivation. It is called by different names in different parts
of the country. Primitive subsistence farming is known as jhumming
in northeastern states.
‰ Land productivity is less in this type of agriculture.
‰ This type of farming depends on the monsoon.
‰ This farming is experienced in a few parts of India.
Intensive Subsistence Farming
‰ This kind of farming is seasoned in areas of high population
pressure on land.
‰ It is labor-intensive farming, where huge doses of biochemical
inputs and rinse are used for higher production.
Commercial Farming
This type of farming uses higher doses of modern inputs like
high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecti-
cides, and pesticides to acquire higher productivity.
The plantation is a type of commercial farming in which a single
crop is developed in a large area. Plantations cover huge tracts of
land, using capital-intensive inputs, with the help of migrant labor-
ers. All the formation is used as a raw material in industries.
Extensive Farming
‰ This is a system of farming in which the farmer uses a restricted
amount of labor and capital on a relatively vast area.
‰ This type of agriculture is seasoned in countries where the
population size is little and the land is sufficient.
‰ Per acre yield is low but the general production is in surplus due
to less population.
‰ In extensive farming machines and technology are used in
farming.
Geography
Intensive Farming Millets
‰ This is a system of farming in which the cultivator uses a bigger ‰ Jowar, Bajra, and Ragi are the main millets grown in India.
amount of labor and capital in a relatively slightly area. ‰ These are called coarse grains and have very rich nutritional
‰ This type of farming is performed in countries where the value.
population to land ratio is big i.e., the population is great and Maize
the land is Slight.
‰ Maize is a Kharif crop.
‰ Annually 2 or 3 types of crops are grown over the land.
‰ It needs a temperature between 21°C to 27°C and develops well
‰ Manual labor is used in intensive farming. in old alluvial soil.
‰ Major maize-manufacturing states are Karnataka, Madhya
Cropping Pattern Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
India has three cropping seasons:
Pulses
‰ Rabi
‰ Kharif ‰ India is the largest manufacturer and consumer of pulses in the
world.
‰ Zaid
‰ Pulses are a vital source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
Rabi crops (Winter crops): grow in winter—October to December.
Harvested in summer—April to June. Important crops: wheat, peas, ‰ Major pulses developed in India are Tur (Arhar), Urad, Moong,
mustard, Barley, gram, etc. Masur, Peas and Gram.
Kharif crops (Crops of the rainy season): grown—the onset of ‰ Great pulse-producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
monsoon (June-July). Harvested— September–October. Important Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.
crops: cotton, maize, millets, rice, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, Food Crops other than Grains
jowar, Soyabean, groundnut and jute.
Zaid season: It is a small cropping season during the summer months
Sugarcane
mostly in the middle of March-April and June–July. Main crops— ‰ It is a tropical and also subtropical crop.
watermelon, musk melon, cucumber, etc. ‰ It develops well in hot and humid climates with a temperature
of 21°C to 27°C and yearly rainfall between 75 cm to 100 cm.
Major Crops in India ‰ It can be developed on a variety of soils.
A category of food and non-food crops are grown in different parts of ‰ India is the second-largest producer of sugarcane only after
India, depending upon the difference in soil, climate, and cultivation Brazil.
practices. Major crops produced in India are:
Oil Seeds
‰ Rice
Different oil seeds are Formed covering approximately 12% of the
‰ Wheat total cropped area of India. Main oil seeds developed in India are:
‰ Millets ‰ Groundnut: is a kharif crop and accounts for half of the major
‰ Pulses oilseeds formed in India. Gujarat is the largest manufacturer of
‰ Tea groundnuts.
‰ Coffee ‰ Mustard: is a rabi crop.
‰ Sugarcane ‰ Sesamum (ill): is a kharif crop in the north and rabi crop in
south India.
‰ Oil seeds
‰ Castor seeds: It is produced as both Rabi and Kharif crops.
‰ Cotton ‰ Linseed: is a rabi crop.
‰ Jute ‰ Coconut
Rice ‰ Soybean
‰ Cotton seeds
‰ Rice is a Kharif crop.
‰ Sunflower
‰ Rice needs high temperature and high humidity with yearly
rainfall above 100 cm. Tea
‰ The second-largest manufacturer of rice in the world is India ‰ It is also an important beverage crop found by the British in India.
after China. ‰ The tea plant produces well in tropical and sub-tropical climates
‰ It is formed in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal with deep and fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic
areas, and the deltaic regions. matter.
‰ Tea bushes need a warm and moist frost-free climate all through
Wheat
the year.
‰ This is a rabi crop. ‰ Tea is a labor-intensive industry.
‰ Wheat needs a cool growing season and bright sunshine at the ‰ Major tea-formed states are Assam, the hills of Darjeeling and
time of maturity. Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
‰ Wheat requires 50 to 75 cm of yearly rainfall constantly
distributed over the growing season. Coffee
‰ The Ganga-Satluj plains in the northwest and the black soil region ‰ Yemen coffee is produced in India and this variety of coffee is
of the Deccan are two important wheat-developing zones in India. in great demand everywhere in the world. Its cultivation was
‰ It is the second very important cereal crop and main food crop, launched on the Baba Budan Hills and is confined to the Nilgiri
in the north and north-western part of India. in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Geography 25
Non-Food Crops
‰ Cotton: Cotton is mainly grown in Maharashtra, Gujarat and
Madhya Pradesh. Cotton is the fiber crop that is mainly produced
in the black soil of the Deccan Plateau region.
‰ Position. India is the 3rd largest manufacturer of cotton in the world.
‰ Geographical conditions. Requires—high-level temperature;
light rainfall or irrigation; 210 frost-free days; bright sunshine;
black cotton soil; Kharif crop and needs 6–8 months to mature.
‰ Major cotton-growing states—Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab,
Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Industries, Mines and Energy Sources
Mineral Resources
A mineral is a naturally happening substance, expressible by a chemical
formula that is generally solid and inorganic and has a crystal structure.
A small proportion of the earth’s crust comprises organic materials
and single elements like gold, silver, diamond, and sulfur.
Types of Minerals
MINERALS
METALLIC
NON- ENERGY
METALLIC MINERALS
‰ Non-Ferrous metallic minerals are: Bauxite and Copper.
z Bauxite: Bauxite is the ore which is used in manufacturing
of aluminium. Odisha happens to be the largest producer of
Bauxite. Kalahandi and Sambalpur are the leading producers.
z Copper: Copper is an indispensable metal in the electrical
industry for making wires, electric motors, transformers and
generators.
It is alloyable, malleable and ductile. It is also mixed with
gold to provide strength to jewellery.
The Copper deposits mainly occur in Singhbhum district
in Jharkhand, Balaghat district in Madhya Pradesh and
Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts in Rajasthan.
Non-metallic Minerals
‰ Non-metallic minerals do not comprise any metal
substances in them. Non-metallic minerals are a group of
chemical elements from which no new outcome can be
created if they are melted.
‰ Depending upon the generation, non-metallic minerals are either
organic (such as fossil fuels, also called mineral fuels, obtained
from the buried animal, and plants, e.g., coal, and petroleum) or
inorganic minerals, like mica limestone, graphite, etc.
‰ Mica: It is a non-metallic mineral. It is mainly used in the
electrical and electronic industries. It can be split into very thin
sheets which are tough and flexible.
Mica in India is produced in Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh,
Telanganga and Rajasthan followed by Tamil Nadu, West Bengal
and Madhya Pradesh. Nellore district produces the best quality
mica. In Rajasthan mica belt extends for about 320 kms from
Jaipur to Bhilwara and around Udaipur. Andhra Pradesh is the
largest producer of Mica in India.

Iron Ore Distribution in India

Iron Ore
‰ Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can
Non-Ferrous
Ferrous be enlarged and India has big iron ore reserves.
(does not e.g.
(Contains e.g. Coal, ‰ Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very large content of iron,
contain Iron) Limestone
Iron) E.g. Petroleum,
Iron, Nickel,
e.g. Copper, Sandstone,
Natural Gas up to 72 percent. It has remarkable magnetic qualities, especially
Lead, Tin, Marble, etc. valuable in the electrical industry.
etc.
etc.
‰ Hematite ore is the most prominent industrial iron ore in terms
of the quantity used but has a moderately lower iron content
‰ Ferrous metallic minerals are: Iron ore and Manganese.
than magnetite.
z Iron ore: India has the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia. ‰ The highest manufacturer is the Odisha Jharkhand belt, Durg
The two main types of ore found in our country are haematite Bastar Chandrapur belt, Bellary-ChitraDurga-Chikmagalur-
and magnetite.
Tumkur belt, and the Maharashtra Goa belt.
About 95 per cent of total reserves of iron ore is located in the Iron ore is found in the following four types:
States of Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa,
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. ‰ Magnetite: It is found in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Tamil Nadu, Goa, and Kerala. It comprises about 72 percent
z Manganese: Manganese is an important raw material for
metallic iron in it.
smelting of iron ore and also used for manufacturing ferro
alloys. ‰ Hematite: It contains about 60-70 percent metallic iron in it. It is
Odisha is the leading producer of Manganese. Major mines red and brown. It is located in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
in Odisha are located in the central part of the iron ore belt of and Andhra Pradesh. Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Goa.
India, particularly in Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh, Gangpur, ‰ Limonite: Limonite is low-grade iron ore. It comprises about 30
Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir. to 40 percent metallic iron in it.
Karnataka is another major producer and here the mines are ‰ Siderite: Siderite is low-grade iron ore. It comprises about 48
located in Dharwar. Telangana, Goa, and Jharkhand are other percent metallic iron content in it. It is brown in colour. It contains
minor producers of manganese. a mixture of iron and carbon.
26 Geography
Reserves, and distribution of iron ore
About 95% of the total reserves of iron ore are located in the States
of Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
Iron Ore in Karnataka – Here Iron ore is mostly Mined in:
‰ Chikmagalur District – In Chikmagalur District high-grade iron
ore sediments are those of Kemma gundi in Baba Budan Hills
(provide Iron ore to Bhadravati steel plant).
‰ Bellary-Hospet area and Sandur Ranges have sediments of high
grade.
‰ Other mining areas in Karnataka are Chitra Durga, Uttar
Kannad, Shimaga, Dharwad, Tumkur, Kumaraswamy,
Ramandurg, etc.
Iron Ore in Orissa
‰ The ores in Orissa are rich in Hematite. India’s richest Hematite
deposits are situated in Barbil-Koira Valley.
‰ The most important sediments happen in
z Keonjhar z Koraput
z Sundargarh z Cuttack
z Mayurbhanj z Sambalpur
Iron Ore in Chhattisgarh
‰ Chhattisgarh has around 18 percent of the complete iron ore
reserves of India.
‰ The iron ores are vastly distributed, the prominent sediments
being those of the Bastar and Durg districts. Baila Dila in
Bastar district and Dalli Rajhara in Durg district are prominent
producers.
Iron Ore in Jharkhand
‰ Jharkhand accounts for 25 percent of reserves and around 14
percent of the complete iron ore production of the country. Iron
ore mining, first of all, started in the Singhbhum district in 1904
(then a part of Bihar).
Energy Resources
Introduction
‰ Energy is one of the major parts of economic architecture, being
the basic input required to sustain economic growth. There exists
a powerful relationship between economic development and
energy utilization.
‰ The more produced a country, the higher the per capita of energy
utilization, and vice-versa.
‰ India’s energy mix is influenced by coal with a 49.6 percent share,
come after by oil (28 percent), biomass (11.6 percent), gas (7.3
percent), renewable, and clean energy (2.2 percent), and nuclear
energy (1.2 percent).
Types of Energy
‰ Energy is of two types. These are renewable, and non-renewable
energy sources.
‰ Renewable energy- Renewable energy sources will not run
out and can be used again. These involve wind, tidal, and
solar energy.
‰ Non-renewable energy- Non-renewable energy sources can only
be utilized once. They get hold of millions of years to form e.g.,
oil, coal, and natural gas.
Geography
Few resources are conceptually renewable, and non-renewable.
These are:
‰ Wood – When wood is utilized for fuel and replanted it is a type
of renewable energy.
‰ Biomass – changing farming wastes, grasses, trees, bark, sawdust,
and other things into energy by burning them, changing them into
a gas, or transforming it into liquid fuel.
‰ Mineral fuels are essential for generation of power, required by
agriculture, industry, transport and other sectors of the economy
‰ Mineral fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas (known as
fossil fuels), nuclear energy minerals, are the convectional
sources of energy.
Convectional Sources of Energy
Coal
‰ Coal is a one of the important minerals which is mainly used in
the generation of thermal power and smelting of iron ore. Coal
occurs in rock sequences mainly of two geological ages, namely
Gondwana and tertiary deposits.
Petroleum
‰ It is an essential source of energy for all internal combustion
engines in automobiles, railways and aircraft. Its numerous
by-products are processed in petrochemical industries such as
fertiliser, synthetic rubber, synthetic fibre, medicines, vaseline,
lubricants, wax, soap and cosmetics.
‰ Oil and Natural Gas Commission was set up in 1956. The Digboi
in Assam was the only oil producing region but the scenario
has changed after 1956. Oil and natural gas have been found in
exploratory wells in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basin on the
east coast.
Natural Gas
‰ The Gas Authority of India Limited was set up in 1984 as a public
sector undertaking to transport and market natural gas.
‰ It is obtained alongwith oil in all the oil fields but exclusive
reserves have been located along the eastern coast as well as
(Tamil Nadu, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh), Tripura, Rajasthan
and off-shore wells in Gujarat and Maharashtra.
Non-convectional Source of Energy
Nuclear Energy
‰ Nuclear energy has emerged as a viable source in recent times.
Important minerals used for the generation of nuclear energy are
uranium and thorium.
‰ Uranium deposits occur in the Dharwar rocks. Geographically,
uranium ores are known to occur in several locations along the
Singbhum Copper belt. It is also found in Udaipur, Alwar and
Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan, Durg district of Chhattisgarh.
‰ Atomic Energy Commission was established in 1948, progress
could be made only after the establishment of the Atomic Energy
Institute at Trombay in 1954 which was renamed as the Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre in 1967.
Name of Nuclear Power Station Location
Kakrapar Atomic Power Station - 1993 Gujarat
(Kalpakkam) Madras Atomic Power Station - 1984 Tamil Nadu
Narora Atomic Power Station -1991 Uttar Pradesh
27

Kaiga Nuclear Power Plant -2000 Karnataka
Rajasthan Atomic Power Station - 1973 Rajasthan
Tarapur Atomic Power Station - 1969 Maharashtra
Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant - 2013 Tamil Nadu
Solar Energy
‰ Sun rays tapped in photovoltaic cells can be converted into
energy, known as solar energy.
‰ It is cost competitive, environment friendly and easy to construct.
Solar energy is 7 per cent more effective than coal or oil based
plants and 10 per cent more effective than nuclear plants.
‰ It is generally used more in appliances like heaters, crop dryers,
cookers, etc. The western part of India has greater potential for
the development of solar energy in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Wind Energy
‰ Wind energy is absolutely pollution free, inexhaustible source
of energy. The mechanism of energy conversion from blowing
wind is simple.
‰ The kinetic energy of wind, through turbines is converted into
electrical energy. The permanent wind systems such the trade
winds, westerlies and seasonal wind like monsoon have been
used as source of energy.
‰ India, already has started generating wind energy. It has an
ambitious programme to install 250 wind-driven turbines with a
total capacity of 45 megawatts, spread over 12 suitable locations,
28
specially in coastal areas. In Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and
Karnataka, favourable conditions for wind energy exist.
Tidal and Wave Energy
‰ Ocean currents are the store-house of infinite energy. Large tidal
waves are known to occur along the west coast of India. Hence,
India has great potential for the development of tidal energy along
the coasts but so far these have not yet been utilised.
Geothermal Energy
‰ When the magma from the interior of earth, comes out on the
surface, tremendous heat is released. This heat energy can
successfully be tapped and converted to electrical energy.
‰ The hot water that gushes out through the gyser wells is also
used in the generation of thermal energy. It is popularly known as
Geothermal energy. This energy is now considered to be one of the
key energy sources which can be developed as an alternate source.
‰ In India, a geothermal energy plant has been commissioned at
Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh.
Bio-energy
‰ Bio-energy refers to energy derived from biological products
which includes agricultural residues, municipal, industrial and
other wastes.
‰ It can be converted into electrical energy, heat energy or gas for
cooking. It will also process the waste and garbage and produce
energy. One such project converting municipal waste into energy
is Okhla in Delhi.
Geography